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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10772 ***
+
+INCA LAND
+
+Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+By
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+1922
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+"Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the
+Ranges--Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for
+you. Go!"
+
+Kipling: "The Explorer"
+------
+
+
+
+
+This Volume
+
+is affectionately dedicated
+
+to
+
+the Muse who inspired it
+
+the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into
+the interior of Peru and also many explorations into the labyrinth of
+early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my
+travels covered only a part of southern Peru, they took me into every
+variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude
+at which men have constructed houses or erected tents in the Western
+Hemisphere--from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to
+cross bleak Andean passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low
+temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into
+the dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as
+exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of violent
+contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of
+Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys have more plant life
+than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from
+glaciers to tree ferns within a few hours. So also in the labyrinth
+of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas--no historians
+go more rapidly from fact to fancy, from accurate observation to
+grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give
+conflicting statements with greater frequency. The story of the Incas
+is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+It was the mystery and romance of some of the wonderful pictures of
+a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively
+unknown region between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, sometimes called
+"the Cradle of the Incas." Although my photographs cannot compete with
+the imaginative pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that
+some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther
+into the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of
+identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+Some of my story has already been told in Harper's and the National
+Geographic, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission
+to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been
+published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course
+of preparation. My own observations are based partly on a study
+of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly
+on the maps and notes made by my companions, and partly on a study
+of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven
+thousand negatives. Another source of information was the opportunity
+of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great
+advantages of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same
+problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay;
+in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote, Dr. William
+G. Erving, Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius;
+in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr. Luther
+T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald,
+Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy, and Joseph Little;
+and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller,
+E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck,
+Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my
+comrades in enterprises which were not always free from discomfort or
+danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In
+the following pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork;
+at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps
+in another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to
+cover more particularly Machu Picchu [1] and its vicinity, they will
+eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for
+offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult to secure; to
+Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal
+and enthusiastic support; to President Taft of the United States and
+President Leguia of Peru for official help of a most important nature;
+to Messrs. W. R. Grace & Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and
+Mr. L. S. Blaisdell, of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and
+untiring coöperation; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque,
+and their sons, and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University,
+for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and
+Miss Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but
+by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible the
+writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+October 1, 1922
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I.		Crossing the Desert	1
+II.		Climbing Coropuna 23
+III.	To Parinacochas 50
+IV.		Flamingo Lake 74
+V.		Titicaca  95
+VI.		The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders 110
+VII.	The Valley of the Huatanay 133
+VIII.	The Oldest City in South America 157
+IX.		The Last Four Incas 170
+X.		Searching for the Last Inca Capital 198
+XI.		The Search Continued 217
+XII.	The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun 241
+XIII.	Vilcabamba 255
+XIV.	Conservidayoc 266
+XV.		The Pampa of Ghosts 292
+XVI.	The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas 306
+XVII.	Machu Picchu 314
+XVIII.	The Origin of Machu Picchu 326
+
+		Glossary  341
+		Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+		and the National Geographic Society    345
+		Index	 353
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+"Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges"
+Frontispiece
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru 1
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest 12
+Mt. Coropuna from the South 24
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Camp on the Summit 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local Rug-weaving
+Industry 60
+	Photograph by C. Watkins
+Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta    66
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara 78
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli 90
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba 90
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno 98
+A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati 98
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa 114
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani 114
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya 120
+Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya 120
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche 128
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912 132
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta 136
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall 140
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca 140
+Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada 150
+Map of Peru and View of Cuzco 158
+	From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578
+Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco 162
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos 170
+The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in
+Uilcapampa 176
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac 186
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains 198
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915 202
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa 206
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay 210
+The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu 214
+Huadquiña 220
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña 225
+	Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley 238
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata 242
+	Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata 242
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi 246
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana 248
+	Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana 250
+Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock 250
+	Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+Ñusta Isppana 256
+Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery 288
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa 288
+Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa 294
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu 306
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu 312
+The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu 312
+Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu 320
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-tocco 320
+Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu 324
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu 324
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu 328
+The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land 338
+
+
+Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs
+by the author.
+
+
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru.
+------
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Crossing the Desert
+
+A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most
+interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled "Peru. Travel
+and Exploration in the Land of the Incas." In that volume is a
+marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In the foreground is a
+delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face
+of a precipitous cliff and hangs in mid-air at great height above the
+swirling waters of the "great speaker." In the distance, towering above
+a mass of stupendous mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The
+desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that
+bridge decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire
+of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities to
+visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of "Across
+South America" will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau, an
+interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand
+feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac. There was some
+doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that
+the ruins represented the residence of the Inca Manco and his sons,
+who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru
+in the Andes between the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the
+clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing glimpses
+of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region,
+"behind the Ranges," which might contain great possibilities. Our
+guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in
+books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For months afterwards
+the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and
+beyond. In the words of Kipling's "Explorer":
+
+
+"... a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes
+On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated--so:
+'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges--
+Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!' "
+
+
+To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's
+"Titicaca and Koati," which had just appeared. In one of the
+interesting footnotes was this startling remark: "It is much to be
+desired that the elevation of the most prominent peaks of the western
+or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely ... that
+Coropuna, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa,
+is the culminating point of the continent. It exceeds 23,000 feet
+in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in
+the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763 feet (6940 meters) above
+sea level." His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil
+engineers of the Southern Railways of Peru, using a section of the
+railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to
+describe. Although I had been studying South American history and
+geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have
+heard of Coropuna. On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one
+of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found
+"Coropuna--6,949 m."--9 meters higher than Aconcagua!--one hundred
+miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the
+Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed very near
+Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands "behind
+the Ranges" which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence was
+intriguing. The desire to go and find that "something hidden" was now
+reënforced by the temptation to go and see whether Coropuna really was
+the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an
+expedition whose object was a geographical reconnaissance of Peru along
+the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba
+to tidewater on the Pacific. We achieved more than we expected.
+
+Our success was due in large part to our "unit-food-boxes," a device
+containing a balanced ration which Professor Harry W. Foote had
+cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to
+facilitate the provisioning of small field parties by packing in a
+single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions
+for a given period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction,
+not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had the
+responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words
+in regard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome.
+
+The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men
+for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men
+should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary their
+diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which
+in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn, eggs, mutton,
+and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned
+corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed oats, milk, cheese,
+coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams,
+pickles, and dried fruits and vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried
+fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient
+variety was procured without destroying the balanced character of
+the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large
+amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned fruits,
+however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food,
+we found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap,
+two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth bags, to be
+used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly
+appreciated article of food in our boxes was the rolled oats, a dish
+which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily
+prepared at high elevations, where rice cannot be properly boiled. It
+was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing
+the right amount of sugar. At the beginning of the field season the
+allowance--one third of a pound per day per man--seemed excessive, and
+I was criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the
+field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be supplemented.
+
+Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer
+to "rough it," and to "trust to luck" for his food. I had found on
+my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South
+America, that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular
+and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While "roughing it"
+is far more enticing to the inexperienced and indiscreet explorer,
+I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing,
+months in advance, a comprehensive bill of fare sufficiently varied,
+wholesome, and well-balanced, is "the better part of valor," The truth
+is that providing an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly
+to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble
+and expense for one's transportation department, and some of the
+younger men may feel that their reputations as explorers are likely
+to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and
+pickles are frequently found on their menu! Nevertheless, experience
+has shown that the results of "trusting to luck" and "living as the
+natives do" means not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but
+also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for
+the drudgery of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always
+easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery;
+and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome food.
+
+
+
+
+
+We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against
+Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian "winter"
+reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to
+try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms. On the other
+hand, the "summer months," beginning with November, are cloudy
+and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties of climbing a
+new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for
+exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Amazon
+Basin, the lands "behind the Ranges." Although the montaña, or jungle
+country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the
+other months of the year; so we decided to go first to the Urubamba
+Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos,
+the capital of the last Incas, and of the finding of Machu Picchu will
+be found in later chapters. In September I returned to Arequipa and
+started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate
+transportation facilities for crossing the desert.
+
+Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of
+the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its
+large mules. Unfortunately, a "mule trust" had recently been
+formed--needless to say, by an American--and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing,
+the Tejada brothers appeared, two arrieros, or muleteers, who seemed
+willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand soles
+(five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train
+of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever we chose,
+we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues
+[2] a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument
+and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy arrieros that they were not going to be everlastingly
+ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules,
+knew the great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us
+and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the
+imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch. The argument
+that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my
+promise that after the first week the cargo would be so much less that
+at least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas,
+realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get sore
+backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of
+safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker,
+a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing,
+whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper equipment,
+was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent
+of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the mountain was
+due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss
+guides, and had originally intended to ask two other members of the
+Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making
+a geological and topographical cross section along the 73d meridian
+through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest
+passes in the Andes (17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to
+such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna
+before the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy
+season it did not seem wise to wait for their coöperation. Accordingly,
+I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English
+naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of the Harvard Observatory. It
+was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti
+(19,120 ft.), should accompany us to the top, while Mr. Watkins,
+who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take
+charge of the Base Camp.
+
+The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in
+the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of rather more
+than average height and considerably more than average courage, who
+knew the country. As a member of the mounted gendarmerie, Gamarra had
+been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months
+previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous revolutionists stormed
+the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood
+his ground and, when they attempted to force their way past him, shot
+the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made
+him a corporal and, realizing that his life was no longer safe in that
+particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of
+his race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt
+that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered by the
+prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert,
+was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage could not be
+called in question even though his habits might lead him to become
+troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did not know we were planning
+to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the
+trials that were before him on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have
+begged off--but I am anticipating.
+
+On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left
+Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage of the
+journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty
+miles. The arrieros sent the cargo along too. In addition to the
+food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers,
+thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes, duffle bags, and
+a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from
+Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would reach Vitor about the
+same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of arrieros
+on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near
+the primitive little railway station.
+
+We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring pampa and
+studying the médanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in
+the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical
+jungles of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that
+it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert,
+broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers, coming
+from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for
+purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru, is in one of the
+largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog,
+the Peruvian coastal towns are almost never subjected to rain. The
+causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from
+the east, laden with the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the
+steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of
+the Andes and forced to deposit this moisture in the montaña. By
+the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no
+rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come from the warm
+Pacific Ocean strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current,
+which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they
+reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To be sure, there
+are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes
+of the coast range that the hillsides are clothed with flowers, but
+this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the
+great stretches of desert pampa in the midst of which we now were. Like
+the other pampas of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the
+sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These médanos interested us greatly.
+
+The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle
+breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward the
+ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a
+regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving the heavier
+particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat
+increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up from the ocean to
+fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air
+that rise from the overheated pampas. During the early afternoon this
+wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It
+is now strong enough to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It
+sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits
+them in pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains
+stationary at night while the lighter particles are rolled downhill,
+but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of
+the following afternoon. The result is the beautiful crescent-shaped
+médano.
+
+
+
+
+
+About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot--far superior to any
+that we had been able to secure near Cuzco--trotted briskly into the
+dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was
+nearly seven o'clock before we started off in the moonlight for the
+oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail
+winding down into a dark canyon we caught a glimpse of something
+white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest;
+Coropuna! Shortly before nine o'clock we reached a little corral,
+where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with
+a clean, stone-paved floor, where we set up our cots, only to be
+awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to
+avoid the terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest
+------
+
+
+Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day,
+but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or ten hours'
+steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack
+animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most caravans travel, so far
+as possible, by night. Our first desert, the pampa of Sihuas, was
+reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see
+what was to be seen. We got up about half-past four and were off
+before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in
+Arequipa or because they thought he looked like a good horseman,
+or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given
+Mr. Hinckley a very spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew,
+her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was done,
+and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal
+Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on his dangerous mule we
+rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over
+paths flanked by willows and fig trees. The chief industry of Vitor is
+the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The
+wine is aged in huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the
+ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line,
+awaiting sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
+who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean crocks.
+
+The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which
+the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out of
+foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is
+the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards; on the other
+side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the
+oasis there is an abundance of water. Much of it runs to waste. The
+wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land
+could easily be put under cultivation. The chief difficulties are
+the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer
+world, the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over
+the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be
+extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now unoccupied.
+
+A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim
+of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of Coropuna, glistening
+in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was
+a short one, for in less than three minutes we had to descend another
+canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the pampa of Sihuas. There
+was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the
+distance was Coropuna, and I had just begun to study the problem of
+possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's
+mule trotted briskly across the trail directly in front of me, kicked
+up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer,
+camera, plates, and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a
+stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance
+before he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep
+the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little "Mummery"
+tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid to
+the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the
+vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in Mr. Hinckley's
+leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain
+climbing. With Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa
+that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have
+the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached the glaciers. To
+be sure, there was the corporal--but would he go? Indians do not like
+snow mountains. Packing up the tent again, we resumed our course over
+the desert.
+
+The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a
+huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We
+should have been compelled to camp in the open with the arrieros had
+not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his
+vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes and sweet
+native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert
+of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps the widest, hottest,
+and most barren in this region. Our arrieros were unwilling to cross
+it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water
+and water. The next day we enjoyed the hospitality of our kindly host
+until after supper.
+
+So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to
+rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against the sun
+and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the
+larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating ditches. On the
+roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried
+mud. It is not necessary to plaster the sides of the houses, for it
+is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing to look
+out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the
+valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after hour, across
+the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and
+at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of a tumbled mass of enormous
+sand dunes--the result of hundreds of médanos blown across the pampa
+of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us
+three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert to a
+point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles
+across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks and sand. The
+bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes
+River, too deep to be forded even in the dry season. A very large
+part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and
+consists of a wild jungle, difficult of access in the dry season and
+impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast
+between the gigantic hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was
+very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape
+was the long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger
+and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would
+be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley and have some
+breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado),
+a huge volcanic boulder covered with rude pictographs. Further
+search in the vicinity revealed about one hundred of these boulders,
+each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of
+houses near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been
+past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection
+of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars, birds, men,
+and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the
+interest and excitement of investigating the "rocas jeroglificos,"
+as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no
+food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few pictures
+we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary
+bridge. It was built to last only during the dry season. To construct
+a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We
+spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant little village where it was almost
+impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley
+to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of Castilla, called
+by its present inhabitants "Majes," although on Raimondi's map that
+name is applied only to the river and the neighboring desert. In 1865,
+at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now
+it seems more healthy. The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed
+by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian
+ancestry. Many of them appeared to be unusually businesslike. The
+proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes,
+the name of which he pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a
+long time. "W" is unknown in Spanish and the letters "a," "l," and "k"
+are never found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of
+"Valluck-ofair'," accenting strongly the last syllable, we could not
+imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we
+could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately the well-advertised
+name of a widely known shoe.
+
+At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa,
+alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar cane, from
+which aguardiente, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that
+the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far
+back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so much wine in the
+community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives,
+who were not only hospitable but energetic--far more so, in fact,
+than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold
+and the difficulty of making a living have reacted upon the Indians,
+often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The
+residences of the wine growers are sometimes very misleading. A typical
+country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long,
+low, flat roof and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it
+an unattractive appearance; yet to one's intense surprise the inside
+may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and
+a phonograph.
+
+Our conscientious and hard-working arrieros rose at two o'clock the
+next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead
+of them, from an elevation of 1000 feet above sea level to 10,000
+feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could
+be obtained. We had now left the region of tropical products and come
+back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought us
+past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic
+"treasure seeker" of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000 inhabitants and
+is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which
+we had selected several months before as the rendezvous for the attack
+on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals
+of the temperate zone are easily raised. The town is surrounded by
+gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence
+of intensive cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches
+of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by
+Señor Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told us to set up our
+cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from
+the local officials, including the provincial physician, Dr. Pastór,
+and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro
+Coello. The last two were keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna.  They
+told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the
+mountain could be seen, and offered to take us up there. We accepted,
+thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to
+join in the climb, for we needed another man on the rope. Professor
+Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes
+whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away. It seemed
+clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the
+mass (koro = "cut off at the top"; puna = "a cold, snowy height"),
+was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern
+peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped dome we could just make out a
+northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to
+be higher than the western peak which we decided to climb. No one
+knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be
+had. The wildest opinions were expressed as to the best routes and
+methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he
+knew how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him "guide"
+for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring was now well
+advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that
+there had been a heavy snowstorm on the mountain a few days before. If
+summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time,
+and we proceeded to arrange the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+Our instruments for determining altitude consisted of a special
+mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of
+Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures as one might
+expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the
+Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
+of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green;
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was
+still doing good service; and one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our
+most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials
+should get broken. Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks,
+the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct,
+with special care, two large "Watkins" aneroids capable of recording
+altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed to
+be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know
+anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter had miscarried. It
+was not until we opened our specially ordered "mountain grub" boxes
+here in Chuquibamba that we found, alongside of the pemmican and
+self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by
+Grace Brothers, the two precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm
+clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety,
+we felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether
+there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed the
+top of America.
+
+For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was
+due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey along the 73d
+meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a
+signal at or near the top which Hendriksen could use as a station in
+order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must
+be confessed, was to enjoy the satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel,
+of conquering a "virgin peak."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Climbing Coropuna
+
+The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than
+the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October 10th
+before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in
+sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it with care. The
+plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood
+out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is really a range about twenty
+miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one
+end to the other. So deep did the fresh snow lie that it was generally
+impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could
+see that of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably
+the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern, end of
+the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its
+smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged to a later volcanic period
+than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of
+all. To reach it did not appear to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes
+ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls,
+appeared to culminate in a saddle at the base of the great snowy
+dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken,
+if steep, path to the top. If we could once reach the snow line,
+it looked as though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes,
+we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the South
+------
+
+
+Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more
+than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep quebradas, and very rough aa lava. Directed by our "guide,"
+we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the
+lava flows and slowly ascending the gentle slope of the plateau. As
+it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting
+for them to get their wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short
+rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a
+steep-walled canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front
+of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of
+going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued as to how much he
+knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any
+huts whatever in the canyon. "Abandonado; despoblado; desierto." "A
+waste; a solitude; a wilderness." So he described it. Had he been
+there? "No, Señor." Luckily we had been able to make out from the rim
+of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no
+question that we ought to get to the snow line as soon as possible, we
+decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a "guide,"
+and make such way as we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the
+canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from
+mountain sickness. The arrieros began to complain loudly, but did
+what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears;
+the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing for soroche. As
+soon as the timid arrieros reached a point where they could see
+down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture,
+cheered up a bit, and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the
+"guide." Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us
+with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay in advance and
+offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents
+and took advantage of the sheltering stone wall of her corral for
+our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly
+evident that we were harmless, the door of one of the huts opened
+and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance
+before our arrival had been the easily discernible presence in our
+midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had
+selected this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a
+guilty conscience and at the sight of a gendarme decided that he had
+better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of
+a recruiting party, since it is quite likely that he had not served
+his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife
+discovered that we were not looking for her man, she allowed his
+curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a
+few llamas. They also made crude pottery, firing it with straw and
+llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from chuño,
+frozen bitter potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000
+feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family,
+a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to
+persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help to carry
+the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they
+declined absolutely and positively. I think one of the men might have
+gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering
+she broke out in a torrent of violent denunciation, telling him the
+mountain would "eat him up" and that unless he wanted to go to heaven
+before his time he had better let well enough alone and stay where he
+was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna "the devil" talks "more freely" than
+usual. "For some secret reason known to God, it is said that devils
+walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are
+much terrified. I have also heard that these devils have appeared to
+Christians in the form of Indians." Perhaps the voluble housewife was
+herself one of the famous Coropuna devils. She certainly talked "more
+freely" than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna "devils"
+were now appearing to Indians "in the form of" Christians! Anyhow the
+Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful, warm
+paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of
+brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those faithful denizens
+of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy
+themselves in this charming spot on their upward flight. Like most
+primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an
+abject terror of the forbidding summits and the snowstorms that seem
+to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate
+the demons who dwell on the mountain tops by inventing charming
+stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in
+the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca, the great explorer Raimondi,
+in 1865, found the natives "exiled from the civilized world, still
+preserving their primitive customs... carrying idols to the slopes
+of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a
+sacrifice." Apparently the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts
+of all those who live near it.
+
+The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten
+times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity, that we
+added offers of the precious coca leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired
+"fire-water," the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually
+coveted by Peruvian highlanders, had no effect in the face of the
+terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness
+was one of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages
+of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the
+realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood all these
+matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language of
+our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not
+only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian gentlemen
+always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and
+improper. I have known one of the most energetic and efficient business
+men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to
+dislike being obliged to carry a rolled and unmounted photograph,
+little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a cargador, an
+Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do
+his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to climb with
+heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several
+thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument with the Indians
+was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made
+more and more generous. All was in vain. We finally came to realize
+that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would
+have to be borne on our own shoulders. That evening the top of the
+truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp,
+was bathed in a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air,
+however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the gendarme's mule became homesick and disappeared with
+Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders
+to follow us as soon as possible.
+
+As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to
+persuade the Tejadas to take their pack mules up as far as the snow,
+a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone
+as far as and farther than mules had any business to go. Soon after
+reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that
+there was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on
+the lower slopes of the mountains. The arrieros denied the accuracy
+of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed
+to go as far as there was a good path, and no farther. There was no
+question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as
+high up as possible before we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It
+may be imagined that the arrieros packed very slowly and grudgingly,
+although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving
+behind our saddles, ordinary supplies, and everything not considered
+absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it
+best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as not to hear
+the arrieros' constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard
+climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the
+edge of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied
+equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse,
+black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced to
+unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a
+violent and acrimonious dispute as to whether the letter of the
+contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone "as far as they
+could reasonably be expected to go." The truth was, the Tejadas
+were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure
+it would take revenge on them by destroying their mules, who would
+"certainly die the following day of soroche." We offered a bonus of
+thirty soles--fifteen dollars--if they would go on for another hour,
+and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep
+little rise the arrieros stopped again. This time they succeeded in
+unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and
+boulders to stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The
+only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement "in writing" that in case any mule or mules died as
+a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line, I
+should pay in gold two hundred soles for each and every mule that
+died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty soles if they
+would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document,
+having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello, seated on a lava rock
+amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed
+and sealed. In order that there might be no dispute as to the time,
+my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until
+noon. The mules were reloaded and again the ascent began. Presently the
+mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with
+huge lava boulders and scoriaceous sand. We expected more trouble every
+minute. However, the arrieros, having made an advantageous bargain,
+did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the
+snow line just fifteen minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas
+lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return
+in ten days, and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the
+side of the mountain.
+
+We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents,
+the "Mummery," a very light and diminutive wall tent about four feet
+high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of
+fairly heavy material, with floor sewed in; and an improved pyramidal
+tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after
+one used on Mt. McKinley by Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two
+openings--a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being
+closed by an adjustable cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance
+through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any
+desired extent with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor,
+measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent
+upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the ground, or
+snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without
+difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily ventilated and yet
+giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the
+wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent with us on the
+climb. We determined to carry the "Mummery" to the top of the mountain
+to use while taking observations.
+
+The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised
+and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites and no
+soroche. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small
+diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water for
+cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in
+pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal pulse is 70. After
+I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to
+120. After I had been seated awhile it dropped down to 100. Gradually
+our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of
+malaise and general disability. There was a splendid sunset, but we
+were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had
+some headache. A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened
+to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what
+moment we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters,
+we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair warning
+of what might happen higher up.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We
+all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe
+heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially prepared
+for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever
+tasted it before. We decided that it is not very palatable on first
+acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend
+long periods of time in the Arctic, where even seal's blubber is a
+delicacy "as good as cow's cream," I presume we could have done just
+as well without it.
+
+It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and
+supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of a week's
+duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures
+due to the necessity of the explorers' being obliged to return to
+food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of
+a new peak. One remembers the frequent disappointments that came
+to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in
+Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile and Argentina, due to high winds,
+the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by
+soroche. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to
+try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that no
+unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the
+mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds in a single
+day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other
+chores, they started off, packing loads of about twenty-five pounds
+each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily
+slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops
+seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult at a
+high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for
+those suffering from soroche as it is for a sailor to appreciate the
+sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of
+observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the
+cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be weighed,
+so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following
+day. We had two small kerosene stoves with Primus burners. Our grub,
+ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican
+in 8 1/4-pound tins, Kola chocolate in half-pound tins, seeded raisins
+in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6 1/2-pound
+tins, jam, sticks of dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few
+of Silver's self-heating "messtins" containing Irish stew, beef à la
+mode, et al. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found
+his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did not
+relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm
+clothes which we had provided for him and learned that he would get
+a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided
+to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported
+that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the first part
+of the climb and that a cache had been established about 2000 feet
+above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs
+for the morrow and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness
+with which we were to carry them.
+
+Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I
+still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican pudding
+with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to
+eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better, one reason being
+that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The
+weather continued fine. Watkins was due to arrive from Arequipa in
+a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further
+risk of encountering an early summer snowstorm. The next morning,
+after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs,
+we left camp about nine o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain
+Club snow-creepers, or crampons, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen
+helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be
+remembered by visitors to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides
+who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been
+maimed for life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great
+altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs
+of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy underdrawers.
+
+Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I
+had woolen puttees and "Arctic" overshoes. Tucker improvised what
+he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and
+pieces of a rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing
+ahead of us, we decided to depend on crampons rather than on the
+heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it
+was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We found that,
+loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty
+steps at a time. On the more level snow fields we took twenty-five
+or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint
+it seemed as though they would be the last steps we should ever
+take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with
+mountain-sickness, we would stop and lean on our ice axes until able
+to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a
+glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very wide, and nearly
+all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although
+there was an occasional fall no great strain was put on the rope. Then
+came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part
+our day was simply an unending succession of stints--twenty-five steps
+and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five
+steps and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along
+until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow stopped all
+progress. At an altitude of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was
+pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that
+the two big aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the
+temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood
+at 22° F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9°
+F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in the
+northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us
+considerably. We feared the expected November storms might be ahead of
+time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to
+the ventilating device at the top of the tent, we managed to breathe
+fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally
+observed that one of the symptoms of acute soroche is a very annoying,
+racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied
+by nausoa. We had not experienced this at 17,000 feet, but now it
+began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing
+days and nights, particularly nights, until we got back to the Indians'
+huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another
+by coughing.
+
+The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a
+miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing for
+it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with
+the same steady drudgery--now a little harder than the day before. We
+broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude
+of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field within a mile of the saddle
+between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked
+possible to reach the summit in one more day's climb from here. The
+aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch
+the tent, the others went back to the cache to bring up some of the
+supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy
+as those which Tucker and Coello had first brought up, we had not
+passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared
+again I was so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like
+pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were
+within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before
+turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow and make
+a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the
+morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer registered
+7° F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away
+four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent they are obliged to sleep so
+close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown
+sleeping-bag, blankets, and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We
+did, however, suffer from soroche. Violent whooping cough assailed
+us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by
+counting my pulse occasionally, only to find that it persistently
+refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't
+know where it went on the actual climb. So far as I could determine,
+it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet
+tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was found to be
+frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an
+hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough for practical purposes
+when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the
+tea-pot! Never did men keep their tempers better under more aggravating
+circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my
+clumsy accident, although poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the
+down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder
+(but somewhat drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated
+a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more
+frozen snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and
+Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker
+tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of our outfit and
+provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things
+as were absolutely necessary. They included the Mummery tent with
+pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins
+aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks,
+six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer,
+a Stanley pocket level, an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope,
+three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale
+flag. In order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried
+four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle soup,
+a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes
+of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about twenty pounds each.
+
+To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine
+and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon the snow
+had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now
+everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five o'clock. It was
+still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut
+off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls. To reach it we must
+first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently
+unbroken slope extended to the top. Our progress was distressingly
+slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came
+a painful surprise. To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the
+peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now
+it actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From
+the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly seemed
+to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly
+facing the possibility that our painful labors might be in vain and
+that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to
+doubt whether we should have strength enough for both. Loss of sleep,
+soroche, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. We should have
+had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for
+our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly. As it was, not more than
+a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest
+part. Tucker was first on the rope, I was second, Coello third, and
+Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high
+altitude was sapping all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump
+of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the
+system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires. A single
+cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course,
+one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did help to tide over
+difficult places.
+
+We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and
+climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be the top,
+obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then
+Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were too much out of breath
+to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we
+painfully came to the edge of what looked like the summit we saw the
+cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope
+three hundred feet higher than where we were standing. It may seem
+strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to
+find that we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however,
+that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to give to the consideration
+of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts
+had sunk within us at the thought that possibly, after all, we might
+find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another
+three hundred feet, which would undoubtedly take us above the highest
+point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of
+two possible evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us
+was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on
+our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at last, at
+half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the
+20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point of Coropuna. As
+we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having
+successfully engineered the first ascent of this great mountain,
+stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly
+motioned me to go ahead in order that the director of the Expedition
+might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In
+order to appreciate how great a sacrifice he was willing to make,
+it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition
+was due chiefly to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire
+to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated
+his kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far
+as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+
+The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow field, almost flat,
+having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and
+south and 175 feet east and west. If it once were, as we suppose, a
+volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and
+ice. There were no rocks to be seen on the rim--only the hard crust of
+the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in
+the extreme. We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted
+with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on
+top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have frequently
+spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest,
+twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada, a reddish desert, rose
+snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the
+range of Coropuna itself; several of the lesser peaks being only a
+few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined
+we could see the faint blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the
+difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction coming
+from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had
+led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak in the Pacific,
+Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing
+the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be appreciative of the views
+which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I
+could not take the least interest or pleasure in the view from the
+top of Coropuna, nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction
+in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt
+greatly depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his
+bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging
+the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my surprise and
+dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above
+sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a thousand feet higher,
+22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of
+22,775 feet, and considerably below Bandelier's "23,000 feet." This
+was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would
+at least show a margin over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763
+feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We
+took what comfort we could from the fact that the aneroids, which
+had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so
+obviously untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove
+to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now
+be reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we
+were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the wooden
+box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow,
+leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level, and took a
+squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So
+each of us in turn lay down in the snow and took a squint. It was
+all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and
+a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight. At any
+rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for
+any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After arriving at
+this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent,
+set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer, arranged the boiling
+point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and
+notebooks proceeded to take as many observations as possible in the
+next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that
+at the same hour readings were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp
+and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The
+barometer was suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the
+tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now
+stood at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the
+barometer was exactly +32° F. At the same time, inside the tent we
+got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water
+boils at sea level at a temperature of 212° F. Here it boiled at 174°
+F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been
+heated for the hypsometer. We were thirsty enough to have drunk five
+times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions
+except a few raisins, some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent
+as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left it
+on top, first having placed in it one of the Appalachian Mountain
+Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag,
+a contemporary map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the
+ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole,
+which we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could
+be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief
+Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make his survey,
+it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and
+buried it in the snow.
+
+We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp
+two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part of the way down
+to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and
+we got up too much speed for comfort, so we finally had to be content
+with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little
+wind. Mountain climbers have more to fear from excessively high winds
+than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred
+to interfere with the best progress we were physically capable of
+making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many
+supplies with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute
+mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does
+get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful. No one in
+the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet or
+pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of
+mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities, apparently
+not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could
+have stood it. It is difficult to believe that with strength enough
+to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The
+violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated again
+in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little
+nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower altitude as
+fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our
+supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes later, without
+having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked
+up. Although many things had been abandoned, our loads seemed heavier
+than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but
+Gamarra was the only one actually to fall in, and he was easily pulled
+out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two
+animated specks far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing
+somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he
+could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks, although we
+did not see it at the time. The "specks" turned out to be Watkins
+and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was safe without ropes or
+crampons, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached
+at half-past twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning
+was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had
+carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while he had given
+me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course,
+does not include the weight of our ice-creepers, axes, or rope.
+
+The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was
+almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even to lift one's
+hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully
+swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed best to make every effort
+to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp,
+got the loads ready without waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets
+on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately
+our malaise left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths
+as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than
+the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without getting
+out of breath; the aggravating "whooping cough" left us; and our
+appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered from the effects
+of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly
+had allowed myself to eat a considerable amount of snow. As a result
+my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit
+tasted like broken glass. Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling
+to keep his snow-glasses always in place and thought to relieve his
+eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial
+snow-blindness. The rest of us were spared any inflammation of the
+eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling
+arrieros, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our
+adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas gave us
+hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the
+loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and
+found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15° 31' South, and the longitude
+to be 72° 42' 40'' West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be
+21,703 feet above sea level. The result of comparing the readings of
+our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous
+readings taken at Arequipa gave practically the same figures. There
+was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna
+proves to be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate,
+and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in
+North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach the top,
+we all agreed we would never do it again!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+To Parinacochas
+
+After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set
+out for Parinacochas, the "Flamingo Lake" of the Incas. The late Sir
+Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of
+"The Conquest of Peru," had called attention to this unexplored lake
+in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
+named a bathymetric survey of Parinacochas as one of the principal
+desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge
+from the published maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than
+Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough
+search of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding
+its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it was that it
+had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in
+Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted General San Martin in the
+Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs
+in London in 1828. During the campaigns against the Spanish forces
+in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the
+interior. On one of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of
+Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is "brackish." This
+statement of General Miller's and the suggestion of Sir Clements
+Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important
+contribution to geographical knowledge was all that we were able to
+learn. Our arrieros, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas,
+but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to
+get there. Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the
+capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman and
+Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the
+Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a new supply of
+food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance
+of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out of the Chuquibamba Valley
+by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over
+the gently sloping, semi-arid desert in a northerly direction, around
+the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night
+on the Pampa of Chumpillo, our arrieros used dried moss and dung for
+fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were
+llamas pasturing on the plains. Near our tent were some Inca ruins,
+probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains
+of a temple described by Cieza de Leon (1519-1560), whose remarkable
+accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the
+Pizarros are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most
+important temples in the Land of the Incas was one "much venerated and
+frequented by them, named Coropuna." "It is on a very lofty mountain
+which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings
+of Peru visited this temple making presents and offerings .... It
+is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts
+offered to this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and
+precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol,
+and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But as there
+are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is
+it known where these are hidden. This temple possessed many flocks,
+farms, and service of Indians." No one lives here now, but there are
+many flocks and llamas, and not far away we saw ancient storehouses
+and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were
+kept awake by the bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields
+of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from
+the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance of peat
+and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of
+its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the lower spurs of Coropuna
+into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand,
+the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada. It is for the most part between
+15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest
+by the canyon of the Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp
+and passed a more agreeable night. The following morning we climbed
+out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern
+slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail turned abruptly to the left,
+away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day,
+less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks, like El
+Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been
+known in the memory of man to give forth great showers of cinders
+covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great
+truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering of the
+ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast
+accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this vicinity goes
+far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous
+amount of erosion that has taken place in the adjacent canyons and
+the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by
+the mighty streams of the glacial period all point to this conclusion.
+
+My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle
+enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way. In her
+case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to
+her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I took some notes,
+she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and
+kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring or lashing with a stout
+quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I
+was particularly anxious to get a picture of our pack train jogging
+steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. Since
+my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, run a couple of
+hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the
+picture before they reached me. We were now at an elevation of 16,000
+feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it
+was relatively as easy to run here as anywhere, so accustomed had my
+lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such
+a strenuous feat at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it
+would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run
+two hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and
+pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches of tough
+grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered
+with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we saw a number of vicuñas,
+the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get
+near enough for a photograph. They were extremely timid and scampered
+away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought
+us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent canyon,
+the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon
+were covered with innumerable terraces--thousands of them. It seemed
+at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been
+either terraced or allotted to some compact little village. One could
+count more than a score of towns, including Cotahuasi itself, its long
+main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into
+the canyon our road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces
+and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several
+weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley bottoms showed
+any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent
+to which terracing had been carried on the side of the Cotahuasi
+Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it
+was evident from the extraordinary irrigation system that agriculture
+here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the
+great mountains in the interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation
+canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired
+than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that there is no
+part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops
+where nature made it hard for them to be planted. In other countries,
+to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve
+to bring water long distances to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We
+also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper
+chemical formula, the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils
+with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great
+regions where nature has provided fertile fields and made it easy to
+raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or
+prehistoric times, does one find farmers spending incredible amounts
+of labor in actually creating arable fields, besides bringing the
+water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that
+is what was done by the ancient highlanders of Peru. As they spread
+over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great
+an elevation as to be suitable for only the hardiest of root crops,
+like the white potato and the oca, they were driven to use narrow
+valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the
+precious maize and many of the other temperate and tropical plants
+which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were
+constantly confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the
+valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear
+it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently so very
+steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The
+farmer might wake up any morning to find that a heavy rain during
+the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted
+fields. Consequently there was developed, through the centuries,
+a series of stone-faced andenes, terraces or platforms.
+
+Examination of the ancient andenes discloses the fact that they were
+not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a
+carefully constructed stone wall. The space back of the walls was
+first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; then followed
+smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the
+subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and to a depth of eighteen
+inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The
+result was the best possible field for intensive cultivation. It
+seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains
+should have been taken for such relatively small results. The need
+must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few
+feet wide, although hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow
+the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred
+yards wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and
+alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place
+where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized of all
+Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many
+landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak plateaus of the
+surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep,
+and alpacas.
+
+We were cordially welcomed by Señor Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and
+invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the locality, and,
+as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central
+government, was none too popular with some of the people of his
+province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi
+have ever been to Lima;--probably not a single member of the Lima
+government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not
+expect to find much sympathy between the two. The difficulties of
+traveling in Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With
+our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the
+government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect. By nature a
+kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence,
+Señor Viscarra showed himself most courteous and hospitable to us in
+every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They
+brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt and Elihu Root, and made a
+large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the
+flag did have only thirty-six stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid
+banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend
+us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a barber-shop. The
+chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we
+accepted with pleasure. When the barber arrived, closely guarded by a
+gendarme armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict
+from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his crime,
+but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of
+clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag, I wished I was in
+a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The
+sub-prefect, however, had been so kind and was so apologetic as to
+the inconveniences of the "barber-shop" that there was nothing for it
+but to go bravely forward. Although it was unpleasant to have one's
+hair trimmed by an uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not
+help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a
+pair of shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the
+period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his fees
+with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed
+with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away by the gendarme.
+
+We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and
+Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary difficulties
+in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now
+past the worst of it. Their supplies were exhausted, so those which we
+had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned
+to assist Mr. Hendriksen and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south
+to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him
+as escort Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the
+machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was Gamarra
+who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the
+time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some months previous to
+our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For
+Gamarra's sake they left the house at three o'clock in the morning
+and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his
+important monograph, "The Andes of Southern Peru," Dr. Bowman writes:
+"At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened
+the gates noiselessly and our small cavalcade hurried through the
+pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle
+across his saddle, and directly behind him rode the sub-prefect and
+myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the
+end of the street when a door opened suddenly and a shower of sparks
+flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his
+mule and turned into a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse
+back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed
+me against the wall and whispered, 'For God's sake, who is it?' Then
+suddenly he shouted. 'Stop blowing! Stop blowing!' "
+
+The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor
+who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's work by
+pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand
+an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals, on which he had
+been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor
+and his ancient goose should have been able to cause such terrific
+excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own
+Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was fond of referring to this picturesque
+apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose
+that Startled the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to
+His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local rug-weaving
+industry.
+------
+
+
+The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and
+carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers make the warp
+and woof of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray,
+or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are cut
+so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm,
+gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has no pile. Probably the
+industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It
+seems to be restricted to this remote region. The rug makers are a
+small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their
+hand looms from house to house, as required. It is the custom for the
+person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish
+the weaver with board, lodging, coca, tobacco and wine, and watch the
+rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug
+weavers are very clever in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy
+of Señor Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven
+especially for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host,
+and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he knew the road to
+Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring
+stream on a treacherous-looking bridge, the central pier of which
+was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic
+boulder in midstream. The main arch of the bridge consisted of two
+long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down
+by earth and stones. There was no rail on either side, but our mules
+had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On
+the northern side of the valley we rode through a compact little town
+called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds
+of very fine artificial terraces, at present used for crops of maize
+and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall,
+an altogether surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid
+region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as
+well as the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection
+between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky
+zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture. Wherever the
+sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced
+terraces and irrigation had transformed them long ago into arable
+fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very
+fine series of beautiful terraces. On a shelf near the top of the
+canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by
+shepherds whose flocks grazed on the lofty plateau beyond, and near
+a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our
+camp was at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were
+turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed
+occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one of these
+we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the
+glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna, now growing fainter
+and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500
+feet we struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and
+sand--hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came to
+a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was
+intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged along beside my
+mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my
+experiences on Coropuna I suffered no discomfort, nor any symptoms
+of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five
+hundred yards. In the afternoon we began to descend from the plateau
+toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha,
+where ichu grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain
+and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and
+alpacas. Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian
+herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly
+because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the upper
+courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe
+them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the softest in
+the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding
+that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool was highly desired,
+many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the "alpaca"
+of commerce, a material used for coat linings, umbrellas, and thin,
+warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard
+surface, and generally dyed black. It usually contains no real alpaca
+wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real alpaca wool which comes into
+the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than
+the sheep's wool, it is strong, small of fiber, very soft, pliable and
+elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and
+comfort. Many of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the
+highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as "vicuña," "camel's hair," etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by
+the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of the camels of the
+New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of
+uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas are extremely variegated. The
+llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for
+wearing apparel, although heavy blankets made from it are in use by
+the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to
+the presence of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our
+horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage--short, tender grass and plenty of water--frequents the most
+remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only when the
+fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds,
+and is extremely shy of strangers, although not nearly as timid as its
+distant cousin the vicuña. I shall never forget the first time I ever
+saw some alpacas. They looked for all the world like the "woolly-dogs"
+of our toys shops--woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and
+woolly along the legs right down to the invisible wheels! There was
+something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They
+look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop like cows.
+
+The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing,
+but in a different way. His expression is haughty and supercilious
+in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is
+due to circumstances over which he really had no control. Pride of
+race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high
+and his neck so stiffly erect that he can be corralled, with others
+of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire
+group. Yet he can be bought for ten dollars.
+
+On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs,
+both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly children,
+more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind
+rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our notice. About five o'clock
+in the afternoon, on a dry pampa, we found the ruins of one of the
+largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder
+of the days when benevolent despots ruled the Andes and, like the
+Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is
+not occupied, yet near by are populous valleys.
+
+As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the
+edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep canyons
+so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned
+as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail. It overhangs the
+mud-colored Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of
+a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the
+sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair, but those
+near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes,
+and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered with cacti, thorn
+bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the
+town itself were half a dozen specimens of the Australian eucalyptus,
+that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one
+encounters not only in the heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia
+and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta
+------
+
+
+Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them
+have open verandas on the second floor--a sure indication that the
+climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried
+adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched huts of the
+majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and
+the great number of terraces in and around town, one may conclude
+that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of
+the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most Peruvian towns. The cities
+of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta,
+we wound around the base of the projecting ridge, on the sides of
+which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the
+valley of Huancahuanca, a large arid canyon. The guide said that we
+were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles away, across two canyons,
+was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great
+natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand feet
+above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and
+under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers at
+the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to
+enable them to cultivate a larger part of the pampa on which they
+lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of
+being carried out and has probably long since been completed. Our
+reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that
+our military escort, Corporal Gamarra, had gone back to Arequipa
+with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent arrieros, the Tejada brothers,
+declared they preferred to travel without any "brass buttons,"
+so we had not asked the sub-prefect of Cotahuasi to send one of
+his small handful of gendarmes along with us. Probably this was a
+mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood
+matter, such as prospecting for mines or representing one of the
+great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods,
+one cannot help arousing the natural suspicions of a people to whom
+traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific
+exploration for its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the
+explorers arrive accompanied by a gendarme it is perfectly evident
+that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial
+backing of the government. It is surmised that the explorers are
+well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely
+one of the ordinary experiences of life. South American governments
+almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are
+led to expect that all measures connected with research, whether it be
+scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government
+and paid for out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is
+not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had
+had such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize,
+how often an ever-present gendarme, provided through the courtesy of
+President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us
+a cordial welcome.
+
+Now, however, when without a gendarme we entered the smart little
+town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the
+objects of extreme suspicion and distrust. Yet we could not help
+admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and
+general air of prosperity and enterprise. The gobernador of the town
+lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and
+colonnade were probably two hundred years old. He had heard nothing
+of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take
+some hostile action. Fortunately, our arrieros, respectable men of high
+grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions
+temporarily. We were not placed under arrest, although I am sure
+his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors,
+who found it far easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives
+from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well
+known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that Lampa is famous
+for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep,
+alpacas, and vicuñas in this vicinity to make ponchos and blankets
+of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in
+Arequipa. These are marketed, as so often happens in the outlying
+parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who
+come hundreds of miles, bringing the manufactured articles of the
+outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded
+towns. The great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold
+generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an
+opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general enjoyment--like a
+large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin
+of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate as our own fair-grounds,
+with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the
+purposes of the fair. Had we been bound for Parinacochas at the proper
+season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why
+anybody should want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other
+fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension
+or understanding of these village worthies. So, to our "selectmen,"
+are the idiosyncrasies of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our
+deserted fair-grounds.
+
+The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town--probably
+because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the mules
+devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive
+in town than in the country. It was just as well for us that this
+was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would
+have persuaded the gobernador to arrest us. As it was, however, he was
+pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment
+of an Indian woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard
+and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around
+her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree. So she covered her
+eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at
+our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian women are invariably extremely
+shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape
+observation and notice. The ladies of the gobernador's own family,
+however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no
+objection to being photographed, but were moved to unseemly and
+unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we
+had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due to the
+enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might
+expect that citizens who kept their town so clean and neat and were
+engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would
+have a comfortable road in the direction toward which they usually
+would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences
+of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides of the valley
+or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa
+and whose products have made its people well fed and energetic. The
+town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so
+few, if any, evidences of the ancient régime when there are so many
+a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot
+believe that the Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural
+opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land
+and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing unnecessary
+in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand,
+it may have been occupied until late Inca times by one of the coast
+tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca
+divides two very different regions. To come in a few hours, from
+thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give
+us cause for thought and speculation. It is well known that in the
+early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before
+the Spanish Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes
+who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as different as possible in design
+and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is
+absolutely distinct. Relative abundance of flat lands never led them
+to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had
+done. Perhaps on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the
+coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and
+surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of
+Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower slopes separated
+from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near
+the top of the mountain. Our road ran near the towns of Pararca
+and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of
+thatched huts surrounded by hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on
+the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed
+fields of barley and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On
+every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in
+agriculture, utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared
+for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We
+noticed hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under
+cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+Our arrieros avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the
+roadside near the Finca Rodadero. After all, when one has a comfortable
+tent, good food, and skillful arrieros it is far pleasanter to spend
+the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation of 12,000
+or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an
+Indian town.
+
+The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town
+of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe houses
+placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the
+best arable land available for agriculture. It is in a shallow,
+well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country
+had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi. The desert and its
+steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of
+gently sloping hills, covered with terraces, where the cereals of the
+temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain
+fields, we climbed up to a shallow depression in the low range at the
+head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland
+basin more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was
+a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most of the
+lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light
+salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color? Nothing but
+flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes--Parinacochas at last!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Flamingo Lake
+
+The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and
+12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest of
+Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount
+of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams. In past
+geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not
+far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas has no visible
+outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we
+came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed from the lake. On the other
+hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake,
+generally occurring in swampy hillocks--built up perhaps by mineral
+deposits--three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There
+are very old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that
+in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at present,
+although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had
+been much more than a foot above its present level. Nevertheless a
+rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+When making preparations in New Haven for the "bathymetric survey of
+Lake Parinacochas," suggested by Sir Clements Markham, we found it
+impossible to discover any indication in geographical literature as
+to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand
+feet. We decided to take a chance on its not being more than ten
+hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured
+a thousand feet of stout fish line, known to anglers as "24 thread,"
+wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we
+were at Chuquibamba Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting
+one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot
+intervals in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able
+more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker
+and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for fodder,
+and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles
+on muleback, for the sounding operations. The "Acme" proved easy
+to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its
+lightness enabled it to be floated at the edge of the lake even in
+very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late
+afternoon when the high winds raised a vicious little "sea." Rowing
+out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before
+been navigated by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake
+Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought
+no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding slow work,
+and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation that I rowed
+out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel
+firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard. The reel gave a turn
+or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was
+the reel stuck? No, the apparatus was in perfect running order. Then
+what was the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains
+that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best strong
+24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient
+insertion of one hundred and sixty-six "fathom-markers"! The bottom of
+the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After
+three or four days of strenuous rowing up and down the eighteen
+miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen
+miles of its width, I never succeeded in wetting Watkins's first
+marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of
+water anywhere. Possibly if we had come in the rainy season we might
+at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November,
+1911), the lake had a maximum depth of 4 1/2 feet. The satisfaction of
+making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so
+shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story of
+the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near
+one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor was reported
+by the natives to be "bottomless." He ordered one of the ship's heavy
+boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt
+lake, at great expenditure of strength and labor. The story told me
+in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow,
+they found this "fathomless" body of water to be not more than fifteen
+feet deep.
+
+Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I
+was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat, for it
+enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which
+use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite feeding ground;
+pink flamingoes, white gulls, small "divers," large black ducks,
+sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large geese. On the banks
+were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the
+natives should have named this body of water "Parinacochas" (Parina =
+"flamingo," cochas = "lake"). The flamingoes are here in incredible
+multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said,
+actually make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately
+they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid. After
+two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me
+approach within twenty yards before finally taking wing. The coloring,
+in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The
+head is white, the beak black, the neck white shading into salmon-pink;
+the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail
+salmon-pink. The wings are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and
+the under-parts are black. As they stand or wade in the water their
+general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the
+water, however, the black under-parts of the wings become strikingly
+conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful
+contrast in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep
+his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the ropelike
+neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure
+that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless, I thought the heavy
+body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform
+speed, the difference being caught up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara
+------
+
+
+The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman
+nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in a most
+incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind
+from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse croaking, "What is it,"
+"What is it," seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the
+sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes
+were very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse
+"What-is-it's." Apparently they failed to find out the answer in time
+to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all
+sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads tucked under
+their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was
+quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In the afternoon, as winds
+and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left
+the water. The great extent of shallow water in Parinacochas offers
+them a splendid, wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all
+came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were
+thousands and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests,
+either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank
+Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or
+terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean lake 11,500
+feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several
+hundred. There were quantities of small black divers in the deeper
+parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were
+very quick and keen, true individualists operating alone and showing
+astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large
+black ducks were much more fearless than the flamingoes and were
+willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over
+the water at a tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their
+efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about
+as common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few
+tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest, possibly
+belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near
+our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers, who in this country
+look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great
+amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle, calmly eating
+the succulent water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head
+and neck well under the surface.
+
+While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes,
+Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the first
+accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point
+to point he often stirred up little ground owls, who gazed at him with
+solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to
+regard his activities with suspicion and dislike. Part of my work was
+to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on
+the well-rounded hills so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as
+rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations
+would disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived
+in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods set
+up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being
+preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle feeding on flat
+lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin are bare of trees, and offer some pasturage. In some places they
+are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by
+the degenerate descendants of sheep brought into the country during
+Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in
+color, although there were many black ones. We were told that the
+sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the
+shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame their shyness,
+and a group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought
+their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to gaze
+stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house,
+actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake, and busied
+themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering
+a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women wore dresses of heavy
+material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of
+hats they had small variegated shawls, made on hand looms, folded
+so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck
+and shoulders from sun and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with
+a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a
+hammock or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These
+sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated with
+attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys
+wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats and long trousers
+much too large for them.
+
+At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of
+Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be
+remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than it is at
+present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In
+the days of its greater altitude, and consequently wider snow fields,
+the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much
+larger body of water. Although we were here at the beginning of summer,
+the wind that came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our
+minimum thermometer registered 22° F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the
+borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most shallow
+bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the
+water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten inches below the surface,
+was 61° F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By
+noon the temperature of the water half a mile from shore was 67.5°
+F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring
+up the shallow water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature
+of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining
+brightly almost directly overhead, it went down to 65° by 2:30 P.M.
+
+The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our
+camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although in
+each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water,
+taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and analyzed
+by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He
+found that it contained small quantities of silica, iron phosphate,
+magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium
+nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate, sodium sulphate, and a
+considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains
+more carbonate and potassium than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical "salt"
+waters, that of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position,
+containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let
+their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there was excellent
+alfalfa forage. The arrieros engaged at their own expense a pack
+train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the
+custom hereabouts to enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of
+rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The
+Indians who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy
+fellows, dressed in "store clothes" and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty,
+but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to haul them
+near the loads.
+
+Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, "the house of the
+Inca," at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi visited it
+in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies
+one of the houses. The other buildings are used only during the third
+week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted
+plaza were many low stone rectangles partly covered with adobe and
+ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long,
+thatched buildings of adobe and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A
+few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient
+stonemasons. Some loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled
+the attempts of modern builders.
+
+In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully
+laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well named; there had
+been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple--lakes were once
+objects of worship--or rest-house, constructed in order to enable the
+chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains
+of the Incas. We found the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably
+potatoes and other root crops were once raised here in fairly large
+quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The
+hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches in which
+are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one
+time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe, but these walls had
+been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of
+whatever objects of value they might have contained. We found nine or
+ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls
+seemed to have been trepanned.
+
+On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet
+wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones. No effort
+had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no
+evidence of its having been used in recent times. It runs from the
+lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley,
+where there are many terraces and cultivated fields; it is not far from
+Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up and piled on each side to
+save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The
+llama dislikes to step over any obstacle, even a very low wall. The
+grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to
+proceed in the desired direction.
+
+In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and
+small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for temporary
+protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come
+up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation (12,000 feet). The
+shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough,
+scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures varied from 8 to 25
+feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent
+occupation. The smaller walls may have been the foundation of small
+circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to
+keep alpacas and llamas from straying at night and to guard against
+wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age
+of these remains. It is possible that they represent a settlement
+of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and
+size of the walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may
+have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the
+hills west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca,
+which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center of one
+of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its
+very delicate pottery.
+
+Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. Near us the traces
+of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals,
+substantiating my belief that this curious roadway was intended to keep
+the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south
+shores of the lake there were more signs of occupation than on the
+north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of
+the Incas as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of
+one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations of
+the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly
+precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very primitive dwellings
+had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could
+easily be defended. We found among the ruins a few crude potsherds
+and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the
+little hill village to give any indication of Inca origin. Probably
+it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about
+it. If there were traditions concerning it they were well concealed
+by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly
+terraced and cultivated. The tutu potato would grow here, a hardy
+variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable
+for making potato flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its
+bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the
+Peruvians, such as the oca, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the añu,
+a kind of nasturtium, and the ullucu (ullucus tuberosus).
+
+On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good
+repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the time of our
+visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts
+built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs, inhabited by drovers
+and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than
+elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer the sweet water grasses of the
+lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+Viscachas were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They
+are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the "chinchilla" of
+commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared
+from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees them, although
+they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa,
+a region rarely visited by any one on account of treacherous bogs and
+deep tams. Writers sometimes call viscachas "rabbit-squirrels." They
+have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do
+look like a cross between a rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon
+an unusually large herd of wild vicuñas. It included more than one
+hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the
+remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount of hunting that is done
+here. Vicuñas have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for
+their skins. Their silky fleece is even finer than alpaca. The more
+fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts,
+as soft as eider down and of a golden brown color.
+
+After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the
+arrieros to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured
+"Arequipa," and started south. We soon came to the rim of the
+Maraicasa Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the
+south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley is
+well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although
+few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were smooth and
+well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We
+passed through it and, after dark, reached Sondor, a tiny hamlet
+inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the
+darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the owners of a well-thatched hut,
+and told them how "important" we were. They were unwilling to give
+us any shelter, so we were forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky
+and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs,
+dogs, and cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark
+we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and
+wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime, when they
+can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also
+many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion. We had now
+left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into the desert. At
+length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes
+were gladdened at sight of the rich green oasis, a striking contrast
+to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding
+road we passed many fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the
+steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement
+by a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the
+Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers were
+unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a
+tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety. After an
+exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals
+and men were glad enough to leave the high, arid desert and enter
+the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa,
+its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus. The air, pungent with the
+smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of
+"La Victoria." Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates at the
+camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall
+long remember. After two months in the coastal desert it seemed like
+home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain
+had had in bringing his machinery across the plateau from the nearest
+port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on
+muleback each of the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was
+equivalent to the price of a first-class pack mule. As a matter of
+fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs
+are not built to survive the strain of carrying pieces of machinery
+weighing five hundred pounds over a desert plateau up to an altitude of
+4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of
+the canyon, but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep
+trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered,
+piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the obstacles
+with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man
+who designed the machinery ever traveled with a pack train, climbing
+up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am
+sure that he would have made his castings much smaller.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba
+------
+
+
+It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior
+of South America fail to realize that no single piece should be any
+heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on one side. One
+hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even
+a large, strong mule will last only a few days on such trails as
+are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of
+his cargo is over three hundred pounds. When a single piece weighs
+more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the
+animal. Then the load rocks, and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides
+causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a
+matter of expediency it is better to have the individual units weigh
+about seventy-five pounds. Such a weight is easier for the arrieros to
+handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day
+long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as usually happens
+in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair
+load for a man or a llama, two are right for a burro, and three for
+an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at
+"La Victoria," but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant shade
+trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse
+gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were surprised to find
+near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little
+circular or oval huts averaging eight feet in diameter. There was
+no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen
+in the vicinity, yet here had once been a village. It seemed to
+belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of
+the Parinacochas Basin. The road was one of the worst we encountered
+anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among
+huge piles of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered
+with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides men
+and animals.
+
+Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga,
+where we pitched our camps among the most extensive ruins that
+I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one
+hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely together. It gave
+one a strange sensation to find such a very large metropolis in what
+is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was
+strikingly reminiscent of some of the large groups of ruins in our
+own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were
+no terraces in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a
+large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and
+sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses had seats,
+or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained
+two or three small cells, possibly storerooms, with neither doors
+nor windows. We found a number of burial cists--some square, others
+rounded--lined with small cobblestones. In one house, at the foot of
+"cellar stairs" we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance
+to it was covered with a single stone lintel. In examining this
+tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a boba,
+a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth,
+long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled skin. At one
+place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its
+top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely
+carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The dishes must
+have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar,
+probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone war club; and a
+broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding
+corn. Two stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with
+a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled
+sinkers used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times
+larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie down
+roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of
+the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever decoration they once
+had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for
+archeological investigation. Unfortunately, we had heard nothing of
+it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to
+give it. After the first night camp in the midst of the dead city we
+made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it
+was, as a matter of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor
+T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece. We
+wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched
+houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud. Near it we
+encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking
+into town to sell and were willing to dispose of cheaply. The Tejadas
+could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain,
+although the circumstances were suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold
+sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only
+to discover on reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from
+thieves. We were able to clear our arrieros of any complicity in the
+theft. Nevertheless, the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay
+anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We
+spent one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Señor Benavides,
+the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route to
+Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before,
+spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+About three o'clock in the morning--after we had been jogging steadily
+along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of the night, the
+only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight
+an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly visible in the starlight--the
+eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since
+set. Could this be the approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at
+least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding
+the day; "the dawn comes up like thunder." Surely the moon could
+not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly
+brightening eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white
+light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy as
+a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor,
+neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us. It was the morning
+star. For sheer beauty, "divine, enchanting ravishment," Venus that day
+surpassed anything I have ever seen. In the words of the great Eastern
+poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, "the
+morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Titicaca
+
+Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air,
+bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling atmosphere
+dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau,
+surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani (20,000 ft.), El
+Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only
+one nightmare--earthquakes. About twice in a century the spirits of
+the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But
+they shake the bed! And Arequipa rests on their bed. The possibility
+of a "terremoto" is always present in the subconscious mind of the
+Arequipeño.
+
+One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable
+Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently and we heard
+a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To
+the members of the club, however, it meant only one thing--an
+earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded
+with hysterical people, crying, shouting, and running toward the great
+open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on
+their knees in gratitude at having escaped from falling walls, others
+prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls
+had fallen! In the business district a great column of black smoke
+was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs
+that the noise and the trembling had not been due to an earthquake,
+but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline,
+kerosene, dynamite and giant powder!
+
+In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are
+so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that there were
+no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the
+roaring furnace by dipping water from one of the azequias, or canals,
+that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense
+masses of smoke and flame. In any American city such a blaze would
+certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building
+to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter amazement
+the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even
+warm. Such is the result of building houses with massive walls of
+stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently
+no harm was done by sparks. So, without a fire department, this
+really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day
+the newspapers talked about the "dire necessity" of securing fire
+engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine
+could have done. Nothing could have saved the warehouse itself once
+the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have
+suffered more had they been deluged with streams of water. The facts
+are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of course
+that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody
+thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+
+
+A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief
+port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts a soldier's
+monument and a new theater, really a "movie palace." There is a good
+harbor, although dredging is necessary to provide for steamers like
+the Inca. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine--or, rather,
+a lacustrine--railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of totoras,
+giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers
+learned to dry the totoras, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten
+the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the
+sides as a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or balsa. Of
+course the balsas eventually become water-logged and spend a large
+part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so,
+they are not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use
+them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one should
+go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+The balsas are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of
+locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast is an
+A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied
+together and fastened, one to each side of the craft, slightly forward
+of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region--lumber has
+to be brought from Puget Sound, 6000 miles away--so nearly all the
+masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three
+times. To the apex of the "A" is attached a forked stick, over which
+run the halyards. The rectangular "sail" is nothing more nor less
+than a large mat made of rushes. A short forestay fastened to the
+sides of the "A" about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from
+falling when the sail is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of
+a backstay. The balsas cannot beat to windward, but behave very well
+in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the
+boatmen must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard,
+for the water in the lake is cold, 55° F., and none of them know how
+to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during
+the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and near the shore.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati
+------
+
+
+When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very
+small balsa not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting
+the weight of one man. On the other hand, large balsas constructed
+for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the
+lake are capable of carrying a dozen people and their luggage. Once
+I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake
+on a bulrush raft. To give greater security two balsas are sometimes
+fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Señor
+Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic balsas were used in
+bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This
+theory is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much
+higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor
+Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography, have
+not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for
+Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with the ocean.
+
+Nevertheless, Señor Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a
+salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the Andes rose. The
+fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms
+does not bother him. Señor Posnansky pins his faith to a small dried
+seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget
+that dried specimens of marine life, including starfish, are frequently
+offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who
+may be found in almost every market-place. Probably Señor Posnansky's
+seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly enterprising
+trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse
+has actually found its resting-place in La Paz, this does not alter the
+fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine
+fauna in Lake Titicaca. On the other hand, it has two or three kinds
+of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in
+the Rimac River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the
+Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted
+the desirable fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas
+used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners, and that
+"they have records in their quipus of the fish having been brought
+from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues." The
+actual transference of water jars containing the fish would have
+offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea
+happened to appeal to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong
+as Señor Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic
+inland sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually
+surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated with
+respectful skepticism.
+
+Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia,
+is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique among
+prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved
+monolithic images. Although they have suffered from weathering and
+from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed
+human figures. The richly decorated girdles and long tunics are
+carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of
+the designs are undoubtedly symbolic of the rank, achievements,
+or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is
+nothing hieroglyphic. The images are stiff and show no appreciation
+of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never
+had an opportunity to study the human body. In Andean villages, even
+little children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples
+who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia are
+always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to
+seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel, they have
+developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which
+is in striking contrast to people who live on the warm sands of the
+South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human
+body as a motif. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are
+clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was
+observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the taboo against
+"nakedness" was too much for him.
+
+Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to
+Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with
+artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca
+structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves, out of which,
+say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves
+are not large enough for a man to stand upright, but to a people
+who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires
+no stretch of the imagination to believe that those bright disks
+came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated
+with dwellers on the western shore of the lake who would often see
+the sun or moon rise over this island. On an ancient road that runs
+across the island my native guide pointed out the "footprints of the
+sun and moon"--two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant
+resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and
+fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives, in his "Islands
+of Titicaca and Koati," of the degradation and surly character of these
+Indians was not apparent at the time of my short visit in 1915. It is
+quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as
+he did for several months, digging up their ancient places of worship,
+disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting,
+in their minds, the proper balance between wet weather and dry,
+I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish
+treatment such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind
+of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several
+months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The brilliant
+sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air,
+causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come torrential rains. I
+shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the
+steamer encountered a rain squall. The resulting deluge actually
+came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash
+away the soil which the farmers have painfully gathered for field or
+garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the difference
+in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the
+winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely penetrating. Fuel
+is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes,
+and none for artificial heat.
+
+Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some
+barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The principal
+crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried,
+becomes the insipid chuño, chief reliance of the poorer families. The
+Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast
+has long since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern
+fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in
+shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from one to
+three inches. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of
+maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double
+its size and productiveness.
+
+Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the
+elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause acute
+hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the
+Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently appears to be sullen
+and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for
+being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted. Those fortunate Polynesians
+are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim,
+trees from which delicious food can always be obtained, and cocoanuts
+from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not
+develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably
+good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration of the
+large, reëntrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one
+within the other. Small ornamental niches are used to break the space
+between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle
+containing them. Also unusual are the niches between the doorways,
+made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first
+glance as though this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal
+cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is
+a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the step-shaped
+design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one
+finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly for ornamental or
+ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man;
+others are in miniature. Frequently the steps were cut into the sacred
+boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca
+architect, accustomed to the stairway motif, to have conceived these
+curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them,
+even if he had never seen any representation of a Papal cross, or a
+cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested
+a striking resemblance which the sedilia-like niches bear to Arabic
+or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the
+Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped arch is distinctly Oriental
+in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of
+a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a slight
+depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is
+open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and the wonderful
+snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than
+17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks of surpassing beauty
+culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the
+sun and moon, who came to the sacred islands for some of their most
+elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries,
+rising over the majestic snow mountains, their glories reflected in the
+shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such
+occasions the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may
+imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the colors
+of "rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning," their ceremonial
+formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated walls of
+the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had
+special stations in front of the large, step-topped niches. One may
+be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able
+to manufacture exquisite textiles, and who loved to decorate their
+garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no
+opportunity for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great
+annual pageant is still staged every August. Although at present
+connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous
+image of the "Virgin of Copacabana," this vivid spectacle, the
+most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the
+dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested and corresponds to
+our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front
+of a large, bizarre church. During the first ten days in August
+there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and
+near. Everything dear to the heart of the Aymara Indian is offered
+for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders,
+usually women, sit in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone
+pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive
+umbrellas, consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo
+frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped corn;
+in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear
+of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated high-laced
+boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row
+are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another is devoted to such
+trinkets as one might expect to find in a "needle-and-thread" shop at
+home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers with scores of bamboo flutes
+varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with
+piles of freshly made native felts, warranted to last for at least a
+year; and vendors of aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us
+from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among
+Inca ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive
+pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although the modern
+Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to
+adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not only easier to secure,
+but produce more striking results.
+
+As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly
+exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of the plaza,
+bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain--locks, keys,
+spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other "wooden nutmegs."
+
+At the tables of the "money-changers," just outside of the
+sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk
+business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or the
+unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and
+appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know all the tricks
+of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence
+of various Aymara secret societies, whose members, wearing repulsive
+masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be
+invented by primitive imaginations. Each society has its own uniform,
+made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf,
+gaudy textiles, magnificent epaulets bearing large golden stars on a
+background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored glass;
+tinted "ostrich" plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen
+inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy ribbons, beruffled
+bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange
+costumes are actually reminiscent of the sixteenth century. The wearers
+are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums,
+and rattles, or other noise-makers. The result is an indescribable
+hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor
+and unmusical noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is
+bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels,
+their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number of
+tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings
+resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many wore colored
+goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo
+flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned in the din of big bass
+drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a
+placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in the most tawdry manner with gewgaws
+from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on
+a rustic syrinx or Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of
+bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes
+disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary barriers
+are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their
+doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of pleasure-seekers,
+well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are
+ready to run helter-skelter in every direction should the bull take
+it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There
+are no picadors, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no
+banderilleros, with barbed darts; no heroic matador, ready with shining
+blade to give a mad and weary bull the coup de grace. Here all is fun
+and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or
+drunken Aymaras, who prod him with sticks and shake bright ponchos
+in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty
+scattering of some spectators, amid shrieks of delight from everybody
+else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is
+no chance of a bull being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of
+our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage
+was let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the
+crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that he could
+not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He
+galloped madly after any individual who crossed the plaza. Five or
+six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done,
+and every one had an uproariously good time.
+
+Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and
+pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is not
+pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired
+in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles, blowing mightily with
+puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders
+
+In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills
+of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of alpacas thrive on
+the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here
+wool-buyers come to bid for the clip. The high prices which alpaca
+fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned
+in southern Peru for their weight and texture, are made here on hand
+looms. Notwithstanding the altitude--nearly as great as the top of
+Pike's Peak--the stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous,
+and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas
+are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally attached to
+their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I
+attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance to secure the skin and skeleton
+of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known
+and spoke the Quichua language fluently. He offered a good price and
+obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and bones
+of one of their "camels" for shipment; but they never did. Apparently
+they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and none happened to die
+at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters,
+as horses often do. On the other hand I have never seen a llama kick
+or bite at his owner.
+
+The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South
+America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards in all parts of
+Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it
+to walk easily on slopes too rough or steep for even a nimble-footed,
+mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet,
+due to its ability to sneeze or spit for a considerable distance
+a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's
+Circus came to town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose
+supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size--they are
+only three feet high at the shoulder
+
+tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt
+that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight and the
+result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing
+their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces. Curiously enough,
+in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have
+never seen a llama so attack a single human being. On the other hand,
+when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicuña which was
+perfectly willing to sneeze straight at any stranger who came within
+twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing more annoying than
+scientific curiosity. The vicuña is the smallest American "camel,"
+yet its long, slender neck, small head, long legs, and small body,
+from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an
+ostrich than a camel.
+
+In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which
+have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects of respect and
+veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the
+tree line, but the presence of these trees at Santa Rosa would seem
+to show that the use of the words "tree line" is a misnomer in the
+Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception
+of the coastal deserts, was once well covered with forests. When man
+first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields,
+and glaciers was covered with forest growth. Although many districts
+are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient
+to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample fertility of
+soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts
+of forests which I found growing alongside of glaciers at very high
+elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha,
+has been accurately determined by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet
+above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls
+and precipices, so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests
+are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation
+with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces
+in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong to many
+different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have
+this striking peculiarity--when cut down they sprout readily from
+the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable
+evidence of the fact that the primeval forests of Peru were long ago
+cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a
+picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes hanging
+each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite
+otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells, "out of tune with
+themselves," or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The
+resulting clangor and din is unforgettable. I presume the Chinese would
+say it was intended to drive away the devils--and surely such noise
+must be "thoroughly uncongenial even to the most irreclaimable devil,"
+as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells
+in the United States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended
+to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing
+inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once in a while
+one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in
+Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament is being administered
+to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this
+part of the world seems to be to make the greatest possible amount
+of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by
+firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices which again
+remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental
+fondness for making a noise which is found in all healthy children.
+
+On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with
+Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely of
+chicha, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was
+remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of laughter
+and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation,
+and sociability. On week days, most of them, even the smaller boys,
+are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool
+brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes finds the mountain
+Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with chicha,
+and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so
+these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani
+------
+
+
+To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry
+native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the plaza, did not
+enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward,
+very much interested in my endeavors. Some of the Indian alcaldes,
+local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials
+for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful and, armed with
+their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the
+shy, retiring women of the market-place to stand in a frightened,
+disgruntled, barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed
+in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy
+woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were reversible
+"pancake" hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with
+coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather side with tinsel and
+velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung
+down on both sides. It is said that the first Inca ordered the dresses
+of each village to be different, so that his officials might know
+to which tribe an Indian belonged. It was only with great difficulty
+and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the gobernador
+or mayor, and the alcaldes that a dozen very reluctant females
+were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their
+faces was very eloquent. Some were highly indignant, others looked
+foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not
+knowing what evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence
+of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that
+was the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact,
+some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken that
+they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they
+seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were large felt
+hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky
+wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen ponchos, decorated with
+bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and
+ankle, a convenient style for herdsmen who have to walk in the long,
+dewy grasses of the plateau. These "high-water" pantaloons do not
+look badly when worn with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since
+this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots,
+which did not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced
+a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far
+less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require less attention
+and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also
+be securely bolted to the rafters. On this wind-swept plateau we
+frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes
+passed over the house and weights resting on the roof. Sometimes to
+the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of
+animals--probably to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes
+do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed
+very efficacious.
+
+On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level
+that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular raindrop
+will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic
+Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad station of Araranca
+flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the
+sources of the Urubamba River, an important affluent of the Ucayali
+and also of the Amazon, but I never have heard it referred to as
+"the source of the Amazon" except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain
+Blank, whose moving picture entertainment bore the alluring title,
+"From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon." As most of his pictures
+of wild animals "in the jungle" looked as though they were taken in
+the zoölogical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly hacienda at Santa Ana, less
+than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure
+him for giving this particular little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on
+its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of as the Vilcanota,
+a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks
+of the cordillera in this vicinity. The lower portion was called by
+the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an
+interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide the
+Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca
+Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by the owners of
+grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the
+valley and up the neighboring slopes to the cliffs of the Cordillera
+Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall
+are the ruins of ancient houses, possibly once occupied by an Inca
+garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of
+careful masonry. It seems to me likely that it was a hastily thrown-up
+fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any
+permanent affair like the Roman wall of North Britain or the Great Wall
+of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between
+the peoples of the Titicaca Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco
+valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,
+[3] one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui,
+Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800
+A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and east, laying
+waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian
+migrations which appear to have continued for some time. During
+these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with
+so much care and difficulty during the preceding twenty centuries,
+was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike,
+ruler of a people whose great achievements had been agricultural
+rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests;
+they told him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow
+a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the
+strategic points and make preparations for defense. The invaders
+may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred
+on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual exhaustion of forested
+areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great
+pampas. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up
+into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were "fleeing from a race of giants"--possibly Patagonians
+or Araucanians--who had expelled them from their own lands. On their
+journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious
+that a great readjustment of the aborigines was in progress. The
+governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not
+able to summon enough strength to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled
+the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the
+approach of the enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true,
+this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago,
+by the chiefs who were told to "fortify the strategic points."
+
+Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway from the Titicaca
+Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the
+key to the situation. It is probable that Pachacuti VI drew up his
+army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings,
+the weapon most familiar to the highland shepherds. The invaders,
+however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more
+difficult to see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried
+over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that
+only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded, they fled to
+"Tampu-tocco," a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they
+hid the precious body of their ruler. Most writers believe this to
+be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved
+rock. There is no place in Peru to-day which still bears the name
+of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which
+do exist, and whose modern names are not found in the early Spanish
+writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to
+Peru, as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Potato-field at La Raya
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya
+------
+
+
+Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas,
+numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of herdsmen. The
+Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the
+manufacture of textiles--shawls, girdles, ponchos, and blankets--on
+hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending
+flocks or walking along the road they are always winding or spinning
+yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The
+younger children, used as shepherds as soon as they reach the
+age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch
+their charges. Some of them were accompanied by long-haired suncca
+shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to
+barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the sunccas, as well
+as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them
+showed any desire to make the acquaintance of "Checkers," my faithful
+Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that
+"Checkers" could understand English. They had never seen a dog that
+could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited
+a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet, a record
+altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato
+field on the high slopes near here, it is the custom of the Indians to
+mark it off into squares, by "furrows" about fifteen feet apart. The
+Quichuas commence their task soon after daybreak. Due to the absence
+of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold
+before dawn, their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock,
+at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more
+of Indians who were engaged in "ploughing" a potato field. Although
+he was dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and
+intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any
+except the implements of their ancestors. The process of "ploughing"
+this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries,
+probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The men, working in unison
+and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or "foot plough,"
+to the handle of which footholds were lashed, would, at a signal, leap
+forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing
+each pair of men was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the
+clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to
+secure greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as
+usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls over
+their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was
+lightened by the joyous contact of community activity. Every one worked
+with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to
+keep up with the procession. Those who fell behind were subjected to
+good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though
+it appears to require a strong directing hand. The "boss" was right
+there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for
+individual effort. Private property was not understood. Everything
+belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the priests,
+the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we
+should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything was done in
+common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the
+crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas to go forth in huge
+family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village
+gossip and choral singing, interspersed at regular intervals with
+rest periods, in which quantities of chicha quenched the thirst and
+cheered the mind.
+
+Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a
+score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of sheaves of wheat or
+barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the
+other in a parallel line, engaged in ploughing synchronously small
+portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit
+Lima and sometimes go to Paris and New York, where they purchase
+for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are
+still cultivated in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the
+conquistadores, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive
+pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant,
+almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima, is cañihua,
+a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit
+in April. The threshing floor for cañihua is a large blanket laid
+on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail
+applied, the blanket serving to prevent the small grayish seeds from
+escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European origin and has
+probably not changed for centuries.
+
+We noticed also quinoa and even barley growing at an elevation of
+14,000 feet. Quinoa is another species of pigweed. It often attains
+a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The
+white-seeded variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared
+with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article,
+both for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being
+cooked and "do not appear so slimy as oatmeal." Other varieties of
+quinoa are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water
+being frequently changed. The growing quinoa presents an attractive
+appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation,
+both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers of old
+terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them
+growing high up on the mountain side in what are called temporales,
+where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or
+cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some kind of a crop
+in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani,
+we saw fields where habas beans had been gathered and the dried stalks
+piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the pampa where oca grows,
+we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by
+were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary use of night
+watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the roadside were different
+in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin
+or even of Santa Rosa, which is not far away. They were typical
+Quichuas--peaceful agriculturists--usually spinning wool on the
+little hand spindles which have been used in the Andes from time
+immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with
+coarse grass.
+
+The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray
+hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men in certain
+localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or
+lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem to be more enduring
+than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved
+teeth was everywhere noteworthy except on sugar plantations, where
+there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled
+from cakes or mixed with parched corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same
+as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be limited to
+face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the
+other hand, a large proportion of the Indians are pock-marked and
+show the effects of living in a country which is "free from medical
+tyranny." There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether
+this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack of
+fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander
+has made the best use he could of the llama, he was never able to
+develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for
+loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently, for
+the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As
+a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr. Ferris that while
+his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back
+muscles stronger, and the calves of his legs larger and more powerful
+than those of almost any other race.
+
+The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian
+joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony with
+each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by
+the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times. In any event,
+this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to
+undergraduates at the beginning of the college year. As a matter of
+fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In
+testing the hand grip of the Quichuas by a dynamometer our surgeons
+found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the
+Quichua and the maximum grip was weak in both sexes, the average
+for the man being only about half of that found among American white
+adults of sedentary habits.
+
+Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North
+and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and
+South America are perhaps due to their environmental history during
+the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American
+Museum of Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological
+fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions of
+Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at
+very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to that with which
+they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the
+inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions of southern Peru, living in
+towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the
+sea, have physical peculiarities closely resembling those living at
+sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says
+the Labrador Eskimo and the Quichua constitute the two "best-known
+short-stature races on the American continent."
+
+So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one
+quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which have children
+the average number is three or four. Large families are not common,
+although we generally learned that the living children in a family
+usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant
+mortality is very great. The proper feeding of children is not
+understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In
+fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are those of the
+throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded
+of all local diseases. It is really terrifying. Due to the rarity
+of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually
+fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so at 11,000 feet. Patients are
+frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common,
+its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living conditions practiced
+among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is
+not tightly closed and protected against any possible intrusion of
+fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the
+natives to use huts of thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight
+hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of
+course, there are no "boards of health," nor are the people bothered by
+being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water supplies
+are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid
+drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat quantities of soup.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche
+------
+
+
+In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and
+the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and lowland maize
+fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native "druggists"
+were present. Their stock usually consisted of "medicines," whose
+efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds
+of simples and curiosities, cure-alls, and specifics. Fully half
+were reported to me as being "useful against fresh air" or the evil
+effects of drafts. The "medicines" included such minerals as iron
+ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the
+leaves of plants domesticated hundreds of years ago by the Incas or
+gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and
+such animals as starfish brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them
+were really useful herbs, while others have only a psychopathic effect
+on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored
+woolen bag. The bags, differing in design and color, woven on miniature
+hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts
+turned over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the
+remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described by
+Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row
+of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet high! Closer
+inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of
+a great temple. The wall is pierced with large doors and the spaces
+between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at
+the bottom. There are small holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The
+base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The
+ashlars are beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly
+squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive,
+but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence that the builders
+did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time
+plastered with clay, a very significant fact. The builders wanted the
+wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay
+wall rested on the ground, floods and erosion might have succeeded
+in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built
+foundation of solid masonry. Even so, the great wall does not stand
+absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also
+seems to be less weathered on the west side. Probably the prevailing
+or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty
+feet high--a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture. It also
+is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now
+standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were to be seen,
+but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double
+row of these columns to support the stringers and tiebeams of the
+roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column
+and the other end was embedded in the main wall. The holes where the
+tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also
+unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall, decorated with
+large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of
+adobe, while the upper third is of rough, uncut stones. It looks very
+odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several
+cases the plastered walls are still standing, in fairly good condition,
+particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the
+temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly disintegrating,
+as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so
+long in a rainy region without any roof or protecting cover. It is
+incredible that for at least five hundred years a wall of sun-dried
+clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels,
+made of hard-wood timbers and partially embedded in the wall, are all
+gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out
+whether the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If
+so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to
+resist weathering. The factors which have caused this extraordinary
+adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for
+so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy rains of each summer
+season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship
+of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive
+folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity of the place,
+the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry
+of the neighboring village is still the manufacture of pottery. No
+better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to
+have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so much perhaps
+out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend
+off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well known that the best pottery
+of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are
+well aware of the uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck
+seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are
+taken. Might it not have been possible that the people who were most
+concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple to insure
+success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple
+is a small modern church with two towers. The churchyard appears to be
+a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use
+the church to pray for success in their baking, just as the ancient
+potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are
+composed partly of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It
+occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the clay
+beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The
+temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering to the god
+of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send
+the lava flow might be appeased. It may be that the Inca Viracocha,
+an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and
+was responsible for building the temple. If so, it would be natural
+for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped
+his memory.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912
+------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Valley of the Huatanay
+
+The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the
+Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land located under
+climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the
+ancient Peruvians. Containing an area estimated at less than 160 square
+miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has
+ever seen. It is still intensively cultivated, the home of a large
+percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself
+sometimes meanders through the valley in a natural manner, but at
+other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls
+constructed by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields
+from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold is
+unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season,
+in June and July, and frost may occur any night in the year above
+13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither
+warm nor cold.
+
+This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to
+soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor of
+the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may
+occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on their way to and
+from town. Although mules are essentially the most reliable saddle
+animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses,
+which are larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better
+gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated saddle,
+over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable
+stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood decorated with silver
+bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered
+necessary and is usually decorated with a broad, embossed panel,
+from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The
+bridle is usually made of carefully braided leather, decorated with
+silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or
+blinder, to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade,
+which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely, is more
+useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the
+basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs near Oropesa
+divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura,
+or "the narrows," is the natural gateway between the Oropesa Basin and
+the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre
+Basin the most interesting are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which
+leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca (Rumi =
+"stone"; ccolca = "granary"). It is commonly supposed that this was
+an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those
+of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred to as a "fortaleza." The
+major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay,
+while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully cut andesite
+ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some
+great chieftain built the rough wall in the days when the highlands
+were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one
+of the Incas, no longer needing any fortifications between the Huatanay
+Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built
+a fine gateway. The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except
+for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the
+ancient masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting
+the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention of the
+stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In
+one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu I noticed similar
+bosses. The name "Stone-granary" was probably originally applied to
+a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient
+terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca, on the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called
+Piquillacta. A large number of its houses have extraordinarily high
+walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south,
+was obviously built to protect it from enemies approaching from the
+Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the slopes are so steep as
+to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava
+rock, with which the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and
+thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich
+enough to attract the attention of agriculturists, who come here from
+neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the
+city are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat
+and barley are the principal crops.
+
+As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient
+Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called Rumiccolca is
+figured in Squier's "Peru" as "Piquillacta." On the other hand,
+the ruins of the large city, "covering thickly an area nearly a
+square mile," are called by Squier "the great Inca town of Muyna,"
+a name also applied to the little lake which lies in the bottom of
+the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw
+Mt. Piquillacta first, then the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the
+ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous,
+harmless, natural phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by
+those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta
+------
+
+
+Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who
+has a country place in the neighborhood and is very familiar with this
+region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From
+him I learned that the city ruins are called Piquillacta, the name
+which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward
+of the ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near
+Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently,
+it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction to
+give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the
+lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. Piqui means "flea";
+llacta means "town, city, country, district, or territory." Was this
+"The Territory of the Fleas" or was it "Flea Town"? And what was its
+name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it
+was considered unlucky?
+
+Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have
+here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca, long since
+abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out
+in regular fashion, the streets crossing each other at right angles,
+the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town
+of Ollantaytambo. Not a soul lives here. It is true that across the
+Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating
+in Mt. Ausangate, the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta
+is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly
+settled valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important
+Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely
+populated valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city
+in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius of
+twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is on the increase. It
+is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the
+railroad. Yet it is "abandonado--desierto--despoblado"! Undoubtedly
+here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its
+being abandoned appears to be the absence of running water. Although
+Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles
+wide, rising to a point of 2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota
+rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated,
+extinct volcano surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites,
+and basalts.
+
+How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built
+on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams? Has the
+climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the
+surrounding region is still the populous part of southern Peru? It is
+inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied
+on a plateau four hundred feet above the nearest water unless there
+was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing
+every drop up the hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there
+were no places near here better provided with water than this site,
+one could understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to
+depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running
+streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling problem
+I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are
+usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+Squier says that this "fortress" was "the southern limit of the
+dominions of the first Inca." "The fortress reaches from the mountain,
+on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly
+called 'El Aqueducto,' perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an
+aqueduct--but the name is evidently misapplied." Yet he admits that the
+cross-section of the wall, diminishing as it does "by graduations or
+steps on both sides," "might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification" if it occupied
+"a different position." He noticed that "the top of the wall is
+throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches
+the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately in thickness"
+as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the "fortress"
+idea that he rejected not only local tradition as expressed in the
+native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own
+eyes. It seems to me that there is little doubt that instead of the
+ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the
+remains of an ancient azequia, or aqueduct, built by some powerful
+chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which
+rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water power
+for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such
+an azequia. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet,
+could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road,
+on this aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would
+have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes
+of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their upper limit
+corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an azequia would
+have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside
+which looks as though an azequia had once passed that way. In the
+valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old azequias. There
+has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills,
+and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been out of order for
+several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have
+disappeared in places. I regret very much that circumstances over
+which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the
+possibilities of such a theory. It remains for some fortunate future
+investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta,
+how they secured their water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca
+------
+
+
+Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at
+Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its chiefs and people
+cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community
+they were a separate political entity from the people of Cuzco;
+that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became
+sufficiently powerful to conquer the people of the Lucre Basin, and
+removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of
+his domain, a system of colonization well known in the history of the
+Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta
+departed, no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the
+site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe that
+at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses,
+unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have been considered not
+desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed
+city had there been plenty of water available. In any case, the ruins
+of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon,
+a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above the
+village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses
+of characteristic Inca construction, containing many symmetrically
+arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses
+are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon was probably the residence
+of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant
+view of the village and of the hills to the south, which to-day
+are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a
+nicely constructed fountain of cut stone. Some of the terraces are
+extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly
+together. Access from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made
+each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces
+are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi. No one lives at
+Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the
+neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists to live
+at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom,
+than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow valley and occupy the
+old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here
+rather than in the open plain.
+
+While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive
+potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President of the
+University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above
+Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence of a fortification
+near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable
+and happy by the generous hospitality of Dr. Aguilar, whose finca
+is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of
+the valley.
+
+From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening
+in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern town of San
+Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just
+beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score or more of gable-roofed
+houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings
+have doors, windows, and niches in walls of small stones laid in clay,
+the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name
+of these ruins we were told that it was Saylla, although that is
+the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay,
+in the Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water
+supply at present. It is not far from a stream called the Kkaira
+and could easily have been supplied with water by an azequia less
+than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It
+looks very much like the case of a village originally placed on the
+hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later
+abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages of living near
+the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had
+established peace over the highlands. There may be another explanation.
+
+It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco
+Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage on unterraced
+slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides
+are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous
+feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material from its
+slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the
+village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory noticed that the streams
+traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by
+"transporting gravel from the head of the fan to its lower margin,"
+and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed
+in between the Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as
+fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old
+Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned when the rule
+of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand,
+it seems more likely that the people who built Saylla were farmers
+and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation,
+due to increased erosion, they abandoned this site for one nearer the
+arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural
+residents of these ancient houses saw their beautiful fields at the
+bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous
+quantities of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol
+after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of
+fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of
+San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students of agriculture
+will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading
+gravel banks probably drove the folk out of Saylla.
+
+The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking
+peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point, is
+connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals
+and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay Valley is
+much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to
+Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little peaks are frequently
+snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in
+the Huatanay Valley.
+
+The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no
+native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia. Firewood is
+scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only trees in
+sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of
+eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has been thought of and written
+of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence
+of trees on the neighboring hills is due entirely to the hand of man,
+the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who
+cleared the forests before the days of intensive terrace agriculture,
+and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of
+Cuzco do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm
+and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for cooking
+purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought
+into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we
+saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged and many of
+the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding
+and the failure to improve the original stock by the introduction of
+new and superior strains.
+
+When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the
+hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat land near the
+Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed
+a concentration of population very unusual in the Andes. Most of the
+important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in
+the immediate vicinity of Cuzco itself or on the "pampas" north of the
+city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato
+cultivation could be carried out are nearly all in this quadrant. In
+the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads
+directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a picturesque ruin which bears
+the native name of Pucará.
+
+Pucará is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance
+at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification to
+realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of
+irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage was taken of small
+cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We
+noticed openings or drains which had been cut in the wall by the
+original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on
+the terraced floor of the enclosed area, which is several feet above
+that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in
+many of the old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient
+folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucará is occupied by llama herdsmen and
+drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral. Probably
+Pucará was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who
+raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas and alpacas on the
+neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucará, is
+a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut stone. Near by
+are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall
+containing four large, ceremonial niches, level with the ground and
+about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de
+Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family
+of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among
+these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the "hot springs" near Tambo
+Machai, "called so from the manner in which the water boils up." The
+next huaca, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself,
+"a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he
+went to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the
+Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children."
+
+The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the
+ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly assume
+a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word macchini means
+"to wash" or "to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher." It may be
+that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils devoted to
+royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is
+the place where, according to Molina, all the youths of Cuzco who had
+been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st
+day of the month to bathe and change their clothes. Afterwards they
+returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. "Each relation
+that offered a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to
+him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the Sun
+and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors."
+
+Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca,
+a small stream which finally joins the Huatanay near the town of San
+Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the
+Cachimayo, famous as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have
+caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named
+the place Las Salinas, or "the Salt Pits," on account of the salt
+pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had
+filled the Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which
+took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro and
+Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of
+Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory. Near the salt
+pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches,
+called Rumihuasi, or "Stone House." The presence of salt in many of
+the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance
+to our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in
+districts where the only water available was so saline as to spoil
+it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, "an ancient
+water-body whose surface," says Professor Gregory, "lay well above
+the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo." This lake is
+believed to have reached its maximum expansion in early Pleistocene
+times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, habas beans,
+and quinoa, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively
+cultivated. It has been named "Lake Morkill" in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq.,
+without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian
+explorations as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill
+fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine
+materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons grazed
+on its banks. "Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly
+all of the glacial epoch." Its drainage was finally accomplished
+by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and
+developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of
+Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by
+the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which may be found
+potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the
+Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost third of Cuzco from
+the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for
+gardens and food crops. Here the hospitable Canadian missionaries have
+their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco quebrada,
+an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote
+and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight of several
+bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel
+banks of the little gulch. Further examination showed that recent
+erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished
+stones more or less carefully fitted together, which at first sight
+appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that
+side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and flush with its surface
+the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that
+the wall antedated the gravel deposits. Fifty feet farther up the
+quebrada another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On
+top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging in
+the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the
+field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that the wall was
+about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on
+both sides with roughly cut stone and filled in with rubble, a type
+of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older
+buildings in the western part of the city of Cuzco.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada
+------
+
+
+Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man,
+was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by a compact
+water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand,
+yet a few days later, while endeavoring to solve the puzzle,
+I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the
+gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to the compact, perpendicular
+gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like
+one of the small rocks which are freely interspersed throughout the
+gravels here. Closer examination showed it to be the end of a human
+femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank,
+which rose almost perpendicularly for seventy or eighty feet above
+it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be
+true that here, in the heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried
+under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it
+until I could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the
+naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the Ayahuaycco
+quebrada. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of
+a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and
+broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although the
+gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery,
+ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel Central,
+where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline,
+packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought to New Haven. Here
+they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in
+the Peabody Museum. In the meantime Dr. Bowman had become convinced
+that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised
+to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a careful
+examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments
+which were excavated by us on July 11th failed to reveal this
+particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon being questioned, said that he had
+dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation
+of July 11th and had added these to the original lot. Presumably
+this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were
+packed. It did not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his
+interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care
+if we had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that
+the age of the vertebrate remains might be "provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years," until further studies could be made of
+the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article on the buried
+wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that "the wall is pre-Inca,
+that its relations to alluvial deposits which cover it indicate its
+erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed,
+and that it represents the earliest type of architecture at present
+known in the Cuzco basin."
+
+Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight
+of them were fragments of human bones representing at least three
+individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone
+of a dog, and three were "bovine remains." The human remains agreed
+"in all essential respects" with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama
+and dog might all have belonged to Inca, or even more recent times,
+but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three
+fragments were from bones which "are among the least characteristic
+parts of the skeleton." That which was of greatest interest was the
+fragment of a first rib, resembling the first rib of the extinct
+bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently
+characteristic of bisons and not seen in the domestic cattle of the
+United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied "that
+the material examined suggests the possibility that some species
+of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance
+with conservative methods to differentiate bison from domestic cattle
+solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small
+number of individuals." Although staunchly supporting his theory of
+the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on their
+geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the
+fact that the bovine remains were not sharply differentiated from the
+bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that "the bluff
+in which the bones were found may be faced by younger gravel and that
+the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods
+of partial valley filling, ... although it still seems very unlikely."
+
+Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely
+separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation, however,
+has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable
+to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary character of the
+skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could
+be drawn from the characters of the human skeletal parts, and the
+suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels
+which contained the bones might be of a later origin than he thought,
+we determined to make further and more complete investigations in
+1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all
+skepticism. I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study
+of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if
+it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the same
+skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he
+was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions. Accordingly, I
+believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent
+testimony would give great weight to those conclusions should he
+find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay
+Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague, Professor Gregory, to make the
+necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay
+Valley was prepared under the direction of Chief Topographer Albert
+H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru,
+was invited to accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern
+Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the
+Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took the bones
+in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had
+been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald dug a tunnel eleven
+feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into
+the solid mass of gravel. He expected to have to use timbering, but
+so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. No bones
+or artifacts were found--nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture
+and containing no unmistakable evidences of stratification. Apparently
+the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact
+gravel mass.
+
+In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the
+conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been repeatedly
+buried and reëxcavated many times during the past few centuries. He
+found evidence indicating periodic destruction and rebuilding of some
+gravel terraces, "even within the past one hundred years." Accordingly
+there was no longer any necessity to ascribe great antiquity to the
+bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco quebrada. Although
+the "Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent
+and thickness in late Pleistocene times," more recent deposits have,
+however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. "Surface
+wash from the bordering slopes, controlled in amount and character by
+climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since
+glacial times, and has greatly increased since human occupation
+began." "Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of
+years as the age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels."
+
+But how about the "bison"? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton
+examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals offered for sale
+in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the "bison"
+was a Peruvian domestic ox. "Under the life-conditions prevailing in
+this part of the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased
+action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed
+in bison." Such was the sad end of the "bison" and the "Cuzco man,"
+who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and
+now believe to have been two hundred years old, perhaps. The word
+Ayahuaycco in Quichua means "the valley of dead bodies" or "dead
+man's gulch." There is a story that it was used as a burial place
+for plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Oldest City in South America
+
+Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since
+Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably since my own
+first impressions of it were published in "Across South America." To
+be sure, there are still the evidences of antiquity to be seen on
+every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences
+of advancement. Telephones, electric lights, street cars, and the
+"movies" have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern
+traveler finds fault with some of the conditions he encounters he
+must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient
+Cuzco are not yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever
+been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is
+steadily progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was
+completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nuñez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old
+cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade of the
+citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is
+crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of the food-stuffs
+and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently
+thronged with Indians, buying and selling, arguing and jabbering,
+it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source
+of entertainment to one who is fond of the picturesque and interested
+in strange manners and customs.
+
+The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of
+congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats; in
+another those who sell coca. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly
+all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their
+light seems to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are
+operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and
+patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those who specialize in
+everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the arriero:
+richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye
+from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry his coca or
+other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide
+lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond hitch than
+to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey,
+and candles to be burned before his patron saint as he starts for some
+distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Map of Peru and view of Cuzco
+
+From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578.
+------
+
+
+In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the
+streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure anthropometric
+measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up
+a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His subjects were the unwilling
+victims of friendly gendarmes who went out into the streets with
+orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most
+of the Indians showed no resentment and were in the end pleased and
+surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin
+as compensation for loss of time.
+
+One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's
+subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but this was
+not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than
+from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo, and Maras. This
+may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place,
+the gendarmes may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant
+villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk
+were presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their
+business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation which the
+gendarmes could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably
+true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than those
+of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two
+or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore, the attention
+of the gendarmes might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly
+caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city
+fashions do not prevail, than to those who through long residence
+in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of
+the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day a large
+proportion of the individuals whom one sees in the streets appears
+to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are
+visitors from outlying villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most
+densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua
+ancestry. The Spanish conquistadores did not bring European women
+with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed
+of such an extraordinary mixture of peoples from Europe and northern
+Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians,
+Berbers, and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy
+toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for
+centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with results which
+are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once
+200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods of transportation
+it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559,
+there were, according to Montesinos, only 20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street
+cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed Cuzceños
+past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The
+driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous application of his
+brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of
+quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged in bringing small sacks of
+potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built
+of stones taken from ancient Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which
+left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a
+bill-board advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the
+2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote
+Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos with broad fringes,
+brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled
+tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume whose design shows no trace
+of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors
+was a barefooted Cuzco urchin clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap,
+coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses
+built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls which
+themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons
+centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone wires intercept
+one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now
+part of the University of Cuzco. It is built of reddish basalt from
+the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor
+Gregory says that this Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity
+of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately
+carved stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical
+architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense
+diorite which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers
+far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions gives
+to the Jesuit Church an atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of
+the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit
+teachers long before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with
+concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the
+shouts of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is
+teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, "Mens sana in corpore sano."
+
+Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the
+political capital of the most important department in southern Peru,
+it had in 1911 only one hospital--a semi-public, non-sectarian
+organization on the west of the city, next door to the largest
+cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and
+so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and the more
+prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the
+patients have to look at. The building has large courtyards and open
+colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to
+take advantage of open-air treatment. At the time of Surgeon Erving's
+visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows
+were small and practically always closed and shuttered, so that the
+atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly
+imagine a stronger contrast than exists between such wards and those
+to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum
+of sunlight and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to
+sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was
+no resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the
+hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to
+the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects of sunlight
+and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality
+and a very poor local reputation; yet it is the only hospital in the
+Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was
+no provision for caring for the sick except in their own homes. In
+the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs
+may be obtained, but in the great majority of towns and villages
+no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke,
+of the University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco
+------
+
+
+On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the
+interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived Carlos Inca,
+a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded
+in maintaining a precarious existence in the wilds of the Cordillera
+Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata
+is still preserved one of the most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to
+be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine
+palace, or whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty
+to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a
+merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once a banker, an exporter
+of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of
+every description, including pencils and sugar mills, lumber and hats,
+candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture
+as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas. Furthermore, he
+has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his
+large business to assist our expeditions. He has frequently brought
+us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters
+of introduction, so that our paths were made easy. He has provided us
+with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy
+muleteers, seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases
+of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal,
+just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying clients. As
+a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation
+for the many favors he showed us. So important a factor was he in
+the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully
+remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It
+is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making more exertion
+than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to
+reach the famous "fortress" is by following the course of the little
+Tullumayu, "Feeble Stream," the easternmost of the three canalized
+streams which divide Cuzco into four parts. On its banks one first
+passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the
+remains of an old mill. The stone flume and the adjoining ruins
+are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas,
+but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not
+understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is hardly likely
+that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally,
+careful examination of the flume discloses the presence of lead cement,
+a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive
+megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in
+"Across South America." Here the ancient builders constructed three
+great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile
+across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest terrace of the
+"fortress" is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten
+tons and some weigh more than twenty tons, yet all are fitted together
+with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each
+time it invariably overwhelms and astounds. To a superstitious Indian
+who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been
+built by gods.
+
+About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial
+hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be composed
+entirely of gray-blue rock chips--chips from the great limestone blocks
+quarried here for the "fortress" and later conveyed with the utmost
+pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless
+thousands of quarrymen. Even in modern times, with steam drills,
+explosives, steel tools, and light railways, these hills would
+be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these
+mechanical devices were known to the ancient stonemasons and that
+these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all
+carried from the quarries by hand, it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of
+human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization. That
+thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural
+pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract the blocks
+from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them
+several miles over rough country, and bond them together in such an
+intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability
+to organize and arrange the affairs of a very large population. Such
+a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for
+warfare. Their building operations required infinite pains, endless
+time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called
+forth, even by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing
+to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily
+agriculturists. They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying
+on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It
+seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance with
+their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose
+that a people to whom stone-faced terraces meant so much in the way
+of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of
+Cyclopean character, like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity
+who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more
+likely object for the gigantic labor involved in the construction
+of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally
+strong defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop
+back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in an
+infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of
+individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out
+of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been caused by the
+supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient
+Peruvians were religious rather than warlike, more inclined to worship
+the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire
+to please, at whatever cost, the god that fructified the crops which
+grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors,
+warriors themselves and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting
+race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military
+use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value of its salients
+and reëntrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had
+been only recently acquired by their crusading ancestors. The height
+and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest
+service to the soldiers of that day. They saw that it was virtually
+impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact,
+in the wars of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry
+into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians,
+who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery, did
+not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the
+fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with. So natural did it
+seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress
+that it has seldom been thought of in any other way. The fact that
+the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders
+coming up the valley, or even over the gentle slopes from the west,
+or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been
+used as part of the main highway of the central Andes, never seems
+to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a
+fortress. It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where
+the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season to
+celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for
+the sun's return from his "farthest north." In any case I believe
+that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably
+intended for religious rather than military purposes. It is more
+likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+
+It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north
+of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account of the
+last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+The Last Four Incas
+
+Readers of Prescott's charming classic, "The Conquest of Peru,"
+will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca who
+had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels
+of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the throne of the
+Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young
+prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna Capac, named for the
+first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected
+as the most acceptable figurehead. He was a young man of ability
+and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate
+ceremonies, the barbaric splendor of which only made the farce the
+more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might
+have been foreseen, he chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as
+possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful
+Quichuas. There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized
+by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as "the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world." When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved
+by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance of regaining
+the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to
+Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river Urubamba, Manco made a
+determined stand, but Ollantaytambo was too easily reached by Pizarro's
+mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their
+utmost endeavors by the presence of the magnificent stone edifices,
+fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors,
+found it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and
+made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the fastnesses
+of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position
+practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods,
+was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents, or crossing
+the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than
+the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous for Hannibal and
+Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes
+of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible to follow the Inca Manco
+over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than
+the summit of Mont Blanc. In no part of the Peruvian Andes are there
+so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle
+of Mt. Veronica (elevation 19,342 ft.). Not far away is another
+magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the
+sea. Near Salcantay is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.),
+while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197
+ft.). On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and
+little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some hardy
+prospector or inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached
+only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by
+violent storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part
+of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season the
+difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed
+mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without assistance from
+man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+The conquistador, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account
+of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a "great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts ... and many loads of
+rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy." The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of
+the ruler of a country traveling without rich "treasure." It is
+extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or
+silver. Except for ornament there was little use to which he could
+have put the precious metals and they would have served only to
+arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His people had never been paid
+in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it
+as was needed to raise their own crops and make their own clothing
+was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the
+custom and usage of centuries made them faithful followers of their
+great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him
+beautiful textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken
+for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy the benefits of a delightful climate,
+and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white
+and sweet, and the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions
+easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth
+against the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His
+raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him, with
+a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses,
+cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive rafts,
+and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway
+of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business led them over this
+route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by
+making them realize that in these raids they were taking sweet revenge
+on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting
+to note that Cieza de Leon justifies Manco in his attitude, for the
+Spaniards had indeed "seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave
+his native land, and to live in banishment."
+
+Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using
+it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies, led
+many of the Orejones of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were
+called Orejones, "big ears," by the Spaniards because the lobes of
+their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold
+earrings which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's
+retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in the
+year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess
+and one of the conquistadores. As a small child Garcilasso heard
+of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and
+spent the rest of his life in Spain. After forty years in Europe
+he wrote, partly from memory, his "Royal Commentaries," an account
+of the country of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom
+he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child,
+he speaks apologetically. He says: "In the time of Manco Inca,
+several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but
+still they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let
+them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the
+Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the countrey
+.... The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel;
+and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents of twenty-five and
+thirty feet long, with other venomous insects." (I am quoting from Sir
+Paul Rycaut's translation, published in London in 1688.) Garcilasso
+says Manco's soldiers took only "such food as they found in the hands
+of the Indians; which the Inca did usually call his own," saying,
+"That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge
+such a proportion thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary
+and natural support"--a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt
+whether Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them
+of their "wares and merchandise." As will be seen later, we found
+in Manco's palace some metal articles of European origin which might
+very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should
+be remembered that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott,
+left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were
+largely colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to
+extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised by
+the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers
+at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says the Indians had no
+defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used "lances,
+arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts, and slings, and another weapon
+which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones
+sewn up in leather, and each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They
+throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and
+sometimes they will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same
+way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they
+will bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon,
+however, is the sling .... With it, they will hurl a huge stone with
+such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little
+less great than that of an arquebus; and I have seen a stone, thus
+hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in
+a man's hand at a distance of thirty paces."
+
+Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small
+force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the Inca. Captain
+Villadiego found it impossible to use horses, although he realized
+that cavalry was the "important arm against these Indians." Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious
+to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief reported
+to be traveling surrounded by his family "and with rich treasure,"
+he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in
+the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here, fatigued and
+exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects
+of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found themselves ambushed by
+the Inca, who with a small party, "little more than eighty Indians,"
+"attacked the Christians, who numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and
+killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three." To any
+one who has clambered over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa
+it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or
+that the Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate
+vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force of
+weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth
+century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders, and surrounded
+by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have
+been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas, who could "hurl a huge
+stone with such force that it would kill a horse," to have literally
+stoned to death Captain Villadiego's little company before they could
+have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Urubamba Canyon
+
+A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.
+------
+
+
+The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported their misfortune. The
+importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers
+that the size of the force with which Pizarro conquered Peru was less
+than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's
+company which had been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is
+further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers,
+with all their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only
+"a little more than eighty Indians." Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as
+being several thousand.
+
+Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers
+determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted such a blow on
+the prestige of Spanish arms, "but this attempt also failed," for the
+Inca had withdrawn across the rivers and mountains of Uilcapampa to
+Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers
+with the sight of the heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy,
+the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's
+enemies was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians
+of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their enemies,
+remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face,
+and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as the North American
+Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place
+among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists of central Peru. There were
+no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage
+on the bodies of Captain Villadiego's unfortunate men. Probably the
+conquistadores supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have
+done under similar circumstances.
+
+Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos,
+his brother, Gonzalo, "undertook the pursuit of the Inca and occupied
+some of his passes and bridges," but was unsuccessful in penetrating
+the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy than Captain Villadiego,
+he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue
+the young Inca or prevent his raids on travelers from Cuzco to Lima,
+Francisco Pizarro, "with the assent of the royal officers who were
+with him," established the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point
+on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless,
+according to Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite
+a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, "having taken one of
+Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her,
+and then shot her to death with arrows."
+
+Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are
+not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in 1639 his
+"Coronica Moralizada," or "pious account of the missionary activities
+of the Augustinians" in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed
+by all the Indians who lived in a region extending "for two hundred
+leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces." With customary monastic
+zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha accuses the Inca of
+compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to
+abandon their new faith, torturing those who would no longer worship
+the old Inca "idols." This story need not be taken too literally,
+although undoubtedly the escaped Indians acted as though they had
+never been baptized.
+
+Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa,
+in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen other Spanish
+fugitives, adherents of Almagro, "rascals," says Calancha, "worthy
+of Manco's favor." Obliged by the civil wars of the conquistadores
+to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome
+in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and taught
+the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and
+quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride horseback
+and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and
+occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which, as we shall see,
+was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of
+what was going on in the viceroyalty. Although "encompassed within
+craggy and lofty mountains," the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of
+all those "revolutions" which might be of benefit to him.
+
+Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in
+regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He brought the
+New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to
+alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The New Laws provided, among
+other things, that all the officers of the crown were to renounce
+their repartimientos or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory
+personal service was to be entirely abolished. Repartimientos given
+to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert
+to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave evidence that the
+Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve
+of the Pizarros. This was good news for Manco and highly pleasing
+to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the
+new viceroy, asking permission to appear before him and offer his
+services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by
+this means he might some day recover his empire, "or at least the
+best part of it." Their object in persuading the Inca to send such
+a message to the viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they
+"also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past"
+and permission to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little
+group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from the Inca and
+the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed
+to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left Uilcapampa, presented
+his letters to the viceroy, and gave him "a large relation of the
+State and Condition of the Inca, and of his true and real designs
+to doe him service." "The Vice-king joyfully received the news,
+and granted a full and ample pardon of all crimes, as desired. And
+as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect,
+truly considering that the Interest of the Inca might be advantageous
+to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer
+Gomez Perez returned both to the Inca and to his companions." The
+refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king
+and country. Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic
+accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+"The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them,
+had given directions for making a bowling-green; where playing one day
+with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this
+Perez about the measure of a Cast, which often happened between them;
+for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any
+judgment or understanding, would take the least occasion in the world
+to contend with and provoke the Inca .... Being no longer able to
+endure his rudeness, the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him
+to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat
+and passion either his own safety or the safety of his Companions,
+lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently on
+the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The
+Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their Prince, joined
+together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house,
+and with their Swords in their hands defended the door; the Indians
+set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out
+into the Marketplace, where the Indians assaulted them and shot them
+with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then
+afterwards, out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat
+them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but
+at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast their bodies
+into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air,
+which they supposed to be the highest indignity and dishonour that
+they could show to their Corps." Garcilasso concludes: "I informed
+myself very perfectly from those chiefs and nobles who were present
+and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash
+and hair-brained fool; and heard them tell this story to my mother
+and parents with tears in their eyes." There are many versions of
+the tragedy. [4] They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+
+Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality
+was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young sons, Sayri
+Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not
+yet reached his majority, became Inca in his father's stead, and with
+the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish
+neighbors or being annoyed by them, unless the reference in Montesinos
+to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555,
+is correct. By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to
+the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young
+Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the inaccessible
+wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this
+difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix Coya, an aunt of the
+Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and
+dispatched to Uiticos a messenger, of the blood royal, attended by
+Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down
+and the treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's
+regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver the
+viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was
+quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even though brought
+to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage
+and sent a messenger of their own to Cuzco to see if any foul play
+could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more
+trusted cousin, be sent to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar
+Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter of the
+unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his
+wife's language. Montesinos says he was a "great linguist." They
+started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several
+pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups of gilded silver as
+presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the
+Inca, they traveled as fast as they could to the Chuquichaca bridge,
+"the key to the valley of Uiticos." Here they were detained by the
+soldiers of the regents. A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's
+cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed,
+while the friar and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was
+welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage
+Sayri Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and
+the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of the Inca,
+with the presents which the viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first
+idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done,
+so he requested the ambassadors to depart immediately with their
+silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes
+across the Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra
+had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca
+decided to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate,
+observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but
+according to Garcilasso "made no inquiries of the devil." The omens
+were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca to
+accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly
+to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried by
+relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He
+was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to Cuzco, where
+he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome
+him. "I, myself," says Garcilasso, "went in the name of my Father. I
+found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians .... I
+kissed his hands, and delivered my Message; he commanded me to sit
+down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor,
+made of Mayz [chicha] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink;
+he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me;
+he drank, and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of
+Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why I
+did not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, 'Inca, as I am but a
+Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place me in such
+Ceremonies as these!' 'How,' replied the Inca, 'I would rather have
+seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in Town.' As I was going
+away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of
+the Indians, who are of his Alliance and Kindred, at which he was so
+much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection,
+as appeared by his Countenance."
+
+Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty,
+was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her in baptism,
+and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's
+journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned to Uiticos. His only
+daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more
+anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older,
+Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac
+------
+
+
+The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to
+have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac, and to have
+felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his
+half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa. Their first visitor,
+so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an
+interesting account of Uiticos and says he gave the Inca a pair of
+scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go
+to Cuzco. In time there came an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos
+Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the
+rough country of Uilcapampa, "a land of moderate wealth, large rivers,
+and the usual rains," whose "forested mountains," says Father Calancha,
+"are magnificent." Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were
+down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked up. The few
+Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the
+friar could not get there "unless he should be able to change himself
+into a bird." However, with that courage and pertinacity which have
+marked so many missionary enterprises, Friar Marcos finally overcame
+all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad
+to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find that a
+Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca
+was annoyed to have any one preach against his "idolatries." Titu
+Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree
+with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos built a little church in a place
+called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. "He
+planted crosses in the fields and on the mountains, these being the
+best things to frighten off devils." He "suffered many insults at
+the hands of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some
+of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for
+their vices and abominated among his converts the possession of four
+or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced
+him to send to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack,
+which was for him a most delicious banquet."
+
+Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego
+Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on the
+road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his
+presence in company with Friar Marcos. "Although the Inca was not
+too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an
+entrance because the Inca ... thought Friar Diego would not vex
+him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a
+license. They selected the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days journey from one
+Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego
+went to his new establishment and in a short time built a church,
+a house for himself, and a hospital,--all poor buildings made in a
+short time." He also started a school for children, and became very
+popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time
+than Friar Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician,
+was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as
+follows: "Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of water
+where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped
+by those idolators. This was the principal mochadero of those forested
+mountains. The word 'mochadero' [5] is the common name which the
+Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the
+only place where they practice the sacred ceremony of kissing. The
+origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very
+practice which Job abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all
+offences before God and says to Him: 'Lord, all these punishments and
+even greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the
+blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon shines
+clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward
+the sun and throw kisses to it,' an act of very grave iniquity which
+is equivalent to denying the true God."
+
+Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in
+Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine
+and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient Hebrew
+prophets. Apparently this ceremony "of the most profound resignation
+and reverence" was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos, in
+the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+Calancha goes on to say: "In this white stone of the aforesaid
+House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He
+and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the
+baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses, and many
+of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have
+given them."
+
+One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and
+counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some of their outlying
+estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular
+attack on this particular Devil, who was at the great "white rock
+over a spring of water." The two monks summoned all their converts
+to gather at Puquiura, in the church or the neighboring plaza, and
+asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn
+up this Devil who had tormented them. "An innumerable multitude" came
+together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted
+wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see the result;
+the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians';
+while, as may readily be imagined, the rest of the population came
+to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to "the
+Temple of the Sun, in the village of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos."
+
+Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of
+the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring, the white
+rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then,
+having exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile
+names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and finally
+commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and
+the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. "The poor Devil then fled
+roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble."
+
+It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus
+to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they were
+dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley,
+separated from their friends and far from the protecting hand
+of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an
+insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as soon as the
+Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was
+furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura. The chiefs wished to
+"slay the monks and tear them into small pieces," and undoubtedly
+would have done so had it not been for the regard in which Friar
+Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to
+the Indians that even the Inca himself dared not punish him for the
+attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably
+originated the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the
+Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out of
+the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should
+return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians who came
+from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to
+remain, and finally became a trusted friend and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+
+One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold,
+was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded in getting
+permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too
+successful. Both gold and silver were found among the hills and he
+showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing
+that his reports might encourage others to enter Uilcapampa, put the
+unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations
+of Friar Diego. Foreigners were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi
+to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an
+indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his
+Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth while to make
+every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years
+the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco and the major portion of
+Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians
+who lived in the province of Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather
+in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live
+where he would always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party,
+the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the meantime
+the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who
+was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade Titu Cusi to come to
+Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the
+Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against him. Titu Cusi's illness was
+very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual
+remedies. Unfortunately, all the monk's skill was unavailing and his
+royal patient died. The "remedies" were held by Titu Cusi's mother
+and her counselors to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer
+the penalty of death "for having caused the death of the Inca."
+
+The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of
+the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and now happily
+married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were
+decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty, but, thanks to the
+jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had
+not been that of a soldier. He was destined to have a brief, unhappy
+existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger
+was coming from the viceroy, seven warriors were sent to meet him on
+the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca
+bridge when he was attacked and killed.
+
+The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time
+that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow had been
+struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives
+of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers of the viceroy of
+Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the
+energetic Toledo, surrounded by his council, determined to make war
+on the unfortunate young Tupac Amaru and give a reward to the soldier
+who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that
+"many Insurrections might be raised in that Empire by this young
+Heir." "Moreover it was alledged," says Garcilasso .... "That by the
+Imprisonment of the Inca, all that Treasure might be discovered, which
+appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which
+Huayna Capac commanded to be made for himself to wear on the great
+and solemn days of their Festival"! Furthermore, the "Chain of Gold
+with the remaining Treasure belong'd to his Catholic Majesty by right
+of Conquest"! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way
+of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in case he should cross
+the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly
+been used by his father, Manco, in his marauding expeditions. The other
+company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from
+Cuzco by way of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate
+than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had
+been met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the
+days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending this
+important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the
+Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply
+in the middle and swayed so threateningly over the gorge of the
+Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river
+was too deep to be forded. There were no canoes. It would have been
+a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees
+that grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side
+of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's
+time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had never
+been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son,
+Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters. The chiefs and
+nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy
+the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying on their ability to take
+care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from
+crossing the narrow, swaying structure. General Hurtado was not taking
+any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain
+field pieces, with which the raw troops of the Inca were little
+acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from
+the river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly
+terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before. A
+few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled
+pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was
+sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road "narrow in the
+ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great
+depth." It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to
+pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at the head
+of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain
+named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight of Tupac Amaru,
+sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and
+endeavored to hurl him over the cliff. The captain's life was saved
+by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him,
+carrying his sword. Drawing it from the scabbard "with much dexterity
+and animation," the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in
+capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the Inca had
+"gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to
+the country of the Mañaries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends,
+where balsas and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to
+escape." Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids of
+the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he
+put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself, he descended the
+rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived
+at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of
+their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed
+hard after, although he and his men were by this time barefooted and
+suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso
+says that Tupac Amaru, "considering that he had not People to make
+resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime,
+or disturbance he had done or raised, suffered himself to be taken;
+choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards,
+than to perish in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those
+great Rivers .... The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca,
+and on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him,
+amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went,
+so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor Prince." A
+mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with
+fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was mangled before his eyes. His
+own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His
+little boys did not long survive. So perished the last of the Incas,
+descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+1534. The Inca Manco ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+1536. Manco flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+1542. Promulgation of the "New Laws."
+
+1545. Murder of Manco and accession of his son Sayri Tupac.
+1555. Sayri Tupac goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+1560. Death of Sayri Tupac. His half brother Titu Cusi becomes Inca.
+
+1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+1568-9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in
+Chuquipalpa.
+
+1571. Titu Cusi dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. Tupac Amaru
+becomes Inca.
+
+1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de
+Loyola. Execution of Tupac Amaru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Searching for the Last Inca Capital
+
+The events described in the preceding chapter happened, for the most
+part, in Uiticos [6] and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about
+one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy,
+in what Prescott calls "the remote fastnesses of the Andes." One looks
+in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several of the
+older maps give it. In 1625 "Viticos" is marked on de Laet's map of
+Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima and three hundred
+and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by
+some later cartographers, including Mercator, until about 1740,
+when "Viticos" disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers
+had learned that there was no such place in that vicinity. Its real
+location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at
+Nuremberg in 1599 gives "Pincos" in the "Andes" mountains, a small
+range west of "Cusco." This does not seem to have been adopted by
+other cartographers; although a Palls map of 1739 gives "Picos" in
+about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth
+century who give "Viticos" supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g.,
+"Los Viticos" or "Les Viticos."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains
+------
+
+
+The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer,
+Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing Peru, does not
+contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos,
+Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally, it may seem strange that
+Uiticos could ever be written "Biticos." The Quichua language has
+no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital
+letter U exactly like a capital V. In official documents and letters
+Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard
+the word pronounced, naturally used the V sound instead of the U
+sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and
+Uilcapampa became Vilcabamba.
+
+Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way
+Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before or is likely to do
+again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865
+he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa; yet found no Uiticos. He
+believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of
+the last Incas. This view had been held by the French explorer, Count
+de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned
+when Sayri Tupac, Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's
+view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including
+Paz Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nuñez and his friends in 1909, at
+the time of my visit to Choqquequirau. [7] The only dissenter was the
+learned Peruvian historian, Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the
+last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance
+of searching for Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called
+Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian
+Expedition of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would
+meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the
+Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco, mostly wealthy
+planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One
+told us that he went to Santa Ana every year and was acquainted with
+a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San
+Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity of his countrymen to exaggerate,
+however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his
+shoulders, had crossed the bridge a score of times without taking
+the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Señor Pancorbo, whose
+plantation was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague
+rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was
+likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar Marcos had
+established the first church in the "province of Uilcapampa." But
+that was "near" Uiticos and near a village called Chuquipalpa, where
+should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins
+a "white rock over a spring of water." Yet neither these friendly
+planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of
+Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting rock;
+nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+One of Señor Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who
+had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins "finer than
+Choqquequirau" at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had never been
+to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders
+and did not seem to place much confidence in his word. Too often he
+had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not "pan out." Yet
+his report resembled that of Charles Wiener, a French explorer,
+who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes,
+visited Ollantaytambo. While there he was told that there were fine
+ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called "Huaina-Picchu or
+Matcho-Picchu." He decided to go down the valley and look for these
+ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla,
+descended the Lucumayo River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and
+visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published
+a detailed map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name
+"Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m." and to another "Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m." His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to
+Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find any ruins
+of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope
+to be any more successful? Would the rumors that had reached us "pan
+out" as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since
+his day, to be sure, the Peruvian Government had actually finished
+a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard
+Anthropological Expedition, under the leadership of Dr. William
+C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting
+any ruins of importance. They were looking for savages and not
+ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was "finer than Choqquequirau"
+why had no one pointed it out to them?
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Peruvian Expedition of 1915
+------
+
+
+To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything
+finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded that "cradle
+of gold" as "the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent
+times." They assured us there was nothing half so good. They even
+assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to dig
+for buried treasure! Denials were of no avail. To a people whose
+ancestors made fortunes out of lucky "strikes," and who themselves
+have been brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining
+to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of
+tesoro--treasure, wealth, riches--is an ever-present source of
+conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced
+that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau--and that I was
+in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the
+members of the Expedition received no more than their expenses. He
+told me confidentially that Professor Foote would sell his collection
+of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to
+see any one do scientific work except as he was paid by the government
+or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found
+our work misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco
+Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+
+The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may
+be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route for those going
+to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway,
+past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica (12,000 ft.) the road
+crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the
+last point from which one can see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians,
+whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward
+the east, facing the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I
+believe that the words they use now are those of the "Ave Maria,"
+or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless,
+the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of the first
+Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit
+of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries immediately
+preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca
+himself, that divine individual who was at once the head of Church and
+State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in
+sight of his residence to perform an act of veneration. This in turn
+might have led those leaving the city to fall into the same habit at
+the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass
+this point. None of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or
+mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume,
+which betokened that they considered themselves to be Indians rather
+than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed
+their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed
+the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came at length
+to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great
+level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River by the untiring energy
+of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes
+bear many remains of narrow terraces, some of which are still in
+use. Above them are "temporales," fields of grain, resting like a
+patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could
+be cultivated. Still higher up, their heads above the clouds, are
+the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture,
+rich in contrast, majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca
+Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years
+and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under circumstances
+which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that
+they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the night in Urubamba,
+the modern capital of the province, much favored by Peruvians of
+to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate,
+and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000 feet, is too high to have charming
+surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley,
+there is everything to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. Uru is the
+Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, pampa means flat land. Urubamba
+is "flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars." Had it been named
+by people who came up from a warm region where insects abound, it would
+hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land
+where caterpillars and grubs flourished would have been struck by such
+a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau
+dwellers who were working their way down into a warm region where
+butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated
+caterpillars, Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies,
+and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised
+for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get everything.
+
+The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo,
+described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener, and Squier
+many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's
+drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated. Here, as at
+Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green
+fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them
+are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks. The village
+itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history
+is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of curious gabled buildings,
+storehouses, "prisons," or "monasteries," perched here and there
+on well-nigh inaccessible crags above the village. Below are broad
+terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still
+harvested; terraces which will stand for ages to come as monuments to
+the energy and skill of a bygone race. The "fortress" is on a little
+hill, surrounded by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so
+as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which
+cultivated the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror
+of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As
+centuries passed in which the land came under the control of the Incas,
+whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it
+is likely that this fortress became a royal garden. The six great
+ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and
+placed in line on the summit of the hill, were brought from a quarry
+several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They
+were probably intended to be a record of the magnificence of an able
+ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number
+of men to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an
+inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of the hill;
+he had to supply the men with food. The building of such a monument
+meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his
+people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source of pride. To
+his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa
+------
+
+
+A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch
+ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One
+of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a "granite palace,
+whose appearance [appareil] resembles the more beautiful parts
+of Ollantaytambo," was only a storehouse. The other was probably a
+tampu, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in
+Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under official
+orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal
+property were not understood. No one had anything to sell; no one
+had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an
+elaborate system of tax collecting. Two thirds of the produce raised
+by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It
+was a reasonable provision of the benevolent despotism of the Incas
+that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica
+should be provided with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de
+Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in
+Cuzco in 1560, says that the food of the chasquis, Inca post runners,
+was provided from official storehouses; "those who worked for the
+Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense." In
+Manco's day these buildings at Havaspampa probably sheltered the
+outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from
+Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes, one by way
+of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by
+General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and Wiener in 1875; and
+one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the
+Salcantay River to Huadquiña, followed by the Count de Sartiges in
+1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands
+between Mt. Salcantay and Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the
+villages of Piri and Huadquiña. This region was in 1911 undescribed
+in the geographical literature of southern Peru. We decided not to
+use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It
+led us into a fascinating country.
+
+Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of
+precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass of granite
+mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the
+surrounding highlands which are composed of schists, conglomerates, and
+limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province,
+but it was closed for centuries by the combined efforts of nature and
+man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range,
+forms rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can
+be scaled only with great effort and considerable peril. At one
+time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians,
+by crawling along the face of the cliff and sometimes swinging from
+one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way
+to any of the alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may
+have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in
+various inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow
+ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the
+cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the foundations of an
+old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric
+man had built, at the foot of the precipices, close to the river,
+a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of
+Salapunco; sala = ruins; punco = gateway. Fashioned after famous
+Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large
+ashlars and also by reason of the salients and reëntrant angles which
+enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy,
+Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable him
+to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that
+the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate zone,
+to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage
+enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon. On the other hand,
+it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes occupying the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies
+coming down the valley from the direction of Ollantaytambo. They could
+easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully
+built and constructed with skill. Supplies from the plantations of
+Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path
+which antedated the present government road. Salapunco may have been
+occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however,
+have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely that
+he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to
+hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore, its
+style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic
+structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it seem all the
+more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a
+defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was built by folk who once
+occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay
+------
+
+
+When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been
+reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred to us that,
+in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as
+the Inca Manco had the force and time to build, we were to discover
+remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins
+enough to explain why such a fortress as Salapunco might possibly
+have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco and not those well-known Inca cities against the savages of
+the Amazon jungles.
+
+Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered
+a most interesting region, where we were surprised and charmed by the
+extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence
+of many Inca ruins, the beauty of the deep, narrow valleys, and the
+grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across
+the river, near Qquente, on top of a series of terraces, we saw the
+extensive ruins of Patallacta (pata = height or terrace; llacta =
+town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to
+Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's map, although he
+does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any
+reference to it in the chronicles. We spent several months here in
+1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another
+volume I hope to tell more of the antiquities of this region. At
+present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta
+disclosed no "white rock over a spring of water." None of the place
+names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings,
+their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone roof-pegs,
+bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these
+towns and villages flourished, who built them, why they were deserted,
+we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant,
+or silent, as to their history.
+
+At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate valley, we found
+another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of
+an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured some mummies. The ancient
+wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out
+the vampire bats that lived in the cave. On the opposite side of the
+river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other
+ruins first visited by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One
+of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a
+large surveying instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by
+the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In
+1915 rumors of Andean or "spectacled" bears having been seen here and
+of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led
+us to go and investigate. We found no bears, but at an elevation of
+12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering
+moss not hitherto known to science. Above them I was so fortunate as
+to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians
+first developed many varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish
+potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near
+relative of the coenolestes. It turned out to be new to science. To
+find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted
+Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen bears. [8]
+
+Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba,
+and such a canyon! The river "road" runs recklessly up and down
+rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans
+chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets against granite
+cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices
+permitted it, the land between them and the river was once terraced
+and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable
+wonderland. Emotions came thick and fast. We marveled at the exquisite
+pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips
+of arable land from the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have
+managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge
+of the dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one
+sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built a temple,
+whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot
+of the interesting ruins, unable to ford the intervening rapids. High
+up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple,
+are the ruins of Corihuayrachina (kori = "gold"; huayara = "wind";
+huayrachina = "a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place." Possibly
+this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above us on
+another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the
+jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called "La Maquina,"
+where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the
+presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of a "machine" destined
+never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to
+a sugar estate in the lower valley, and years ago left here to rust in
+the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for
+us to pitch our camp, so we pushed on over the very difficult road,
+which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part
+of the cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in
+the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic bridge
+built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds,
+tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth and pebbles
+to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who
+picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder "the machine" rested
+where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are
+considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we passed
+a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land
+of steep mountains is called a pampa. Were the dwellers on the pampas
+of Argentina--where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight
+line, except for the curvature of the earth--to see this little bit
+of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been
+joking or else grossly misusing a word which means to them illimitable
+space with not a hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in
+this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while
+to build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn
+to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing space
+in the bottom of the canyon is called a pampa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through
+a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the river Urubamba
+on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders
+which interfered with the progress of the surging stream, was a steep
+mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp,
+near the road and yet secluded. Our actions, however, aroused the
+suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the
+lands of Mandor Pampa. He was anxious to know why we did not stay at
+his hut like respectable travelers. Our gendarme, Sergeant Carrasco,
+reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned
+that we were interested in the architectural remains of the Incas, he
+said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity--in fact, some
+excellent ones on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu,
+and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to
+reach. The story of my experiences on the following day will be found
+in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins
+of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of very little importance, while
+those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the "National Geographic
+Magazine," are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on
+a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered if it
+could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo,
+a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring when he said:
+"The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos],
+which is on a very high mountain, whence the view commanded a great
+part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level
+space, with very sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well
+as the ordinary ones, being of marble, elaborately carved." Could
+it be that "Picchu" was the modern variant of "Pitcos"? To be sure,
+the white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu
+are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty about
+fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there
+was no difference between the lintels of the doors and the walls
+themselves. Furthermore, there is no "white rock over a spring of
+water" which Calancha says was "near Uiticos." There is no Pucyura
+in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not
+satisfy the geographical requirements of Uiticos. Although containing
+ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that
+last Inca capital for which we were searching. We had not yet found
+Manco's palace.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Search Continued
+
+Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the
+tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below the ruins, both
+Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in
+the flora and fauna. From the point of view of historical geography,
+Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of huilca,
+a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries
+tell us huilca is a "medicine, a purgative." An infusion made from
+the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in
+which it is also shown that from seeds of the huilca a powder is
+prepared, sometimes called cohoba. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a
+narcotic snuff "inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated
+tube." "All writers unite in declaring that it induced a kind of
+intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were
+regarded by the natives as supernatural. While under its influence
+the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication
+with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as
+prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the
+physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the
+person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched." Mr. Safford quotes
+Las Casas as saying: "It was an interesting spectacle to witness how
+they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and
+while he was engaged all remained silent .... When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with
+his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then
+he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must
+have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God;
+after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this
+they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said
+to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and
+begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them
+his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born,
+or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors,
+and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed
+with that intoxication." [9]
+
+Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place
+where huilca was first found and used in their incantations would be
+important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name of
+this river was Uilca-mayu: the "huilca river." The pampa on this river
+where the trees grew would likely receive the name Uilca pampa. If it
+became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named
+Uilcapampa after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin
+of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact that
+denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search
+of this highly prized narcotic, must have found the first trees not
+far from Machu Picchu.
+
+Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now
+pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of San Miguel,
+passed the house of Señor Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to
+write his name on the granite walls of Machu Picchu, and came to the
+sugar-cane fields of Huadquiña. We had now left the temperate zone
+and entered the tropics.
+
+At Huadquiña we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of
+the plantation, Señora Carmen Vargas, and her children, were spending
+the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco,
+but when summer brings fine weather they come to Huadquiña to enjoy
+the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not
+only with that hospitality to passing travelers which is common
+to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance
+in our explorations. Señora Carmen's estate covers more than
+two hundred square miles. Huadquiña is a splendid example of the
+ancient patriarchal system. The Indians who come from other parts of
+Peru to work on the plantation enjoy perquisites and wages unknown
+elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Señora Carmen with
+an affectionate reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to
+bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted
+in encomienda to the lords of the repartimiento or allotted territory.
+
+Huadquiña once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar
+cane and established the mill. After their expulsion from the Spanish
+colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadquiña was bought
+by a Peruvian. It was first described in geographical literature by
+the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when
+on his way to Choqquequirau. He says that the owner of Huadquiña "is
+perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses
+on his estates all the products of the four parts of the globe. In
+the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair,
+potatoes, wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, coca, many mines of
+silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold." Truly a royal principality.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huadquiña
+------
+
+
+Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was
+an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca ruins,
+he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadquiña
+one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without crossing
+the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts
+in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind hosts in 1911. They
+scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty and extent of
+the Inca edifices. [10] When my photographs were developed, however,
+and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the
+principal temples, Señora Carmen and her family were struck dumb
+with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was
+possible that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every
+year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest
+of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower of no great
+interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge
+of San Miguel, had reported the presence of the ruins which he first
+visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little
+attention to his stories. We were soon to have a demonstration of
+the causes of such skepticism.
+
+Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of
+Calaucha's "Chronicle" which referred to the location of the last Inca
+capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of
+which they had never heard, they ordered the most intelligent tenants
+on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all
+was a sturdy mestizo, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little
+valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there
+were "important ruins" which had been seen by some of Señora Carmen's
+Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement that on
+a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi (yurak =
+"white"; rumi = "stone") where some very interesting ruins had been
+found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from
+Calancha's "Chronicle" was the statement that "close to Uiticos" is the
+"white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak
+Rumi." Our hosts assured us that this must be the place, since no
+one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman,
+on being closely questioned, said that he had seen the ruins once or
+twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great
+ruins at Ollantaytambo, and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi
+were "as good as those at Ollantaytambo." Here was a definite statement
+made by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting
+rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman said that
+the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of
+Indians could open it in less than a week. Our hosts, excited by the
+pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that
+even finer ruins might be found on their own property, immediately
+gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+While this was being done, Señora Carmen's son, the manager of the
+plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu, where other
+"important ruins" had been found, which could be reached in a few
+hours without cutting any new trails. Acting on his assurance that we
+should not need tent or cots, we left our camping outfit behind and
+followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We
+found Ccllumayu to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely
+wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of
+the Indian tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into
+the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in
+vain for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadquiña, but
+Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched
+hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat cuys (guinea pigs), the
+chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough
+wattles which admitted plenty of fresh air and gave us comfortable
+ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles,
+constructed for the needs of short, stocky Indians, kept us from
+being overrun by inquisitive cuys, but could hardly be called as
+comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadquiña.
+
+The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few
+piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts which
+probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric
+times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins, "important"
+or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was
+our first disillusionment.
+
+On our return to Huadquiña, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi
+would be ready "in a day or two." In the meantime our hosts became much
+interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. They brought
+an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded
+by high walls in a secluded place back of the house was "a great
+place for spiders." We found that their statement was not exaggerated
+and immediately engaged in an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these
+Huadquiña spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative
+Zoölogy, Dr. Chamberlain found among them the representatives of four
+new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a
+reward of merit, he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well
+ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead from measurements
+and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+------
+
+
+Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with
+feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the foreman
+to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were
+"better than those of Ollantaytambo." It was to be presumed that in the
+pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it
+never entered my head what I was actually to find. After several hours
+spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the
+walls I learned that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single
+little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in
+clay. The building was without a doorway, although it had several small
+windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels
+of the windows and of the small apertures leading into the subterranean
+shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side
+or on the ends, but there were four on the south side through which
+it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize,
+potatoes, or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It
+will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of
+public storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also
+at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on top of
+the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadquiña valleys, probably on an
+ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa. As such it was
+interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had
+done, was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It
+seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places could
+have thought for a moment that one was "as good as the other." To be
+sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and his interest in Inca
+buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo
+are so well known and so impressive that even the most casual traveler
+is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud
+of them. The real cause of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his
+desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner
+is a common trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the
+world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on
+us. We now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding
+Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never
+elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation on the part
+of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were
+interested in visiting the remains of Inca civilization. They knew
+only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and
+their inability to report facts accurately.
+
+Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to
+Señora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani and
+proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the
+road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where the Urubamba
+is joined by the Vilcabamba River. [11] Both rivers are restricted
+here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on
+their way to the lower valley. A few rods from Chauillay was a fine
+bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded
+the old suspension bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with
+its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet
+here it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy,
+Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado and
+Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend
+Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief preliminary fire
+the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the
+bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled to accomplish that which
+had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of
+the surroundings showed that Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de
+Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge
+of Chuquichaca "was a measure of no small importance for the royal
+force." It certainly would have caused the Spaniards "great trouble"
+if they had had to rebuild it.
+
+We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba
+had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the plantation of
+Santa Ana, Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man
+in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice of
+prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca,
+we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders through a
+broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed
+groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of green sugar cane, the
+hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians
+fortunate enough to dwell in this tropical "Garden of Eden." The day
+was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees
+loaded with ripe fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me
+ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver real she dragged out
+a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her
+to permit us to take only as many as our pockets could hold; but she
+seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine
+steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town of
+Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with
+well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is one of the
+principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the
+high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was the scene of unusual
+activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond
+it, we came to the long colonnades of the celebrated sugar estate of
+Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed
+this way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He
+says that he was received here "with a thousand signs of friendship"
+("mille témoignages d'amitié"). We were received the same way. Even
+in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from
+government officials and generous hospitality from private individuals,
+our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible
+information about the little-known region into which we proposed
+to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was
+a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested, not only in the
+administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in
+the intellectual movements of the outside world. He entered with zest
+into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new
+to him, but after reading over with us our extracts from the Spanish
+chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he
+did. Santa Ana is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator;
+the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the "winter" nights are cool;
+but the heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless,
+our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at
+the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the towns and
+valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was
+not much. They all agreed that "if only Señor Lopez Torres were alive
+he could have been of great service" to us, as "he had prospected
+for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had
+once seen some Inca ruins in the forest!" Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa
+and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don
+Pedro's friends had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging,
+until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa
+Ana another friend of Don Pedro's, the teniente gobernador of the
+village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba--a crusty old fellow
+named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo, had been a
+member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched
+for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and had left their names on
+its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried
+treasure, but he was totally unable otherwise to comprehend our desire
+to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the
+contemporaries of Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma
+he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was
+the sub-prefect of the province of Convención, lived at Quillabamba
+near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had
+received orders from his own official superior, the prefect of Cuzco,
+to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave
+particular orders to Mogrovejo to see to it that we were given every
+facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places
+of historic interest. Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin
+in the savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders
+faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa
+Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and charming
+conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma,
+taking the road on the southwest side of the Urubamba and using
+the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious
+cargoes of coca and aguardiente from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start;
+not one of those meant-to-be-early but really late-in-the-morning
+departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested,
+had long since been cleared, and was now covered with bushes and
+second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of
+land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging rocks. As a boy
+in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting
+those beautiful and fascinating mollusks, which usually prefer the
+trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of
+gathering a large number of such as could easily be secured. None of
+the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting
+period. Some weeks later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras
+and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in
+color, on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They
+were fairly "glued to their resting places"; clustered so closely in
+some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So
+far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer had
+preceded us--the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the
+Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence here of
+mines and minerals, but with the exception of an "abandoned tampu"
+at Maracnyoc ("the place which possesses a millstone"), he makes no
+mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed from the story
+of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that
+we were now entering the valley of Uiticos, it was with feel-hags of
+considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem
+strange that we should have been in any doubt. Yet before our visit
+nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos
+Romero still believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he
+took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word choqquequirau means "cradle of gold" and this lent color to the
+legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new
+capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had "retired to Uilcapampa,"
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and
+saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau was
+Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the
+requirements of Calancha that it was "two or three days' journey"
+from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+
+A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner
+of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack animals to
+travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face
+of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces the cliffs in
+a series of little tunnels. My gendarme missed this road and took
+the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of
+Captain Garcia's expedition, "the road was narrow in the ascent with
+forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth." We
+reached Paltaybamba about dusk. The owner, Señor José S. Pancorbo,
+was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles
+of the river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the
+best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was
+the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Señor Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we
+should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo to be
+on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the
+plantation and his friends that evening. They had heard little of
+any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had
+heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere in the montaña there was
+"an Inca city." All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach;
+and none of them had ever been there. In the morning the manager gave
+us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man
+at that house should relay us to the next, and so on. These people,
+all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders,
+although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There
+are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle and dark
+green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of
+waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the road is very winding, and
+the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must
+be like in February, the rainy season, we could only surmise. About
+two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi
+"Maracnyoc," an "abandoned tampu," we came to some old stone walls,
+the ruins of a place now called Huayara or "Hoyara." I believe them to
+be the ruins of the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place
+referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's
+army were "brought back to the valley of Hoyara," where they were
+"settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+.... This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with
+an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were taken for
+the service of the city, the water being very good." The water here
+is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco Basin. On the plain
+near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation
+of Paltaybamba. "Hoyara" was abandoned after the discovery of gold
+mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish "city"
+was moved to the village now called Vilcabamba.
+
+Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of Teniente Gobernador
+Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty
+thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount of prosperity due to
+the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior,
+the pass to the rubber estates in the San Miguel Valley. Here are
+"houses of refreshment" and two shops, the only ones in the region. One
+can buy cotton cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque
+belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the
+slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of agriculture.
+
+There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed
+to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived on the little plaza
+around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He
+had just returned from Santa Ana by the way of Idma, using a much
+worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled
+him to avoid passing through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he
+was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had
+happened to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly
+reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+We offered to pay Mogrovejo a gratificación of a sol, or Peruvian
+silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double
+that amount if the locality should prove to contain particularly
+interesting ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He
+summoned his alcaldes and other well-informed Indians to appear and be
+interviewed. They told us there were "many ruins" hereabouts! Being
+a practical man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in
+ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled
+vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of Quillabamba. So
+he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back
+of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower Vilcabamba. On
+all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places
+they were covered with forest growth, chiefly above the cloud line,
+where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on
+the more gentle slopes recent clearings gave evidence of enterprise
+on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's
+climb we reached what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures,
+on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the
+opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia speak of a
+number of forts or pucarás which had to be stormed and captured before
+Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those
+"fortresses." Its strategic position and the ease with which it could
+be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit the "fortress of Pitcos," nor the "House of the Sun"
+near the "white rock over the spring." It is called Incahuaracana,
+"the place where the Inca shoots with a sling."
+
+Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices--one of two
+rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not
+particularly well built and resemble in many respects the ruins at
+Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows,
+although each has three front doors and is lined with niches, four
+or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three
+rooms, and had several front doors. A force of two hundred Indian
+soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon
+had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated hill,
+its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes,
+its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name of the hill was
+"Rosaspata," a word of modern hybrid origin--pata being Quichua for
+"hill," while rosas is the Spanish word for "roses." Mogrovejo said
+his Indians told him that on the "Hill of Roses" there were more ruins.
+
+At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of
+Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a "wretched hamlet
+with a paltry chapel." To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large
+public school here, to which children come from villages many miles
+away. So crowded is the school that in fine weather the children
+sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls
+wear high boots. I once saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I
+doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of
+the first school in this whole region. For it was to "Puquiura" that
+Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the "mezquina capilla"
+which Raimondi scorned. If this were the "Puquiura" of Friar Marcos,
+then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with
+their famous procession of converts from "Puquiura" to the House of
+the Sun and the "white rock" which was "close to Uiticos."
+
+Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came
+immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish
+crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing quartz on a
+considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo,
+who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended masses said by his friend
+Friar Diego in a chapel which is "near my houses and on my own lands,
+in the mining district of Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of
+Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley
+------
+
+
+One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot
+thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite, hollowed
+out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a
+hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian mortar and pestle,
+heavy enough to need the services of four men to work it. The mortar
+was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected
+a few inches above the surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet
+in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from
+time immemorial by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or
+potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged
+to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the
+southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo to an
+old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the
+south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa, or Inca
+pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia
+and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single house, 166 feet
+long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since
+disappeared. There were six doorways in front, none on the ends or
+in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near
+Lucma. The walls had originally been built of rough stones laid in
+clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all
+at one end of the structure, were irregular, about two feet in width
+and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building
+which was still standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred
+Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and
+followed a path along its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing
+some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found
+myself on a pleasant pampa near the top of the mountain. The view
+from here commands "a great part of the province of Uilcapampa." It
+is remarkably extensive on all sides; to the north and south are
+snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+Furthermore, on the north side of the pampa is an extensive level
+space with a very sumptuous and majestic building "erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as
+the ordinary ones," being of white granite elaborately cut. At last
+we had found a place which seemed to meet most of the requirements
+of Ocampo's description of the "fortress of Pitcos." To be sure it
+was not of "marble," and the lintels of the doors were not "carved,"
+in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully finished,
+as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might
+easily pass for marble. If only we could find in this vicinity that
+Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was "near" Uiticos, all doubts
+would be at an end.
+
+That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of
+Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings when in
+response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring
+valley there was a great white rock over a spring of water! If his
+story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It
+behooved us to make a very careful study of what we had found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun
+
+When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of
+the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied the supreme
+power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension
+to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru. Captain Garcia
+earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the "mañana habit"
+was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain
+filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's Royal Council of
+the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the
+campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this he says: "and having arrived
+at the principal fortress, Guay-napucará ["the young fortress"],
+which the Incas had fortified, we found it defended by the Prince
+Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains
+and soldiers. It is on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and
+jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the
+fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger. Thus
+we gained the province of Uilcapampa." The viceroy himself says this
+important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill and courage in
+storming the heights of Guaynapucará, "on Saint John the Baptist's day,
+in 1572."
+
+The "Hill of Roses" is indeed "a high eminence surrounded with rugged
+crags." The side of easiest approach is protected by a splendid, long
+wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active
+besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa could have furnished a contingent
+to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on
+all sides, and it would have been extremely easy for a small force
+to have defended it. It was undoubtedly "almost impregnable." This
+was the feature Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed
+compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged so as to
+form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The
+outside dimensions of the compound are about 160 feet by 145 feet. The
+builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging
+the houses, Due to the wanton destruction of many buildings by the
+natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so
+pulled down that it is impossible to get the exact dimensions of the
+buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been
+any niches.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention
+of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains of this
+building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a
+fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from Cuzco. It is 245 feet by
+43 feet. There were no windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways,
+fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms,
+besides three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built
+rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not,
+to be sure, of "marble" as Ocampo said--there is no marble in the
+province--but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels
+of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary ones, are
+also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as
+eight feet in length. The doorways are better than any other ruins in
+Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention
+of them made by Ocampo, who lived near here and had time to become
+thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very
+small portion of the edifice was still standing. Most of the rear
+doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous
+fence. Other walls had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out
+of the cultivated pampa. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it
+on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops
+and sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin
+of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide, containing doors
+on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It
+was probably a barracks for a company of soldiers.
+
+The intervening "pampa" might have been the scene of those games
+of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who
+fled from the wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca
+Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca
+whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number of iron articles of
+European origin, heavily rusted--horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of
+scissors, several bridle or saddle ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My
+first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one
+time, although the necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill
+would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In
+the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to make raids
+on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily
+have brought back with him a Spanish bridle. In the second place the
+musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have
+enjoyed whiling away their exile with melancholy twanging. In the
+third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish
+market in Cuzco, where there would have been displayed at times a
+considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally
+Rodriguez de Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he
+brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European
+artifacts has been turned up in the excavations of other important
+sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they
+were abandoned before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by
+natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was
+occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the palace of the
+last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri
+Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is astonishing how few details we have
+by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries
+are strangely silent. When he left Cuzco and sought refuge "in the
+remote fastnesses of the Andes," there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza
+de Leon, in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and
+hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;--Manco
+had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had
+"retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in the most retired
+part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes." [12]
+The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco
+may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we can learn they
+left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+
+Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos
+and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers, are fully
+described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that
+"close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa, is a House of the
+Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water." Our guide had
+told us there was such a place close to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+On the day after making the first studies of the "Hill of Roses," I
+followed the impatient Mogrovejo--whose object was not to study ruins
+but to earn dollars for finding them--and went over the hill on its
+northeast side to the Valley of Los Andenes ("the Terraces"). Here,
+sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top,
+which had a carved seat or platform on its northern side. Its west
+side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been
+walled in on one side. When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there
+was a manantial de agua ("spring of water") near by, I became greatly
+interested. On investigation, however, the" spring" turned out to
+be nothing but part of a small irrigating ditch. (Manantial means
+"spring"; it also means "running water"). But the rock was not "over
+the water." Although this was undoubtedly one of those huacas, or
+sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations
+of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important accessory to
+ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi
+------
+
+
+Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly had been the house
+of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a
+large number of very handsomely built agricultural terraces, the first
+we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in
+the valley. So scarce are andenes in this region and so noteworthy were
+these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were
+probably built under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of
+carved boulders, huacas. One had an intihuatana, or sundial nubbin,
+on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we
+followed a trickling stream through thick woods until we suddenly
+arrived at an open place called ñusta Isppana. Here before us was a
+great white rock over a spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath
+the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly
+enclosing the gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a
+small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name
+of this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this
+remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every side. There was
+not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal
+place for practicing the mystic ceremonies of an ancient cult. The
+remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its
+shadow had caused this to become a place of worship. Here, without
+doubt, was "the principal mochadero of those forested mountains." It is
+still venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found
+the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests faced the
+east, greeted the rising sun, "extended their hands toward it," and
+"threw kisses to it," "a ceremony of the most profound resignation and
+reverence." We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent
+robes of office, standing on the top of the rock at the edge of
+its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the
+early morning, awaiting the moment when the Great Divinity should
+appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it
+rose they saluted it and cried: "O Sun! Thou who art in peace and
+safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health
+and safety. O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu,
+grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it
+is for this that thou hast created them."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana Formerly
+Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos
+------
+
+
+It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched
+over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying a stick of
+firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine
+thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself in the water. Since
+the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect
+the sky, but only the overhanging, dark, mossy rock, the water looks
+black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to
+believe that simple-minded Indian worshipers in this secluded spot
+could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing
+"as a visible manifestation" in the water. Indians came from the most
+sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship here and to offer
+gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised
+the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, and piled firewood
+all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him
+by all the vile names they could think of, the friars commanded him
+never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple,
+scorched the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and
+causing the poor Devil to flee, "roaring in a fury." "The cruel Devil
+never more returned to the rock nor to this district." Whether the
+roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or of the flames we
+can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up
+the swamp or interfered with the arrangements of the water supply so
+that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no
+chance to appear in the water, where he had formerly been accustomed
+to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state,
+but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well preserved
+notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is
+fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height above the present
+level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are
+seats and large steps or platforms. It was customary to kill llamas at
+these holy huacas. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may
+have been used for such sacrifices. From it runs a little crack in
+the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been
+intended to carry off the blood of the victim killed on top of the
+rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which
+are quietly practiced here by the more superstitious Indian women of
+the valley, possibly in memory of the ñusta or Inca princess for whom
+the shrine is named.
+
+On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four
+or five small seats which have been cut in the rock. Great care was
+exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly
+square, level, and straight. The east side of the rock projects
+over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the
+water. On the north side there are no seats. Near the water, steps
+have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven
+steps. Above them the rock has been flattened artificially and carved
+into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones,
+like those usually called intihuatana or "places to which the sun
+is tied." In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six
+others. The other three are arranged in a triangular position above
+the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast
+face of the rock, where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause
+striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock
+------
+
+
+Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of
+very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running water under
+the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained
+the swamp which adjoins the great rock on its northeastern side, we
+found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the
+water ran through the dark pool. We also found that what looked like
+a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the
+top of the back of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The
+platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the
+seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock. Since the
+pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used
+only by priests or sorcerers. It would have been a splendid place to
+practice divination. No doubt the devils "roared."
+
+All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have
+failed to disclose the presence of any other "white rock over a
+spring of water" surrounded by the ruins of a possible "House of
+the Sun." Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the following
+conclusions: First, ñusta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father
+Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers
+as Chuquipalpa. Second, Uiticos, "close to" this shrine, was once
+the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and
+Lucma. This is the "Viticos" of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco,
+who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that "having reached
+Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from various
+parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca,
+established himself in the strongest place he could find, whence he
+sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those
+parts which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards,
+whom he considered as cruel enemies." Third, the "strongest place"
+of Cieza, the Guaynapucará of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by
+Ocampo as "the fortress of Pitcos," where, he says, "there was a level
+space with majestic buildings," the most noteworthy feature of which
+was that they had two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone
+lintels. Fourth, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the
+river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although
+he was disappointed in the insignificance of the "wretched little
+village." The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca,
+which has already been noted, the distance from the "House of the Sun,"
+not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura
+near the fortress, all point to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured
+permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary station
+in Uilcapampa, selected "the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from
+one convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar
+Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a
+church." There is no "Huarancalla" to-day, nor any tradition of any,
+but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000
+feet, in the temperate zone where the crops with which the Incas
+were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and
+alpacas could have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The
+valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and
+villages. Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey
+from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region
+now use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by
+Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows into the
+Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is
+the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros, which Mr. Hay and I
+crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was
+founded by Pizarro, a day's journey from this bridge. The necessity
+for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point
+made it easy for Manco's foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden
+marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque,
+which is probably the "Huarancalla" of Calancha's "Chronicles." He
+must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and
+Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac and its
+magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two
+miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable snow fields and
+glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, even though
+they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are
+completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been known even in recent
+years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding
+not only security from his Spanish enemies, but any climate that he
+desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to
+be no reason to doubt that the retired region around the modern town
+of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Vilcabamba
+
+Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos
+by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of
+the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not mention
+Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father
+Calancha says it was a very large area, "covering fourteen degrees of
+longitude," about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage
+tribes "of the far interior" who acknowledged the supremacy of the
+Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. "The Mañaries and
+the Pilcosones came a hundred and two hundred leagues" to visit the
+Inca in Uiticos.
+
+The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi
+says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha says it
+was "two days' journey from Puquiura." Raimondi thought it must be
+Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however, speak of it as
+being down in the warm valleys of the montaña, the present rubber
+country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on
+the maps of Peru is near the source of the Vilcabamba River, not more
+than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+
+We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750
+feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba has
+threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they
+were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually heavy thatch,
+seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the gobernador,
+Manuel Condoré. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been
+most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+The gobernador said that the reason the town was deserted was that most
+of the people were now attending to their chacras, or little farms,
+and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring
+valleys. He said that only at special festival times, such as the
+annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here,
+once a year, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part
+of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was
+transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name, Condoré
+said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as
+such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru. The solidity of
+the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The
+present air of desolation and absence of population is probably due
+to the decay of that industry.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building,
+is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells. Condoré
+said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It
+is probably the very structure whose construction was carefully
+supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move
+the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria from Hoyara to the
+neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers,
+went to Cuzco as agent of the interested parties, to take the matter
+up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+"The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our
+Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal fifths,
+as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having
+examined the capitulations and reasons, the said Don Luis de Velasco
+[the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is
+now founded, ordering that it should have the title and name of the
+city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its
+first name. By this change of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo,
+performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my
+care, industry and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its
+principal chapel and great doors." We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and
+the whole to show considerable "industry and solicitude."
+
+The site was called "Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered
+this land found the flocks and herds." Modern Vilcabamba is on grassy
+slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes
+potatoes are still raised, although the valley itself is given up
+to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and
+sheep in abundance where the Incas must have pastured their llamas
+and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines
+begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that this was Onccoy,
+although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+We met at the gobernador's an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had
+once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we
+interviewed through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the
+region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied
+having heard of "Uiticos" or any of its variations. If we were indeed
+in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar
+with that name?
+
+Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands
+have now for so many generations been neglected by their rulers
+and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can
+purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine they can secure, through
+the constant chewing of coca leaves, that they have lost much if not
+all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated mestizos of the
+principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only
+from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but also from the blood
+of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of
+the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve the remains of the wonderful
+civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba
+was an unknown land to most of the Peruvians, even those who live in
+the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four Incas been in a
+region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources
+were sufficient to support a large population, and whose roads made
+transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes,
+it would have been occupied from the days of Captain Garcia to the
+present by Spanish-speaking mestizos, who might have been interested
+in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions
+connected with it.
+
+After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends "petered
+out," or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that
+remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura with Cuzco and
+civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably
+impassable during a large part of the year even to people accustomed
+to Andean "roads."
+
+The possibility of raising sugar cane and coca between Huadquiña and
+Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower
+Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding the difficult transportation over
+the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing
+to lead any one to visit the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire
+to make it a place of residence. And until Señor Pancorbo opened
+the road to Lucma, Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine
+generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa
+between the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern
+explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the "Hill of
+Roses" in the days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into
+ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who
+once lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The
+Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any
+interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the renaissance of
+historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that
+it occurred to any one to look for Manco's capital. When Raimondi,
+the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one
+thought to tell him that on the hilltop opposite the village once
+lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were
+still there, hidden underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of "San Francisco
+de la Victoria de Vilcabamba" was in the "valley of Viticos." The
+town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which
+flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so marked on Raimondi's
+map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland
+pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin, would also
+seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been
+abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is difficult to believe that
+if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca
+times to the present we should not have found at least a few of the
+indigenous American camels here. By itself, such an occurrence would
+hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of
+traditions regarding Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there
+must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of
+consequence lived in this vicinity.
+
+We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining
+operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to at least
+a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of
+ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles, chicken pox,
+and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction
+of a large proportion of those unfortunates whose untimely deaths
+were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the
+early Spanish miners and treasure seekers. Both causes undoubtedly
+contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the
+population diminished enormously in early colonial days. If this is
+true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions
+where the conditions of existence and human intercourse were less
+severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier, are of
+the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru
+and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time of the Conquest. In
+other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent
+disappearance of bad living conditions and forced labor at the mines,
+also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and
+the more comfortable conditions of existence which have followed the
+coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the
+number of highland Indians has increased. With this increase has come
+a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural
+tendency to seek less crowded regions, even at the expense of using
+difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote
+and inaccessible a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It
+is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the
+demand for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by
+the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years when
+no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian
+shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma. The adobe houses of
+these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built
+in the nineteenth century.
+
+Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information
+prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had been privileged
+to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers
+Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that Choqquequirau, the only ruins
+reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the
+capital of the Incas who took refuge there. It also makes it seem
+more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and ñusta Isppana
+should not have been known to Peruvian geographers and historians,
+or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite
+apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were called
+Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century
+shows that there may have been three places bearing that name;
+one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), another
+also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded by the Spaniards,
+namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in
+Calancha's account of the trials and tribulations of Friar Marcos
+and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with
+considerable detail of their visit to "Vilcabamba Viejo." It was
+after the monks had already founded their religious establishment
+at Puquiura that they learned of the existence of this important
+religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit
+it. For a long time he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to
+them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them
+to continue their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their
+importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the
+journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied the two
+friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them
+from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road. The Inca, however,
+did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the
+Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably along in a litter by
+servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were
+obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail soon demoralized their
+footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road,
+"Ungacacha," the trail went for some distance through water. The
+monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their
+monastic garments while passing through the water. However, the monks
+persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, "on account of its
+being the largest city in which was the University of Idolatry, where
+lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination." If
+one may judge by the name of the place, Uilcapampa, the wizards and
+sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient
+snuff made from huilca seeds. After a three days' journey over very
+rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then
+Titu Cusi was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered
+that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might not
+witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the
+Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+Nothing is said about the appearance of "Vilcabamba Viejo" and it
+is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the city,
+although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks
+and kept up their preaching and teaching. During their stay Titu Cusi,
+who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying
+them in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break
+their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation with
+his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most
+beautiful Indian women, including some individuals of the Yungas who
+were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived
+at the "University of Idolatry" in "Vilcabamba Viejo," were "Virgins of
+the Sun," who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests
+and were selected from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is
+also evident that "Vilcabamba Viejo" was so constructed that the
+monks could be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being
+able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+"abominations" which were practiced there, as they did those at the
+white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it is possible
+that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as "Vilcabamba
+Viejo," was on the slopes of the mountain now called Machu Picchu.
+
+In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins
+of Vilcabamba called "the old" by Ocampo, to distinguish it from
+the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after
+the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely as Vilcabamba by
+Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Conservidayoc
+
+When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places
+mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point
+to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told us that in 1902 Lopez
+Torres, who had traveled much in the montaña looking for rubber trees,
+reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don
+Pedro's friends assured us that Conservidayoc was a terrible place
+to reach. "No one now living had been there." "It was inhabited by
+savage Indians who would not let strangers enter their villages."
+
+When we reached Paltaybamba, Señor Pancorbo's manager confirmed what
+we had heard. He said further that an individual named Saavedra lived
+at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was
+very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's house was extremely
+difficult to find. "No one had been there recently and returned
+alive." Opinions differed as to how far away it was.
+
+Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins
+near Rosaspata, Señor Pancorbo, returning from his rubber estate in
+the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by,
+took great pains to find us and see how we were progressing. When he
+learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc,
+he asked us to desist from the attempt. He said Saavedra was "a very
+powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in
+grand state, with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being
+visited by anybody." The Indians were "of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile
+to strangers." Admitting that he had heard there were Inca ruins near
+Saavedra's station, Señor Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our
+lives by going to look for them.
+
+By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar
+with the current stories regarding the habits of savage tribes who
+lived in the montaña and whose services were in great demand as rubber
+gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like
+to work for Señor Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man,
+anxious to achieve many things, results which required more laborers
+than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might
+possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had escaped from the rubber
+estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Señor Pancorbo's own life would
+have been at the mercy of their poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon
+Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited
+with impunity by the explorers of the nineteenth century to become so
+savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all its aspects. We
+finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports
+regarding the presence of Inca ruins at Conservidayoc we could not
+afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least
+make an effort to reach them, meanwhile taking every precaution to
+avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage
+retainers.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River
+------
+
+
+On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the
+gobernador, Condoré, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had
+summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a
+very picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly
+reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry
+was in progress. He took off his hat--but not his knitted cap--and
+endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about
+the surrounding country. It was he who said that the Inca Tupac
+Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa
+Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins in the montaña near
+Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condoré. Several had
+heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently, none of them,
+nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited
+their immediate vicinity. They all agreed that Saavedra's place was
+"at least four days' hard journey on foot in the montaña beyond
+Pampaconas." No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru,
+although it is frequently mentioned in the documents of the sixteenth
+century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with
+Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place called
+Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere
+down in the dense forests of the montaña and presented him with a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts--products of a warm region.
+
+We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map
+which covered this locality. We also had the new map of South Peru and
+North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical
+Society and gave a summary of all available information. The
+Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from
+Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's map all of the rivers which rise in
+the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac
+and flow southwest. We wondered whether the stories about ruins at
+Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those
+we had heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadquiña. One of our
+informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the "Pampa
+of Ghosts." Would the ruins turn out to be "ghosts"? Would they vanish
+on the arrival of white men with cameras and steel measuring tapes?
+
+No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at
+the village of Pampaconas, "about five leagues from here," there
+were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies
+were getting low. There were no shops nearer than Lucma; no food
+was obtainable from the natives. Accordingly, notwithstanding the
+protestations of the hospitable gobernador, we decided to start
+immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor
+Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening meal and we
+were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of
+our favorite beverage. Several years ago, when traveling on muleback
+across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value
+of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant and bracer in the high Andes. At
+first astonished to see how much tea the Indian arrieros drank, I
+learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water,
+which often brings on mountain-sickness. This particular evening,
+one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most
+horrible stuff imaginable. Examination showed small, oily particles
+floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery
+that one of our arrieros had that day placed our can of kerosene on
+top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had
+dripped down into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had
+eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to
+throw away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works
+in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more one
+seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching
+our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical investigations
+to stray far up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the
+boundaries of known topography, headed for "Conservidayoc," a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said
+to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the
+gobernador told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers
+whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules could
+not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating
+the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to be extremely
+alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two gendarmes who were
+now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few
+hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our pack train until dusk. The
+gobernador said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any
+brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this
+was due in part to that love of freedom which had led them to abandon
+the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords
+could not call on them for forced labor. Consequently, before the
+arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as
+our gendarmes, the gobernador and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to
+put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen
+sturdy Indians. Their methods will be described presently.
+
+Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an
+old glaciated valley, in which one of our mules got thoroughly mired
+while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous
+bog. Fording the Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook,
+we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains
+above us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their
+discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here
+cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide. He
+does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted
+long before his day. As to the other minerals, the difficulties of
+transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will
+be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain
+of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the town of
+Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi,
+followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not leave room
+enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and
+Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude to be 73° west,
+and our latitude to be 13° 8' south. Yet according to the latest map
+of this region, published in the preceding year, this was the very
+position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river
+Pampas. We ought to have been swimming "the Great Speaker." Actually
+we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and
+glaciers. The mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when
+he determined the Apurimac and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther
+apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored
+region, 1500 square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been
+guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles
+from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and the site of a
+university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so
+long defy investigation and exploration shows better than anything
+else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable
+labyrinth of snow-clad peaks, unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green
+valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our maps that we were
+now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact,
+we were on the rim of the valley of the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas,
+a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead
+of being the Apurimac Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region
+which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood
+from Condoré that somewhere far down in the montaña below us was
+Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage
+Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that the Incas could have
+built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were
+accustomed. The "road" was now so bad that only with the greatest
+difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we
+had to dismount, as the path led down a long, steep, rocky stairway
+of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a
+lonesome little hut perched on a shoulder of the mountain. In front of
+it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as
+they saw the gobernador approaching, they stopped their work and began
+to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to
+be told that Señor Condoré and his friends had not had anything but a
+cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet the emergency
+of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing cuys (guinea
+pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts
+of mountain Indians. Before long the savory odor of roast cuy, well
+basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or
+laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite of the
+celebrated dogma that "Pigs is Pigs," this form of "pork" has never
+found its way to our kitchens, even though these "pigs" live on a
+very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come
+from Guinea and are in no way related to pigs--Mr. Ellis Parker
+Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the
+same family as rabbits and Belgian hares and have long been a highly
+prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are
+of a grayish brown color, which enables them to escape observation
+in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, which one sees
+in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny,
+varying from one another in color as much as do the llamas, which
+were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years
+ago. Although Anglo-Saxon "folkways," as Professor Sumner would say,
+permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at
+short-eared rabbits, yet they were bred to be eaten.
+
+I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever
+knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in the capital
+of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had
+I not been very hungry, I might never have known how delicious a roast
+guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose
+supply of animal food is small, whose fowls are treasured for their
+eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as
+mutton, the succulent guinea pig, "most prolific of mammals," as was
+discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a
+few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for emergencies. Her
+sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little cuys.
+
+After lunch, Condoré and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling
+countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome farm
+to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were
+so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home or working in
+his little chacra they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward
+to shake hands, in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was
+un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was
+informed that he had accepted pay for services which must now be
+performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A
+paternal government saw to it that they were properly fed and clothed
+and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own
+necessities or else permitted to draw on official stores. In colonial
+days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of
+the ancient system and enforced it without taking pains to see that
+it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless
+landlords, backed by local authority, forced the Indians to work
+without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or
+even pretending to carry out promises and wage agreements. The peons
+learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having
+received a considerable portion of their pay. When once they accepted
+money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided
+that they must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant
+legal punishment.
+
+Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a
+dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized that service
+was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was "busy," that his
+"crops needed attention," that his "family could not spare him," that
+"he lacked food for a journey." Condoré and Mogrovejo were accustomed
+to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in "engaging" half a dozen
+carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small
+huts scattered over grassy hillsides, at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a "high, cold place." This
+is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the
+Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's day as being "an
+important town of the Incas." There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts
+of Pampaconas were newly built of stone and mud, and thatched with
+grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians,
+who enjoyed unusual freedom from official or other interference
+and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes,
+on the very edge of the dense forest. We found that there was some
+excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar,
+or possibly a cougar, had come out of the forest, attacked, killed,
+and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named
+Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had been selected
+to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to
+Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood in his veins, although
+he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied
+one of the best huts. A fire in one corner frequently filled it with
+acrid smoke. It was very small and had no windows. At one end was a
+loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from
+molestation. Piles of sheep skins were arranged for visitors to sit
+upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves
+and tables. The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel
+dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space
+with the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily
+and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with
+a whip; only to return again and again, each time to be driven out
+as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions,
+we carried on a most interesting conversation with Guzman. He had
+been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu
+Pampa. At last the mythical "Pampa of Ghosts" began to take on in
+our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind
+ourselves that another very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins
+"finer than Ollantaytambo" near Huadquiña. Guzman did not seem to dread
+Conservidayoc as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever
+been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for
+the journey. Although it was August and the middle of the dry season,
+rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived
+after dark with our pack animals, but, missing the trail as he neared
+Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog and was extracted
+only with considerable difficulty.
+
+We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained
+bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the evening, after
+we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the
+rain to our comfortable little tent, only to hear various and sundry
+grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large
+sow and six fat young pigs, unable to settle down comfortably at the
+Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available
+place on the mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly
+attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain
+and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs to return
+at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman,
+with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming soup, which at
+first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni--a dish
+of which one of us was particularly fond. The white hollow cylinders
+proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As
+a matter of fact, we learned that the evening meal which Guzman's
+wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very
+cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof
+was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be lying in
+puddles of water. Everything was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still
+failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what
+we should cook for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices
+and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this
+time more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and
+potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and jaws
+of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was
+first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the ten days'
+journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our
+other carriers, spent the morning grinding chuño (frozen potatoes)
+with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or
+toasting large quantities of sweet corn in a terra-cotta olla. With
+chuño and tostado, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of coca
+leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of
+our own provisions we had so small a quantity that we were unable
+to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have
+liked them as much as the food to which they had long been accustomed.
+
+Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the
+rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc. We were told
+that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San
+Fernando, our first stop, was "seven leagues" away, far down in the
+densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the
+mountain back of Guzman's hut and followed a faint trail by a dangerous
+and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not
+improved the path. Our saddle mules were of little use. We had to
+go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could
+see but little of the deep canyon which opened below us, and into
+which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep,
+zigzag path, four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the
+clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path,
+across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally we
+came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little
+shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts; and this
+was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room
+enough in them for our six carriers. It was with great difficulty we
+found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only
+seven feet square. There was no really flat land at all.
+
+At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent,
+I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians in the
+near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail
+structure and made a great disturbance, crying out that there was a
+temblor. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it
+might have done during the stormy night which followed, they were in
+no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs
+of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes do very serious harm,
+they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight
+shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds, a gentle
+rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks
+later, near Huadquiña, we happened to stop at the Colpani telegraph
+office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th--one
+at five o'clock, which had shaken the books off his table and knocked
+over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and
+south. He said the shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself
+to the "dry season" and we were more comfortable. Furthermore, camping
+out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping
+at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of the bridge of San
+Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate
+zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics. Sugar cane, peppers,
+bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and
+sweet potatoes. None of these things will grow at Pampaconas. The
+Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come
+to San Fernando to make chacras or small clearings. The three or
+four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of
+brass buttons that they disappeared during the night rather than
+take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands
+in the morning! From San Fernando, we sent one of our gendarmes back
+to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty
+pounds apiece.
+
+Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing
+on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil here seemed to be
+very rich. In the chacra we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height,
+near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of
+a mato-palo, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves
+its name, for it commands a "charming view" of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain,
+whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction;
+now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were mystified;
+for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more
+difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under branches, along
+slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock,
+over a trail which not even dogs could follow unassisted, slowly we
+made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the
+frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon before we reached another little
+clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet
+above the river, our men decided to spend the night in a tiny little
+shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had
+to dig a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train,
+we made an early start. As we followed the faint little trail across
+the gulches tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate
+several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their
+loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on primitive
+bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together
+and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in
+dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled thickets,
+through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here
+Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while, as we were now in the
+territory of los salvajes, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the
+rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be
+particularly afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our
+carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack
+us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He said we should never
+be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was
+selected to go ahead did not relish his task. Leaving his pack behind,
+he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost
+to view almost immediately. There followed an exciting half-hour while
+we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us,
+and trying to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra,
+who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury,
+"surrounded by fifty servants," and directing his myrmidons to
+checkmate our desires to visit the Inca city on the "pampa of ghosts."
+
+Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound
+of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little tighter
+in readiness for whatever might befall--when there burst out of the
+woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally clad,
+who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us
+a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible, but a glance
+at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was
+with a sigh of relief that we realized there was to be no shower of
+poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs,
+we continued along the jungle trail, through woods which gradually
+became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight
+ahead and, to our intense astonishment, the bright green of waving
+sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found
+us at a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by
+Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it was
+never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his
+fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured Indian
+wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work,
+evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said some called this place
+"Jesús Maria" because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's
+invitation to make ourselves at home, and sat down to an abundant meal
+of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (manioc). Saavedra gave us
+to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had,
+but that he would do everything to enable us to see the ruins, which
+were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the
+valley, to be reached only by a hard trail passable for barefooted
+savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a
+good part of the distance on hands and knees. The next day, while
+our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote
+collected a large number of insects, including eight new species of
+moths and butterflies.
+
+I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for
+centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar cane than
+he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees,
+sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead of being "a very powerful
+chief having many Indians under his control"--a kind of "Pooh-Bah"--he
+was merely a pioneer. In the utter wilderness, far from any neighbors,
+surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established
+his home. He was not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman,
+soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic,
+a modest Peruvian of the best type.
+
+Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate
+such pampas as he could find--one an alluvial fan near his house,
+another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was
+a thatched shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar
+mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, each capable of being turned,
+with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of
+roughly hewn timbers fastened together with wooden pins and lashed
+with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been
+unable to coax any pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he
+was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that
+of his active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of
+such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other trade
+articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing
+on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were a game. At other
+times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using
+in the process of boiling the juice and making crude sugar. He said he
+had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by
+the Incas. Four of them were of the familiar aryballus type. Another
+was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base,
+single incised, conventionalized, animal-head nubbin attached to the
+shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median
+line. Although capable of holding more than ten gallons, this huge
+pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a
+rope passing through the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said
+that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined
+with stones, with a flat stone on top--evidently ancient graves. The
+bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the graves had
+been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He
+had also found a few stone implements and two or three small bronze
+Inca axes.
+
+On the pampa, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite
+labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have taken
+the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no
+pack animals and was usually obliged to bring the cane to the mill on
+his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier,
+while the cane was growing, to construct a new mill near the cane
+field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the
+hill. He said his hardest task was to get money with which to send
+his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in
+which he could get any cash was by making chancaca, crude brown sugar,
+and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days'
+journey on foot up the mountain to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or
+seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could
+usually sell such a load for five soles, equivalent to two dollars
+and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain,
+although he smilingly admitted that it was very difficult to keep
+the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the
+river continually washed away his little rustic bridges. His chief
+regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he
+had had nothing to do, the government had decreed that all firearms
+should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he needed to
+enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large
+turkey-like bird, the pava de la montaña, glossy black, its most
+striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at
+liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly domesticated. It would make an
+attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he
+had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe said it was
+without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his
+plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about taxes and
+have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten
+about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers ran toward the house
+in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a "savage"
+in the bushes near by. The "wild man" was very timid, but curiosity
+finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage
+to accept Saavedra's urgent invitation that he come out and meet
+us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad
+cold in his head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another
+to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that
+I have ever seen.
+
+He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his
+ankles. It was made of a large square of coarsely woven cotton cloth,
+with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up,
+leaving holes for the arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He
+had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large
+mouth. His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one
+shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber net. Around
+his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed
+of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together. Although I did not
+see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees,
+he used this stout loop to fasten his ankles together and thus secure
+a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and
+his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us that these
+Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra
+and his son spoke a little of their language, which sounded to our
+unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and
+gutturals. It was pieced out by signs. The long tunics worn by the
+men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they
+wear very scanty attire--nothing more than a few rags hanging over one
+shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough
+garment to wear during the cold nights, and their only covering, must
+impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run
+away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that they found it
+uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom
+in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber estate.
+
+Saavedra said that he had named his plantation Conservidayoc, because
+it was in truth "a spot where one may be preserved from harm." Such
+was the home of the potentate from whose abode "no one had been known
+to return alive."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+The Pampa of Ghosts
+
+Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail
+which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been clearing. We
+emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine
+view down the valley and particularly of a heavily wooded alluvial fan
+just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little
+oval huts of the savages of Espiritu Pampa, the "Pampa of Ghosts."
+
+On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building
+of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower. From here to
+Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about
+four feet in width and nearly a third of a mile long. It was built of
+uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief
+duty it was to watch from the top of the promontory and who used their
+spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as
+a heavy thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their
+occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle. We
+hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the
+terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not our nervousness. The
+hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs
+driven endwise into the ground and fastened together with vines. A
+small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two
+old black ollas of Inca origin.
+
+In the little chacra, cassava, coca, and sweet potatoes were growing in
+haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical milpa
+farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular
+houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if this could be the
+"Inca city" which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery. There was nothing Incaic about
+the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all
+the rest were round. The buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to
+twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down,
+but gave no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods
+which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other circular
+walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If
+the savages have extended their milpa clearings since our visit, the
+falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient
+village probably belonged to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to
+the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication
+of their having been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began
+to wonder whether the "Pampa of Ghosts" really had anything important
+in store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized
+in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been inhabited,
+off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an "Inca city."
+
+While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here,
+there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy young savage,
+armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of
+bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a bird he had shot. Soon
+afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's,
+accompanied by a cross-eyed friend, all wearing long tunics. They
+offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to
+follow their rapid pace. Half an hour's scramble through the jungle
+brought us to a pampa or natural terrace on the banks of a little
+tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found
+several old artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long,
+rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half
+feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only a foot
+high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently
+the structure had never been completed. Near by was a typical Inca
+fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards
+beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous, hidden behind a curtain of
+hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few
+feet in any direction, the savages showed us the ruins of a group of
+stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by
+itself at the south end of a little pampa, had neither doors nor
+windows. It was rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged
+with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an
+unusual dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side
+of the pampa was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided
+into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones
+laid in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo,
+the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the pampa
+was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of
+a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed fountain or
+bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of
+the houses, their general arrangement, the niches, stone roof-pegs
+and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish
+roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments we could find
+would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different
+sizes, as though some one had been experimenting. Perhaps an Inca who
+had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them
+here in the jungle, but without success.
+
+At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands,
+and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary and
+sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and
+we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were doomed to
+disappointment. During the day some one had brought to the hut eight
+tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined
+to make the night hideous with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to
+discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose
+of exorcising the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer
+up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as
+much as possible of the tangled growth near the best ruins. In this
+process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of
+the savages, they discovered, just below the "bathhouse" where we had
+stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of
+superior construction, well fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches,
+very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a
+little artificial terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery
+were found on the floor, including pieces of a large aryballus.
+
+Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the
+fact that the savages themselves had often been within five feet of
+these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic
+Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search, but all that
+any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a
+brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages carefully. They said
+they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of
+Espiritu Pampa and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the "Vilcabamba Viejo"
+of Father Calancha, that "University of Idolatry where lived the
+teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination," the place to
+which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering? Was
+there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the
+monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they handled their
+monastic robes in the water? They called it a "three days' journey
+over rough country." Another reference in Father Calancha speaks
+of Puquiura as being "two long days' journey from Vilcabamba." It
+took us five days to go from Espiritu Pampa to Pucyura, although
+Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity,
+might do it in three. It is possible to fit some other details of
+the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road
+called Ungacacha. Nevertheless it does not seem to me reasonable to
+suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the
+"University of Idolatry") who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and
+were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa
+would have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The
+difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and Egypt,
+or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa
+the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could have found the
+seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other
+parts of the province, particularly at Machu Picchu, together with a
+cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more nearly resembling those to
+which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says "Vilcabamba the Old"
+was "the largest city" in the province, a term far more applicable
+to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in
+the montaña does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba
+by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his
+forces lost the "young fortress" of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless wishing
+to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the
+Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of Tupac "Vilcabamba
+the old." Ocampo's new "Vilcabamba" was not in existence when Friar
+Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this province. If Calancha wrote
+his chronicles from their notes, the term "old" would not apply to
+Espiritu Pampa, but to an older Vilcabamba than either of the places
+known to Ocampo.
+
+The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have
+required a long period to build. The unfinished building may have
+been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu
+Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez de Figueroa should meet
+him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in
+the montaña, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common at
+Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that the
+ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences
+of this Inca--the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he spent his boyhood
+and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565. [13]
+
+In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru
+after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled "inland toward the
+valley of Sima-ponte ... to the country of the Mañaries Indians,
+a warlike tribe and his friends, where balsas and canoes were posted
+to save him and enable him to escape." There is now no valley in this
+vicinity called Simaponte, so far as we have been able to discover. The
+Mañaries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower
+Urubamba. In order to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went
+down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the "Pampa of Ghosts"
+to canoe navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently
+his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that,
+not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river, he constructed
+five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them
+himself, went down the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming,
+until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca,
+learning of his approach, had gone farther into the woods. Nothing
+daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go
+on foot and barefooted, with hardly anything to eat, most of their
+provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught
+Tupac and his friends; a tragic ending to a terrible chase, hard on
+the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas
+River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed possible that the
+Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of
+which were believed by Dr. Bowman's canoe-men to rise in the mountains
+of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we
+were able definitely to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch
+of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the
+"Sima-ponte." Whether the Comberciato is the "Momori" is hard to say.
+
+To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain
+Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and Maynard. They
+found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were
+tormented by insects and great quantities of ants--a small red ant
+found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length,
+frequently seen among the leaves on the ground. The bite of the red
+ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of
+their carriers who was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered
+intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also
+his leg and hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and
+hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind made of palm leaves a
+few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three
+Indians fished all night and caught only one fish, a perch weighing
+about four pounds.
+
+The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in
+knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to become blue
+with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood
+of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more
+than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The lower course
+of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation,
+but the valley is much narrower than the Cosireni. The width of
+the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the
+Cosireni. The climate is very trying. The nights are hot. Insect
+pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that "the forest was filled with
+annoying, though sting-less, bees which persisted in attempting to
+roost on the countenance of any human being available." On the banks
+of the Comberciato he found several families of savages. All the men
+were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful
+bows made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds
+and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found,
+including the large red howler, inert and easily located by its deep,
+roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles;
+the giant black spider monkey, very alert, and, when frightened, fairly
+flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey,
+black in color, and very intelligent in expression, frequently tamed
+by the savages, who "enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to
+eating them when food is scarce." "The flesh of monkeys is greatly
+appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire."
+
+On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides
+carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened proved to
+contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man
+finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies into a small bag,
+saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those
+seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats
+are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it harder to
+use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate
+this valley for about ten years, and at first kept their wives and
+children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker
+were sent here to determine the astronomical position of Espiritu
+Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their
+families. Perhaps it is doubtful whether they knew just what he was
+doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+All the men and older boys wore white fillets of bamboo. The married
+men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the
+characteristic lip ornament of the Campas. Some of the children wore
+no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One
+of them had a truly savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet,
+had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must
+have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows. All the
+women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One
+little girl, not more than six years old, was carrying on her back a
+child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It
+will be remembered that forest Indians nearly always use tump-lines
+so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer
+than the others and looked as though she might have had a Spanish
+ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad,
+wore a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied
+around her waist. All her children were naked. The children of the
+woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics,
+and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite, was decorated with
+bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled
+from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy as monkey
+meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by
+the highlanders, may be doubted. Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's
+preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards "rather
+than to perish of famine." His Indian allies lived perfectly well in
+a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever
+have permitted Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able
+to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of
+this valley having been an important part of the domain of the last
+Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the
+carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas. Although they did not
+have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous
+as to what use the latter might some day make of the powerful bows
+and long arrows.
+
+At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar
+for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a row along the
+side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed
+handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The result was a confection or
+"emergency ration" which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst
+of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed out of
+the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked
+with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had been falling
+above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor
+Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's fire and filled our
+tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet,
+and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly nothing
+ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas
+
+It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the
+last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which we could not
+fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important
+of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its buildings are far older than
+the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we
+may have found at Machu Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story
+of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at
+the time of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca
+towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far away
+from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were
+the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly seven hundred
+years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536
+and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about 800 A.D.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty
+generations, when, as has been told in Chapter VI, invaders came
+from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful
+civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering feats which
+we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the
+Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti VI, who was killed by
+an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos,
+whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been translated
+for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University,
+tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body to
+"Tampu-tocco." This, says the historian, was "a healthy place" where
+there was a cave in which they hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the
+finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General
+anarchy prevailed throughout the ancient empire. The good old days
+of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the
+old empire was destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In
+these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which
+followed the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire,
+Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units. Each
+district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against
+its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen in the ruins of
+small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas
+were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests,
+wise men, and chiefs of the ancient régime, built a new city at
+"Tampu-tocco." Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and
+lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to them,
+little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing
+chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent chiefs or
+"robber barons." In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi
+Truaman Quicho.
+
+The survivors of the old régime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco,
+because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or tremblings
+there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young
+king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed, they could bury him
+in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of
+Pachacuti VI.
+
+Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen
+an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed. To their
+ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth
+recording happened for centuries. During this period several of the
+kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great
+Amautas had reigned, but for one reason or another were obliged to
+forego their ambitions.
+
+One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called
+Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began to write on
+the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the
+highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping idols and animals,
+to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall
+of the Amautas, and to return to the ways of their ancestors. He
+met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were
+killed and little or no change took place. Discouraged by the failure
+of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause,
+Tupac Cauri was told by his soothsayers that the matter which most
+displeased the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade
+anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate was
+observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used
+letters. Instead, they used quipus, strings and knots. It was supposed
+that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one
+realized how near the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most
+momentous step.
+
+This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed
+to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest. We
+have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it
+aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons with
+Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste
+Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal ancestors
+and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful
+investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard. As a matter of fact,
+to students of Sumner's "Folkways," the story rings true. Some young
+fellow, brighter than the rest, developed a system of ideographs
+which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were
+beginning to adopt it. The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did
+not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets,
+heretofore handed down orally to the neophytes, might become public
+property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to
+spread. There followed some extremely unlucky event--the ambassadors
+were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a
+result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by the priests,
+determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet
+been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient; the leaves
+withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were
+lost. Had the new invention been permitted to exist a little longer,
+some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it
+would have persisted. The rulers and priests, however, found that the
+important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well
+by means of the quipus. And the "job" of those whose duty it was to
+remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is
+nothing unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the
+history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from
+making important advances.
+
+Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco
+a kind of university where boys were taught the use of quipus, the
+method of counting and the significance of the different colored
+strings, while their fathers and older brothers were trained in
+military exercises--in other words, practiced with the sling, the
+bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows and arrows. Around the
+name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called,
+is gathered the story of various intellectual movements which took
+place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and
+military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The
+ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition of their
+ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to
+make the attempt to reestablish themselves there. An earthquake, which
+ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses,
+destroyed towns, and was followed by the outbreak of a disastrous
+epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although
+in healthy Tampu-tocco there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became
+more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was
+terraced and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized,
+and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure
+arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic ruler
+of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca,
+the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown
+to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how he could secure new
+lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined
+to set out with them "toward the hill over which the sun rose," as
+we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was
+a descendant of a long line of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived
+in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the
+antiquities of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it
+was handed down to the descendants of the former rulers of Peru. In
+it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in
+reaching Cuzco and settled there. With the return of the descendants
+of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco
+married his own sister in order that he might not lose caste and that
+no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with
+his. He made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded
+as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now
+came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief, the most
+valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains
+and soldiers were brave, well disciplined, and well armed. All his
+affairs prospered greatly. "Afterward he ordered works to be executed
+at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he
+descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco." I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or
+near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south of Cuzco. I
+learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in
+the town. The most important are the ruins of Maucallacta, an Inca
+village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting
+of several crags and large rocks, the surface of one of which is
+carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma
+Urco. Beneath the rocks are some caves. I was told they had recently
+been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and
+the characteristics of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the
+story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if
+Tampu-tocco must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better
+defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would it
+have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army
+to have taken refuge there and set up an independent kingdom in the
+face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid
+in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu is not a natural citadel.
+
+The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no
+precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no natural
+defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of
+the Amautas. Furthermore, tampu means "a place of temporary abode,"
+or "a tavern," or "an improved piece of ground" or "farm far from a
+town"; tocco means "window." There is an old tavern at Maucallacta
+near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to
+justify the name of "window tavern" or "place of temporary abode"
+(or "farm far from a town") "noted for its windows." There is nothing
+of a "masonry wall with three windows" corresponding to Salcamayhua's
+description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace. The word
+"Tampu-tocco" does not occur on any map I have been able to consult,
+nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru compiled by Paz Soldan.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Machu Picchu
+
+It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of
+the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions near Cuzco
+by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy
+to Colpani the road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the
+majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling
+beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of
+the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the
+power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare
+with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more
+than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite
+rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening,
+roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and
+tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the
+mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward
+by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning
+and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all,
+there is the fascination of finding here and there under the swaying
+vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of
+a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering romance
+of the ancient builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which
+appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give
+expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty. Space forbids
+any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama,
+the rank tropical foliage, the countless terraces, the towering cliffs,
+the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor
+Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told us of ruins at
+Machu Picchu, as was related in Chapter X.
+
+The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered
+and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he
+would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb
+for such a wet day. When he found that we were willing to pay him a
+sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity,
+he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed that they
+would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco
+I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance upstream. On the
+road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This
+region has an unpleasant notoriety for being the favorite haunt of
+"vipers." The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the
+fer-de-lance, a very venomous serpent capable of making considerable
+springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two
+of our mules died from snake-bite.
+
+After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road
+and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of the river. Here
+there was a primitive "bridge" which crossed the roaring rapids at
+its narrowest part, where the stream was forced to flow between two
+great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs,
+some of which were not long enough to span the distance between the
+boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga
+and Carrasco took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using
+their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would
+immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite boulders. I
+am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled
+across, six inches at a time. Even after we reached the other side
+I could not help wondering what would happen to the "bridge" if a
+particularly heavy shower should fall in the valley above. A light
+rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the
+bridge was already threatened by the foaming rapids. It would not
+take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should
+happen during the day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact,
+it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to
+cross the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle,
+and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous slope. For
+an hour and twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the
+distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips
+of our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the
+roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way as to
+help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable
+cliff. In another place the slope was covered with slippery grass
+where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide
+said that there were lots of snakes here. The humidity was great,
+the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several
+good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected arrival,
+welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then
+they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes, called here cumara,
+a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian kumala, as has been
+pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from
+our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a few ancient
+stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and
+Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their home. They said they
+had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and
+they were usually free from undesirable visitors. They did not speak
+Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more
+ruins "a little farther along." In this country one never can tell
+whether such a report is worthy of credence. "He may have been lying"
+is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly,
+I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry to move. The heat
+was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool
+and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench, hospitably covered
+immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most
+comfortable. Furthermore, the view was simply enchanting. Tremendous
+green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba
+below. Immediately in front, on the north side of the valley, was
+a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the
+solitary peak of Huayna Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible
+precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped
+mountains rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we
+had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more difficult--a
+perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side
+of the ridge. It was their only means of egress in the wet season,
+when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was
+not surprised to learn that they went away from home only "about once
+a month."
+
+Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It
+seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon had
+been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of
+the new government road settlers began once more to occupy this
+region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on
+the slopes of Machu Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the
+sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial
+terraces, in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared
+off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of
+maize, sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree
+tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of the
+ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found,
+however, that there were neither springs nor wells near the ancient
+buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream
+to the citadel had long since disappeared beneath the forest, filled
+with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter
+of the ruins, the Indians were now enjoying the convenience of living
+near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting
+than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had a glimpse, and
+the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered
+at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy,
+I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed
+farther up the ridge and around a slight promontory. Arteaga had
+"been here once before," and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte
+and Alvarez in the hut. They sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the
+stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then
+recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large
+trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the
+untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a maze of
+beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and
+the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow, hiding in bamboo
+thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls
+of white granite ashlars most carefully cut and exquisitely fitted
+together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a
+"place far from town and conspicuous for its windows."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco
+------
+
+
+Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined
+with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended to be a Royal
+Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building
+had been constructed. The wall followed the natural curvature of the
+rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I
+have ever seen. This beautiful wall, made of carefully matched ashlars
+of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the
+work of a master artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken
+by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly
+simple and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars,
+gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing in size
+toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing
+lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars, and the gradual
+gradation of the courses, combined to produce a wonderful effect,
+softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the
+Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar, there are no ugly spaces
+between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me
+to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the eye of a
+master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the
+square. He had no instruments of precision, so he had to depend on
+his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry
+and beauty of form. His product received none of the harshness of
+mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular
+blocks are not really rectangular. The apparently straight lines of
+the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular
+temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework in the
+far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in
+bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great stairway of large
+granite blocks, walked along a pampa where the Indians had a small
+vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins
+of two of the finest structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were
+they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite;
+their walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length,
+and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the
+side toward the clearing. The principal temple was lined with
+exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the
+back wall. There were seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under
+the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long,
+probably a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though
+it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+The other temple is on the east side of the pampa. I called it the
+Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among
+Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking the citadel, is a massive
+stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too
+large to serve any useful purpose, yet most beautifully made with the
+greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of
+peculiar significance. Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there
+a similar structure conspicuous as "a masonry wall with three windows."
+
+These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the
+slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would
+have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries when it
+was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was
+essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness protected by natural
+bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable
+stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent excavations and the clearing
+made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that
+this was the chief place in Uilcapampa.
+
+It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu
+Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco and
+I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting
+ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by the Indians for
+their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick
+jungle growth--some walls were actually supporting trees ten and
+twelve inches in diameter--that it was impossible to determine just
+what would be found here. As soon as I could get hold of Mr. Tucker,
+who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the
+Urubamba with Dr. Bowman, I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I
+knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential
+for Mr. Tucker to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of
+October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte
+and Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days
+while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data from which
+Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could
+any words of mine the importance of this site and the necessity for
+further investigation.
+
+With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco
+had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their importance. No
+one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of
+the ridge. It had never been visited by any of the planters of the
+lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds
+through the canyon two thousand feet below.
+
+It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey
+from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed by travelers
+and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the
+conquistadores ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it
+surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly
+refers to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a
+Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges was
+at Huadquiña in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near,
+he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the walls of one of the
+finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by
+Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately below the bridge of San
+Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have
+visited Machu Picchu long before that; because in 1875, as has been
+said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of
+there being ruins at "Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu." He tried to
+find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the
+canyon of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through
+the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which brought
+him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five
+miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the
+needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up the lower
+valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the
+banks of the river through the grand canyon to enable the much-desired
+coca and aguardiente to be shipped from Huadquiña, Maranura, and Santa
+Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids
+the necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous
+snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very
+expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent repair. In
+fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days
+or weeks at a time, following some tremendous avalanche. Yet it was
+this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near
+the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where he could raise food for his
+family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this
+new road which brought Richarte, Alvarez, and their enterprising
+friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of
+occupying the ancient terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow
+for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over
+the precipices, and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It
+was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between
+Ollantaytambo and Huadquiña and enabled us to learn that the Incas,
+or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses of
+the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty
+of their ancient civilization, more interesting and extensive than any
+which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+The Origin of Machu Picchu
+
+Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating
+Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and of the ancient
+towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest
+content with a discussion of its probable identity. Here was a powerful
+citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful
+of defenders could prevent a great army from taking the place by
+assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture
+as to have built a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable
+land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced in
+order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for
+comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration. They
+were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture,
+sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world has ever
+seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently
+advanced in art to realize the beauty of simplicity. What could have
+induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes,
+with all its disadvantages, as the site for their capital, unless
+they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+The thought will already have occurred to the reader that the Temple
+of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native
+writer who had "heard from a child the most ancient traditions and
+histories," including the story already quoted from Sir Clements
+Markham's translation that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, "ordered
+works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a
+masonry wall with three windows, which were emblems of the house
+of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called
+'Tampu-tocco.' " Although none of the other chroniclers gives the
+story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the
+place of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a
+place called Tampu-tocco, "an inn or country place remarkable for
+its windows." Sir Clements Markham, in his "Incas of Peru," refers
+to Tampu-tocco as "the hill with the three openings or windows."
+
+The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the
+traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu, about nine
+miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and
+caves, but careful examination shows that while there are more than
+three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The
+buildings of Machu Picchu, on the other hand, have far more windows
+than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu,
+like that of most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite
+or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+
+So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of
+anything like a "masonry wall with three windows" of such a ceremonial
+character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would
+certainly seem as though the Temple of the Three Windows, the most
+significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred
+to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the
+first meaning of tocco in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is
+"ventana" or "window," and while "window" is the only meaning given
+this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908),
+a dictionary compiled from many sources, the second meaning of tocco
+given by Holguin is "alacena," "a cupboard set in a wall." Undoubtedly
+this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a
+niche. Now the drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's
+translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression
+of niches rather than of windows. Does Tampu-tocco mean a tampu
+remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be
+any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu, on the other hand,
+there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has
+been referred to as a "Royal Mausoleum." As a matter of fact, nearly
+all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches
+were so common a feature of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir
+Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling
+Tampu-tocco "the hill with the three openings or windows." In any case
+Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However,
+in view of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that
+Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that they
+did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual
+remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco
+were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by Toledo at the
+time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended
+from those who used to live near Las Salinas, the important salt works
+near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their
+fathers and grandfathers repeat the tradition that when the first Inca,
+Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did
+not say that the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems
+to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the
+still older testimony of some Indians born before the arrival of the
+first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A
+chief, aged ninety-two, testified that Manco Ccapac came out of a cave
+called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not
+one of the witnesses stated that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu,
+although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done
+so if, as the contemporary historians believed, this was really the
+original Tampu-tocco. The chroniclers were willing enough to accept
+the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco
+Ccapac was born, and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were
+the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they
+should have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was
+their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts had been
+successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco
+to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body after the
+overthrow of the old régime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they
+know it was in the same fastnesses of the Andes to which in the days
+of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the
+cause of their reticence?
+
+Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The
+splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba made it
+an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries
+of lawlessness and confusion which succeeded the barbarian invasions
+from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent
+earthquakes and also its healthfulness, both marked characteristics
+of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the
+existence of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the
+common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location might
+have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is
+reasonable to conclude that the first name of the ruins at Machu Picchu
+was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of
+the little kingdom where during the centuries between the Amautas and
+the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions
+of the ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail
+before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great organization
+of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform
+mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools of wood, stone,
+and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes
+who knew little of the arts of peace. The defeated leaders had to
+choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce
+enemies. Furthermore, in the environs of Machu Picchu they found
+every variety of climate--valleys so low as to produce the precious
+coca, yucca, and plantain, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics;
+slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize,
+quinoa, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops,
+including both sweet and white potatoes, oca, añu, and ullucu. Here,
+within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry
+and cure the coca leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in
+the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with
+the most careful terracing was not large enough to support a very
+great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel to the
+chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged
+to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the broad, pleasant
+valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a
+people which had reached such a stage in engineering, architecture,
+and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged
+canyons. Certainly there is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature
+to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief
+need was a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great
+ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they utilized
+their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in
+between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and their enemies
+on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for
+generations. Aided by the temperate climate in which they lived,
+and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours'
+climb up or down from their towns and cities, they became a hardy,
+vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought
+its way back to the rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants
+of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital,
+the Empire of the Incas.
+
+After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco,
+what more natural than that he should have built a fine temple in
+honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas,
+and nothing would have been more reasonable than the construction
+of the Temple of the Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and
+extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from
+whom they traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led
+them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of Cuzco
+itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of
+Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco grew and the Inca
+Empire flourished.
+
+As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account
+for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry to the islands of
+Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace
+was forgotten by the common people--although undoubtedly known to the
+priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+Then came Pizarro and the bigoted conquistadores. The native chiefs
+faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient
+religion. The Spaniards coveted gold and silver. The most precious
+possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but
+the sacred Virgins of the Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome,
+were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great
+Sun God. Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who
+needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep them from
+hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices
+and secure the good effects of his smiling face. If he delayed his
+coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize would mildew
+and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his
+accustomed brightness after the harvest, the ears of corn could not be
+properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual
+behavior on the part of the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently
+their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as
+"Virgins" who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of
+priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some
+of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others escaped and
+accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the
+first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril of their lives
+urged the Inca to let them visit the "University of Idolatry," at
+"Vilcabamba Viejo," "the largest city" in the province. Machu Picchu
+admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very
+easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to have kept the monks in the vicinity
+of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single
+glimpse of its unique temples and remarkable palaces. It would have
+been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego
+to the village of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the
+Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley
+crossed the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful
+ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the friars
+might easily have been lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain
+without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca
+"university." Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little
+knowledge of the architectural character of "Vilcabamba Viejo" that
+no description of it could be given their friends, eventually to
+be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey across
+country from Puquiura might easily have taken "three days."
+
+Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents
+of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial caves which
+we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion
+of skulls belonging to men is very large. There are many so-called
+"trepanned" skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured
+in war by having their skulls crushed in, either with clubs or
+the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found
+more than twenty-five skulls without encountering some "trepanned"
+specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the
+excavations at Machu Picchu, where one hundred sixty-four skulls
+were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been "trepanned." Of
+the one hundred thirty-five skeletons whose sex could be accurately
+determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore,
+it was in the graves of the females that the finest artifacts were
+found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not
+a single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was
+found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+
+Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the
+female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast. This fits in
+with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only
+with beautiful women of the highlands, but also with those who came
+from the tribes of the Yungas, or "warm valleys." The "warm valleys"
+may be those of the rubber country, but Sir Clements Markham thought
+the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts
+discovered at Machu Picchu was a "snuffing tube" intended for use with
+the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers
+to induce a hypnotic state. This powder was made from the seeds of
+the tree which the Incas called huilca or uilca, which, as has been
+pointed out in Chapter XI, grows near these ruins. This seems to me
+to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with
+Calancha's "Vilcabamba."
+
+It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the
+requirements of "the largest city, in which was the University of
+Idolatry." Until some one can find the ruins of another important place
+within three days' journey of Pucyura which was an important religious
+center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am
+inclined to believe that this was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Calancha,
+just as Espiritu Pampa was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Ocampo.
+
+In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting to be by Titu
+Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos,
+he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from Cuzco went first "to
+Vilcabamba, the head of all that province."
+
+In the "Anales del Peru" Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro,
+thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried
+to please the Inca by sending him a present of a very fine pony and
+a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger,
+the Inca killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this,
+he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite wife,
+and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that "when she
+should be dead they would put her remains in a basket and let it float
+down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it
+to her husband, the Inca." She must have believed that at that time
+Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu
+Pampa is not.
+
+We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos,
+where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his house. Surrounded
+by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which
+the Spaniards were obliged to use in passing from Lima to Cuzco, he
+could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been
+so conveniently located for robbing the Spanish caravans nor for
+supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu
+Picchu was at one time occupied by the Incas and partly built by them
+on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably
+of the so-called Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent
+buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of
+Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore, they
+are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old
+province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which would naturally
+be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the "head of the province." Espiritu
+Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a place which was so important
+as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as
+"the largest city."
+
+It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of
+Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest refuge for
+those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in
+the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants Manco probably
+built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older
+ones. Here they lived out their days, secure in the knowledge that
+no Indians would ever breathe to the conquistadores the secret of
+their sacred refuge.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu
+Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence was so well
+kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the
+theories of its identity with "Tampu-tocco" and "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles
+Wiener heard about it.
+
+Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents
+of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate that
+the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of
+this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza de Leon
+and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information
+about all the holy places of the Incas, give the names of many places
+which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may
+finally recognize the temples of Machu Picchu. On the other hand,
+it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or
+other chroniclers had seen this citadel, they would have described
+its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it
+seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have the ruins of
+Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also
+the ruins of a sacred city of the last Incas. Surely this granite
+citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of
+its striking beauty and the indescribable charm of its surroundings,
+appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800
+A.D. as the safest place of refuge for the last remnants of the
+old régime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the
+capital of a new kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family
+which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire,
+it seems to have been again sought out in time of trouble, when in
+1534 another foreign invader arrived--this time from Europe--with a
+burning desire to extinguish all vestiges of the ancient religion. In
+its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the
+Sun, priestesses of the most humane cult of aboriginal America. Here,
+concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and
+nature, these consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no
+known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls
+and artifacts to be described in another volume. Whoever they were,
+whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure--that few romances can ever surpass that of the
+granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu Picchu,
+the crown of Inca Land.
+
+
+
+
+
+Glossary
+
+Añu: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way
+as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes the bar-hold
+is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually
+found in the gateway of a compound or group of Inca houses.
+
+Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are
+chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered
+hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2
+inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles
+to its slope and flush with its surface. To it the purlins of the roof
+could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the
+lintel of a gateway to a compound. If the "bar-holds" were intended
+to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders
+may have been for a vertical bar.
+
+Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The alcaldes are
+his Indian aids.
+
+Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often
+applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+Mañana: To-morrow, or by and by. The "mañana habit" is Spanish-American
+procrastination.
+
+Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The
+milpa system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire,
+destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+Montaña: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to
+the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys and the
+Amazon Basin.
+
+Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians
+to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into a gable
+wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used
+in connection with "eye-bonders," the roof-pegs served as points to
+which the roof could be tied down.
+
+Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little
+less than half a gold dollar.
+
+Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the
+walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside so as
+to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often
+found alternating with niches and placed on a level with the lintels
+of the niches.
+
+Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so
+depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village
+or hamlet.
+
+Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state,
+used for making chuño, after drying, freezing, and pressing out the
+bitter juices.
+
+Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+Viejo: Old.
+
+
+
+Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the
+National Geographic Society
+
+Thomas Barbour:
+
+Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. Proceedings of
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, LXV, 505-507, September,
+1913. 1 pl.
+
+(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian
+Expedition of 1914-1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+609-620, 1921.
+
+Hiram Bingham:
+
+The Ruins of Choqquequirau. American Anthropologist, XII, 505-525,
+October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi,
+405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8°.
+
+Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLIV, 20-26, January, 1912.
+
+The Ascent of Coropuna. Harper's Magazine, CXXIV, 489-502, March,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. Proceedings of American Antiquarian
+Society, XXII, N.S., 135-196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. American
+Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 297-305, April, 1912. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+A Search for the Last Inca Capital. Harper's Magazine, CXXV, 696-705,
+October, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Discovery of Machu Picchu. Ibid., CXXVI, 709-719, April,
+1913. Illus.
+
+In the Wonderland of Peru. National Geographic Magazine, XXIV, 387-573,
+April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in
+1911. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211, 1-2, July, 1913.
+
+The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. American Anthropologist, XVI,
+No. 2, 185-199. April-June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. Harper's Magazine, CXXIX, 452-463,
+August, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Pampaconas River. The Geographical Journal, XLIV, 211-214, August,
+1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+The Story of Machu Picchu. National Geographic Magazine, XXVII,
+172-217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. American Anthropologist, XVII, 257-271,
+April-June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. Proceedings of Nineteenth
+International Congress of Americanists, Washington, D.C., pp. 253-260,
+December, 1915.
+
+Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. National Geographic
+Magazine, XXIX, 431-473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. The Builder, II,
+No. 12, 361-366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. American Journal
+of Science, XXXIV, 12-16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+Isaiah Bowman:
+
+The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. American Journal of
+Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 306-325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca
+Race. Ibid., XXXIV, No. 204, 497-509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Cañon of the Urubamba. Bulletin of American Geographical Society,
+XLIV, 881-897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the
+Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336 pp., plates,
+maps, plans.
+
+Lawrence Bruner:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera
+(Acridiidae--Short Horned Locusts). Proceedings of U.S. National
+Museum, XLIV, 177-187, 1913.
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to
+the Acridiidae). Ibid., XLV, 585-586, 1913.
+
+A. N. Caudell:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of
+Acridiidae). Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV, 347-357, 1913.
+
+Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. Bulletin of
+Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177-299,
+1916. 25 pl.
+
+Frank M. Chapman:
+
+The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of
+Peru. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+
+O. F. Cook:
+
+Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. Journal of Washington Academy of
+Sciences, VI, No. 4, 86-90, 1916.
+
+Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. Ibid., VI, No. 10, 284-293,
+1916. Illus.
+
+Staircase Farms of the Ancients. National Geographic Magazine, XXIX,
+474-534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. Smithsonian Report for 1918,
+487-491. 4 pl.
+
+Domestication of Animals in Peru. Journal of Heredity, x, 176-181,
+April, 1919. Illus.
+
+(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+Polar Bear Cacti. Journal of Heredity, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113-120,
+March, 1917. Illus.
+
+William H. Dall:
+
+Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XXXVIII, 177-182, 1911. Illus.
+
+Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale
+Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 627-649, 1913.
+
+George F. Eaton:
+
+Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of
+Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 325-333, April,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. Ibid., XXXVI, No. 211, 3-14,
+July, 1913. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 218,
+141-154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
+Picchu. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, v, 3-96, May,
+1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Yale Medical Journal,
+XVIII, 325-335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+Alexander W. Evans:
+
+Hepaticæ: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts
+and Sciences, XVIII, 291-345, April, 1914.
+
+Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. Memoirs, American
+Anthropological Assoc., III, No. 2, 59-148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga
+Indians. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, XXV, 1-92, April,
+1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+Harry W. Foote:
+
+(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze
+Axes. American Journal of Science, XXXIV, 128-132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+The Gravels at Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211,
+15-29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+The La Paz Gorge. Ibid., XXXVI, 141-150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLV, 561-575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. American
+Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 213, 187-213, September, 1913. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. Ibid., XXXVII,
+No. 218, 125-140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 220,
+289-298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. Ibid., XLI, No. 241,
+1-100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+Osgood Hardy:
+
+Cuzco and Apurimac. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, XLVI,
+No. 7, 500-512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. American Anthropologist, XXI,
+1-27, January-March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+Sir Clements Markham:
+
+Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, Geographical Journal, XXXVIII, No. 6,
+590-591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+C. H. Mathewson:
+
+A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from
+Machu Picchu. American Journal of Science, XL, No. 240, 525-602,
+December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+P. R. Myers:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Addendum to the
+Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLVII, 361-362, 1914.
+
+S. A. Rohwer:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Hymenoptera, Superfamilies
+Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV,
+439-454, 1913.
+
+Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
+Reptiles. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 541-547, 1913.
+
+Oldfield Thomas:
+
+Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian
+Expedition of 1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+217-249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+H. L. Viereck:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of
+1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLIV, 469-470, 1913.
+
+R. S. Williams:
+
+Peruvian Mosses. Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club, XLIII, 323-334,
+June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua
+words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as they are
+written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt
+is made by a Spanish writer, he is always likely to put a silent
+"h" at the beginning of such words as huilca which is pronounced
+"weel-ka." In the middle of a word "h" is always sounded. Machu
+Picchu is pronounced "Mah'-chew Pick'-chew." Uiticos is pronounced
+"Weet'-ee-kos." Uilcapampa is pronounced "Weel'-ka-pahm-pah." Cuzco is
+"Koos'-koh."
+
+[2] A league, usually about 3 1/3 miles, is really the distance an
+average mule can walk in an hour.
+
+[3] Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth
+century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower of
+that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having
+contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark or quinine
+and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into
+Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the botanical name
+of the genus cinchona. Montesinos was well educated and appears to
+have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled
+extensively in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas
+was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the
+leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless, one
+finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham,
+foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology, was inclined
+to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of
+pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for the Hakluyt Society
+by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+
+[4] Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game
+of chess between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees,
+who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the tone and
+language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego
+Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him. A totally different
+account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is
+that in a volume purporting to have been dictated to Friar Marcos by
+Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation:
+
+"After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in
+the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much good fellowship,
+playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a
+boy [ten years old]. Without having any suspicion, although an Indian
+woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the
+Inca, my Father was playing with them as usual. In this game, just as
+my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded,
+strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed, and they were
+seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they
+left him for dead. I, being a little boy, and seeing my Father treated
+in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned
+furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill
+me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes. They looked
+for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father
+had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate, in high spirits, saying,
+'Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.' But at
+this moment the captain Rimachi Yupanqui arrived with some Antis,
+and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get
+very far along a difficult road, they were caught and pulled from
+their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were
+burnt. Notwithstanding his wounds my Father lived for three days."
+
+Another version is given by Montesinos in his Anales. It is more like
+Titu Cusi's.
+
+[5] A Spanish derivative from the Quichua mucha, "a kiss." Muchani
+means "to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands."
+
+[6] Uiticos is probably derived from Uiticuni, meaning "to withdraw
+to a distance."
+
+[7] Described in "Across South America."
+
+[8] On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species
+of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: "Of all the novelties,
+by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial .... Members of the
+family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador." Mr. Heller's
+discovery greatly extends the recent range of the kangaroo family.
+
+[9] Mr. Safford says in his article on the "Identity of Cohoba"
+(Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Sept. 19, 1916):
+"The most remarkable fact connected with Piptadenia peregrina, or
+'tree-tobacco' is that ... the source of its intoxicating properties
+still remains unknown." One of the bifurcated tubes."in the first
+stages of manufacture," was found at Machu Picchu.
+
+[10] See the illustrations in Chapters XVII and XVIII.
+
+[11] Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical
+with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river and the old
+Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by
+using the correct, official spelling for the river and town, viz.,
+Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place
+referred to in the contemporary histories of the Inca Manco.
+
+[12] In those days the term "Andes" appears to have been very limited
+in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of Cuzco where
+lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its
+culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+
+[13] Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not
+of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10772 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+By
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+1922
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+"Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the
+Ranges--Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for
+you. Go!"
+
+Kipling: "The Explorer"
+------
+
+
+
+
+This Volume
+
+is affectionately dedicated
+
+to
+
+the Muse who inspired it
+
+the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into
+the interior of Peru and also many explorations into the labyrinth of
+early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my
+travels covered only a part of southern Peru, they took me into every
+variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude
+at which men have constructed houses or erected tents in the Western
+Hemisphere--from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to
+cross bleak Andean passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low
+temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into
+the dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as
+exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of violent
+contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of
+Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys have more plant life
+than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from
+glaciers to tree ferns within a few hours. So also in the labyrinth
+of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas--no historians
+go more rapidly from fact to fancy, from accurate observation to
+grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give
+conflicting statements with greater frequency. The story of the Incas
+is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+It was the mystery and romance of some of the wonderful pictures of
+a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively
+unknown region between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, sometimes called
+"the Cradle of the Incas." Although my photographs cannot compete with
+the imaginative pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that
+some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther
+into the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of
+identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+Some of my story has already been told in Harper's and the National
+Geographic, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission
+to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been
+published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course
+of preparation. My own observations are based partly on a study
+of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly
+on the maps and notes made by my companions, and partly on a study
+of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven
+thousand negatives. Another source of information was the opportunity
+of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great
+advantages of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same
+problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay;
+in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote, Dr. William
+G. Erving, Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius;
+in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr. Luther
+T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald,
+Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy, and Joseph Little;
+and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller,
+E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck,
+Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my
+comrades in enterprises which were not always free from discomfort or
+danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In
+the following pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork;
+at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps
+in another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to
+cover more particularly Machu Picchu [1] and its vicinity, they will
+eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for
+offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult to secure; to
+Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal
+and enthusiastic support; to President Taft of the United States and
+President Leguia of Peru for official help of a most important nature;
+to Messrs. W. R. Grace & Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and
+Mr. L. S. Blaisdell, of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and
+untiring coöperation; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque,
+and their sons, and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University,
+for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and
+Miss Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but
+by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible the
+writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+October 1, 1922
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I.		Crossing the Desert	1
+II.		Climbing Coropuna 23
+III.	To Parinacochas 50
+IV.		Flamingo Lake 74
+V.		Titicaca  95
+VI.		The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders 110
+VII.	The Valley of the Huatanay 133
+VIII.	The Oldest City in South America 157
+IX.		The Last Four Incas 170
+X.		Searching for the Last Inca Capital 198
+XI.		The Search Continued 217
+XII.	The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun 241
+XIII.	Vilcabamba 255
+XIV.	Conservidayoc 266
+XV.		The Pampa of Ghosts 292
+XVI.	The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas 306
+XVII.	Machu Picchu 314
+XVIII.	The Origin of Machu Picchu 326
+
+		Glossary  341
+		Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+		and the National Geographic Society    345
+		Index	 353
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+"Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges"
+Frontispiece
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru 1
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest 12
+Mt. Coropuna from the South 24
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Camp on the Summit 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local Rug-weaving
+Industry 60
+	Photograph by C. Watkins
+Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta    66
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara 78
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli 90
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba 90
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno 98
+A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati 98
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa 114
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani 114
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya 120
+Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya 120
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche 128
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912 132
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta 136
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall 140
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca 140
+Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada 150
+Map of Peru and View of Cuzco 158
+	From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578
+Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco 162
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos 170
+The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in
+Uilcapampa 176
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac 186
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains 198
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915 202
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa 206
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay 210
+The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu 214
+Huadquiña 220
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña 225
+	Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley 238
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata 242
+	Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata 242
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi 246
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana 248
+	Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana 250
+Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock 250
+	Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+Ñusta Isppana 256
+Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery 288
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa 288
+Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa 294
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu 306
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu 312
+The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu 312
+Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu 320
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-tocco 320
+Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu 324
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu 324
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu 328
+The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land 338
+
+
+Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs
+by the author.
+
+
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru.
+------
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Crossing the Desert
+
+A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most
+interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled "Peru. Travel
+and Exploration in the Land of the Incas." In that volume is a
+marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In the foreground is a
+delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face
+of a precipitous cliff and hangs in mid-air at great height above the
+swirling waters of the "great speaker." In the distance, towering above
+a mass of stupendous mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The
+desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that
+bridge decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire
+of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities to
+visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of "Across
+South America" will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau, an
+interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand
+feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac. There was some
+doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that
+the ruins represented the residence of the Inca Manco and his sons,
+who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru
+in the Andes between the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the
+clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing glimpses
+of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region,
+"behind the Ranges," which might contain great possibilities. Our
+guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in
+books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For months afterwards
+the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and
+beyond. In the words of Kipling's "Explorer":
+
+
+"... a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes
+On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated--so:
+'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges--
+Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!' "
+
+
+To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's
+"Titicaca and Koati," which had just appeared. In one of the
+interesting footnotes was this startling remark: "It is much to be
+desired that the elevation of the most prominent peaks of the western
+or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely ... that
+Coropuna, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa,
+is the culminating point of the continent. It exceeds 23,000 feet
+in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in
+the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763 feet (6940 meters) above
+sea level." His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil
+engineers of the Southern Railways of Peru, using a section of the
+railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to
+describe. Although I had been studying South American history and
+geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have
+heard of Coropuna. On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one
+of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found
+"Coropuna--6,949 m."--9 meters higher than Aconcagua!--one hundred
+miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the
+Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed very near
+Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands "behind
+the Ranges" which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence was
+intriguing. The desire to go and find that "something hidden" was now
+reënforced by the temptation to go and see whether Coropuna really was
+the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an
+expedition whose object was a geographical reconnaissance of Peru along
+the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba
+to tidewater on the Pacific. We achieved more than we expected.
+
+Our success was due in large part to our "unit-food-boxes," a device
+containing a balanced ration which Professor Harry W. Foote had
+cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to
+facilitate the provisioning of small field parties by packing in a
+single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions
+for a given period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction,
+not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had the
+responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words
+in regard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome.
+
+The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men
+for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men
+should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary their
+diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which
+in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn, eggs, mutton,
+and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned
+corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed oats, milk, cheese,
+coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams,
+pickles, and dried fruits and vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried
+fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient
+variety was procured without destroying the balanced character of
+the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large
+amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned fruits,
+however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food,
+we found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap,
+two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth bags, to be
+used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly
+appreciated article of food in our boxes was the rolled oats, a dish
+which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily
+prepared at high elevations, where rice cannot be properly boiled. It
+was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing
+the right amount of sugar. At the beginning of the field season the
+allowance--one third of a pound per day per man--seemed excessive, and
+I was criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the
+field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be supplemented.
+
+Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer
+to "rough it," and to "trust to luck" for his food. I had found on
+my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South
+America, that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular
+and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While "roughing it"
+is far more enticing to the inexperienced and indiscreet explorer,
+I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing,
+months in advance, a comprehensive bill of fare sufficiently varied,
+wholesome, and well-balanced, is "the better part of valor," The truth
+is that providing an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly
+to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble
+and expense for one's transportation department, and some of the
+younger men may feel that their reputations as explorers are likely
+to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and
+pickles are frequently found on their menu! Nevertheless, experience
+has shown that the results of "trusting to luck" and "living as the
+natives do" means not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but
+also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for
+the drudgery of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always
+easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery;
+and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome food.
+
+
+
+
+
+We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against
+Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian "winter"
+reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to
+try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms. On the other
+hand, the "summer months," beginning with November, are cloudy
+and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties of climbing a
+new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for
+exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Amazon
+Basin, the lands "behind the Ranges." Although the montaña, or jungle
+country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the
+other months of the year; so we decided to go first to the Urubamba
+Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos,
+the capital of the last Incas, and of the finding of Machu Picchu will
+be found in later chapters. In September I returned to Arequipa and
+started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate
+transportation facilities for crossing the desert.
+
+Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of
+the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its
+large mules. Unfortunately, a "mule trust" had recently been
+formed--needless to say, by an American--and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing,
+the Tejada brothers appeared, two arrieros, or muleteers, who seemed
+willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand soles
+(five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train
+of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever we chose,
+we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues
+[2] a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument
+and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy arrieros that they were not going to be everlastingly
+ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules,
+knew the great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us
+and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the
+imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch. The argument
+that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my
+promise that after the first week the cargo would be so much less that
+at least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas,
+realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get sore
+backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of
+safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker,
+a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing,
+whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper equipment,
+was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent
+of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the mountain was
+due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss
+guides, and had originally intended to ask two other members of the
+Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making
+a geological and topographical cross section along the 73d meridian
+through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest
+passes in the Andes (17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to
+such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna
+before the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy
+season it did not seem wise to wait for their coöperation. Accordingly,
+I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English
+naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of the Harvard Observatory. It
+was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti
+(19,120 ft.), should accompany us to the top, while Mr. Watkins,
+who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take
+charge of the Base Camp.
+
+The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in
+the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of rather more
+than average height and considerably more than average courage, who
+knew the country. As a member of the mounted gendarmerie, Gamarra had
+been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months
+previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous revolutionists stormed
+the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood
+his ground and, when they attempted to force their way past him, shot
+the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made
+him a corporal and, realizing that his life was no longer safe in that
+particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of
+his race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt
+that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered by the
+prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert,
+was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage could not be
+called in question even though his habits might lead him to become
+troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did not know we were planning
+to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the
+trials that were before him on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have
+begged off--but I am anticipating.
+
+On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left
+Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage of the
+journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty
+miles. The arrieros sent the cargo along too. In addition to the
+food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers,
+thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes, duffle bags, and
+a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from
+Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would reach Vitor about the
+same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of arrieros
+on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near
+the primitive little railway station.
+
+We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring pampa and
+studying the médanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in
+the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical
+jungles of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that
+it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert,
+broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers, coming
+from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for
+purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru, is in one of the
+largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog,
+the Peruvian coastal towns are almost never subjected to rain. The
+causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from
+the east, laden with the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the
+steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of
+the Andes and forced to deposit this moisture in the montaña. By
+the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no
+rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come from the warm
+Pacific Ocean strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current,
+which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they
+reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To be sure, there
+are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes
+of the coast range that the hillsides are clothed with flowers, but
+this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the
+great stretches of desert pampa in the midst of which we now were. Like
+the other pampas of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the
+sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These médanos interested us greatly.
+
+The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle
+breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward the
+ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a
+regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving the heavier
+particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat
+increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up from the ocean to
+fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air
+that rise from the overheated pampas. During the early afternoon this
+wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It
+is now strong enough to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It
+sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits
+them in pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains
+stationary at night while the lighter particles are rolled downhill,
+but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of
+the following afternoon. The result is the beautiful crescent-shaped
+médano.
+
+
+
+
+
+About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot--far superior to any
+that we had been able to secure near Cuzco--trotted briskly into the
+dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was
+nearly seven o'clock before we started off in the moonlight for the
+oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail
+winding down into a dark canyon we caught a glimpse of something
+white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest;
+Coropuna! Shortly before nine o'clock we reached a little corral,
+where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with
+a clean, stone-paved floor, where we set up our cots, only to be
+awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to
+avoid the terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest
+------
+
+
+Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day,
+but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or ten hours'
+steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack
+animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most caravans travel, so far
+as possible, by night. Our first desert, the pampa of Sihuas, was
+reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see
+what was to be seen. We got up about half-past four and were off
+before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in
+Arequipa or because they thought he looked like a good horseman,
+or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given
+Mr. Hinckley a very spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew,
+her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was done,
+and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal
+Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on his dangerous mule we
+rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over
+paths flanked by willows and fig trees. The chief industry of Vitor is
+the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The
+wine is aged in huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the
+ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line,
+awaiting sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
+who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean crocks.
+
+The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which
+the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out of
+foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is
+the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards; on the other
+side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the
+oasis there is an abundance of water. Much of it runs to waste. The
+wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land
+could easily be put under cultivation. The chief difficulties are
+the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer
+world, the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over
+the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be
+extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now unoccupied.
+
+A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim
+of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of Coropuna, glistening
+in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was
+a short one, for in less than three minutes we had to descend another
+canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the pampa of Sihuas. There
+was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the
+distance was Coropuna, and I had just begun to study the problem of
+possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's
+mule trotted briskly across the trail directly in front of me, kicked
+up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer,
+camera, plates, and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a
+stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance
+before he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep
+the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little "Mummery"
+tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid to
+the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the
+vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in Mr. Hinckley's
+leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain
+climbing. With Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa
+that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have
+the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached the glaciers. To
+be sure, there was the corporal--but would he go? Indians do not like
+snow mountains. Packing up the tent again, we resumed our course over
+the desert.
+
+The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a
+huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We
+should have been compelled to camp in the open with the arrieros had
+not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his
+vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes and sweet
+native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert
+of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps the widest, hottest,
+and most barren in this region. Our arrieros were unwilling to cross
+it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water
+and water. The next day we enjoyed the hospitality of our kindly host
+until after supper.
+
+So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to
+rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against the sun
+and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the
+larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating ditches. On the
+roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried
+mud. It is not necessary to plaster the sides of the houses, for it
+is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing to look
+out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the
+valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after hour, across
+the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and
+at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of a tumbled mass of enormous
+sand dunes--the result of hundreds of médanos blown across the pampa
+of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us
+three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert to a
+point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles
+across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks and sand. The
+bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes
+River, too deep to be forded even in the dry season. A very large
+part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and
+consists of a wild jungle, difficult of access in the dry season and
+impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast
+between the gigantic hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was
+very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape
+was the long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger
+and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would
+be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley and have some
+breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado),
+a huge volcanic boulder covered with rude pictographs. Further
+search in the vicinity revealed about one hundred of these boulders,
+each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of
+houses near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been
+past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection
+of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars, birds, men,
+and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the
+interest and excitement of investigating the "rocas jeroglificos,"
+as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no
+food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few pictures
+we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary
+bridge. It was built to last only during the dry season. To construct
+a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We
+spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant little village where it was almost
+impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley
+to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of Castilla, called
+by its present inhabitants "Majes," although on Raimondi's map that
+name is applied only to the river and the neighboring desert. In 1865,
+at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now
+it seems more healthy. The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed
+by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian
+ancestry. Many of them appeared to be unusually businesslike. The
+proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes,
+the name of which he pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a
+long time. "W" is unknown in Spanish and the letters "a," "l," and "k"
+are never found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of
+"Valluck-ofair'," accenting strongly the last syllable, we could not
+imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we
+could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately the well-advertised
+name of a widely known shoe.
+
+At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa,
+alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar cane, from
+which aguardiente, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that
+the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far
+back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so much wine in the
+community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives,
+who were not only hospitable but energetic--far more so, in fact,
+than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold
+and the difficulty of making a living have reacted upon the Indians,
+often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The
+residences of the wine growers are sometimes very misleading. A typical
+country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long,
+low, flat roof and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it
+an unattractive appearance; yet to one's intense surprise the inside
+may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and
+a phonograph.
+
+Our conscientious and hard-working arrieros rose at two o'clock the
+next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead
+of them, from an elevation of 1000 feet above sea level to 10,000
+feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could
+be obtained. We had now left the region of tropical products and come
+back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought us
+past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic
+"treasure seeker" of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000 inhabitants and
+is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which
+we had selected several months before as the rendezvous for the attack
+on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals
+of the temperate zone are easily raised. The town is surrounded by
+gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence
+of intensive cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches
+of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by
+Señor Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told us to set up our
+cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from
+the local officials, including the provincial physician, Dr. Pastór,
+and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro
+Coello. The last two were keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna.  They
+told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the
+mountain could be seen, and offered to take us up there. We accepted,
+thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to
+join in the climb, for we needed another man on the rope. Professor
+Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes
+whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away. It seemed
+clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the
+mass (koro = "cut off at the top"; puna = "a cold, snowy height"),
+was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern
+peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped dome we could just make out a
+northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to
+be higher than the western peak which we decided to climb. No one
+knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be
+had. The wildest opinions were expressed as to the best routes and
+methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he
+knew how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him "guide"
+for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring was now well
+advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that
+there had been a heavy snowstorm on the mountain a few days before. If
+summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time,
+and we proceeded to arrange the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+Our instruments for determining altitude consisted of a special
+mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of
+Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures as one might
+expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the
+Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
+of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green;
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was
+still doing good service; and one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our
+most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials
+should get broken. Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks,
+the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct,
+with special care, two large "Watkins" aneroids capable of recording
+altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed to
+be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know
+anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter had miscarried. It
+was not until we opened our specially ordered "mountain grub" boxes
+here in Chuquibamba that we found, alongside of the pemmican and
+self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by
+Grace Brothers, the two precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm
+clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety,
+we felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether
+there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed the
+top of America.
+
+For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was
+due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey along the 73d
+meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a
+signal at or near the top which Hendriksen could use as a station in
+order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must
+be confessed, was to enjoy the satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel,
+of conquering a "virgin peak."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Climbing Coropuna
+
+The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than
+the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October 10th
+before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in
+sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it with care. The
+plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood
+out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is really a range about twenty
+miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one
+end to the other. So deep did the fresh snow lie that it was generally
+impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could
+see that of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably
+the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern, end of
+the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its
+smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged to a later volcanic period
+than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of
+all. To reach it did not appear to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes
+ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls,
+appeared to culminate in a saddle at the base of the great snowy
+dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken,
+if steep, path to the top. If we could once reach the snow line,
+it looked as though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes,
+we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the South
+------
+
+
+Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more
+than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep quebradas, and very rough aa lava. Directed by our "guide,"
+we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the
+lava flows and slowly ascending the gentle slope of the plateau. As
+it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting
+for them to get their wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short
+rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a
+steep-walled canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front
+of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of
+going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued as to how much he
+knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any
+huts whatever in the canyon. "Abandonado; despoblado; desierto." "A
+waste; a solitude; a wilderness." So he described it. Had he been
+there? "No, Señor." Luckily we had been able to make out from the rim
+of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no
+question that we ought to get to the snow line as soon as possible, we
+decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a "guide,"
+and make such way as we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the
+canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from
+mountain sickness. The arrieros began to complain loudly, but did
+what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears;
+the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing for soroche. As
+soon as the timid arrieros reached a point where they could see
+down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture,
+cheered up a bit, and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the
+"guide." Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us
+with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay in advance and
+offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents
+and took advantage of the sheltering stone wall of her corral for
+our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly
+evident that we were harmless, the door of one of the huts opened
+and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance
+before our arrival had been the easily discernible presence in our
+midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had
+selected this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a
+guilty conscience and at the sight of a gendarme decided that he had
+better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of
+a recruiting party, since it is quite likely that he had not served
+his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife
+discovered that we were not looking for her man, she allowed his
+curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a
+few llamas. They also made crude pottery, firing it with straw and
+llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from chuño,
+frozen bitter potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000
+feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family,
+a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to
+persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help to carry
+the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they
+declined absolutely and positively. I think one of the men might have
+gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering
+she broke out in a torrent of violent denunciation, telling him the
+mountain would "eat him up" and that unless he wanted to go to heaven
+before his time he had better let well enough alone and stay where he
+was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna "the devil" talks "more freely" than
+usual. "For some secret reason known to God, it is said that devils
+walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are
+much terrified. I have also heard that these devils have appeared to
+Christians in the form of Indians." Perhaps the voluble housewife was
+herself one of the famous Coropuna devils. She certainly talked "more
+freely" than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna "devils"
+were now appearing to Indians "in the form of" Christians! Anyhow the
+Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful, warm
+paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of
+brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those faithful denizens
+of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy
+themselves in this charming spot on their upward flight. Like most
+primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an
+abject terror of the forbidding summits and the snowstorms that seem
+to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate
+the demons who dwell on the mountain tops by inventing charming
+stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in
+the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca, the great explorer Raimondi,
+in 1865, found the natives "exiled from the civilized world, still
+preserving their primitive customs... carrying idols to the slopes
+of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a
+sacrifice." Apparently the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts
+of all those who live near it.
+
+The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten
+times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity, that we
+added offers of the precious coca leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired
+"fire-water," the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually
+coveted by Peruvian highlanders, had no effect in the face of the
+terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness
+was one of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages
+of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the
+realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood all these
+matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language of
+our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not
+only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian gentlemen
+always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and
+improper. I have known one of the most energetic and efficient business
+men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to
+dislike being obliged to carry a rolled and unmounted photograph,
+little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a cargador, an
+Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do
+his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to climb with
+heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several
+thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument with the Indians
+was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made
+more and more generous. All was in vain. We finally came to realize
+that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would
+have to be borne on our own shoulders. That evening the top of the
+truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp,
+was bathed in a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air,
+however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the gendarme's mule became homesick and disappeared with
+Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders
+to follow us as soon as possible.
+
+As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to
+persuade the Tejadas to take their pack mules up as far as the snow,
+a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone
+as far as and farther than mules had any business to go. Soon after
+reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that
+there was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on
+the lower slopes of the mountains. The arrieros denied the accuracy
+of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed
+to go as far as there was a good path, and no farther. There was no
+question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as
+high up as possible before we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It
+may be imagined that the arrieros packed very slowly and grudgingly,
+although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving
+behind our saddles, ordinary supplies, and everything not considered
+absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it
+best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as not to hear
+the arrieros' constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard
+climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the
+edge of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied
+equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse,
+black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced to
+unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a
+violent and acrimonious dispute as to whether the letter of the
+contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone "as far as they
+could reasonably be expected to go." The truth was, the Tejadas
+were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure
+it would take revenge on them by destroying their mules, who would
+"certainly die the following day of soroche." We offered a bonus of
+thirty soles--fifteen dollars--if they would go on for another hour,
+and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep
+little rise the arrieros stopped again. This time they succeeded in
+unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and
+boulders to stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The
+only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement "in writing" that in case any mule or mules died as
+a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line, I
+should pay in gold two hundred soles for each and every mule that
+died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty soles if they
+would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document,
+having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello, seated on a lava rock
+amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed
+and sealed. In order that there might be no dispute as to the time,
+my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until
+noon. The mules were reloaded and again the ascent began. Presently the
+mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with
+huge lava boulders and scoriaceous sand. We expected more trouble every
+minute. However, the arrieros, having made an advantageous bargain,
+did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the
+snow line just fifteen minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas
+lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return
+in ten days, and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the
+side of the mountain.
+
+We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents,
+the "Mummery," a very light and diminutive wall tent about four feet
+high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of
+fairly heavy material, with floor sewed in; and an improved pyramidal
+tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after
+one used on Mt. McKinley by Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two
+openings--a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being
+closed by an adjustable cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance
+through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any
+desired extent with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor,
+measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent
+upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the ground, or
+snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without
+difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily ventilated and yet
+giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the
+wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent with us on the
+climb. We determined to carry the "Mummery" to the top of the mountain
+to use while taking observations.
+
+The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised
+and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites and no
+soroche. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small
+diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water for
+cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in
+pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal pulse is 70. After
+I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to
+120. After I had been seated awhile it dropped down to 100. Gradually
+our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of
+malaise and general disability. There was a splendid sunset, but we
+were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had
+some headache. A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened
+to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what
+moment we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters,
+we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair warning
+of what might happen higher up.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We
+all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe
+heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially prepared
+for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever
+tasted it before. We decided that it is not very palatable on first
+acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend
+long periods of time in the Arctic, where even seal's blubber is a
+delicacy "as good as cow's cream," I presume we could have done just
+as well without it.
+
+It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and
+supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of a week's
+duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures
+due to the necessity of the explorers' being obliged to return to
+food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of
+a new peak. One remembers the frequent disappointments that came
+to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in
+Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile and Argentina, due to high winds,
+the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by
+soroche. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to
+try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that no
+unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the
+mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds in a single
+day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other
+chores, they started off, packing loads of about twenty-five pounds
+each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily
+slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops
+seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult at a
+high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for
+those suffering from soroche as it is for a sailor to appreciate the
+sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of
+observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the
+cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be weighed,
+so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following
+day. We had two small kerosene stoves with Primus burners. Our grub,
+ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican
+in 8 1/4-pound tins, Kola chocolate in half-pound tins, seeded raisins
+in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6 1/2-pound
+tins, jam, sticks of dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few
+of Silver's self-heating "messtins" containing Irish stew, beef à la
+mode, et al. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found
+his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did not
+relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm
+clothes which we had provided for him and learned that he would get
+a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided
+to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported
+that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the first part
+of the climb and that a cache had been established about 2000 feet
+above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs
+for the morrow and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness
+with which we were to carry them.
+
+Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I
+still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican pudding
+with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to
+eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better, one reason being
+that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The
+weather continued fine. Watkins was due to arrive from Arequipa in
+a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further
+risk of encountering an early summer snowstorm. The next morning,
+after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs,
+we left camp about nine o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain
+Club snow-creepers, or crampons, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen
+helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be
+remembered by visitors to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides
+who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been
+maimed for life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great
+altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs
+of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy underdrawers.
+
+Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I
+had woolen puttees and "Arctic" overshoes. Tucker improvised what
+he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and
+pieces of a rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing
+ahead of us, we decided to depend on crampons rather than on the
+heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it
+was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We found that,
+loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty
+steps at a time. On the more level snow fields we took twenty-five
+or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint
+it seemed as though they would be the last steps we should ever
+take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with
+mountain-sickness, we would stop and lean on our ice axes until able
+to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a
+glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very wide, and nearly
+all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although
+there was an occasional fall no great strain was put on the rope. Then
+came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part
+our day was simply an unending succession of stints--twenty-five steps
+and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five
+steps and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along
+until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow stopped all
+progress. At an altitude of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was
+pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that
+the two big aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the
+temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood
+at 22° F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9°
+F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in the
+northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us
+considerably. We feared the expected November storms might be ahead of
+time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to
+the ventilating device at the top of the tent, we managed to breathe
+fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally
+observed that one of the symptoms of acute soroche is a very annoying,
+racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied
+by nausoa. We had not experienced this at 17,000 feet, but now it
+began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing
+days and nights, particularly nights, until we got back to the Indians'
+huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another
+by coughing.
+
+The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a
+miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing for
+it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with
+the same steady drudgery--now a little harder than the day before. We
+broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude
+of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field within a mile of the saddle
+between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked
+possible to reach the summit in one more day's climb from here. The
+aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch
+the tent, the others went back to the cache to bring up some of the
+supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy
+as those which Tucker and Coello had first brought up, we had not
+passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared
+again I was so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like
+pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were
+within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before
+turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow and make
+a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the
+morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer registered
+7° F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away
+four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent they are obliged to sleep so
+close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown
+sleeping-bag, blankets, and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We
+did, however, suffer from soroche. Violent whooping cough assailed
+us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by
+counting my pulse occasionally, only to find that it persistently
+refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't
+know where it went on the actual climb. So far as I could determine,
+it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet
+tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was found to be
+frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an
+hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough for practical purposes
+when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the
+tea-pot! Never did men keep their tempers better under more aggravating
+circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my
+clumsy accident, although poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the
+down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder
+(but somewhat drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated
+a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more
+frozen snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and
+Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker
+tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of our outfit and
+provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things
+as were absolutely necessary. They included the Mummery tent with
+pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins
+aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks,
+six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer,
+a Stanley pocket level, an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope,
+three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale
+flag. In order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried
+four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle soup,
+a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes
+of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about twenty pounds each.
+
+To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine
+and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon the snow
+had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now
+everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five o'clock. It was
+still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut
+off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls. To reach it we must
+first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently
+unbroken slope extended to the top. Our progress was distressingly
+slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came
+a painful surprise. To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the
+peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now
+it actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From
+the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly seemed
+to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly
+facing the possibility that our painful labors might be in vain and
+that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to
+doubt whether we should have strength enough for both. Loss of sleep,
+soroche, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. We should have
+had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for
+our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly. As it was, not more than
+a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest
+part. Tucker was first on the rope, I was second, Coello third, and
+Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high
+altitude was sapping all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump
+of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the
+system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires. A single
+cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course,
+one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did help to tide over
+difficult places.
+
+We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and
+climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be the top,
+obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then
+Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were too much out of breath
+to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we
+painfully came to the edge of what looked like the summit we saw the
+cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope
+three hundred feet higher than where we were standing. It may seem
+strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to
+find that we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however,
+that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to give to the consideration
+of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts
+had sunk within us at the thought that possibly, after all, we might
+find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another
+three hundred feet, which would undoubtedly take us above the highest
+point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of
+two possible evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us
+was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on
+our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at last, at
+half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the
+20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point of Coropuna. As
+we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having
+successfully engineered the first ascent of this great mountain,
+stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly
+motioned me to go ahead in order that the director of the Expedition
+might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In
+order to appreciate how great a sacrifice he was willing to make,
+it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition
+was due chiefly to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire
+to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated
+his kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far
+as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+
+The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow field, almost flat,
+having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and
+south and 175 feet east and west. If it once were, as we suppose, a
+volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and
+ice. There were no rocks to be seen on the rim--only the hard crust of
+the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in
+the extreme. We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted
+with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on
+top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have frequently
+spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest,
+twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada, a reddish desert, rose
+snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the
+range of Coropuna itself; several of the lesser peaks being only a
+few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined
+we could see the faint blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the
+difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction coming
+from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had
+led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak in the Pacific,
+Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing
+the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be appreciative of the views
+which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I
+could not take the least interest or pleasure in the view from the
+top of Coropuna, nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction
+in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt
+greatly depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his
+bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging
+the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my surprise and
+dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above
+sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a thousand feet higher,
+22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of
+22,775 feet, and considerably below Bandelier's "23,000 feet." This
+was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would
+at least show a margin over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763
+feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We
+took what comfort we could from the fact that the aneroids, which
+had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so
+obviously untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove
+to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now
+be reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we
+were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the wooden
+box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow,
+leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level, and took a
+squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So
+each of us in turn lay down in the snow and took a squint. It was
+all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and
+a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight. At any
+rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for
+any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After arriving at
+this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent,
+set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer, arranged the boiling
+point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and
+notebooks proceeded to take as many observations as possible in the
+next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that
+at the same hour readings were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp
+and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The
+barometer was suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the
+tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now
+stood at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the
+barometer was exactly +32° F. At the same time, inside the tent we
+got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water
+boils at sea level at a temperature of 212° F. Here it boiled at 174°
+F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been
+heated for the hypsometer. We were thirsty enough to have drunk five
+times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions
+except a few raisins, some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent
+as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left it
+on top, first having placed in it one of the Appalachian Mountain
+Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag,
+a contemporary map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the
+ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole,
+which we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could
+be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief
+Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make his survey,
+it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and
+buried it in the snow.
+
+We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp
+two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part of the way down
+to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and
+we got up too much speed for comfort, so we finally had to be content
+with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little
+wind. Mountain climbers have more to fear from excessively high winds
+than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred
+to interfere with the best progress we were physically capable of
+making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many
+supplies with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute
+mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does
+get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful. No one in
+the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet or
+pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of
+mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities, apparently
+not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could
+have stood it. It is difficult to believe that with strength enough
+to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The
+violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated again
+in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little
+nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower altitude as
+fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our
+supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes later, without
+having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked
+up. Although many things had been abandoned, our loads seemed heavier
+than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but
+Gamarra was the only one actually to fall in, and he was easily pulled
+out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two
+animated specks far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing
+somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he
+could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks, although we
+did not see it at the time. The "specks" turned out to be Watkins
+and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was safe without ropes or
+crampons, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached
+at half-past twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning
+was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had
+carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while he had given
+me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course,
+does not include the weight of our ice-creepers, axes, or rope.
+
+The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was
+almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even to lift one's
+hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully
+swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed best to make every effort
+to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp,
+got the loads ready without waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets
+on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately
+our malaise left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths
+as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than
+the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without getting
+out of breath; the aggravating "whooping cough" left us; and our
+appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered from the effects
+of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly
+had allowed myself to eat a considerable amount of snow. As a result
+my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit
+tasted like broken glass. Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling
+to keep his snow-glasses always in place and thought to relieve his
+eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial
+snow-blindness. The rest of us were spared any inflammation of the
+eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling
+arrieros, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our
+adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas gave us
+hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the
+loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and
+found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15° 31' South, and the longitude
+to be 72° 42' 40'' West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be
+21,703 feet above sea level. The result of comparing the readings of
+our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous
+readings taken at Arequipa gave practically the same figures. There
+was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna
+proves to be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate,
+and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in
+North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach the top,
+we all agreed we would never do it again!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+To Parinacochas
+
+After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set
+out for Parinacochas, the "Flamingo Lake" of the Incas. The late Sir
+Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of
+"The Conquest of Peru," had called attention to this unexplored lake
+in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
+named a bathymetric survey of Parinacochas as one of the principal
+desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge
+from the published maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than
+Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough
+search of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding
+its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it was that it
+had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in
+Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted General San Martin in the
+Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs
+in London in 1828. During the campaigns against the Spanish forces
+in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the
+interior. On one of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of
+Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is "brackish." This
+statement of General Miller's and the suggestion of Sir Clements
+Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important
+contribution to geographical knowledge was all that we were able to
+learn. Our arrieros, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas,
+but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to
+get there. Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the
+capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman and
+Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the
+Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a new supply of
+food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance
+of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out of the Chuquibamba Valley
+by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over
+the gently sloping, semi-arid desert in a northerly direction, around
+the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night
+on the Pampa of Chumpillo, our arrieros used dried moss and dung for
+fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were
+llamas pasturing on the plains. Near our tent were some Inca ruins,
+probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains
+of a temple described by Cieza de Leon (1519-1560), whose remarkable
+accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the
+Pizarros are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most
+important temples in the Land of the Incas was one "much venerated and
+frequented by them, named Coropuna." "It is on a very lofty mountain
+which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings
+of Peru visited this temple making presents and offerings .... It
+is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts
+offered to this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and
+precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol,
+and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But as there
+are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is
+it known where these are hidden. This temple possessed many flocks,
+farms, and service of Indians." No one lives here now, but there are
+many flocks and llamas, and not far away we saw ancient storehouses
+and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were
+kept awake by the bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields
+of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from
+the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance of peat
+and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of
+its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the lower spurs of Coropuna
+into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand,
+the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada. It is for the most part between
+15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest
+by the canyon of the Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp
+and passed a more agreeable night. The following morning we climbed
+out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern
+slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail turned abruptly to the left,
+away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day,
+less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks, like El
+Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been
+known in the memory of man to give forth great showers of cinders
+covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great
+truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering of the
+ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast
+accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this vicinity goes
+far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous
+amount of erosion that has taken place in the adjacent canyons and
+the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by
+the mighty streams of the glacial period all point to this conclusion.
+
+My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle
+enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way. In her
+case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to
+her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I took some notes,
+she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and
+kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring or lashing with a stout
+quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I
+was particularly anxious to get a picture of our pack train jogging
+steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. Since
+my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, run a couple of
+hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the
+picture before they reached me. We were now at an elevation of 16,000
+feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it
+was relatively as easy to run here as anywhere, so accustomed had my
+lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such
+a strenuous feat at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it
+would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run
+two hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and
+pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches of tough
+grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered
+with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we saw a number of vicuñas,
+the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get
+near enough for a photograph. They were extremely timid and scampered
+away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought
+us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent canyon,
+the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon
+were covered with innumerable terraces--thousands of them. It seemed
+at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been
+either terraced or allotted to some compact little village. One could
+count more than a score of towns, including Cotahuasi itself, its long
+main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into
+the canyon our road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces
+and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several
+weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley bottoms showed
+any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent
+to which terracing had been carried on the side of the Cotahuasi
+Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it
+was evident from the extraordinary irrigation system that agriculture
+here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the
+great mountains in the interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation
+canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired
+than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that there is no
+part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops
+where nature made it hard for them to be planted. In other countries,
+to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve
+to bring water long distances to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We
+also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper
+chemical formula, the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils
+with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great
+regions where nature has provided fertile fields and made it easy to
+raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or
+prehistoric times, does one find farmers spending incredible amounts
+of labor in actually creating arable fields, besides bringing the
+water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that
+is what was done by the ancient highlanders of Peru. As they spread
+over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great
+an elevation as to be suitable for only the hardiest of root crops,
+like the white potato and the oca, they were driven to use narrow
+valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the
+precious maize and many of the other temperate and tropical plants
+which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were
+constantly confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the
+valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear
+it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently so very
+steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The
+farmer might wake up any morning to find that a heavy rain during
+the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted
+fields. Consequently there was developed, through the centuries,
+a series of stone-faced andenes, terraces or platforms.
+
+Examination of the ancient andenes discloses the fact that they were
+not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a
+carefully constructed stone wall. The space back of the walls was
+first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; then followed
+smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the
+subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and to a depth of eighteen
+inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The
+result was the best possible field for intensive cultivation. It
+seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains
+should have been taken for such relatively small results. The need
+must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few
+feet wide, although hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow
+the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred
+yards wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and
+alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place
+where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized of all
+Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many
+landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak plateaus of the
+surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep,
+and alpacas.
+
+We were cordially welcomed by Señor Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and
+invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the locality, and,
+as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central
+government, was none too popular with some of the people of his
+province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi
+have ever been to Lima;--probably not a single member of the Lima
+government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not
+expect to find much sympathy between the two. The difficulties of
+traveling in Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With
+our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the
+government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect. By nature a
+kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence,
+Señor Viscarra showed himself most courteous and hospitable to us in
+every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They
+brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt and Elihu Root, and made a
+large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the
+flag did have only thirty-six stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid
+banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend
+us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a barber-shop. The
+chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we
+accepted with pleasure. When the barber arrived, closely guarded by a
+gendarme armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict
+from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his crime,
+but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of
+clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag, I wished I was in
+a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The
+sub-prefect, however, had been so kind and was so apologetic as to
+the inconveniences of the "barber-shop" that there was nothing for it
+but to go bravely forward. Although it was unpleasant to have one's
+hair trimmed by an uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not
+help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a
+pair of shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the
+period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his fees
+with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed
+with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away by the gendarme.
+
+We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and
+Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary difficulties
+in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now
+past the worst of it. Their supplies were exhausted, so those which we
+had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned
+to assist Mr. Hendriksen and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south
+to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him
+as escort Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the
+machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was Gamarra
+who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the
+time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some months previous to
+our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For
+Gamarra's sake they left the house at three o'clock in the morning
+and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his
+important monograph, "The Andes of Southern Peru," Dr. Bowman writes:
+"At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened
+the gates noiselessly and our small cavalcade hurried through the
+pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle
+across his saddle, and directly behind him rode the sub-prefect and
+myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the
+end of the street when a door opened suddenly and a shower of sparks
+flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his
+mule and turned into a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse
+back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed
+me against the wall and whispered, 'For God's sake, who is it?' Then
+suddenly he shouted. 'Stop blowing! Stop blowing!' "
+
+The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor
+who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's work by
+pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand
+an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals, on which he had
+been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor
+and his ancient goose should have been able to cause such terrific
+excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own
+Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was fond of referring to this picturesque
+apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose
+that Startled the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to
+His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local rug-weaving
+industry.
+------
+
+
+The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and
+carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers make the warp
+and woof of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray,
+or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are cut
+so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm,
+gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has no pile. Probably the
+industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It
+seems to be restricted to this remote region. The rug makers are a
+small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their
+hand looms from house to house, as required. It is the custom for the
+person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish
+the weaver with board, lodging, coca, tobacco and wine, and watch the
+rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug
+weavers are very clever in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy
+of Señor Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven
+especially for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host,
+and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he knew the road to
+Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring
+stream on a treacherous-looking bridge, the central pier of which
+was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic
+boulder in midstream. The main arch of the bridge consisted of two
+long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down
+by earth and stones. There was no rail on either side, but our mules
+had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On
+the northern side of the valley we rode through a compact little town
+called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds
+of very fine artificial terraces, at present used for crops of maize
+and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall,
+an altogether surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid
+region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as
+well as the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection
+between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky
+zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture. Wherever the
+sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced
+terraces and irrigation had transformed them long ago into arable
+fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very
+fine series of beautiful terraces. On a shelf near the top of the
+canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by
+shepherds whose flocks grazed on the lofty plateau beyond, and near
+a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our
+camp was at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were
+turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed
+occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one of these
+we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the
+glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna, now growing fainter
+and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500
+feet we struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and
+sand--hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came to
+a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was
+intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged along beside my
+mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my
+experiences on Coropuna I suffered no discomfort, nor any symptoms
+of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five
+hundred yards. In the afternoon we began to descend from the plateau
+toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha,
+where ichu grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain
+and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and
+alpacas. Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian
+herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly
+because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the upper
+courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe
+them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the softest in
+the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding
+that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool was highly desired,
+many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the "alpaca"
+of commerce, a material used for coat linings, umbrellas, and thin,
+warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard
+surface, and generally dyed black. It usually contains no real alpaca
+wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real alpaca wool which comes into
+the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than
+the sheep's wool, it is strong, small of fiber, very soft, pliable and
+elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and
+comfort. Many of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the
+highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as "vicuña," "camel's hair," etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by
+the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of the camels of the
+New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of
+uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas are extremely variegated. The
+llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for
+wearing apparel, although heavy blankets made from it are in use by
+the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to
+the presence of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our
+horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage--short, tender grass and plenty of water--frequents the most
+remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only when the
+fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds,
+and is extremely shy of strangers, although not nearly as timid as its
+distant cousin the vicuña. I shall never forget the first time I ever
+saw some alpacas. They looked for all the world like the "woolly-dogs"
+of our toys shops--woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and
+woolly along the legs right down to the invisible wheels! There was
+something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They
+look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop like cows.
+
+The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing,
+but in a different way. His expression is haughty and supercilious
+in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is
+due to circumstances over which he really had no control. Pride of
+race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high
+and his neck so stiffly erect that he can be corralled, with others
+of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire
+group. Yet he can be bought for ten dollars.
+
+On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs,
+both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly children,
+more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind
+rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our notice. About five o'clock
+in the afternoon, on a dry pampa, we found the ruins of one of the
+largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder
+of the days when benevolent despots ruled the Andes and, like the
+Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is
+not occupied, yet near by are populous valleys.
+
+As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the
+edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep canyons
+so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned
+as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail. It overhangs the
+mud-colored Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of
+a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the
+sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair, but those
+near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes,
+and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered with cacti, thorn
+bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the
+town itself were half a dozen specimens of the Australian eucalyptus,
+that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one
+encounters not only in the heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia
+and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta
+------
+
+
+Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them
+have open verandas on the second floor--a sure indication that the
+climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried
+adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched huts of the
+majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and
+the great number of terraces in and around town, one may conclude
+that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of
+the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most Peruvian towns. The cities
+of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta,
+we wound around the base of the projecting ridge, on the sides of
+which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the
+valley of Huancahuanca, a large arid canyon. The guide said that we
+were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles away, across two canyons,
+was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great
+natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand feet
+above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and
+under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers at
+the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to
+enable them to cultivate a larger part of the pampa on which they
+lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of
+being carried out and has probably long since been completed. Our
+reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that
+our military escort, Corporal Gamarra, had gone back to Arequipa
+with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent arrieros, the Tejada brothers,
+declared they preferred to travel without any "brass buttons,"
+so we had not asked the sub-prefect of Cotahuasi to send one of
+his small handful of gendarmes along with us. Probably this was a
+mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood
+matter, such as prospecting for mines or representing one of the
+great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods,
+one cannot help arousing the natural suspicions of a people to whom
+traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific
+exploration for its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the
+explorers arrive accompanied by a gendarme it is perfectly evident
+that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial
+backing of the government. It is surmised that the explorers are
+well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely
+one of the ordinary experiences of life. South American governments
+almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are
+led to expect that all measures connected with research, whether it be
+scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government
+and paid for out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is
+not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had
+had such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize,
+how often an ever-present gendarme, provided through the courtesy of
+President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us
+a cordial welcome.
+
+Now, however, when without a gendarme we entered the smart little
+town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the
+objects of extreme suspicion and distrust. Yet we could not help
+admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and
+general air of prosperity and enterprise. The gobernador of the town
+lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and
+colonnade were probably two hundred years old. He had heard nothing
+of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take
+some hostile action. Fortunately, our arrieros, respectable men of high
+grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions
+temporarily. We were not placed under arrest, although I am sure
+his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors,
+who found it far easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives
+from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well
+known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that Lampa is famous
+for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep,
+alpacas, and vicuñas in this vicinity to make ponchos and blankets
+of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in
+Arequipa. These are marketed, as so often happens in the outlying
+parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who
+come hundreds of miles, bringing the manufactured articles of the
+outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded
+towns. The great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold
+generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an
+opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general enjoyment--like a
+large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin
+of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate as our own fair-grounds,
+with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the
+purposes of the fair. Had we been bound for Parinacochas at the proper
+season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why
+anybody should want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other
+fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension
+or understanding of these village worthies. So, to our "selectmen,"
+are the idiosyncrasies of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our
+deserted fair-grounds.
+
+The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town--probably
+because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the mules
+devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive
+in town than in the country. It was just as well for us that this
+was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would
+have persuaded the gobernador to arrest us. As it was, however, he was
+pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment
+of an Indian woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard
+and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around
+her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree. So she covered her
+eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at
+our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian women are invariably extremely
+shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape
+observation and notice. The ladies of the gobernador's own family,
+however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no
+objection to being photographed, but were moved to unseemly and
+unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we
+had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due to the
+enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might
+expect that citizens who kept their town so clean and neat and were
+engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would
+have a comfortable road in the direction toward which they usually
+would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences
+of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides of the valley
+or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa
+and whose products have made its people well fed and energetic. The
+town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so
+few, if any, evidences of the ancient régime when there are so many
+a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot
+believe that the Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural
+opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land
+and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing unnecessary
+in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand,
+it may have been occupied until late Inca times by one of the coast
+tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca
+divides two very different regions. To come in a few hours, from
+thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give
+us cause for thought and speculation. It is well known that in the
+early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before
+the Spanish Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes
+who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as different as possible in design
+and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is
+absolutely distinct. Relative abundance of flat lands never led them
+to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had
+done. Perhaps on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the
+coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and
+surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of
+Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower slopes separated
+from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near
+the top of the mountain. Our road ran near the towns of Pararca
+and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of
+thatched huts surrounded by hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on
+the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed
+fields of barley and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On
+every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in
+agriculture, utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared
+for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We
+noticed hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under
+cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+Our arrieros avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the
+roadside near the Finca Rodadero. After all, when one has a comfortable
+tent, good food, and skillful arrieros it is far pleasanter to spend
+the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation of 12,000
+or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an
+Indian town.
+
+The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town
+of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe houses
+placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the
+best arable land available for agriculture. It is in a shallow,
+well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country
+had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi. The desert and its
+steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of
+gently sloping hills, covered with terraces, where the cereals of the
+temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain
+fields, we climbed up to a shallow depression in the low range at the
+head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland
+basin more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was
+a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most of the
+lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light
+salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color? Nothing but
+flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes--Parinacochas at last!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Flamingo Lake
+
+The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and
+12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest of
+Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount
+of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams. In past
+geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not
+far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas has no visible
+outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we
+came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed from the lake. On the other
+hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake,
+generally occurring in swampy hillocks--built up perhaps by mineral
+deposits--three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There
+are very old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that
+in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at present,
+although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had
+been much more than a foot above its present level. Nevertheless a
+rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+When making preparations in New Haven for the "bathymetric survey of
+Lake Parinacochas," suggested by Sir Clements Markham, we found it
+impossible to discover any indication in geographical literature as
+to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand
+feet. We decided to take a chance on its not being more than ten
+hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured
+a thousand feet of stout fish line, known to anglers as "24 thread,"
+wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we
+were at Chuquibamba Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting
+one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot
+intervals in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able
+more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker
+and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for fodder,
+and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles
+on muleback, for the sounding operations. The "Acme" proved easy
+to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its
+lightness enabled it to be floated at the edge of the lake even in
+very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late
+afternoon when the high winds raised a vicious little "sea." Rowing
+out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before
+been navigated by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake
+Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought
+no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding slow work,
+and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation that I rowed
+out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel
+firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard. The reel gave a turn
+or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was
+the reel stuck? No, the apparatus was in perfect running order. Then
+what was the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains
+that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best strong
+24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient
+insertion of one hundred and sixty-six "fathom-markers"! The bottom of
+the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After
+three or four days of strenuous rowing up and down the eighteen
+miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen
+miles of its width, I never succeeded in wetting Watkins's first
+marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of
+water anywhere. Possibly if we had come in the rainy season we might
+at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November,
+1911), the lake had a maximum depth of 4 1/2 feet. The satisfaction of
+making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so
+shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story of
+the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near
+one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor was reported
+by the natives to be "bottomless." He ordered one of the ship's heavy
+boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt
+lake, at great expenditure of strength and labor. The story told me
+in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow,
+they found this "fathomless" body of water to be not more than fifteen
+feet deep.
+
+Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I
+was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat, for it
+enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which
+use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite feeding ground;
+pink flamingoes, white gulls, small "divers," large black ducks,
+sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large geese. On the banks
+were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the
+natives should have named this body of water "Parinacochas" (Parina =
+"flamingo," cochas = "lake"). The flamingoes are here in incredible
+multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said,
+actually make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately
+they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid. After
+two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me
+approach within twenty yards before finally taking wing. The coloring,
+in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The
+head is white, the beak black, the neck white shading into salmon-pink;
+the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail
+salmon-pink. The wings are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and
+the under-parts are black. As they stand or wade in the water their
+general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the
+water, however, the black under-parts of the wings become strikingly
+conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful
+contrast in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep
+his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the ropelike
+neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure
+that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless, I thought the heavy
+body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform
+speed, the difference being caught up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara
+------
+
+
+The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman
+nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in a most
+incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind
+from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse croaking, "What is it,"
+"What is it," seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the
+sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes
+were very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse
+"What-is-it's." Apparently they failed to find out the answer in time
+to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all
+sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads tucked under
+their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was
+quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In the afternoon, as winds
+and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left
+the water. The great extent of shallow water in Parinacochas offers
+them a splendid, wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all
+came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were
+thousands and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests,
+either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank
+Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or
+terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean lake 11,500
+feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several
+hundred. There were quantities of small black divers in the deeper
+parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were
+very quick and keen, true individualists operating alone and showing
+astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large
+black ducks were much more fearless than the flamingoes and were
+willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over
+the water at a tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their
+efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about
+as common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few
+tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest, possibly
+belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near
+our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers, who in this country
+look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great
+amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle, calmly eating
+the succulent water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head
+and neck well under the surface.
+
+While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes,
+Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the first
+accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point
+to point he often stirred up little ground owls, who gazed at him with
+solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to
+regard his activities with suspicion and dislike. Part of my work was
+to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on
+the well-rounded hills so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as
+rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations
+would disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived
+in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods set
+up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being
+preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle feeding on flat
+lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin are bare of trees, and offer some pasturage. In some places they
+are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by
+the degenerate descendants of sheep brought into the country during
+Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in
+color, although there were many black ones. We were told that the
+sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the
+shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame their shyness,
+and a group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought
+their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to gaze
+stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house,
+actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake, and busied
+themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering
+a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women wore dresses of heavy
+material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of
+hats they had small variegated shawls, made on hand looms, folded
+so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck
+and shoulders from sun and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with
+a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a
+hammock or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These
+sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated with
+attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys
+wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats and long trousers
+much too large for them.
+
+At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of
+Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be
+remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than it is at
+present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In
+the days of its greater altitude, and consequently wider snow fields,
+the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much
+larger body of water. Although we were here at the beginning of summer,
+the wind that came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our
+minimum thermometer registered 22° F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the
+borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most shallow
+bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the
+water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten inches below the surface,
+was 61° F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By
+noon the temperature of the water half a mile from shore was 67.5°
+F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring
+up the shallow water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature
+of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining
+brightly almost directly overhead, it went down to 65° by 2:30 P.M.
+
+The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our
+camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although in
+each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water,
+taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and analyzed
+by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He
+found that it contained small quantities of silica, iron phosphate,
+magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium
+nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate, sodium sulphate, and a
+considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains
+more carbonate and potassium than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical "salt"
+waters, that of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position,
+containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let
+their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there was excellent
+alfalfa forage. The arrieros engaged at their own expense a pack
+train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the
+custom hereabouts to enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of
+rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The
+Indians who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy
+fellows, dressed in "store clothes" and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty,
+but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to haul them
+near the loads.
+
+Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, "the house of the
+Inca," at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi visited it
+in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies
+one of the houses. The other buildings are used only during the third
+week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted
+plaza were many low stone rectangles partly covered with adobe and
+ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long,
+thatched buildings of adobe and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A
+few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient
+stonemasons. Some loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled
+the attempts of modern builders.
+
+In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully
+laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well named; there had
+been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple--lakes were once
+objects of worship--or rest-house, constructed in order to enable the
+chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains
+of the Incas. We found the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably
+potatoes and other root crops were once raised here in fairly large
+quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The
+hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches in which
+are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one
+time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe, but these walls had
+been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of
+whatever objects of value they might have contained. We found nine or
+ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls
+seemed to have been trepanned.
+
+On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet
+wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones. No effort
+had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no
+evidence of its having been used in recent times. It runs from the
+lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley,
+where there are many terraces and cultivated fields; it is not far from
+Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up and piled on each side to
+save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The
+llama dislikes to step over any obstacle, even a very low wall. The
+grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to
+proceed in the desired direction.
+
+In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and
+small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for temporary
+protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come
+up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation (12,000 feet). The
+shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough,
+scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures varied from 8 to 25
+feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent
+occupation. The smaller walls may have been the foundation of small
+circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to
+keep alpacas and llamas from straying at night and to guard against
+wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age
+of these remains. It is possible that they represent a settlement
+of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and
+size of the walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may
+have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the
+hills west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca,
+which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center of one
+of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its
+very delicate pottery.
+
+Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. Near us the traces
+of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals,
+substantiating my belief that this curious roadway was intended to keep
+the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south
+shores of the lake there were more signs of occupation than on the
+north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of
+the Incas as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of
+one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations of
+the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly
+precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very primitive dwellings
+had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could
+easily be defended. We found among the ruins a few crude potsherds
+and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the
+little hill village to give any indication of Inca origin. Probably
+it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about
+it. If there were traditions concerning it they were well concealed
+by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly
+terraced and cultivated. The tutu potato would grow here, a hardy
+variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable
+for making potato flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its
+bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the
+Peruvians, such as the oca, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the añu,
+a kind of nasturtium, and the ullucu (ullucus tuberosus).
+
+On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good
+repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the time of our
+visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts
+built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs, inhabited by drovers
+and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than
+elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer the sweet water grasses of the
+lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+Viscachas were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They
+are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the "chinchilla" of
+commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared
+from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees them, although
+they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa,
+a region rarely visited by any one on account of treacherous bogs and
+deep tams. Writers sometimes call viscachas "rabbit-squirrels." They
+have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do
+look like a cross between a rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon
+an unusually large herd of wild vicuñas. It included more than one
+hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the
+remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount of hunting that is done
+here. Vicuñas have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for
+their skins. Their silky fleece is even finer than alpaca. The more
+fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts,
+as soft as eider down and of a golden brown color.
+
+After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the
+arrieros to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured
+"Arequipa," and started south. We soon came to the rim of the
+Maraicasa Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the
+south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley is
+well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although
+few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were smooth and
+well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We
+passed through it and, after dark, reached Sondor, a tiny hamlet
+inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the
+darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the owners of a well-thatched hut,
+and told them how "important" we were. They were unwilling to give
+us any shelter, so we were forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky
+and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs,
+dogs, and cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark
+we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and
+wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime, when they
+can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also
+many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion. We had now
+left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into the desert. At
+length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes
+were gladdened at sight of the rich green oasis, a striking contrast
+to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding
+road we passed many fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the
+steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement
+by a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the
+Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers were
+unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a
+tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety. After an
+exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals
+and men were glad enough to leave the high, arid desert and enter
+the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa,
+its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus. The air, pungent with the
+smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of
+"La Victoria." Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates at the
+camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall
+long remember. After two months in the coastal desert it seemed like
+home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain
+had had in bringing his machinery across the plateau from the nearest
+port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on
+muleback each of the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was
+equivalent to the price of a first-class pack mule. As a matter of
+fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs
+are not built to survive the strain of carrying pieces of machinery
+weighing five hundred pounds over a desert plateau up to an altitude of
+4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of
+the canyon, but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep
+trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered,
+piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the obstacles
+with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man
+who designed the machinery ever traveled with a pack train, climbing
+up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am
+sure that he would have made his castings much smaller.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba
+------
+
+
+It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior
+of South America fail to realize that no single piece should be any
+heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on one side. One
+hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even
+a large, strong mule will last only a few days on such trails as
+are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of
+his cargo is over three hundred pounds. When a single piece weighs
+more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the
+animal. Then the load rocks, and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides
+causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a
+matter of expediency it is better to have the individual units weigh
+about seventy-five pounds. Such a weight is easier for the arrieros to
+handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day
+long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as usually happens
+in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair
+load for a man or a llama, two are right for a burro, and three for
+an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at
+"La Victoria," but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant shade
+trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse
+gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were surprised to find
+near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little
+circular or oval huts averaging eight feet in diameter. There was
+no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen
+in the vicinity, yet here had once been a village. It seemed to
+belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of
+the Parinacochas Basin. The road was one of the worst we encountered
+anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among
+huge piles of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered
+with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides men
+and animals.
+
+Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga,
+where we pitched our camps among the most extensive ruins that
+I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one
+hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely together. It gave
+one a strange sensation to find such a very large metropolis in what
+is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was
+strikingly reminiscent of some of the large groups of ruins in our
+own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were
+no terraces in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a
+large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and
+sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses had seats,
+or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained
+two or three small cells, possibly storerooms, with neither doors
+nor windows. We found a number of burial cists--some square, others
+rounded--lined with small cobblestones. In one house, at the foot of
+"cellar stairs" we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance
+to it was covered with a single stone lintel. In examining this
+tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a boba,
+a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth,
+long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled skin. At one
+place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its
+top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely
+carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The dishes must
+have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar,
+probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone war club; and a
+broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding
+corn. Two stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with
+a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled
+sinkers used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times
+larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie down
+roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of
+the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever decoration they once
+had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for
+archeological investigation. Unfortunately, we had heard nothing of
+it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to
+give it. After the first night camp in the midst of the dead city we
+made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it
+was, as a matter of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor
+T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece. We
+wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched
+houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud. Near it we
+encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking
+into town to sell and were willing to dispose of cheaply. The Tejadas
+could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain,
+although the circumstances were suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold
+sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only
+to discover on reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from
+thieves. We were able to clear our arrieros of any complicity in the
+theft. Nevertheless, the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay
+anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We
+spent one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Señor Benavides,
+the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route to
+Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before,
+spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+About three o'clock in the morning--after we had been jogging steadily
+along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of the night, the
+only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight
+an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly visible in the starlight--the
+eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since
+set. Could this be the approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at
+least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding
+the day; "the dawn comes up like thunder." Surely the moon could
+not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly
+brightening eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white
+light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy as
+a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor,
+neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us. It was the morning
+star. For sheer beauty, "divine, enchanting ravishment," Venus that day
+surpassed anything I have ever seen. In the words of the great Eastern
+poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, "the
+morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Titicaca
+
+Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air,
+bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling atmosphere
+dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau,
+surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani (20,000 ft.), El
+Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only
+one nightmare--earthquakes. About twice in a century the spirits of
+the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But
+they shake the bed! And Arequipa rests on their bed. The possibility
+of a "terremoto" is always present in the subconscious mind of the
+Arequipeño.
+
+One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable
+Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently and we heard
+a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To
+the members of the club, however, it meant only one thing--an
+earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded
+with hysterical people, crying, shouting, and running toward the great
+open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on
+their knees in gratitude at having escaped from falling walls, others
+prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls
+had fallen! In the business district a great column of black smoke
+was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs
+that the noise and the trembling had not been due to an earthquake,
+but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline,
+kerosene, dynamite and giant powder!
+
+In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are
+so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that there were
+no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the
+roaring furnace by dipping water from one of the azequias, or canals,
+that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense
+masses of smoke and flame. In any American city such a blaze would
+certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building
+to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter amazement
+the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even
+warm. Such is the result of building houses with massive walls of
+stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently
+no harm was done by sparks. So, without a fire department, this
+really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day
+the newspapers talked about the "dire necessity" of securing fire
+engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine
+could have done. Nothing could have saved the warehouse itself once
+the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have
+suffered more had they been deluged with streams of water. The facts
+are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of course
+that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody
+thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+
+
+A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief
+port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts a soldier's
+monument and a new theater, really a "movie palace." There is a good
+harbor, although dredging is necessary to provide for steamers like
+the Inca. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine--or, rather,
+a lacustrine--railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of totoras,
+giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers
+learned to dry the totoras, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten
+the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the
+sides as a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or balsa. Of
+course the balsas eventually become water-logged and spend a large
+part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so,
+they are not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use
+them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one should
+go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+The balsas are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of
+locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast is an
+A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied
+together and fastened, one to each side of the craft, slightly forward
+of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region--lumber has
+to be brought from Puget Sound, 6000 miles away--so nearly all the
+masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three
+times. To the apex of the "A" is attached a forked stick, over which
+run the halyards. The rectangular "sail" is nothing more nor less
+than a large mat made of rushes. A short forestay fastened to the
+sides of the "A" about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from
+falling when the sail is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of
+a backstay. The balsas cannot beat to windward, but behave very well
+in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the
+boatmen must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard,
+for the water in the lake is cold, 55° F., and none of them know how
+to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during
+the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and near the shore.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati
+------
+
+
+When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very
+small balsa not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting
+the weight of one man. On the other hand, large balsas constructed
+for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the
+lake are capable of carrying a dozen people and their luggage. Once
+I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake
+on a bulrush raft. To give greater security two balsas are sometimes
+fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Señor
+Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic balsas were used in
+bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This
+theory is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much
+higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor
+Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography, have
+not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for
+Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with the ocean.
+
+Nevertheless, Señor Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a
+salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the Andes rose. The
+fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms
+does not bother him. Señor Posnansky pins his faith to a small dried
+seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget
+that dried specimens of marine life, including starfish, are frequently
+offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who
+may be found in almost every market-place. Probably Señor Posnansky's
+seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly enterprising
+trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse
+has actually found its resting-place in La Paz, this does not alter the
+fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine
+fauna in Lake Titicaca. On the other hand, it has two or three kinds
+of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in
+the Rimac River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the
+Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted
+the desirable fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas
+used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners, and that
+"they have records in their quipus of the fish having been brought
+from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues." The
+actual transference of water jars containing the fish would have
+offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea
+happened to appeal to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong
+as Señor Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic
+inland sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually
+surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated with
+respectful skepticism.
+
+Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia,
+is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique among
+prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved
+monolithic images. Although they have suffered from weathering and
+from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed
+human figures. The richly decorated girdles and long tunics are
+carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of
+the designs are undoubtedly symbolic of the rank, achievements,
+or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is
+nothing hieroglyphic. The images are stiff and show no appreciation
+of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never
+had an opportunity to study the human body. In Andean villages, even
+little children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples
+who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia are
+always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to
+seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel, they have
+developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which
+is in striking contrast to people who live on the warm sands of the
+South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human
+body as a motif. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are
+clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was
+observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the taboo against
+"nakedness" was too much for him.
+
+Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to
+Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with
+artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca
+structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves, out of which,
+say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves
+are not large enough for a man to stand upright, but to a people
+who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires
+no stretch of the imagination to believe that those bright disks
+came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated
+with dwellers on the western shore of the lake who would often see
+the sun or moon rise over this island. On an ancient road that runs
+across the island my native guide pointed out the "footprints of the
+sun and moon"--two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant
+resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and
+fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives, in his "Islands
+of Titicaca and Koati," of the degradation and surly character of these
+Indians was not apparent at the time of my short visit in 1915. It is
+quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as
+he did for several months, digging up their ancient places of worship,
+disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting,
+in their minds, the proper balance between wet weather and dry,
+I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish
+treatment such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind
+of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several
+months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The brilliant
+sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air,
+causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come torrential rains. I
+shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the
+steamer encountered a rain squall. The resulting deluge actually
+came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash
+away the soil which the farmers have painfully gathered for field or
+garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the difference
+in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the
+winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely penetrating. Fuel
+is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes,
+and none for artificial heat.
+
+Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some
+barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The principal
+crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried,
+becomes the insipid chuño, chief reliance of the poorer families. The
+Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast
+has long since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern
+fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in
+shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from one to
+three inches. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of
+maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double
+its size and productiveness.
+
+Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the
+elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause acute
+hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the
+Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently appears to be sullen
+and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for
+being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted. Those fortunate Polynesians
+are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim,
+trees from which delicious food can always be obtained, and cocoanuts
+from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not
+develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably
+good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration of the
+large, reëntrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one
+within the other. Small ornamental niches are used to break the space
+between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle
+containing them. Also unusual are the niches between the doorways,
+made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first
+glance as though this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal
+cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is
+a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the step-shaped
+design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one
+finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly for ornamental or
+ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man;
+others are in miniature. Frequently the steps were cut into the sacred
+boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca
+architect, accustomed to the stairway motif, to have conceived these
+curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them,
+even if he had never seen any representation of a Papal cross, or a
+cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested
+a striking resemblance which the sedilia-like niches bear to Arabic
+or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the
+Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped arch is distinctly Oriental
+in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of
+a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a slight
+depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is
+open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and the wonderful
+snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than
+17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks of surpassing beauty
+culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the
+sun and moon, who came to the sacred islands for some of their most
+elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries,
+rising over the majestic snow mountains, their glories reflected in the
+shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such
+occasions the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may
+imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the colors
+of "rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning," their ceremonial
+formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated walls of
+the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had
+special stations in front of the large, step-topped niches. One may
+be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able
+to manufacture exquisite textiles, and who loved to decorate their
+garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no
+opportunity for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great
+annual pageant is still staged every August. Although at present
+connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous
+image of the "Virgin of Copacabana," this vivid spectacle, the
+most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the
+dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested and corresponds to
+our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front
+of a large, bizarre church. During the first ten days in August
+there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and
+near. Everything dear to the heart of the Aymara Indian is offered
+for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders,
+usually women, sit in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone
+pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive
+umbrellas, consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo
+frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped corn;
+in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear
+of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated high-laced
+boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row
+are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another is devoted to such
+trinkets as one might expect to find in a "needle-and-thread" shop at
+home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers with scores of bamboo flutes
+varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with
+piles of freshly made native felts, warranted to last for at least a
+year; and vendors of aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us
+from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among
+Inca ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive
+pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although the modern
+Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to
+adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not only easier to secure,
+but produce more striking results.
+
+As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly
+exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of the plaza,
+bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain--locks, keys,
+spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other "wooden nutmegs."
+
+At the tables of the "money-changers," just outside of the
+sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk
+business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or the
+unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and
+appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know all the tricks
+of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence
+of various Aymara secret societies, whose members, wearing repulsive
+masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be
+invented by primitive imaginations. Each society has its own uniform,
+made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf,
+gaudy textiles, magnificent epaulets bearing large golden stars on a
+background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored glass;
+tinted "ostrich" plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen
+inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy ribbons, beruffled
+bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange
+costumes are actually reminiscent of the sixteenth century. The wearers
+are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums,
+and rattles, or other noise-makers. The result is an indescribable
+hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor
+and unmusical noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is
+bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels,
+their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number of
+tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings
+resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many wore colored
+goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo
+flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned in the din of big bass
+drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a
+placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in the most tawdry manner with gewgaws
+from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on
+a rustic syrinx or Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of
+bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes
+disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary barriers
+are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their
+doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of pleasure-seekers,
+well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are
+ready to run helter-skelter in every direction should the bull take
+it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There
+are no picadors, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no
+banderilleros, with barbed darts; no heroic matador, ready with shining
+blade to give a mad and weary bull the coup de grace. Here all is fun
+and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or
+drunken Aymaras, who prod him with sticks and shake bright ponchos
+in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty
+scattering of some spectators, amid shrieks of delight from everybody
+else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is
+no chance of a bull being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of
+our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage
+was let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the
+crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that he could
+not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He
+galloped madly after any individual who crossed the plaza. Five or
+six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done,
+and every one had an uproariously good time.
+
+Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and
+pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is not
+pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired
+in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles, blowing mightily with
+puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders
+
+In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills
+of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of alpacas thrive on
+the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here
+wool-buyers come to bid for the clip. The high prices which alpaca
+fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned
+in southern Peru for their weight and texture, are made here on hand
+looms. Notwithstanding the altitude--nearly as great as the top of
+Pike's Peak--the stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous,
+and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas
+are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally attached to
+their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I
+attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance to secure the skin and skeleton
+of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known
+and spoke the Quichua language fluently. He offered a good price and
+obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and bones
+of one of their "camels" for shipment; but they never did. Apparently
+they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and none happened to die
+at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters,
+as horses often do. On the other hand I have never seen a llama kick
+or bite at his owner.
+
+The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South
+America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards in all parts of
+Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it
+to walk easily on slopes too rough or steep for even a nimble-footed,
+mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet,
+due to its ability to sneeze or spit for a considerable distance
+a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's
+Circus came to town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose
+supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size--they are
+only three feet high at the shoulder
+
+tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt
+that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight and the
+result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing
+their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces. Curiously enough,
+in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have
+never seen a llama so attack a single human being. On the other hand,
+when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicuña which was
+perfectly willing to sneeze straight at any stranger who came within
+twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing more annoying than
+scientific curiosity. The vicuña is the smallest American "camel,"
+yet its long, slender neck, small head, long legs, and small body,
+from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an
+ostrich than a camel.
+
+In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which
+have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects of respect and
+veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the
+tree line, but the presence of these trees at Santa Rosa would seem
+to show that the use of the words "tree line" is a misnomer in the
+Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception
+of the coastal deserts, was once well covered with forests. When man
+first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields,
+and glaciers was covered with forest growth. Although many districts
+are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient
+to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample fertility of
+soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts
+of forests which I found growing alongside of glaciers at very high
+elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha,
+has been accurately determined by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet
+above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls
+and precipices, so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests
+are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation
+with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces
+in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong to many
+different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have
+this striking peculiarity--when cut down they sprout readily from
+the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable
+evidence of the fact that the primeval forests of Peru were long ago
+cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a
+picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes hanging
+each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite
+otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells, "out of tune with
+themselves," or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The
+resulting clangor and din is unforgettable. I presume the Chinese would
+say it was intended to drive away the devils--and surely such noise
+must be "thoroughly uncongenial even to the most irreclaimable devil,"
+as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells
+in the United States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended
+to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing
+inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once in a while
+one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in
+Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament is being administered
+to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this
+part of the world seems to be to make the greatest possible amount
+of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by
+firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices which again
+remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental
+fondness for making a noise which is found in all healthy children.
+
+On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with
+Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely of
+chicha, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was
+remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of laughter
+and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation,
+and sociability. On week days, most of them, even the smaller boys,
+are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool
+brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes finds the mountain
+Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with chicha,
+and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so
+these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani
+------
+
+
+To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry
+native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the plaza, did not
+enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward,
+very much interested in my endeavors. Some of the Indian alcaldes,
+local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials
+for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful and, armed with
+their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the
+shy, retiring women of the market-place to stand in a frightened,
+disgruntled, barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed
+in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy
+woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were reversible
+"pancake" hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with
+coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather side with tinsel and
+velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung
+down on both sides. It is said that the first Inca ordered the dresses
+of each village to be different, so that his officials might know
+to which tribe an Indian belonged. It was only with great difficulty
+and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the gobernador
+or mayor, and the alcaldes that a dozen very reluctant females
+were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their
+faces was very eloquent. Some were highly indignant, others looked
+foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not
+knowing what evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence
+of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that
+was the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact,
+some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken that
+they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they
+seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were large felt
+hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky
+wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen ponchos, decorated with
+bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and
+ankle, a convenient style for herdsmen who have to walk in the long,
+dewy grasses of the plateau. These "high-water" pantaloons do not
+look badly when worn with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since
+this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots,
+which did not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced
+a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far
+less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require less attention
+and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also
+be securely bolted to the rafters. On this wind-swept plateau we
+frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes
+passed over the house and weights resting on the roof. Sometimes to
+the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of
+animals--probably to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes
+do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed
+very efficacious.
+
+On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level
+that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular raindrop
+will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic
+Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad station of Araranca
+flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the
+sources of the Urubamba River, an important affluent of the Ucayali
+and also of the Amazon, but I never have heard it referred to as
+"the source of the Amazon" except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain
+Blank, whose moving picture entertainment bore the alluring title,
+"From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon." As most of his pictures
+of wild animals "in the jungle" looked as though they were taken in
+the zoölogical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly hacienda at Santa Ana, less
+than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure
+him for giving this particular little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on
+its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of as the Vilcanota,
+a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks
+of the cordillera in this vicinity. The lower portion was called by
+the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an
+interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide the
+Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca
+Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by the owners of
+grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the
+valley and up the neighboring slopes to the cliffs of the Cordillera
+Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall
+are the ruins of ancient houses, possibly once occupied by an Inca
+garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of
+careful masonry. It seems to me likely that it was a hastily thrown-up
+fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any
+permanent affair like the Roman wall of North Britain or the Great Wall
+of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between
+the peoples of the Titicaca Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco
+valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,
+[3] one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui,
+Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800
+A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and east, laying
+waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian
+migrations which appear to have continued for some time. During
+these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with
+so much care and difficulty during the preceding twenty centuries,
+was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike,
+ruler of a people whose great achievements had been agricultural
+rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests;
+they told him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow
+a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the
+strategic points and make preparations for defense. The invaders
+may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred
+on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual exhaustion of forested
+areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great
+pampas. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up
+into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were "fleeing from a race of giants"--possibly Patagonians
+or Araucanians--who had expelled them from their own lands. On their
+journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious
+that a great readjustment of the aborigines was in progress. The
+governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not
+able to summon enough strength to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled
+the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the
+approach of the enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true,
+this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago,
+by the chiefs who were told to "fortify the strategic points."
+
+Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway from the Titicaca
+Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the
+key to the situation. It is probable that Pachacuti VI drew up his
+army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings,
+the weapon most familiar to the highland shepherds. The invaders,
+however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more
+difficult to see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried
+over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that
+only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded, they fled to
+"Tampu-tocco," a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they
+hid the precious body of their ruler. Most writers believe this to
+be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved
+rock. There is no place in Peru to-day which still bears the name
+of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which
+do exist, and whose modern names are not found in the early Spanish
+writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to
+Peru, as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Potato-field at La Raya
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya
+------
+
+
+Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas,
+numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of herdsmen. The
+Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the
+manufacture of textiles--shawls, girdles, ponchos, and blankets--on
+hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending
+flocks or walking along the road they are always winding or spinning
+yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The
+younger children, used as shepherds as soon as they reach the
+age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch
+their charges. Some of them were accompanied by long-haired suncca
+shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to
+barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the sunccas, as well
+as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them
+showed any desire to make the acquaintance of "Checkers," my faithful
+Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that
+"Checkers" could understand English. They had never seen a dog that
+could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited
+a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet, a record
+altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato
+field on the high slopes near here, it is the custom of the Indians to
+mark it off into squares, by "furrows" about fifteen feet apart. The
+Quichuas commence their task soon after daybreak. Due to the absence
+of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold
+before dawn, their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock,
+at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more
+of Indians who were engaged in "ploughing" a potato field. Although
+he was dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and
+intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any
+except the implements of their ancestors. The process of "ploughing"
+this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries,
+probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The men, working in unison
+and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or "foot plough,"
+to the handle of which footholds were lashed, would, at a signal, leap
+forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing
+each pair of men was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the
+clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to
+secure greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as
+usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls over
+their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was
+lightened by the joyous contact of community activity. Every one worked
+with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to
+keep up with the procession. Those who fell behind were subjected to
+good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though
+it appears to require a strong directing hand. The "boss" was right
+there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for
+individual effort. Private property was not understood. Everything
+belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the priests,
+the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we
+should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything was done in
+common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the
+crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas to go forth in huge
+family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village
+gossip and choral singing, interspersed at regular intervals with
+rest periods, in which quantities of chicha quenched the thirst and
+cheered the mind.
+
+Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a
+score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of sheaves of wheat or
+barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the
+other in a parallel line, engaged in ploughing synchronously small
+portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit
+Lima and sometimes go to Paris and New York, where they purchase
+for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are
+still cultivated in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the
+conquistadores, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive
+pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant,
+almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima, is cañihua,
+a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit
+in April. The threshing floor for cañihua is a large blanket laid
+on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail
+applied, the blanket serving to prevent the small grayish seeds from
+escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European origin and has
+probably not changed for centuries.
+
+We noticed also quinoa and even barley growing at an elevation of
+14,000 feet. Quinoa is another species of pigweed. It often attains
+a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The
+white-seeded variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared
+with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article,
+both for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being
+cooked and "do not appear so slimy as oatmeal." Other varieties of
+quinoa are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water
+being frequently changed. The growing quinoa presents an attractive
+appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation,
+both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers of old
+terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them
+growing high up on the mountain side in what are called temporales,
+where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or
+cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some kind of a crop
+in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani,
+we saw fields where habas beans had been gathered and the dried stalks
+piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the pampa where oca grows,
+we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by
+were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary use of night
+watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the roadside were different
+in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin
+or even of Santa Rosa, which is not far away. They were typical
+Quichuas--peaceful agriculturists--usually spinning wool on the
+little hand spindles which have been used in the Andes from time
+immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with
+coarse grass.
+
+The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray
+hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men in certain
+localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or
+lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem to be more enduring
+than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved
+teeth was everywhere noteworthy except on sugar plantations, where
+there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled
+from cakes or mixed with parched corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same
+as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be limited to
+face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the
+other hand, a large proportion of the Indians are pock-marked and
+show the effects of living in a country which is "free from medical
+tyranny." There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether
+this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack of
+fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander
+has made the best use he could of the llama, he was never able to
+develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for
+loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently, for
+the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As
+a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr. Ferris that while
+his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back
+muscles stronger, and the calves of his legs larger and more powerful
+than those of almost any other race.
+
+The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian
+joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony with
+each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by
+the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times. In any event,
+this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to
+undergraduates at the beginning of the college year. As a matter of
+fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In
+testing the hand grip of the Quichuas by a dynamometer our surgeons
+found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the
+Quichua and the maximum grip was weak in both sexes, the average
+for the man being only about half of that found among American white
+adults of sedentary habits.
+
+Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North
+and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and
+South America are perhaps due to their environmental history during
+the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American
+Museum of Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological
+fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions of
+Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at
+very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to that with which
+they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the
+inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions of southern Peru, living in
+towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the
+sea, have physical peculiarities closely resembling those living at
+sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says
+the Labrador Eskimo and the Quichua constitute the two "best-known
+short-stature races on the American continent."
+
+So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one
+quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which have children
+the average number is three or four. Large families are not common,
+although we generally learned that the living children in a family
+usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant
+mortality is very great. The proper feeding of children is not
+understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In
+fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are those of the
+throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded
+of all local diseases. It is really terrifying. Due to the rarity
+of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually
+fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so at 11,000 feet. Patients are
+frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common,
+its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living conditions practiced
+among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is
+not tightly closed and protected against any possible intrusion of
+fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the
+natives to use huts of thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight
+hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of
+course, there are no "boards of health," nor are the people bothered by
+being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water supplies
+are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid
+drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat quantities of soup.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche
+------
+
+
+In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and
+the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and lowland maize
+fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native "druggists"
+were present. Their stock usually consisted of "medicines," whose
+efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds
+of simples and curiosities, cure-alls, and specifics. Fully half
+were reported to me as being "useful against fresh air" or the evil
+effects of drafts. The "medicines" included such minerals as iron
+ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the
+leaves of plants domesticated hundreds of years ago by the Incas or
+gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and
+such animals as starfish brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them
+were really useful herbs, while others have only a psychopathic effect
+on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored
+woolen bag. The bags, differing in design and color, woven on miniature
+hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts
+turned over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the
+remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described by
+Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row
+of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet high! Closer
+inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of
+a great temple. The wall is pierced with large doors and the spaces
+between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at
+the bottom. There are small holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The
+base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The
+ashlars are beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly
+squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive,
+but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence that the builders
+did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time
+plastered with clay, a very significant fact. The builders wanted the
+wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay
+wall rested on the ground, floods and erosion might have succeeded
+in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built
+foundation of solid masonry. Even so, the great wall does not stand
+absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also
+seems to be less weathered on the west side. Probably the prevailing
+or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty
+feet high--a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture. It also
+is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now
+standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were to be seen,
+but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double
+row of these columns to support the stringers and tiebeams of the
+roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column
+and the other end was embedded in the main wall. The holes where the
+tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also
+unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall, decorated with
+large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of
+adobe, while the upper third is of rough, uncut stones. It looks very
+odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several
+cases the plastered walls are still standing, in fairly good condition,
+particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the
+temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly disintegrating,
+as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so
+long in a rainy region without any roof or protecting cover. It is
+incredible that for at least five hundred years a wall of sun-dried
+clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels,
+made of hard-wood timbers and partially embedded in the wall, are all
+gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out
+whether the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If
+so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to
+resist weathering. The factors which have caused this extraordinary
+adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for
+so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy rains of each summer
+season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship
+of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive
+folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity of the place,
+the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry
+of the neighboring village is still the manufacture of pottery. No
+better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to
+have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so much perhaps
+out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend
+off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well known that the best pottery
+of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are
+well aware of the uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck
+seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are
+taken. Might it not have been possible that the people who were most
+concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple to insure
+success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple
+is a small modern church with two towers. The churchyard appears to be
+a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use
+the church to pray for success in their baking, just as the ancient
+potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are
+composed partly of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It
+occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the clay
+beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The
+temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering to the god
+of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send
+the lava flow might be appeased. It may be that the Inca Viracocha,
+an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and
+was responsible for building the temple. If so, it would be natural
+for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped
+his memory.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912
+------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Valley of the Huatanay
+
+The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the
+Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land located under
+climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the
+ancient Peruvians. Containing an area estimated at less than 160 square
+miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has
+ever seen. It is still intensively cultivated, the home of a large
+percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself
+sometimes meanders through the valley in a natural manner, but at
+other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls
+constructed by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields
+from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold is
+unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season,
+in June and July, and frost may occur any night in the year above
+13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither
+warm nor cold.
+
+This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to
+soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor of
+the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may
+occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on their way to and
+from town. Although mules are essentially the most reliable saddle
+animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses,
+which are larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better
+gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated saddle,
+over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable
+stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood decorated with silver
+bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered
+necessary and is usually decorated with a broad, embossed panel,
+from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The
+bridle is usually made of carefully braided leather, decorated with
+silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or
+blinder, to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade,
+which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely, is more
+useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the
+basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs near Oropesa
+divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura,
+or "the narrows," is the natural gateway between the Oropesa Basin and
+the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre
+Basin the most interesting are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which
+leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca (Rumi =
+"stone"; ccolca = "granary"). It is commonly supposed that this was
+an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those
+of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred to as a "fortaleza." The
+major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay,
+while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully cut andesite
+ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some
+great chieftain built the rough wall in the days when the highlands
+were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one
+of the Incas, no longer needing any fortifications between the Huatanay
+Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built
+a fine gateway. The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except
+for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the
+ancient masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting
+the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention of the
+stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In
+one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu I noticed similar
+bosses. The name "Stone-granary" was probably originally applied to
+a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient
+terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca, on the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called
+Piquillacta. A large number of its houses have extraordinarily high
+walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south,
+was obviously built to protect it from enemies approaching from the
+Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the slopes are so steep as
+to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava
+rock, with which the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and
+thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich
+enough to attract the attention of agriculturists, who come here from
+neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the
+city are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat
+and barley are the principal crops.
+
+As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient
+Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called Rumiccolca is
+figured in Squier's "Peru" as "Piquillacta." On the other hand,
+the ruins of the large city, "covering thickly an area nearly a
+square mile," are called by Squier "the great Inca town of Muyna,"
+a name also applied to the little lake which lies in the bottom of
+the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw
+Mt. Piquillacta first, then the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the
+ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous,
+harmless, natural phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by
+those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta
+------
+
+
+Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who
+has a country place in the neighborhood and is very familiar with this
+region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From
+him I learned that the city ruins are called Piquillacta, the name
+which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward
+of the ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near
+Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently,
+it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction to
+give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the
+lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. Piqui means "flea";
+llacta means "town, city, country, district, or territory." Was this
+"The Territory of the Fleas" or was it "Flea Town"? And what was its
+name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it
+was considered unlucky?
+
+Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have
+here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca, long since
+abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out
+in regular fashion, the streets crossing each other at right angles,
+the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town
+of Ollantaytambo. Not a soul lives here. It is true that across the
+Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating
+in Mt. Ausangate, the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta
+is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly
+settled valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important
+Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely
+populated valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city
+in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius of
+twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is on the increase. It
+is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the
+railroad. Yet it is "abandonado--desierto--despoblado"! Undoubtedly
+here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its
+being abandoned appears to be the absence of running water. Although
+Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles
+wide, rising to a point of 2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota
+rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated,
+extinct volcano surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites,
+and basalts.
+
+How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built
+on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams? Has the
+climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the
+surrounding region is still the populous part of southern Peru? It is
+inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied
+on a plateau four hundred feet above the nearest water unless there
+was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing
+every drop up the hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there
+were no places near here better provided with water than this site,
+one could understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to
+depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running
+streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling problem
+I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are
+usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+Squier says that this "fortress" was "the southern limit of the
+dominions of the first Inca." "The fortress reaches from the mountain,
+on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly
+called 'El Aqueducto,' perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an
+aqueduct--but the name is evidently misapplied." Yet he admits that the
+cross-section of the wall, diminishing as it does "by graduations or
+steps on both sides," "might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification" if it occupied
+"a different position." He noticed that "the top of the wall is
+throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches
+the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately in thickness"
+as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the "fortress"
+idea that he rejected not only local tradition as expressed in the
+native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own
+eyes. It seems to me that there is little doubt that instead of the
+ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the
+remains of an ancient azequia, or aqueduct, built by some powerful
+chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which
+rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water power
+for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such
+an azequia. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet,
+could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road,
+on this aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would
+have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes
+of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their upper limit
+corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an azequia would
+have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside
+which looks as though an azequia had once passed that way. In the
+valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old azequias. There
+has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills,
+and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been out of order for
+several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have
+disappeared in places. I regret very much that circumstances over
+which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the
+possibilities of such a theory. It remains for some fortunate future
+investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta,
+how they secured their water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca
+------
+
+
+Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at
+Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its chiefs and people
+cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community
+they were a separate political entity from the people of Cuzco;
+that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became
+sufficiently powerful to conquer the people of the Lucre Basin, and
+removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of
+his domain, a system of colonization well known in the history of the
+Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta
+departed, no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the
+site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe that
+at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses,
+unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have been considered not
+desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed
+city had there been plenty of water available. In any case, the ruins
+of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon,
+a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above the
+village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses
+of characteristic Inca construction, containing many symmetrically
+arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses
+are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon was probably the residence
+of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant
+view of the village and of the hills to the south, which to-day
+are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a
+nicely constructed fountain of cut stone. Some of the terraces are
+extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly
+together. Access from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made
+each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces
+are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi. No one lives at
+Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the
+neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists to live
+at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom,
+than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow valley and occupy the
+old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here
+rather than in the open plain.
+
+While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive
+potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President of the
+University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above
+Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence of a fortification
+near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable
+and happy by the generous hospitality of Dr. Aguilar, whose finca
+is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of
+the valley.
+
+From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening
+in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern town of San
+Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just
+beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score or more of gable-roofed
+houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings
+have doors, windows, and niches in walls of small stones laid in clay,
+the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name
+of these ruins we were told that it was Saylla, although that is
+the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay,
+in the Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water
+supply at present. It is not far from a stream called the Kkaira
+and could easily have been supplied with water by an azequia less
+than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It
+looks very much like the case of a village originally placed on the
+hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later
+abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages of living near
+the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had
+established peace over the highlands. There may be another explanation.
+
+It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco
+Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage on unterraced
+slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides
+are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous
+feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material from its
+slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the
+village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory noticed that the streams
+traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by
+"transporting gravel from the head of the fan to its lower margin,"
+and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed
+in between the Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as
+fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old
+Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned when the rule
+of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand,
+it seems more likely that the people who built Saylla were farmers
+and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation,
+due to increased erosion, they abandoned this site for one nearer the
+arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural
+residents of these ancient houses saw their beautiful fields at the
+bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous
+quantities of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol
+after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of
+fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of
+San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students of agriculture
+will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading
+gravel banks probably drove the folk out of Saylla.
+
+The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking
+peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point, is
+connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals
+and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay Valley is
+much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to
+Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little peaks are frequently
+snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in
+the Huatanay Valley.
+
+The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no
+native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia. Firewood is
+scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only trees in
+sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of
+eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has been thought of and written
+of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence
+of trees on the neighboring hills is due entirely to the hand of man,
+the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who
+cleared the forests before the days of intensive terrace agriculture,
+and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of
+Cuzco do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm
+and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for cooking
+purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought
+into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we
+saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged and many of
+the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding
+and the failure to improve the original stock by the introduction of
+new and superior strains.
+
+When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the
+hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat land near the
+Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed
+a concentration of population very unusual in the Andes. Most of the
+important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in
+the immediate vicinity of Cuzco itself or on the "pampas" north of the
+city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato
+cultivation could be carried out are nearly all in this quadrant. In
+the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads
+directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a picturesque ruin which bears
+the native name of Pucará.
+
+Pucará is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance
+at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification to
+realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of
+irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage was taken of small
+cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We
+noticed openings or drains which had been cut in the wall by the
+original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on
+the terraced floor of the enclosed area, which is several feet above
+that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in
+many of the old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient
+folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucará is occupied by llama herdsmen and
+drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral. Probably
+Pucará was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who
+raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas and alpacas on the
+neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucará, is
+a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut stone. Near by
+are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall
+containing four large, ceremonial niches, level with the ground and
+about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de
+Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family
+of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among
+these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the "hot springs" near Tambo
+Machai, "called so from the manner in which the water boils up." The
+next huaca, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself,
+"a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he
+went to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the
+Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children."
+
+The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the
+ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly assume
+a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word macchini means
+"to wash" or "to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher." It may be
+that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils devoted to
+royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is
+the place where, according to Molina, all the youths of Cuzco who had
+been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st
+day of the month to bathe and change their clothes. Afterwards they
+returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. "Each relation
+that offered a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to
+him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the Sun
+and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors."
+
+Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca,
+a small stream which finally joins the Huatanay near the town of San
+Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the
+Cachimayo, famous as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have
+caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named
+the place Las Salinas, or "the Salt Pits," on account of the salt
+pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had
+filled the Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which
+took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro and
+Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of
+Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory. Near the salt
+pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches,
+called Rumihuasi, or "Stone House." The presence of salt in many of
+the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance
+to our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in
+districts where the only water available was so saline as to spoil
+it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, "an ancient
+water-body whose surface," says Professor Gregory, "lay well above
+the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo." This lake is
+believed to have reached its maximum expansion in early Pleistocene
+times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, habas beans,
+and quinoa, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively
+cultivated. It has been named "Lake Morkill" in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq.,
+without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian
+explorations as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill
+fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine
+materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons grazed
+on its banks. "Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly
+all of the glacial epoch." Its drainage was finally accomplished
+by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and
+developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of
+Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by
+the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which may be found
+potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the
+Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost third of Cuzco from
+the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for
+gardens and food crops. Here the hospitable Canadian missionaries have
+their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco quebrada,
+an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote
+and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight of several
+bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel
+banks of the little gulch. Further examination showed that recent
+erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished
+stones more or less carefully fitted together, which at first sight
+appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that
+side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and flush with its surface
+the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that
+the wall antedated the gravel deposits. Fifty feet farther up the
+quebrada another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On
+top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging in
+the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the
+field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that the wall was
+about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on
+both sides with roughly cut stone and filled in with rubble, a type
+of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older
+buildings in the western part of the city of Cuzco.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada
+------
+
+
+Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man,
+was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by a compact
+water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand,
+yet a few days later, while endeavoring to solve the puzzle,
+I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the
+gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to the compact, perpendicular
+gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like
+one of the small rocks which are freely interspersed throughout the
+gravels here. Closer examination showed it to be the end of a human
+femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank,
+which rose almost perpendicularly for seventy or eighty feet above
+it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be
+true that here, in the heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried
+under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it
+until I could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the
+naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the Ayahuaycco
+quebrada. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of
+a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and
+broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although the
+gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery,
+ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel Central,
+where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline,
+packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought to New Haven. Here
+they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in
+the Peabody Museum. In the meantime Dr. Bowman had become convinced
+that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised
+to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a careful
+examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments
+which were excavated by us on July 11th failed to reveal this
+particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon being questioned, said that he had
+dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation
+of July 11th and had added these to the original lot. Presumably
+this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were
+packed. It did not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his
+interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care
+if we had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that
+the age of the vertebrate remains might be "provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years," until further studies could be made of
+the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article on the buried
+wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that "the wall is pre-Inca,
+that its relations to alluvial deposits which cover it indicate its
+erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed,
+and that it represents the earliest type of architecture at present
+known in the Cuzco basin."
+
+Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight
+of them were fragments of human bones representing at least three
+individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone
+of a dog, and three were "bovine remains." The human remains agreed
+"in all essential respects" with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama
+and dog might all have belonged to Inca, or even more recent times,
+but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three
+fragments were from bones which "are among the least characteristic
+parts of the skeleton." That which was of greatest interest was the
+fragment of a first rib, resembling the first rib of the extinct
+bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently
+characteristic of bisons and not seen in the domestic cattle of the
+United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied "that
+the material examined suggests the possibility that some species
+of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance
+with conservative methods to differentiate bison from domestic cattle
+solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small
+number of individuals." Although staunchly supporting his theory of
+the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on their
+geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the
+fact that the bovine remains were not sharply differentiated from the
+bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that "the bluff
+in which the bones were found may be faced by younger gravel and that
+the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods
+of partial valley filling, ... although it still seems very unlikely."
+
+Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely
+separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation, however,
+has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable
+to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary character of the
+skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could
+be drawn from the characters of the human skeletal parts, and the
+suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels
+which contained the bones might be of a later origin than he thought,
+we determined to make further and more complete investigations in
+1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all
+skepticism. I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study
+of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if
+it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the same
+skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he
+was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions. Accordingly, I
+believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent
+testimony would give great weight to those conclusions should he
+find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay
+Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague, Professor Gregory, to make the
+necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay
+Valley was prepared under the direction of Chief Topographer Albert
+H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru,
+was invited to accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern
+Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the
+Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took the bones
+in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had
+been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald dug a tunnel eleven
+feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into
+the solid mass of gravel. He expected to have to use timbering, but
+so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. No bones
+or artifacts were found--nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture
+and containing no unmistakable evidences of stratification. Apparently
+the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact
+gravel mass.
+
+In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the
+conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been repeatedly
+buried and reëxcavated many times during the past few centuries. He
+found evidence indicating periodic destruction and rebuilding of some
+gravel terraces, "even within the past one hundred years." Accordingly
+there was no longer any necessity to ascribe great antiquity to the
+bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco quebrada. Although
+the "Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent
+and thickness in late Pleistocene times," more recent deposits have,
+however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. "Surface
+wash from the bordering slopes, controlled in amount and character by
+climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since
+glacial times, and has greatly increased since human occupation
+began." "Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of
+years as the age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels."
+
+But how about the "bison"? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton
+examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals offered for sale
+in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the "bison"
+was a Peruvian domestic ox. "Under the life-conditions prevailing in
+this part of the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased
+action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed
+in bison." Such was the sad end of the "bison" and the "Cuzco man,"
+who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and
+now believe to have been two hundred years old, perhaps. The word
+Ayahuaycco in Quichua means "the valley of dead bodies" or "dead
+man's gulch." There is a story that it was used as a burial place
+for plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Oldest City in South America
+
+Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since
+Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably since my own
+first impressions of it were published in "Across South America." To
+be sure, there are still the evidences of antiquity to be seen on
+every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences
+of advancement. Telephones, electric lights, street cars, and the
+"movies" have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern
+traveler finds fault with some of the conditions he encounters he
+must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient
+Cuzco are not yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever
+been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is
+steadily progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was
+completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nuñez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old
+cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade of the
+citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is
+crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of the food-stuffs
+and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently
+thronged with Indians, buying and selling, arguing and jabbering,
+it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source
+of entertainment to one who is fond of the picturesque and interested
+in strange manners and customs.
+
+The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of
+congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats; in
+another those who sell coca. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly
+all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their
+light seems to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are
+operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and
+patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those who specialize in
+everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the arriero:
+richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye
+from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry his coca or
+other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide
+lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond hitch than
+to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey,
+and candles to be burned before his patron saint as he starts for some
+distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Map of Peru and view of Cuzco
+
+From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578.
+------
+
+
+In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the
+streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure anthropometric
+measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up
+a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His subjects were the unwilling
+victims of friendly gendarmes who went out into the streets with
+orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most
+of the Indians showed no resentment and were in the end pleased and
+surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin
+as compensation for loss of time.
+
+One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's
+subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but this was
+not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than
+from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo, and Maras. This
+may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place,
+the gendarmes may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant
+villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk
+were presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their
+business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation which the
+gendarmes could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably
+true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than those
+of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two
+or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore, the attention
+of the gendarmes might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly
+caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city
+fashions do not prevail, than to those who through long residence
+in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of
+the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day a large
+proportion of the individuals whom one sees in the streets appears
+to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are
+visitors from outlying villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most
+densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua
+ancestry. The Spanish conquistadores did not bring European women
+with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed
+of such an extraordinary mixture of peoples from Europe and northern
+Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians,
+Berbers, and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy
+toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for
+centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with results which
+are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once
+200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods of transportation
+it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559,
+there were, according to Montesinos, only 20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street
+cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed Cuzceños
+past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The
+driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous application of his
+brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of
+quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged in bringing small sacks of
+potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built
+of stones taken from ancient Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which
+left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a
+bill-board advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the
+2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote
+Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos with broad fringes,
+brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled
+tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume whose design shows no trace
+of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors
+was a barefooted Cuzco urchin clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap,
+coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses
+built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls which
+themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons
+centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone wires intercept
+one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now
+part of the University of Cuzco. It is built of reddish basalt from
+the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor
+Gregory says that this Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity
+of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately
+carved stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical
+architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense
+diorite which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers
+far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions gives
+to the Jesuit Church an atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of
+the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit
+teachers long before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with
+concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the
+shouts of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is
+teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, "Mens sana in corpore sano."
+
+Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the
+political capital of the most important department in southern Peru,
+it had in 1911 only one hospital--a semi-public, non-sectarian
+organization on the west of the city, next door to the largest
+cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and
+so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and the more
+prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the
+patients have to look at. The building has large courtyards and open
+colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to
+take advantage of open-air treatment. At the time of Surgeon Erving's
+visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows
+were small and practically always closed and shuttered, so that the
+atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly
+imagine a stronger contrast than exists between such wards and those
+to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum
+of sunlight and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to
+sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was
+no resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the
+hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to
+the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects of sunlight
+and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality
+and a very poor local reputation; yet it is the only hospital in the
+Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was
+no provision for caring for the sick except in their own homes. In
+the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs
+may be obtained, but in the great majority of towns and villages
+no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke,
+of the University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco
+------
+
+
+On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the
+interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived Carlos Inca,
+a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded
+in maintaining a precarious existence in the wilds of the Cordillera
+Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata
+is still preserved one of the most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to
+be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine
+palace, or whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty
+to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a
+merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once a banker, an exporter
+of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of
+every description, including pencils and sugar mills, lumber and hats,
+candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture
+as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas. Furthermore, he
+has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his
+large business to assist our expeditions. He has frequently brought
+us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters
+of introduction, so that our paths were made easy. He has provided us
+with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy
+muleteers, seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases
+of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal,
+just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying clients. As
+a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation
+for the many favors he showed us. So important a factor was he in
+the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully
+remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It
+is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making more exertion
+than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to
+reach the famous "fortress" is by following the course of the little
+Tullumayu, "Feeble Stream," the easternmost of the three canalized
+streams which divide Cuzco into four parts. On its banks one first
+passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the
+remains of an old mill. The stone flume and the adjoining ruins
+are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas,
+but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not
+understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is hardly likely
+that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally,
+careful examination of the flume discloses the presence of lead cement,
+a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive
+megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in
+"Across South America." Here the ancient builders constructed three
+great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile
+across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest terrace of the
+"fortress" is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten
+tons and some weigh more than twenty tons, yet all are fitted together
+with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each
+time it invariably overwhelms and astounds. To a superstitious Indian
+who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been
+built by gods.
+
+About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial
+hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be composed
+entirely of gray-blue rock chips--chips from the great limestone blocks
+quarried here for the "fortress" and later conveyed with the utmost
+pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless
+thousands of quarrymen. Even in modern times, with steam drills,
+explosives, steel tools, and light railways, these hills would
+be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these
+mechanical devices were known to the ancient stonemasons and that
+these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all
+carried from the quarries by hand, it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of
+human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization. That
+thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural
+pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract the blocks
+from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them
+several miles over rough country, and bond them together in such an
+intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability
+to organize and arrange the affairs of a very large population. Such
+a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for
+warfare. Their building operations required infinite pains, endless
+time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called
+forth, even by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing
+to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily
+agriculturists. They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying
+on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It
+seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance with
+their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose
+that a people to whom stone-faced terraces meant so much in the way
+of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of
+Cyclopean character, like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity
+who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more
+likely object for the gigantic labor involved in the construction
+of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally
+strong defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop
+back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in an
+infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of
+individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out
+of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been caused by the
+supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient
+Peruvians were religious rather than warlike, more inclined to worship
+the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire
+to please, at whatever cost, the god that fructified the crops which
+grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors,
+warriors themselves and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting
+race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military
+use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value of its salients
+and reëntrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had
+been only recently acquired by their crusading ancestors. The height
+and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest
+service to the soldiers of that day. They saw that it was virtually
+impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact,
+in the wars of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry
+into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians,
+who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery, did
+not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the
+fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with. So natural did it
+seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress
+that it has seldom been thought of in any other way. The fact that
+the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders
+coming up the valley, or even over the gentle slopes from the west,
+or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been
+used as part of the main highway of the central Andes, never seems
+to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a
+fortress. It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where
+the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season to
+celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for
+the sun's return from his "farthest north." In any case I believe
+that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably
+intended for religious rather than military purposes. It is more
+likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+
+It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north
+of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account of the
+last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+The Last Four Incas
+
+Readers of Prescott's charming classic, "The Conquest of Peru,"
+will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca who
+had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels
+of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the throne of the
+Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young
+prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna Capac, named for the
+first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected
+as the most acceptable figurehead. He was a young man of ability
+and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate
+ceremonies, the barbaric splendor of which only made the farce the
+more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might
+have been foreseen, he chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as
+possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful
+Quichuas. There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized
+by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as "the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world." When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved
+by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance of regaining
+the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to
+Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river Urubamba, Manco made a
+determined stand, but Ollantaytambo was too easily reached by Pizarro's
+mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their
+utmost endeavors by the presence of the magnificent stone edifices,
+fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors,
+found it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and
+made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the fastnesses
+of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position
+practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods,
+was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents, or crossing
+the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than
+the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous for Hannibal and
+Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes
+of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible to follow the Inca Manco
+over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than
+the summit of Mont Blanc. In no part of the Peruvian Andes are there
+so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle
+of Mt. Veronica (elevation 19,342 ft.). Not far away is another
+magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the
+sea. Near Salcantay is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.),
+while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197
+ft.). On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and
+little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some hardy
+prospector or inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached
+only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by
+violent storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part
+of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season the
+difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed
+mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without assistance from
+man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+The conquistador, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account
+of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a "great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts ... and many loads of
+rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy." The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of
+the ruler of a country traveling without rich "treasure." It is
+extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or
+silver. Except for ornament there was little use to which he could
+have put the precious metals and they would have served only to
+arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His people had never been paid
+in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it
+as was needed to raise their own crops and make their own clothing
+was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the
+custom and usage of centuries made them faithful followers of their
+great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him
+beautiful textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken
+for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy the benefits of a delightful climate,
+and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white
+and sweet, and the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions
+easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth
+against the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His
+raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him, with
+a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses,
+cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive rafts,
+and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway
+of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business led them over this
+route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by
+making them realize that in these raids they were taking sweet revenge
+on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting
+to note that Cieza de Leon justifies Manco in his attitude, for the
+Spaniards had indeed "seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave
+his native land, and to live in banishment."
+
+Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using
+it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies, led
+many of the Orejones of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were
+called Orejones, "big ears," by the Spaniards because the lobes of
+their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold
+earrings which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's
+retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in the
+year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess
+and one of the conquistadores. As a small child Garcilasso heard
+of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and
+spent the rest of his life in Spain. After forty years in Europe
+he wrote, partly from memory, his "Royal Commentaries," an account
+of the country of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom
+he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child,
+he speaks apologetically. He says: "In the time of Manco Inca,
+several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but
+still they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let
+them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the
+Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the countrey
+.... The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel;
+and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents of twenty-five and
+thirty feet long, with other venomous insects." (I am quoting from Sir
+Paul Rycaut's translation, published in London in 1688.) Garcilasso
+says Manco's soldiers took only "such food as they found in the hands
+of the Indians; which the Inca did usually call his own," saying,
+"That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge
+such a proportion thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary
+and natural support"--a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt
+whether Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them
+of their "wares and merchandise." As will be seen later, we found
+in Manco's palace some metal articles of European origin which might
+very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should
+be remembered that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott,
+left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were
+largely colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to
+extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised by
+the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers
+at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says the Indians had no
+defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used "lances,
+arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts, and slings, and another weapon
+which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones
+sewn up in leather, and each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They
+throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and
+sometimes they will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same
+way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they
+will bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon,
+however, is the sling .... With it, they will hurl a huge stone with
+such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little
+less great than that of an arquebus; and I have seen a stone, thus
+hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in
+a man's hand at a distance of thirty paces."
+
+Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small
+force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the Inca. Captain
+Villadiego found it impossible to use horses, although he realized
+that cavalry was the "important arm against these Indians." Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious
+to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief reported
+to be traveling surrounded by his family "and with rich treasure,"
+he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in
+the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here, fatigued and
+exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects
+of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found themselves ambushed by
+the Inca, who with a small party, "little more than eighty Indians,"
+"attacked the Christians, who numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and
+killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three." To any
+one who has clambered over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa
+it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or
+that the Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate
+vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force of
+weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth
+century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders, and surrounded
+by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have
+been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas, who could "hurl a huge
+stone with such force that it would kill a horse," to have literally
+stoned to death Captain Villadiego's little company before they could
+have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Urubamba Canyon
+
+A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.
+------
+
+
+The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported their misfortune. The
+importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers
+that the size of the force with which Pizarro conquered Peru was less
+than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's
+company which had been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is
+further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers,
+with all their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only
+"a little more than eighty Indians." Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as
+being several thousand.
+
+Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers
+determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted such a blow on
+the prestige of Spanish arms, "but this attempt also failed," for the
+Inca had withdrawn across the rivers and mountains of Uilcapampa to
+Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers
+with the sight of the heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy,
+the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's
+enemies was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians
+of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their enemies,
+remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face,
+and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as the North American
+Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place
+among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists of central Peru. There were
+no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage
+on the bodies of Captain Villadiego's unfortunate men. Probably the
+conquistadores supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have
+done under similar circumstances.
+
+Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos,
+his brother, Gonzalo, "undertook the pursuit of the Inca and occupied
+some of his passes and bridges," but was unsuccessful in penetrating
+the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy than Captain Villadiego,
+he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue
+the young Inca or prevent his raids on travelers from Cuzco to Lima,
+Francisco Pizarro, "with the assent of the royal officers who were
+with him," established the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point
+on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless,
+according to Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite
+a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, "having taken one of
+Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her,
+and then shot her to death with arrows."
+
+Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are
+not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in 1639 his
+"Coronica Moralizada," or "pious account of the missionary activities
+of the Augustinians" in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed
+by all the Indians who lived in a region extending "for two hundred
+leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces." With customary monastic
+zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha accuses the Inca of
+compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to
+abandon their new faith, torturing those who would no longer worship
+the old Inca "idols." This story need not be taken too literally,
+although undoubtedly the escaped Indians acted as though they had
+never been baptized.
+
+Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa,
+in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen other Spanish
+fugitives, adherents of Almagro, "rascals," says Calancha, "worthy
+of Manco's favor." Obliged by the civil wars of the conquistadores
+to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome
+in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and taught
+the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and
+quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride horseback
+and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and
+occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which, as we shall see,
+was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of
+what was going on in the viceroyalty. Although "encompassed within
+craggy and lofty mountains," the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of
+all those "revolutions" which might be of benefit to him.
+
+Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in
+regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He brought the
+New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to
+alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The New Laws provided, among
+other things, that all the officers of the crown were to renounce
+their repartimientos or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory
+personal service was to be entirely abolished. Repartimientos given
+to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert
+to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave evidence that the
+Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve
+of the Pizarros. This was good news for Manco and highly pleasing
+to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the
+new viceroy, asking permission to appear before him and offer his
+services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by
+this means he might some day recover his empire, "or at least the
+best part of it." Their object in persuading the Inca to send such
+a message to the viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they
+"also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past"
+and permission to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little
+group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from the Inca and
+the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed
+to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left Uilcapampa, presented
+his letters to the viceroy, and gave him "a large relation of the
+State and Condition of the Inca, and of his true and real designs
+to doe him service." "The Vice-king joyfully received the news,
+and granted a full and ample pardon of all crimes, as desired. And
+as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect,
+truly considering that the Interest of the Inca might be advantageous
+to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer
+Gomez Perez returned both to the Inca and to his companions." The
+refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king
+and country. Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic
+accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+"The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them,
+had given directions for making a bowling-green; where playing one day
+with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this
+Perez about the measure of a Cast, which often happened between them;
+for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any
+judgment or understanding, would take the least occasion in the world
+to contend with and provoke the Inca .... Being no longer able to
+endure his rudeness, the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him
+to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat
+and passion either his own safety or the safety of his Companions,
+lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently on
+the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The
+Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their Prince, joined
+together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house,
+and with their Swords in their hands defended the door; the Indians
+set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out
+into the Marketplace, where the Indians assaulted them and shot them
+with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then
+afterwards, out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat
+them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but
+at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast their bodies
+into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air,
+which they supposed to be the highest indignity and dishonour that
+they could show to their Corps." Garcilasso concludes: "I informed
+myself very perfectly from those chiefs and nobles who were present
+and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash
+and hair-brained fool; and heard them tell this story to my mother
+and parents with tears in their eyes." There are many versions of
+the tragedy. [4] They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+
+Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality
+was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young sons, Sayri
+Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not
+yet reached his majority, became Inca in his father's stead, and with
+the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish
+neighbors or being annoyed by them, unless the reference in Montesinos
+to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555,
+is correct. By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to
+the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young
+Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the inaccessible
+wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this
+difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix Coya, an aunt of the
+Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and
+dispatched to Uiticos a messenger, of the blood royal, attended by
+Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down
+and the treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's
+regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver the
+viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was
+quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even though brought
+to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage
+and sent a messenger of their own to Cuzco to see if any foul play
+could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more
+trusted cousin, be sent to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar
+Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter of the
+unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his
+wife's language. Montesinos says he was a "great linguist." They
+started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several
+pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups of gilded silver as
+presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the
+Inca, they traveled as fast as they could to the Chuquichaca bridge,
+"the key to the valley of Uiticos." Here they were detained by the
+soldiers of the regents. A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's
+cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed,
+while the friar and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was
+welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage
+Sayri Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and
+the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of the Inca,
+with the presents which the viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first
+idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done,
+so he requested the ambassadors to depart immediately with their
+silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes
+across the Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra
+had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca
+decided to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate,
+observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but
+according to Garcilasso "made no inquiries of the devil." The omens
+were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca to
+accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly
+to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried by
+relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He
+was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to Cuzco, where
+he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome
+him. "I, myself," says Garcilasso, "went in the name of my Father. I
+found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians .... I
+kissed his hands, and delivered my Message; he commanded me to sit
+down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor,
+made of Mayz [chicha] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink;
+he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me;
+he drank, and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of
+Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why I
+did not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, 'Inca, as I am but a
+Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place me in such
+Ceremonies as these!' 'How,' replied the Inca, 'I would rather have
+seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in Town.' As I was going
+away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of
+the Indians, who are of his Alliance and Kindred, at which he was so
+much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection,
+as appeared by his Countenance."
+
+Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty,
+was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her in baptism,
+and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's
+journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned to Uiticos. His only
+daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more
+anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older,
+Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac
+------
+
+
+The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to
+have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac, and to have
+felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his
+half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa. Their first visitor,
+so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an
+interesting account of Uiticos and says he gave the Inca a pair of
+scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go
+to Cuzco. In time there came an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos
+Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the
+rough country of Uilcapampa, "a land of moderate wealth, large rivers,
+and the usual rains," whose "forested mountains," says Father Calancha,
+"are magnificent." Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were
+down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked up. The few
+Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the
+friar could not get there "unless he should be able to change himself
+into a bird." However, with that courage and pertinacity which have
+marked so many missionary enterprises, Friar Marcos finally overcame
+all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad
+to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find that a
+Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca
+was annoyed to have any one preach against his "idolatries." Titu
+Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree
+with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos built a little church in a place
+called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. "He
+planted crosses in the fields and on the mountains, these being the
+best things to frighten off devils." He "suffered many insults at
+the hands of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some
+of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for
+their vices and abominated among his converts the possession of four
+or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced
+him to send to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack,
+which was for him a most delicious banquet."
+
+Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego
+Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on the
+road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his
+presence in company with Friar Marcos. "Although the Inca was not
+too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an
+entrance because the Inca ... thought Friar Diego would not vex
+him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a
+license. They selected the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days journey from one
+Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego
+went to his new establishment and in a short time built a church,
+a house for himself, and a hospital,--all poor buildings made in a
+short time." He also started a school for children, and became very
+popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time
+than Friar Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician,
+was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as
+follows: "Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of water
+where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped
+by those idolators. This was the principal mochadero of those forested
+mountains. The word 'mochadero' [5] is the common name which the
+Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the
+only place where they practice the sacred ceremony of kissing. The
+origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very
+practice which Job abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all
+offences before God and says to Him: 'Lord, all these punishments and
+even greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the
+blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon shines
+clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward
+the sun and throw kisses to it,' an act of very grave iniquity which
+is equivalent to denying the true God."
+
+Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in
+Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine
+and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient Hebrew
+prophets. Apparently this ceremony "of the most profound resignation
+and reverence" was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos, in
+the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+Calancha goes on to say: "In this white stone of the aforesaid
+House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He
+and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the
+baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses, and many
+of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have
+given them."
+
+One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and
+counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some of their outlying
+estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular
+attack on this particular Devil, who was at the great "white rock
+over a spring of water." The two monks summoned all their converts
+to gather at Puquiura, in the church or the neighboring plaza, and
+asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn
+up this Devil who had tormented them. "An innumerable multitude" came
+together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted
+wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see the result;
+the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians';
+while, as may readily be imagined, the rest of the population came
+to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to "the
+Temple of the Sun, in the village of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos."
+
+Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of
+the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring, the white
+rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then,
+having exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile
+names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and finally
+commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and
+the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. "The poor Devil then fled
+roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble."
+
+It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus
+to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they were
+dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley,
+separated from their friends and far from the protecting hand
+of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an
+insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as soon as the
+Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was
+furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura. The chiefs wished to
+"slay the monks and tear them into small pieces," and undoubtedly
+would have done so had it not been for the regard in which Friar
+Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to
+the Indians that even the Inca himself dared not punish him for the
+attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably
+originated the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the
+Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out of
+the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should
+return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians who came
+from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to
+remain, and finally became a trusted friend and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+
+One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold,
+was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded in getting
+permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too
+successful. Both gold and silver were found among the hills and he
+showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing
+that his reports might encourage others to enter Uilcapampa, put the
+unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations
+of Friar Diego. Foreigners were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi
+to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an
+indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his
+Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth while to make
+every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years
+the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco and the major portion of
+Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians
+who lived in the province of Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather
+in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live
+where he would always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party,
+the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the meantime
+the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who
+was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade Titu Cusi to come to
+Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the
+Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against him. Titu Cusi's illness was
+very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual
+remedies. Unfortunately, all the monk's skill was unavailing and his
+royal patient died. The "remedies" were held by Titu Cusi's mother
+and her counselors to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer
+the penalty of death "for having caused the death of the Inca."
+
+The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of
+the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and now happily
+married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were
+decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty, but, thanks to the
+jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had
+not been that of a soldier. He was destined to have a brief, unhappy
+existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger
+was coming from the viceroy, seven warriors were sent to meet him on
+the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca
+bridge when he was attacked and killed.
+
+The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time
+that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow had been
+struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives
+of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers of the viceroy of
+Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the
+energetic Toledo, surrounded by his council, determined to make war
+on the unfortunate young Tupac Amaru and give a reward to the soldier
+who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that
+"many Insurrections might be raised in that Empire by this young
+Heir." "Moreover it was alledged," says Garcilasso .... "That by the
+Imprisonment of the Inca, all that Treasure might be discovered, which
+appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which
+Huayna Capac commanded to be made for himself to wear on the great
+and solemn days of their Festival"! Furthermore, the "Chain of Gold
+with the remaining Treasure belong'd to his Catholic Majesty by right
+of Conquest"! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way
+of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in case he should cross
+the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly
+been used by his father, Manco, in his marauding expeditions. The other
+company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from
+Cuzco by way of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate
+than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had
+been met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the
+days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending this
+important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the
+Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply
+in the middle and swayed so threateningly over the gorge of the
+Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river
+was too deep to be forded. There were no canoes. It would have been
+a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees
+that grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side
+of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's
+time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had never
+been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son,
+Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters. The chiefs and
+nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy
+the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying on their ability to take
+care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from
+crossing the narrow, swaying structure. General Hurtado was not taking
+any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain
+field pieces, with which the raw troops of the Inca were little
+acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from
+the river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly
+terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before. A
+few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled
+pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was
+sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road "narrow in the
+ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great
+depth." It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to
+pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at the head
+of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain
+named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight of Tupac Amaru,
+sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and
+endeavored to hurl him over the cliff. The captain's life was saved
+by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him,
+carrying his sword. Drawing it from the scabbard "with much dexterity
+and animation," the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in
+capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the Inca had
+"gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to
+the country of the Mañaries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends,
+where balsas and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to
+escape." Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids of
+the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he
+put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself, he descended the
+rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived
+at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of
+their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed
+hard after, although he and his men were by this time barefooted and
+suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso
+says that Tupac Amaru, "considering that he had not People to make
+resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime,
+or disturbance he had done or raised, suffered himself to be taken;
+choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards,
+than to perish in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those
+great Rivers .... The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca,
+and on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him,
+amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went,
+so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor Prince." A
+mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with
+fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was mangled before his eyes. His
+own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His
+little boys did not long survive. So perished the last of the Incas,
+descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+1534. The Inca Manco ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+1536. Manco flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+1542. Promulgation of the "New Laws."
+
+1545. Murder of Manco and accession of his son Sayri Tupac.
+1555. Sayri Tupac goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+1560. Death of Sayri Tupac. His half brother Titu Cusi becomes Inca.
+
+1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+1568-9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in
+Chuquipalpa.
+
+1571. Titu Cusi dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. Tupac Amaru
+becomes Inca.
+
+1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de
+Loyola. Execution of Tupac Amaru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Searching for the Last Inca Capital
+
+The events described in the preceding chapter happened, for the most
+part, in Uiticos [6] and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about
+one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy,
+in what Prescott calls "the remote fastnesses of the Andes." One looks
+in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several of the
+older maps give it. In 1625 "Viticos" is marked on de Laet's map of
+Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima and three hundred
+and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by
+some later cartographers, including Mercator, until about 1740,
+when "Viticos" disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers
+had learned that there was no such place in that vicinity. Its real
+location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at
+Nuremberg in 1599 gives "Pincos" in the "Andes" mountains, a small
+range west of "Cusco." This does not seem to have been adopted by
+other cartographers; although a Palls map of 1739 gives "Picos" in
+about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth
+century who give "Viticos" supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g.,
+"Los Viticos" or "Les Viticos."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains
+------
+
+
+The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer,
+Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing Peru, does not
+contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos,
+Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally, it may seem strange that
+Uiticos could ever be written "Biticos." The Quichua language has
+no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital
+letter U exactly like a capital V. In official documents and letters
+Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard
+the word pronounced, naturally used the V sound instead of the U
+sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and
+Uilcapampa became Vilcabamba.
+
+Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way
+Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before or is likely to do
+again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865
+he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa; yet found no Uiticos. He
+believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of
+the last Incas. This view had been held by the French explorer, Count
+de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned
+when Sayri Tupac, Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's
+view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including
+Paz Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nuñez and his friends in 1909, at
+the time of my visit to Choqquequirau. [7] The only dissenter was the
+learned Peruvian historian, Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the
+last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance
+of searching for Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called
+Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian
+Expedition of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would
+meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the
+Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco, mostly wealthy
+planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One
+told us that he went to Santa Ana every year and was acquainted with
+a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San
+Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity of his countrymen to exaggerate,
+however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his
+shoulders, had crossed the bridge a score of times without taking
+the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Señor Pancorbo, whose
+plantation was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague
+rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was
+likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar Marcos had
+established the first church in the "province of Uilcapampa." But
+that was "near" Uiticos and near a village called Chuquipalpa, where
+should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins
+a "white rock over a spring of water." Yet neither these friendly
+planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of
+Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting rock;
+nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+One of Señor Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who
+had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins "finer than
+Choqquequirau" at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had never been
+to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders
+and did not seem to place much confidence in his word. Too often he
+had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not "pan out." Yet
+his report resembled that of Charles Wiener, a French explorer,
+who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes,
+visited Ollantaytambo. While there he was told that there were fine
+ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called "Huaina-Picchu or
+Matcho-Picchu." He decided to go down the valley and look for these
+ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla,
+descended the Lucumayo River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and
+visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published
+a detailed map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name
+"Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m." and to another "Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m." His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to
+Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find any ruins
+of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope
+to be any more successful? Would the rumors that had reached us "pan
+out" as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since
+his day, to be sure, the Peruvian Government had actually finished
+a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard
+Anthropological Expedition, under the leadership of Dr. William
+C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting
+any ruins of importance. They were looking for savages and not
+ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was "finer than Choqquequirau"
+why had no one pointed it out to them?
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Peruvian Expedition of 1915
+------
+
+
+To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything
+finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded that "cradle
+of gold" as "the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent
+times." They assured us there was nothing half so good. They even
+assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to dig
+for buried treasure! Denials were of no avail. To a people whose
+ancestors made fortunes out of lucky "strikes," and who themselves
+have been brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining
+to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of
+tesoro--treasure, wealth, riches--is an ever-present source of
+conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced
+that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau--and that I was
+in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the
+members of the Expedition received no more than their expenses. He
+told me confidentially that Professor Foote would sell his collection
+of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to
+see any one do scientific work except as he was paid by the government
+or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found
+our work misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco
+Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+
+The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may
+be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route for those going
+to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway,
+past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica (12,000 ft.) the road
+crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the
+last point from which one can see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians,
+whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward
+the east, facing the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I
+believe that the words they use now are those of the "Ave Maria,"
+or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless,
+the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of the first
+Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit
+of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries immediately
+preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca
+himself, that divine individual who was at once the head of Church and
+State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in
+sight of his residence to perform an act of veneration. This in turn
+might have led those leaving the city to fall into the same habit at
+the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass
+this point. None of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or
+mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume,
+which betokened that they considered themselves to be Indians rather
+than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed
+their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed
+the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came at length
+to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great
+level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River by the untiring energy
+of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes
+bear many remains of narrow terraces, some of which are still in
+use. Above them are "temporales," fields of grain, resting like a
+patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could
+be cultivated. Still higher up, their heads above the clouds, are
+the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture,
+rich in contrast, majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca
+Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years
+and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under circumstances
+which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that
+they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the night in Urubamba,
+the modern capital of the province, much favored by Peruvians of
+to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate,
+and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000 feet, is too high to have charming
+surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley,
+there is everything to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. Uru is the
+Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, pampa means flat land. Urubamba
+is "flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars." Had it been named
+by people who came up from a warm region where insects abound, it would
+hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land
+where caterpillars and grubs flourished would have been struck by such
+a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau
+dwellers who were working their way down into a warm region where
+butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated
+caterpillars, Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies,
+and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised
+for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get everything.
+
+The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo,
+described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener, and Squier
+many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's
+drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated. Here, as at
+Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green
+fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them
+are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks. The village
+itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history
+is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of curious gabled buildings,
+storehouses, "prisons," or "monasteries," perched here and there
+on well-nigh inaccessible crags above the village. Below are broad
+terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still
+harvested; terraces which will stand for ages to come as monuments to
+the energy and skill of a bygone race. The "fortress" is on a little
+hill, surrounded by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so
+as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which
+cultivated the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror
+of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As
+centuries passed in which the land came under the control of the Incas,
+whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it
+is likely that this fortress became a royal garden. The six great
+ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and
+placed in line on the summit of the hill, were brought from a quarry
+several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They
+were probably intended to be a record of the magnificence of an able
+ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number
+of men to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an
+inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of the hill;
+he had to supply the men with food. The building of such a monument
+meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his
+people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source of pride. To
+his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa
+------
+
+
+A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch
+ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One
+of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a "granite palace,
+whose appearance [appareil] resembles the more beautiful parts
+of Ollantaytambo," was only a storehouse. The other was probably a
+tampu, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in
+Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under official
+orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal
+property were not understood. No one had anything to sell; no one
+had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an
+elaborate system of tax collecting. Two thirds of the produce raised
+by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It
+was a reasonable provision of the benevolent despotism of the Incas
+that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica
+should be provided with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de
+Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in
+Cuzco in 1560, says that the food of the chasquis, Inca post runners,
+was provided from official storehouses; "those who worked for the
+Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense." In
+Manco's day these buildings at Havaspampa probably sheltered the
+outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from
+Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes, one by way
+of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by
+General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and Wiener in 1875; and
+one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the
+Salcantay River to Huadquiña, followed by the Count de Sartiges in
+1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands
+between Mt. Salcantay and Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the
+villages of Piri and Huadquiña. This region was in 1911 undescribed
+in the geographical literature of southern Peru. We decided not to
+use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It
+led us into a fascinating country.
+
+Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of
+precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass of granite
+mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the
+surrounding highlands which are composed of schists, conglomerates, and
+limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province,
+but it was closed for centuries by the combined efforts of nature and
+man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range,
+forms rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can
+be scaled only with great effort and considerable peril. At one
+time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians,
+by crawling along the face of the cliff and sometimes swinging from
+one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way
+to any of the alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may
+have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in
+various inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow
+ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the
+cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the foundations of an
+old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric
+man had built, at the foot of the precipices, close to the river,
+a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of
+Salapunco; sala = ruins; punco = gateway. Fashioned after famous
+Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large
+ashlars and also by reason of the salients and reëntrant angles which
+enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy,
+Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable him
+to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that
+the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate zone,
+to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage
+enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon. On the other hand,
+it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes occupying the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies
+coming down the valley from the direction of Ollantaytambo. They could
+easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully
+built and constructed with skill. Supplies from the plantations of
+Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path
+which antedated the present government road. Salapunco may have been
+occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however,
+have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely that
+he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to
+hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore, its
+style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic
+structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it seem all the
+more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a
+defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was built by folk who once
+occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay
+------
+
+
+When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been
+reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred to us that,
+in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as
+the Inca Manco had the force and time to build, we were to discover
+remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins
+enough to explain why such a fortress as Salapunco might possibly
+have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco and not those well-known Inca cities against the savages of
+the Amazon jungles.
+
+Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered
+a most interesting region, where we were surprised and charmed by the
+extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence
+of many Inca ruins, the beauty of the deep, narrow valleys, and the
+grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across
+the river, near Qquente, on top of a series of terraces, we saw the
+extensive ruins of Patallacta (pata = height or terrace; llacta =
+town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to
+Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's map, although he
+does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any
+reference to it in the chronicles. We spent several months here in
+1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another
+volume I hope to tell more of the antiquities of this region. At
+present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta
+disclosed no "white rock over a spring of water." None of the place
+names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings,
+their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone roof-pegs,
+bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these
+towns and villages flourished, who built them, why they were deserted,
+we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant,
+or silent, as to their history.
+
+At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate valley, we found
+another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of
+an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured some mummies. The ancient
+wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out
+the vampire bats that lived in the cave. On the opposite side of the
+river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other
+ruins first visited by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One
+of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a
+large surveying instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by
+the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In
+1915 rumors of Andean or "spectacled" bears having been seen here and
+of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led
+us to go and investigate. We found no bears, but at an elevation of
+12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering
+moss not hitherto known to science. Above them I was so fortunate as
+to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians
+first developed many varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish
+potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near
+relative of the coenolestes. It turned out to be new to science. To
+find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted
+Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen bears. [8]
+
+Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba,
+and such a canyon! The river "road" runs recklessly up and down
+rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans
+chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets against granite
+cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices
+permitted it, the land between them and the river was once terraced
+and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable
+wonderland. Emotions came thick and fast. We marveled at the exquisite
+pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips
+of arable land from the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have
+managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge
+of the dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one
+sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built a temple,
+whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot
+of the interesting ruins, unable to ford the intervening rapids. High
+up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple,
+are the ruins of Corihuayrachina (kori = "gold"; huayara = "wind";
+huayrachina = "a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place." Possibly
+this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above us on
+another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the
+jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called "La Maquina,"
+where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the
+presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of a "machine" destined
+never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to
+a sugar estate in the lower valley, and years ago left here to rust in
+the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for
+us to pitch our camp, so we pushed on over the very difficult road,
+which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part
+of the cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in
+the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic bridge
+built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds,
+tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth and pebbles
+to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who
+picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder "the machine" rested
+where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are
+considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we passed
+a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land
+of steep mountains is called a pampa. Were the dwellers on the pampas
+of Argentina--where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight
+line, except for the curvature of the earth--to see this little bit
+of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been
+joking or else grossly misusing a word which means to them illimitable
+space with not a hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in
+this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while
+to build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn
+to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing space
+in the bottom of the canyon is called a pampa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through
+a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the river Urubamba
+on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders
+which interfered with the progress of the surging stream, was a steep
+mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp,
+near the road and yet secluded. Our actions, however, aroused the
+suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the
+lands of Mandor Pampa. He was anxious to know why we did not stay at
+his hut like respectable travelers. Our gendarme, Sergeant Carrasco,
+reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned
+that we were interested in the architectural remains of the Incas, he
+said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity--in fact, some
+excellent ones on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu,
+and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to
+reach. The story of my experiences on the following day will be found
+in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins
+of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of very little importance, while
+those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the "National Geographic
+Magazine," are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on
+a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered if it
+could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo,
+a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring when he said:
+"The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos],
+which is on a very high mountain, whence the view commanded a great
+part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level
+space, with very sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well
+as the ordinary ones, being of marble, elaborately carved." Could
+it be that "Picchu" was the modern variant of "Pitcos"? To be sure,
+the white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu
+are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty about
+fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there
+was no difference between the lintels of the doors and the walls
+themselves. Furthermore, there is no "white rock over a spring of
+water" which Calancha says was "near Uiticos." There is no Pucyura
+in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not
+satisfy the geographical requirements of Uiticos. Although containing
+ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that
+last Inca capital for which we were searching. We had not yet found
+Manco's palace.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Search Continued
+
+Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the
+tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below the ruins, both
+Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in
+the flora and fauna. From the point of view of historical geography,
+Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of huilca,
+a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries
+tell us huilca is a "medicine, a purgative." An infusion made from
+the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in
+which it is also shown that from seeds of the huilca a powder is
+prepared, sometimes called cohoba. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a
+narcotic snuff "inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated
+tube." "All writers unite in declaring that it induced a kind of
+intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were
+regarded by the natives as supernatural. While under its influence
+the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication
+with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as
+prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the
+physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the
+person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched." Mr. Safford quotes
+Las Casas as saying: "It was an interesting spectacle to witness how
+they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and
+while he was engaged all remained silent .... When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with
+his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then
+he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must
+have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God;
+after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this
+they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said
+to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and
+begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them
+his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born,
+or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors,
+and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed
+with that intoxication." [9]
+
+Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place
+where huilca was first found and used in their incantations would be
+important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name of
+this river was Uilca-mayu: the "huilca river." The pampa on this river
+where the trees grew would likely receive the name Uilca pampa. If it
+became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named
+Uilcapampa after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin
+of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact that
+denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search
+of this highly prized narcotic, must have found the first trees not
+far from Machu Picchu.
+
+Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now
+pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of San Miguel,
+passed the house of Señor Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to
+write his name on the granite walls of Machu Picchu, and came to the
+sugar-cane fields of Huadquiña. We had now left the temperate zone
+and entered the tropics.
+
+At Huadquiña we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of
+the plantation, Señora Carmen Vargas, and her children, were spending
+the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco,
+but when summer brings fine weather they come to Huadquiña to enjoy
+the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not
+only with that hospitality to passing travelers which is common
+to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance
+in our explorations. Señora Carmen's estate covers more than
+two hundred square miles. Huadquiña is a splendid example of the
+ancient patriarchal system. The Indians who come from other parts of
+Peru to work on the plantation enjoy perquisites and wages unknown
+elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Señora Carmen with
+an affectionate reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to
+bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted
+in encomienda to the lords of the repartimiento or allotted territory.
+
+Huadquiña once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar
+cane and established the mill. After their expulsion from the Spanish
+colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadquiña was bought
+by a Peruvian. It was first described in geographical literature by
+the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when
+on his way to Choqquequirau. He says that the owner of Huadquiña "is
+perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses
+on his estates all the products of the four parts of the globe. In
+the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair,
+potatoes, wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, coca, many mines of
+silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold." Truly a royal principality.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huadquiña
+------
+
+
+Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was
+an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca ruins,
+he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadquiña
+one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without crossing
+the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts
+in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind hosts in 1911. They
+scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty and extent of
+the Inca edifices. [10] When my photographs were developed, however,
+and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the
+principal temples, Señora Carmen and her family were struck dumb
+with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was
+possible that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every
+year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest
+of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower of no great
+interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge
+of San Miguel, had reported the presence of the ruins which he first
+visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little
+attention to his stories. We were soon to have a demonstration of
+the causes of such skepticism.
+
+Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of
+Calaucha's "Chronicle" which referred to the location of the last Inca
+capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of
+which they had never heard, they ordered the most intelligent tenants
+on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all
+was a sturdy mestizo, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little
+valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there
+were "important ruins" which had been seen by some of Señora Carmen's
+Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement that on
+a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi (yurak =
+"white"; rumi = "stone") where some very interesting ruins had been
+found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from
+Calancha's "Chronicle" was the statement that "close to Uiticos" is the
+"white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak
+Rumi." Our hosts assured us that this must be the place, since no
+one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman,
+on being closely questioned, said that he had seen the ruins once or
+twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great
+ruins at Ollantaytambo, and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi
+were "as good as those at Ollantaytambo." Here was a definite statement
+made by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting
+rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman said that
+the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of
+Indians could open it in less than a week. Our hosts, excited by the
+pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that
+even finer ruins might be found on their own property, immediately
+gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+While this was being done, Señora Carmen's son, the manager of the
+plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu, where other
+"important ruins" had been found, which could be reached in a few
+hours without cutting any new trails. Acting on his assurance that we
+should not need tent or cots, we left our camping outfit behind and
+followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We
+found Ccllumayu to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely
+wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of
+the Indian tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into
+the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in
+vain for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadquiña, but
+Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched
+hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat cuys (guinea pigs), the
+chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough
+wattles which admitted plenty of fresh air and gave us comfortable
+ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles,
+constructed for the needs of short, stocky Indians, kept us from
+being overrun by inquisitive cuys, but could hardly be called as
+comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadquiña.
+
+The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few
+piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts which
+probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric
+times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins, "important"
+or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was
+our first disillusionment.
+
+On our return to Huadquiña, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi
+would be ready "in a day or two." In the meantime our hosts became much
+interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. They brought
+an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded
+by high walls in a secluded place back of the house was "a great
+place for spiders." We found that their statement was not exaggerated
+and immediately engaged in an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these
+Huadquiña spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative
+Zoölogy, Dr. Chamberlain found among them the representatives of four
+new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a
+reward of merit, he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well
+ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead from measurements
+and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+------
+
+
+Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with
+feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the foreman
+to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were
+"better than those of Ollantaytambo." It was to be presumed that in the
+pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it
+never entered my head what I was actually to find. After several hours
+spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the
+walls I learned that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single
+little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in
+clay. The building was without a doorway, although it had several small
+windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels
+of the windows and of the small apertures leading into the subterranean
+shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side
+or on the ends, but there were four on the south side through which
+it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize,
+potatoes, or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It
+will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of
+public storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also
+at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on top of
+the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadquiña valleys, probably on an
+ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa. As such it was
+interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had
+done, was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It
+seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places could
+have thought for a moment that one was "as good as the other." To be
+sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and his interest in Inca
+buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo
+are so well known and so impressive that even the most casual traveler
+is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud
+of them. The real cause of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his
+desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner
+is a common trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the
+world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on
+us. We now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding
+Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never
+elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation on the part
+of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were
+interested in visiting the remains of Inca civilization. They knew
+only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and
+their inability to report facts accurately.
+
+Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to
+Señora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani and
+proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the
+road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where the Urubamba
+is joined by the Vilcabamba River. [11] Both rivers are restricted
+here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on
+their way to the lower valley. A few rods from Chauillay was a fine
+bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded
+the old suspension bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with
+its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet
+here it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy,
+Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado and
+Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend
+Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief preliminary fire
+the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the
+bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled to accomplish that which
+had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of
+the surroundings showed that Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de
+Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge
+of Chuquichaca "was a measure of no small importance for the royal
+force." It certainly would have caused the Spaniards "great trouble"
+if they had had to rebuild it.
+
+We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba
+had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the plantation of
+Santa Ana, Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man
+in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice of
+prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca,
+we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders through a
+broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed
+groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of green sugar cane, the
+hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians
+fortunate enough to dwell in this tropical "Garden of Eden." The day
+was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees
+loaded with ripe fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me
+ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver real she dragged out
+a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her
+to permit us to take only as many as our pockets could hold; but she
+seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine
+steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town of
+Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with
+well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is one of the
+principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the
+high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was the scene of unusual
+activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond
+it, we came to the long colonnades of the celebrated sugar estate of
+Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed
+this way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He
+says that he was received here "with a thousand signs of friendship"
+("mille témoignages d'amitié"). We were received the same way. Even
+in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from
+government officials and generous hospitality from private individuals,
+our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible
+information about the little-known region into which we proposed
+to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was
+a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested, not only in the
+administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in
+the intellectual movements of the outside world. He entered with zest
+into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new
+to him, but after reading over with us our extracts from the Spanish
+chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he
+did. Santa Ana is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator;
+the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the "winter" nights are cool;
+but the heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless,
+our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at
+the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the towns and
+valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was
+not much. They all agreed that "if only Señor Lopez Torres were alive
+he could have been of great service" to us, as "he had prospected
+for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had
+once seen some Inca ruins in the forest!" Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa
+and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don
+Pedro's friends had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging,
+until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa
+Ana another friend of Don Pedro's, the teniente gobernador of the
+village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba--a crusty old fellow
+named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo, had been a
+member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched
+for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and had left their names on
+its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried
+treasure, but he was totally unable otherwise to comprehend our desire
+to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the
+contemporaries of Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma
+he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was
+the sub-prefect of the province of Convención, lived at Quillabamba
+near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had
+received orders from his own official superior, the prefect of Cuzco,
+to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave
+particular orders to Mogrovejo to see to it that we were given every
+facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places
+of historic interest. Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin
+in the savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders
+faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa
+Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and charming
+conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma,
+taking the road on the southwest side of the Urubamba and using
+the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious
+cargoes of coca and aguardiente from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start;
+not one of those meant-to-be-early but really late-in-the-morning
+departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested,
+had long since been cleared, and was now covered with bushes and
+second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of
+land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging rocks. As a boy
+in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting
+those beautiful and fascinating mollusks, which usually prefer the
+trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of
+gathering a large number of such as could easily be secured. None of
+the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting
+period. Some weeks later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras
+and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in
+color, on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They
+were fairly "glued to their resting places"; clustered so closely in
+some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So
+far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer had
+preceded us--the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the
+Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence here of
+mines and minerals, but with the exception of an "abandoned tampu"
+at Maracnyoc ("the place which possesses a millstone"), he makes no
+mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed from the story
+of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that
+we were now entering the valley of Uiticos, it was with feel-hags of
+considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem
+strange that we should have been in any doubt. Yet before our visit
+nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos
+Romero still believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he
+took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word choqquequirau means "cradle of gold" and this lent color to the
+legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new
+capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had "retired to Uilcapampa,"
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and
+saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau was
+Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the
+requirements of Calancha that it was "two or three days' journey"
+from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+
+A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner
+of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack animals to
+travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face
+of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces the cliffs in
+a series of little tunnels. My gendarme missed this road and took
+the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of
+Captain Garcia's expedition, "the road was narrow in the ascent with
+forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth." We
+reached Paltaybamba about dusk. The owner, Señor José S. Pancorbo,
+was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles
+of the river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the
+best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was
+the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Señor Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we
+should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo to be
+on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the
+plantation and his friends that evening. They had heard little of
+any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had
+heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere in the montaña there was
+"an Inca city." All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach;
+and none of them had ever been there. In the morning the manager gave
+us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man
+at that house should relay us to the next, and so on. These people,
+all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders,
+although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There
+are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle and dark
+green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of
+waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the road is very winding, and
+the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must
+be like in February, the rainy season, we could only surmise. About
+two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi
+"Maracnyoc," an "abandoned tampu," we came to some old stone walls,
+the ruins of a place now called Huayara or "Hoyara." I believe them to
+be the ruins of the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place
+referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's
+army were "brought back to the valley of Hoyara," where they were
+"settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+.... This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with
+an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were taken for
+the service of the city, the water being very good." The water here
+is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco Basin. On the plain
+near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation
+of Paltaybamba. "Hoyara" was abandoned after the discovery of gold
+mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish "city"
+was moved to the village now called Vilcabamba.
+
+Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of Teniente Gobernador
+Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty
+thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount of prosperity due to
+the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior,
+the pass to the rubber estates in the San Miguel Valley. Here are
+"houses of refreshment" and two shops, the only ones in the region. One
+can buy cotton cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque
+belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the
+slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of agriculture.
+
+There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed
+to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived on the little plaza
+around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He
+had just returned from Santa Ana by the way of Idma, using a much
+worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled
+him to avoid passing through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he
+was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had
+happened to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly
+reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+We offered to pay Mogrovejo a gratificación of a sol, or Peruvian
+silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double
+that amount if the locality should prove to contain particularly
+interesting ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He
+summoned his alcaldes and other well-informed Indians to appear and be
+interviewed. They told us there were "many ruins" hereabouts! Being
+a practical man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in
+ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled
+vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of Quillabamba. So
+he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back
+of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower Vilcabamba. On
+all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places
+they were covered with forest growth, chiefly above the cloud line,
+where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on
+the more gentle slopes recent clearings gave evidence of enterprise
+on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's
+climb we reached what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures,
+on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the
+opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia speak of a
+number of forts or pucarás which had to be stormed and captured before
+Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those
+"fortresses." Its strategic position and the ease with which it could
+be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit the "fortress of Pitcos," nor the "House of the Sun"
+near the "white rock over the spring." It is called Incahuaracana,
+"the place where the Inca shoots with a sling."
+
+Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices--one of two
+rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not
+particularly well built and resemble in many respects the ruins at
+Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows,
+although each has three front doors and is lined with niches, four
+or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three
+rooms, and had several front doors. A force of two hundred Indian
+soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon
+had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated hill,
+its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes,
+its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name of the hill was
+"Rosaspata," a word of modern hybrid origin--pata being Quichua for
+"hill," while rosas is the Spanish word for "roses." Mogrovejo said
+his Indians told him that on the "Hill of Roses" there were more ruins.
+
+At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of
+Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a "wretched hamlet
+with a paltry chapel." To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large
+public school here, to which children come from villages many miles
+away. So crowded is the school that in fine weather the children
+sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls
+wear high boots. I once saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I
+doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of
+the first school in this whole region. For it was to "Puquiura" that
+Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the "mezquina capilla"
+which Raimondi scorned. If this were the "Puquiura" of Friar Marcos,
+then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with
+their famous procession of converts from "Puquiura" to the House of
+the Sun and the "white rock" which was "close to Uiticos."
+
+Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came
+immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish
+crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing quartz on a
+considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo,
+who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended masses said by his friend
+Friar Diego in a chapel which is "near my houses and on my own lands,
+in the mining district of Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of
+Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley
+------
+
+
+One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot
+thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite, hollowed
+out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a
+hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian mortar and pestle,
+heavy enough to need the services of four men to work it. The mortar
+was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected
+a few inches above the surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet
+in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from
+time immemorial by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or
+potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged
+to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the
+southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo to an
+old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the
+south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa, or Inca
+pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia
+and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single house, 166 feet
+long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since
+disappeared. There were six doorways in front, none on the ends or
+in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near
+Lucma. The walls had originally been built of rough stones laid in
+clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all
+at one end of the structure, were irregular, about two feet in width
+and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building
+which was still standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred
+Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and
+followed a path along its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing
+some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found
+myself on a pleasant pampa near the top of the mountain. The view
+from here commands "a great part of the province of Uilcapampa." It
+is remarkably extensive on all sides; to the north and south are
+snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+Furthermore, on the north side of the pampa is an extensive level
+space with a very sumptuous and majestic building "erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as
+the ordinary ones," being of white granite elaborately cut. At last
+we had found a place which seemed to meet most of the requirements
+of Ocampo's description of the "fortress of Pitcos." To be sure it
+was not of "marble," and the lintels of the doors were not "carved,"
+in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully finished,
+as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might
+easily pass for marble. If only we could find in this vicinity that
+Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was "near" Uiticos, all doubts
+would be at an end.
+
+That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of
+Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings when in
+response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring
+valley there was a great white rock over a spring of water! If his
+story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It
+behooved us to make a very careful study of what we had found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun
+
+When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of
+the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied the supreme
+power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension
+to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru. Captain Garcia
+earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the "mañana habit"
+was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain
+filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's Royal Council of
+the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the
+campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this he says: "and having arrived
+at the principal fortress, Guay-napucará ["the young fortress"],
+which the Incas had fortified, we found it defended by the Prince
+Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains
+and soldiers. It is on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and
+jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the
+fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger. Thus
+we gained the province of Uilcapampa." The viceroy himself says this
+important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill and courage in
+storming the heights of Guaynapucará, "on Saint John the Baptist's day,
+in 1572."
+
+The "Hill of Roses" is indeed "a high eminence surrounded with rugged
+crags." The side of easiest approach is protected by a splendid, long
+wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active
+besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa could have furnished a contingent
+to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on
+all sides, and it would have been extremely easy for a small force
+to have defended it. It was undoubtedly "almost impregnable." This
+was the feature Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed
+compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged so as to
+form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The
+outside dimensions of the compound are about 160 feet by 145 feet. The
+builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging
+the houses, Due to the wanton destruction of many buildings by the
+natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so
+pulled down that it is impossible to get the exact dimensions of the
+buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been
+any niches.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention
+of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains of this
+building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a
+fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from Cuzco. It is 245 feet by
+43 feet. There were no windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways,
+fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms,
+besides three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built
+rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not,
+to be sure, of "marble" as Ocampo said--there is no marble in the
+province--but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels
+of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary ones, are
+also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as
+eight feet in length. The doorways are better than any other ruins in
+Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention
+of them made by Ocampo, who lived near here and had time to become
+thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very
+small portion of the edifice was still standing. Most of the rear
+doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous
+fence. Other walls had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out
+of the cultivated pampa. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it
+on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops
+and sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin
+of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide, containing doors
+on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It
+was probably a barracks for a company of soldiers.
+
+The intervening "pampa" might have been the scene of those games
+of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who
+fled from the wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca
+Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca
+whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number of iron articles of
+European origin, heavily rusted--horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of
+scissors, several bridle or saddle ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My
+first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one
+time, although the necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill
+would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In
+the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to make raids
+on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily
+have brought back with him a Spanish bridle. In the second place the
+musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have
+enjoyed whiling away their exile with melancholy twanging. In the
+third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish
+market in Cuzco, where there would have been displayed at times a
+considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally
+Rodriguez de Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he
+brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European
+artifacts has been turned up in the excavations of other important
+sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they
+were abandoned before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by
+natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was
+occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the palace of the
+last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri
+Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is astonishing how few details we have
+by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries
+are strangely silent. When he left Cuzco and sought refuge "in the
+remote fastnesses of the Andes," there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza
+de Leon, in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and
+hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;--Manco
+had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had
+"retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in the most retired
+part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes." [12]
+The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco
+may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we can learn they
+left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+
+Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos
+and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers, are fully
+described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that
+"close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa, is a House of the
+Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water." Our guide had
+told us there was such a place close to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+On the day after making the first studies of the "Hill of Roses," I
+followed the impatient Mogrovejo--whose object was not to study ruins
+but to earn dollars for finding them--and went over the hill on its
+northeast side to the Valley of Los Andenes ("the Terraces"). Here,
+sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top,
+which had a carved seat or platform on its northern side. Its west
+side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been
+walled in on one side. When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there
+was a manantial de agua ("spring of water") near by, I became greatly
+interested. On investigation, however, the" spring" turned out to
+be nothing but part of a small irrigating ditch. (Manantial means
+"spring"; it also means "running water"). But the rock was not "over
+the water." Although this was undoubtedly one of those huacas, or
+sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations
+of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important accessory to
+ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi
+------
+
+
+Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly had been the house
+of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a
+large number of very handsomely built agricultural terraces, the first
+we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in
+the valley. So scarce are andenes in this region and so noteworthy were
+these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were
+probably built under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of
+carved boulders, huacas. One had an intihuatana, or sundial nubbin,
+on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we
+followed a trickling stream through thick woods until we suddenly
+arrived at an open place called ñusta Isppana. Here before us was a
+great white rock over a spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath
+the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly
+enclosing the gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a
+small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name
+of this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this
+remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every side. There was
+not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal
+place for practicing the mystic ceremonies of an ancient cult. The
+remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its
+shadow had caused this to become a place of worship. Here, without
+doubt, was "the principal mochadero of those forested mountains." It is
+still venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found
+the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests faced the
+east, greeted the rising sun, "extended their hands toward it," and
+"threw kisses to it," "a ceremony of the most profound resignation and
+reverence." We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent
+robes of office, standing on the top of the rock at the edge of
+its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the
+early morning, awaiting the moment when the Great Divinity should
+appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it
+rose they saluted it and cried: "O Sun! Thou who art in peace and
+safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health
+and safety. O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu,
+grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it
+is for this that thou hast created them."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana Formerly
+Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos
+------
+
+
+It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched
+over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying a stick of
+firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine
+thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself in the water. Since
+the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect
+the sky, but only the overhanging, dark, mossy rock, the water looks
+black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to
+believe that simple-minded Indian worshipers in this secluded spot
+could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing
+"as a visible manifestation" in the water. Indians came from the most
+sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship here and to offer
+gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised
+the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, and piled firewood
+all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him
+by all the vile names they could think of, the friars commanded him
+never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple,
+scorched the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and
+causing the poor Devil to flee, "roaring in a fury." "The cruel Devil
+never more returned to the rock nor to this district." Whether the
+roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or of the flames we
+can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up
+the swamp or interfered with the arrangements of the water supply so
+that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no
+chance to appear in the water, where he had formerly been accustomed
+to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state,
+but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well preserved
+notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is
+fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height above the present
+level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are
+seats and large steps or platforms. It was customary to kill llamas at
+these holy huacas. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may
+have been used for such sacrifices. From it runs a little crack in
+the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been
+intended to carry off the blood of the victim killed on top of the
+rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which
+are quietly practiced here by the more superstitious Indian women of
+the valley, possibly in memory of the ñusta or Inca princess for whom
+the shrine is named.
+
+On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four
+or five small seats which have been cut in the rock. Great care was
+exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly
+square, level, and straight. The east side of the rock projects
+over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the
+water. On the north side there are no seats. Near the water, steps
+have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven
+steps. Above them the rock has been flattened artificially and carved
+into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones,
+like those usually called intihuatana or "places to which the sun
+is tied." In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six
+others. The other three are arranged in a triangular position above
+the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast
+face of the rock, where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause
+striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock
+------
+
+
+Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of
+very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running water under
+the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained
+the swamp which adjoins the great rock on its northeastern side, we
+found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the
+water ran through the dark pool. We also found that what looked like
+a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the
+top of the back of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The
+platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the
+seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock. Since the
+pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used
+only by priests or sorcerers. It would have been a splendid place to
+practice divination. No doubt the devils "roared."
+
+All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have
+failed to disclose the presence of any other "white rock over a
+spring of water" surrounded by the ruins of a possible "House of
+the Sun." Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the following
+conclusions: First, ñusta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father
+Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers
+as Chuquipalpa. Second, Uiticos, "close to" this shrine, was once
+the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and
+Lucma. This is the "Viticos" of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco,
+who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that "having reached
+Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from various
+parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca,
+established himself in the strongest place he could find, whence he
+sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those
+parts which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards,
+whom he considered as cruel enemies." Third, the "strongest place"
+of Cieza, the Guaynapucará of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by
+Ocampo as "the fortress of Pitcos," where, he says, "there was a level
+space with majestic buildings," the most noteworthy feature of which
+was that they had two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone
+lintels. Fourth, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the
+river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although
+he was disappointed in the insignificance of the "wretched little
+village." The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca,
+which has already been noted, the distance from the "House of the Sun,"
+not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura
+near the fortress, all point to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured
+permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary station
+in Uilcapampa, selected "the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from
+one convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar
+Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a
+church." There is no "Huarancalla" to-day, nor any tradition of any,
+but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000
+feet, in the temperate zone where the crops with which the Incas
+were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and
+alpacas could have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The
+valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and
+villages. Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey
+from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region
+now use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by
+Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows into the
+Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is
+the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros, which Mr. Hay and I
+crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was
+founded by Pizarro, a day's journey from this bridge. The necessity
+for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point
+made it easy for Manco's foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden
+marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque,
+which is probably the "Huarancalla" of Calancha's "Chronicles." He
+must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and
+Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac and its
+magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two
+miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable snow fields and
+glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, even though
+they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are
+completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been known even in recent
+years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding
+not only security from his Spanish enemies, but any climate that he
+desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to
+be no reason to doubt that the retired region around the modern town
+of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Vilcabamba
+
+Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos
+by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of
+the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not mention
+Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father
+Calancha says it was a very large area, "covering fourteen degrees of
+longitude," about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage
+tribes "of the far interior" who acknowledged the supremacy of the
+Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. "The Mañaries and
+the Pilcosones came a hundred and two hundred leagues" to visit the
+Inca in Uiticos.
+
+The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi
+says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha says it
+was "two days' journey from Puquiura." Raimondi thought it must be
+Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however, speak of it as
+being down in the warm valleys of the montaña, the present rubber
+country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on
+the maps of Peru is near the source of the Vilcabamba River, not more
+than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+
+We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750
+feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba has
+threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they
+were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually heavy thatch,
+seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the gobernador,
+Manuel Condoré. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been
+most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+The gobernador said that the reason the town was deserted was that most
+of the people were now attending to their chacras, or little farms,
+and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring
+valleys. He said that only at special festival times, such as the
+annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here,
+once a year, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part
+of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was
+transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name, Condoré
+said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as
+such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru. The solidity of
+the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The
+present air of desolation and absence of population is probably due
+to the decay of that industry.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building,
+is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells. Condoré
+said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It
+is probably the very structure whose construction was carefully
+supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move
+the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria from Hoyara to the
+neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers,
+went to Cuzco as agent of the interested parties, to take the matter
+up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+"The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our
+Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal fifths,
+as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having
+examined the capitulations and reasons, the said Don Luis de Velasco
+[the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is
+now founded, ordering that it should have the title and name of the
+city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its
+first name. By this change of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo,
+performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my
+care, industry and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its
+principal chapel and great doors." We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and
+the whole to show considerable "industry and solicitude."
+
+The site was called "Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered
+this land found the flocks and herds." Modern Vilcabamba is on grassy
+slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes
+potatoes are still raised, although the valley itself is given up
+to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and
+sheep in abundance where the Incas must have pastured their llamas
+and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines
+begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that this was Onccoy,
+although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+We met at the gobernador's an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had
+once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we
+interviewed through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the
+region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied
+having heard of "Uiticos" or any of its variations. If we were indeed
+in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar
+with that name?
+
+Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands
+have now for so many generations been neglected by their rulers
+and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can
+purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine they can secure, through
+the constant chewing of coca leaves, that they have lost much if not
+all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated mestizos of the
+principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only
+from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but also from the blood
+of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of
+the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve the remains of the wonderful
+civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba
+was an unknown land to most of the Peruvians, even those who live in
+the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four Incas been in a
+region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources
+were sufficient to support a large population, and whose roads made
+transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes,
+it would have been occupied from the days of Captain Garcia to the
+present by Spanish-speaking mestizos, who might have been interested
+in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions
+connected with it.
+
+After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends "petered
+out," or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that
+remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura with Cuzco and
+civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably
+impassable during a large part of the year even to people accustomed
+to Andean "roads."
+
+The possibility of raising sugar cane and coca between Huadquiña and
+Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower
+Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding the difficult transportation over
+the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing
+to lead any one to visit the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire
+to make it a place of residence. And until Señor Pancorbo opened
+the road to Lucma, Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine
+generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa
+between the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern
+explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the "Hill of
+Roses" in the days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into
+ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who
+once lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The
+Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any
+interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the renaissance of
+historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that
+it occurred to any one to look for Manco's capital. When Raimondi,
+the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one
+thought to tell him that on the hilltop opposite the village once
+lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were
+still there, hidden underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of "San Francisco
+de la Victoria de Vilcabamba" was in the "valley of Viticos." The
+town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which
+flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so marked on Raimondi's
+map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland
+pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin, would also
+seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been
+abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is difficult to believe that
+if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca
+times to the present we should not have found at least a few of the
+indigenous American camels here. By itself, such an occurrence would
+hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of
+traditions regarding Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there
+must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of
+consequence lived in this vicinity.
+
+We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining
+operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to at least
+a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of
+ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles, chicken pox,
+and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction
+of a large proportion of those unfortunates whose untimely deaths
+were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the
+early Spanish miners and treasure seekers. Both causes undoubtedly
+contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the
+population diminished enormously in early colonial days. If this is
+true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions
+where the conditions of existence and human intercourse were less
+severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier, are of
+the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru
+and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time of the Conquest. In
+other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent
+disappearance of bad living conditions and forced labor at the mines,
+also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and
+the more comfortable conditions of existence which have followed the
+coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the
+number of highland Indians has increased. With this increase has come
+a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural
+tendency to seek less crowded regions, even at the expense of using
+difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote
+and inaccessible a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It
+is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the
+demand for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by
+the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years when
+no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian
+shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma. The adobe houses of
+these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built
+in the nineteenth century.
+
+Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information
+prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had been privileged
+to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers
+Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that Choqquequirau, the only ruins
+reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the
+capital of the Incas who took refuge there. It also makes it seem
+more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and ñusta Isppana
+should not have been known to Peruvian geographers and historians,
+or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite
+apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were called
+Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century
+shows that there may have been three places bearing that name;
+one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), another
+also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded by the Spaniards,
+namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in
+Calancha's account of the trials and tribulations of Friar Marcos
+and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with
+considerable detail of their visit to "Vilcabamba Viejo." It was
+after the monks had already founded their religious establishment
+at Puquiura that they learned of the existence of this important
+religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit
+it. For a long time he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to
+them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them
+to continue their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their
+importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the
+journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied the two
+friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them
+from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road. The Inca, however,
+did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the
+Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably along in a litter by
+servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were
+obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail soon demoralized their
+footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road,
+"Ungacacha," the trail went for some distance through water. The
+monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their
+monastic garments while passing through the water. However, the monks
+persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, "on account of its
+being the largest city in which was the University of Idolatry, where
+lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination." If
+one may judge by the name of the place, Uilcapampa, the wizards and
+sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient
+snuff made from huilca seeds. After a three days' journey over very
+rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then
+Titu Cusi was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered
+that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might not
+witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the
+Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+Nothing is said about the appearance of "Vilcabamba Viejo" and it
+is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the city,
+although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks
+and kept up their preaching and teaching. During their stay Titu Cusi,
+who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying
+them in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break
+their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation with
+his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most
+beautiful Indian women, including some individuals of the Yungas who
+were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived
+at the "University of Idolatry" in "Vilcabamba Viejo," were "Virgins of
+the Sun," who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests
+and were selected from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is
+also evident that "Vilcabamba Viejo" was so constructed that the
+monks could be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being
+able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+"abominations" which were practiced there, as they did those at the
+white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it is possible
+that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as "Vilcabamba
+Viejo," was on the slopes of the mountain now called Machu Picchu.
+
+In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins
+of Vilcabamba called "the old" by Ocampo, to distinguish it from
+the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after
+the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely as Vilcabamba by
+Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Conservidayoc
+
+When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places
+mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point
+to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told us that in 1902 Lopez
+Torres, who had traveled much in the montaña looking for rubber trees,
+reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don
+Pedro's friends assured us that Conservidayoc was a terrible place
+to reach. "No one now living had been there." "It was inhabited by
+savage Indians who would not let strangers enter their villages."
+
+When we reached Paltaybamba, Señor Pancorbo's manager confirmed what
+we had heard. He said further that an individual named Saavedra lived
+at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was
+very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's house was extremely
+difficult to find. "No one had been there recently and returned
+alive." Opinions differed as to how far away it was.
+
+Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins
+near Rosaspata, Señor Pancorbo, returning from his rubber estate in
+the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by,
+took great pains to find us and see how we were progressing. When he
+learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc,
+he asked us to desist from the attempt. He said Saavedra was "a very
+powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in
+grand state, with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being
+visited by anybody." The Indians were "of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile
+to strangers." Admitting that he had heard there were Inca ruins near
+Saavedra's station, Señor Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our
+lives by going to look for them.
+
+By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar
+with the current stories regarding the habits of savage tribes who
+lived in the montaña and whose services were in great demand as rubber
+gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like
+to work for Señor Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man,
+anxious to achieve many things, results which required more laborers
+than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might
+possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had escaped from the rubber
+estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Señor Pancorbo's own life would
+have been at the mercy of their poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon
+Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited
+with impunity by the explorers of the nineteenth century to become so
+savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all its aspects. We
+finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports
+regarding the presence of Inca ruins at Conservidayoc we could not
+afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least
+make an effort to reach them, meanwhile taking every precaution to
+avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage
+retainers.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River
+------
+
+
+On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the
+gobernador, Condoré, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had
+summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a
+very picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly
+reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry
+was in progress. He took off his hat--but not his knitted cap--and
+endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about
+the surrounding country. It was he who said that the Inca Tupac
+Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa
+Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins in the montaña near
+Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condoré. Several had
+heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently, none of them,
+nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited
+their immediate vicinity. They all agreed that Saavedra's place was
+"at least four days' hard journey on foot in the montaña beyond
+Pampaconas." No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru,
+although it is frequently mentioned in the documents of the sixteenth
+century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with
+Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place called
+Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere
+down in the dense forests of the montaña and presented him with a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts--products of a warm region.
+
+We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map
+which covered this locality. We also had the new map of South Peru and
+North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical
+Society and gave a summary of all available information. The
+Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from
+Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's map all of the rivers which rise in
+the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac
+and flow southwest. We wondered whether the stories about ruins at
+Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those
+we had heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadquiña. One of our
+informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the "Pampa
+of Ghosts." Would the ruins turn out to be "ghosts"? Would they vanish
+on the arrival of white men with cameras and steel measuring tapes?
+
+No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at
+the village of Pampaconas, "about five leagues from here," there
+were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies
+were getting low. There were no shops nearer than Lucma; no food
+was obtainable from the natives. Accordingly, notwithstanding the
+protestations of the hospitable gobernador, we decided to start
+immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor
+Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening meal and we
+were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of
+our favorite beverage. Several years ago, when traveling on muleback
+across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value
+of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant and bracer in the high Andes. At
+first astonished to see how much tea the Indian arrieros drank, I
+learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water,
+which often brings on mountain-sickness. This particular evening,
+one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most
+horrible stuff imaginable. Examination showed small, oily particles
+floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery
+that one of our arrieros had that day placed our can of kerosene on
+top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had
+dripped down into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had
+eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to
+throw away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works
+in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more one
+seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching
+our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical investigations
+to stray far up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the
+boundaries of known topography, headed for "Conservidayoc," a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said
+to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the
+gobernador told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers
+whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules could
+not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating
+the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to be extremely
+alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two gendarmes who were
+now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few
+hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our pack train until dusk. The
+gobernador said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any
+brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this
+was due in part to that love of freedom which had led them to abandon
+the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords
+could not call on them for forced labor. Consequently, before the
+arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as
+our gendarmes, the gobernador and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to
+put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen
+sturdy Indians. Their methods will be described presently.
+
+Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an
+old glaciated valley, in which one of our mules got thoroughly mired
+while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous
+bog. Fording the Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook,
+we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains
+above us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their
+discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here
+cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide. He
+does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted
+long before his day. As to the other minerals, the difficulties of
+transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will
+be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain
+of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the town of
+Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi,
+followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not leave room
+enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and
+Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude to be 73° west,
+and our latitude to be 13° 8' south. Yet according to the latest map
+of this region, published in the preceding year, this was the very
+position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river
+Pampas. We ought to have been swimming "the Great Speaker." Actually
+we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and
+glaciers. The mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when
+he determined the Apurimac and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther
+apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored
+region, 1500 square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been
+guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles
+from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and the site of a
+university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so
+long defy investigation and exploration shows better than anything
+else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable
+labyrinth of snow-clad peaks, unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green
+valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our maps that we were
+now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact,
+we were on the rim of the valley of the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas,
+a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead
+of being the Apurimac Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region
+which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood
+from Condoré that somewhere far down in the montaña below us was
+Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage
+Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that the Incas could have
+built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were
+accustomed. The "road" was now so bad that only with the greatest
+difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we
+had to dismount, as the path led down a long, steep, rocky stairway
+of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a
+lonesome little hut perched on a shoulder of the mountain. In front of
+it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as
+they saw the gobernador approaching, they stopped their work and began
+to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to
+be told that Señor Condoré and his friends had not had anything but a
+cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet the emergency
+of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing cuys (guinea
+pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts
+of mountain Indians. Before long the savory odor of roast cuy, well
+basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or
+laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite of the
+celebrated dogma that "Pigs is Pigs," this form of "pork" has never
+found its way to our kitchens, even though these "pigs" live on a
+very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come
+from Guinea and are in no way related to pigs--Mr. Ellis Parker
+Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the
+same family as rabbits and Belgian hares and have long been a highly
+prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are
+of a grayish brown color, which enables them to escape observation
+in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, which one sees
+in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny,
+varying from one another in color as much as do the llamas, which
+were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years
+ago. Although Anglo-Saxon "folkways," as Professor Sumner would say,
+permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at
+short-eared rabbits, yet they were bred to be eaten.
+
+I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever
+knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in the capital
+of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had
+I not been very hungry, I might never have known how delicious a roast
+guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose
+supply of animal food is small, whose fowls are treasured for their
+eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as
+mutton, the succulent guinea pig, "most prolific of mammals," as was
+discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a
+few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for emergencies. Her
+sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little cuys.
+
+After lunch, Condoré and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling
+countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome farm
+to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were
+so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home or working in
+his little chacra they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward
+to shake hands, in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was
+un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was
+informed that he had accepted pay for services which must now be
+performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A
+paternal government saw to it that they were properly fed and clothed
+and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own
+necessities or else permitted to draw on official stores. In colonial
+days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of
+the ancient system and enforced it without taking pains to see that
+it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless
+landlords, backed by local authority, forced the Indians to work
+without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or
+even pretending to carry out promises and wage agreements. The peons
+learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having
+received a considerable portion of their pay. When once they accepted
+money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided
+that they must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant
+legal punishment.
+
+Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a
+dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized that service
+was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was "busy," that his
+"crops needed attention," that his "family could not spare him," that
+"he lacked food for a journey." Condoré and Mogrovejo were accustomed
+to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in "engaging" half a dozen
+carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small
+huts scattered over grassy hillsides, at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a "high, cold place." This
+is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the
+Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's day as being "an
+important town of the Incas." There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts
+of Pampaconas were newly built of stone and mud, and thatched with
+grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians,
+who enjoyed unusual freedom from official or other interference
+and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes,
+on the very edge of the dense forest. We found that there was some
+excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar,
+or possibly a cougar, had come out of the forest, attacked, killed,
+and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named
+Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had been selected
+to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to
+Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood in his veins, although
+he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied
+one of the best huts. A fire in one corner frequently filled it with
+acrid smoke. It was very small and had no windows. At one end was a
+loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from
+molestation. Piles of sheep skins were arranged for visitors to sit
+upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves
+and tables. The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel
+dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space
+with the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily
+and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with
+a whip; only to return again and again, each time to be driven out
+as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions,
+we carried on a most interesting conversation with Guzman. He had
+been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu
+Pampa. At last the mythical "Pampa of Ghosts" began to take on in
+our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind
+ourselves that another very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins
+"finer than Ollantaytambo" near Huadquiña. Guzman did not seem to dread
+Conservidayoc as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever
+been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for
+the journey. Although it was August and the middle of the dry season,
+rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived
+after dark with our pack animals, but, missing the trail as he neared
+Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog and was extracted
+only with considerable difficulty.
+
+We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained
+bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the evening, after
+we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the
+rain to our comfortable little tent, only to hear various and sundry
+grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large
+sow and six fat young pigs, unable to settle down comfortably at the
+Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available
+place on the mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly
+attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain
+and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs to return
+at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman,
+with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming soup, which at
+first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni--a dish
+of which one of us was particularly fond. The white hollow cylinders
+proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As
+a matter of fact, we learned that the evening meal which Guzman's
+wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very
+cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof
+was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be lying in
+puddles of water. Everything was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still
+failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what
+we should cook for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices
+and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this
+time more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and
+potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and jaws
+of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was
+first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the ten days'
+journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our
+other carriers, spent the morning grinding chuño (frozen potatoes)
+with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or
+toasting large quantities of sweet corn in a terra-cotta olla. With
+chuño and tostado, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of coca
+leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of
+our own provisions we had so small a quantity that we were unable
+to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have
+liked them as much as the food to which they had long been accustomed.
+
+Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the
+rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc. We were told
+that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San
+Fernando, our first stop, was "seven leagues" away, far down in the
+densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the
+mountain back of Guzman's hut and followed a faint trail by a dangerous
+and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not
+improved the path. Our saddle mules were of little use. We had to
+go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could
+see but little of the deep canyon which opened below us, and into
+which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep,
+zigzag path, four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the
+clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path,
+across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally we
+came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little
+shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts; and this
+was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room
+enough in them for our six carriers. It was with great difficulty we
+found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only
+seven feet square. There was no really flat land at all.
+
+At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent,
+I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians in the
+near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail
+structure and made a great disturbance, crying out that there was a
+temblor. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it
+might have done during the stormy night which followed, they were in
+no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs
+of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes do very serious harm,
+they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight
+shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds, a gentle
+rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks
+later, near Huadquiña, we happened to stop at the Colpani telegraph
+office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th--one
+at five o'clock, which had shaken the books off his table and knocked
+over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and
+south. He said the shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself
+to the "dry season" and we were more comfortable. Furthermore, camping
+out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping
+at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of the bridge of San
+Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate
+zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics. Sugar cane, peppers,
+bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and
+sweet potatoes. None of these things will grow at Pampaconas. The
+Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come
+to San Fernando to make chacras or small clearings. The three or
+four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of
+brass buttons that they disappeared during the night rather than
+take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands
+in the morning! From San Fernando, we sent one of our gendarmes back
+to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty
+pounds apiece.
+
+Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing
+on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil here seemed to be
+very rich. In the chacra we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height,
+near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of
+a mato-palo, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves
+its name, for it commands a "charming view" of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain,
+whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction;
+now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were mystified;
+for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more
+difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under branches, along
+slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock,
+over a trail which not even dogs could follow unassisted, slowly we
+made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the
+frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon before we reached another little
+clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet
+above the river, our men decided to spend the night in a tiny little
+shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had
+to dig a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train,
+we made an early start. As we followed the faint little trail across
+the gulches tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate
+several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their
+loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on primitive
+bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together
+and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in
+dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled thickets,
+through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here
+Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while, as we were now in the
+territory of los salvajes, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the
+rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be
+particularly afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our
+carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack
+us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He said we should never
+be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was
+selected to go ahead did not relish his task. Leaving his pack behind,
+he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost
+to view almost immediately. There followed an exciting half-hour while
+we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us,
+and trying to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra,
+who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury,
+"surrounded by fifty servants," and directing his myrmidons to
+checkmate our desires to visit the Inca city on the "pampa of ghosts."
+
+Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound
+of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little tighter
+in readiness for whatever might befall--when there burst out of the
+woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally clad,
+who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us
+a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible, but a glance
+at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was
+with a sigh of relief that we realized there was to be no shower of
+poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs,
+we continued along the jungle trail, through woods which gradually
+became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight
+ahead and, to our intense astonishment, the bright green of waving
+sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found
+us at a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by
+Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it was
+never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his
+fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured Indian
+wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work,
+evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said some called this place
+"Jesús Maria" because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's
+invitation to make ourselves at home, and sat down to an abundant meal
+of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (manioc). Saavedra gave us
+to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had,
+but that he would do everything to enable us to see the ruins, which
+were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the
+valley, to be reached only by a hard trail passable for barefooted
+savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a
+good part of the distance on hands and knees. The next day, while
+our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote
+collected a large number of insects, including eight new species of
+moths and butterflies.
+
+I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for
+centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar cane than
+he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees,
+sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead of being "a very powerful
+chief having many Indians under his control"--a kind of "Pooh-Bah"--he
+was merely a pioneer. In the utter wilderness, far from any neighbors,
+surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established
+his home. He was not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman,
+soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic,
+a modest Peruvian of the best type.
+
+Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate
+such pampas as he could find--one an alluvial fan near his house,
+another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was
+a thatched shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar
+mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, each capable of being turned,
+with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of
+roughly hewn timbers fastened together with wooden pins and lashed
+with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been
+unable to coax any pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he
+was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that
+of his active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of
+such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other trade
+articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing
+on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were a game. At other
+times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using
+in the process of boiling the juice and making crude sugar. He said he
+had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by
+the Incas. Four of them were of the familiar aryballus type. Another
+was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base,
+single incised, conventionalized, animal-head nubbin attached to the
+shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median
+line. Although capable of holding more than ten gallons, this huge
+pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a
+rope passing through the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said
+that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined
+with stones, with a flat stone on top--evidently ancient graves. The
+bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the graves had
+been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He
+had also found a few stone implements and two or three small bronze
+Inca axes.
+
+On the pampa, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite
+labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have taken
+the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no
+pack animals and was usually obliged to bring the cane to the mill on
+his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier,
+while the cane was growing, to construct a new mill near the cane
+field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the
+hill. He said his hardest task was to get money with which to send
+his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in
+which he could get any cash was by making chancaca, crude brown sugar,
+and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days'
+journey on foot up the mountain to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or
+seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could
+usually sell such a load for five soles, equivalent to two dollars
+and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain,
+although he smilingly admitted that it was very difficult to keep
+the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the
+river continually washed away his little rustic bridges. His chief
+regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he
+had had nothing to do, the government had decreed that all firearms
+should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he needed to
+enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large
+turkey-like bird, the pava de la montaña, glossy black, its most
+striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at
+liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly domesticated. It would make an
+attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he
+had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe said it was
+without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his
+plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about taxes and
+have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten
+about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers ran toward the house
+in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a "savage"
+in the bushes near by. The "wild man" was very timid, but curiosity
+finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage
+to accept Saavedra's urgent invitation that he come out and meet
+us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad
+cold in his head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another
+to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that
+I have ever seen.
+
+He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his
+ankles. It was made of a large square of coarsely woven cotton cloth,
+with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up,
+leaving holes for the arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He
+had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large
+mouth. His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one
+shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber net. Around
+his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed
+of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together. Although I did not
+see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees,
+he used this stout loop to fasten his ankles together and thus secure
+a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and
+his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us that these
+Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra
+and his son spoke a little of their language, which sounded to our
+unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and
+gutturals. It was pieced out by signs. The long tunics worn by the
+men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they
+wear very scanty attire--nothing more than a few rags hanging over one
+shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough
+garment to wear during the cold nights, and their only covering, must
+impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run
+away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that they found it
+uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom
+in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber estate.
+
+Saavedra said that he had named his plantation Conservidayoc, because
+it was in truth "a spot where one may be preserved from harm." Such
+was the home of the potentate from whose abode "no one had been known
+to return alive."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+The Pampa of Ghosts
+
+Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail
+which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been clearing. We
+emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine
+view down the valley and particularly of a heavily wooded alluvial fan
+just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little
+oval huts of the savages of Espiritu Pampa, the "Pampa of Ghosts."
+
+On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building
+of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower. From here to
+Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about
+four feet in width and nearly a third of a mile long. It was built of
+uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief
+duty it was to watch from the top of the promontory and who used their
+spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as
+a heavy thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their
+occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle. We
+hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the
+terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not our nervousness. The
+hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs
+driven endwise into the ground and fastened together with vines. A
+small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two
+old black ollas of Inca origin.
+
+In the little chacra, cassava, coca, and sweet potatoes were growing in
+haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical milpa
+farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular
+houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if this could be the
+"Inca city" which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery. There was nothing Incaic about
+the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all
+the rest were round. The buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to
+twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down,
+but gave no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods
+which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other circular
+walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If
+the savages have extended their milpa clearings since our visit, the
+falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient
+village probably belonged to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to
+the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication
+of their having been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began
+to wonder whether the "Pampa of Ghosts" really had anything important
+in store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized
+in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been inhabited,
+off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an "Inca city."
+
+While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here,
+there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy young savage,
+armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of
+bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a bird he had shot. Soon
+afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's,
+accompanied by a cross-eyed friend, all wearing long tunics. They
+offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to
+follow their rapid pace. Half an hour's scramble through the jungle
+brought us to a pampa or natural terrace on the banks of a little
+tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found
+several old artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long,
+rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half
+feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only a foot
+high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently
+the structure had never been completed. Near by was a typical Inca
+fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards
+beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous, hidden behind a curtain of
+hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few
+feet in any direction, the savages showed us the ruins of a group of
+stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by
+itself at the south end of a little pampa, had neither doors nor
+windows. It was rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged
+with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an
+unusual dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side
+of the pampa was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided
+into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones
+laid in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo,
+the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the pampa
+was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of
+a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed fountain or
+bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of
+the houses, their general arrangement, the niches, stone roof-pegs
+and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish
+roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments we could find
+would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different
+sizes, as though some one had been experimenting. Perhaps an Inca who
+had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them
+here in the jungle, but without success.
+
+At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands,
+and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary and
+sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and
+we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were doomed to
+disappointment. During the day some one had brought to the hut eight
+tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined
+to make the night hideous with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to
+discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose
+of exorcising the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer
+up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as
+much as possible of the tangled growth near the best ruins. In this
+process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of
+the savages, they discovered, just below the "bathhouse" where we had
+stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of
+superior construction, well fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches,
+very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a
+little artificial terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery
+were found on the floor, including pieces of a large aryballus.
+
+Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the
+fact that the savages themselves had often been within five feet of
+these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic
+Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search, but all that
+any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a
+brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages carefully. They said
+they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of
+Espiritu Pampa and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the "Vilcabamba Viejo"
+of Father Calancha, that "University of Idolatry where lived the
+teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination," the place to
+which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering? Was
+there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the
+monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they handled their
+monastic robes in the water? They called it a "three days' journey
+over rough country." Another reference in Father Calancha speaks
+of Puquiura as being "two long days' journey from Vilcabamba." It
+took us five days to go from Espiritu Pampa to Pucyura, although
+Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity,
+might do it in three. It is possible to fit some other details of
+the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road
+called Ungacacha. Nevertheless it does not seem to me reasonable to
+suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the
+"University of Idolatry") who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and
+were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa
+would have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The
+difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and Egypt,
+or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa
+the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could have found the
+seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other
+parts of the province, particularly at Machu Picchu, together with a
+cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more nearly resembling those to
+which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says "Vilcabamba the Old"
+was "the largest city" in the province, a term far more applicable
+to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in
+the montaña does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba
+by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his
+forces lost the "young fortress" of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless wishing
+to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the
+Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of Tupac "Vilcabamba
+the old." Ocampo's new "Vilcabamba" was not in existence when Friar
+Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this province. If Calancha wrote
+his chronicles from their notes, the term "old" would not apply to
+Espiritu Pampa, but to an older Vilcabamba than either of the places
+known to Ocampo.
+
+The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have
+required a long period to build. The unfinished building may have
+been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu
+Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez de Figueroa should meet
+him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in
+the montaña, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common at
+Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that the
+ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences
+of this Inca--the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he spent his boyhood
+and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565. [13]
+
+In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru
+after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled "inland toward the
+valley of Sima-ponte ... to the country of the Mañaries Indians,
+a warlike tribe and his friends, where balsas and canoes were posted
+to save him and enable him to escape." There is now no valley in this
+vicinity called Simaponte, so far as we have been able to discover. The
+Mañaries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower
+Urubamba. In order to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went
+down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the "Pampa of Ghosts"
+to canoe navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently
+his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that,
+not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river, he constructed
+five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them
+himself, went down the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming,
+until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca,
+learning of his approach, had gone farther into the woods. Nothing
+daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go
+on foot and barefooted, with hardly anything to eat, most of their
+provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught
+Tupac and his friends; a tragic ending to a terrible chase, hard on
+the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas
+River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed possible that the
+Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of
+which were believed by Dr. Bowman's canoe-men to rise in the mountains
+of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we
+were able definitely to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch
+of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the
+"Sima-ponte." Whether the Comberciato is the "Momori" is hard to say.
+
+To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain
+Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and Maynard. They
+found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were
+tormented by insects and great quantities of ants--a small red ant
+found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length,
+frequently seen among the leaves on the ground. The bite of the red
+ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of
+their carriers who was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered
+intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also
+his leg and hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and
+hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind made of palm leaves a
+few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three
+Indians fished all night and caught only one fish, a perch weighing
+about four pounds.
+
+The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in
+knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to become blue
+with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood
+of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more
+than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The lower course
+of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation,
+but the valley is much narrower than the Cosireni. The width of
+the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the
+Cosireni. The climate is very trying. The nights are hot. Insect
+pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that "the forest was filled with
+annoying, though sting-less, bees which persisted in attempting to
+roost on the countenance of any human being available." On the banks
+of the Comberciato he found several families of savages. All the men
+were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful
+bows made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds
+and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found,
+including the large red howler, inert and easily located by its deep,
+roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles;
+the giant black spider monkey, very alert, and, when frightened, fairly
+flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey,
+black in color, and very intelligent in expression, frequently tamed
+by the savages, who "enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to
+eating them when food is scarce." "The flesh of monkeys is greatly
+appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire."
+
+On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides
+carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened proved to
+contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man
+finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies into a small bag,
+saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those
+seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats
+are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it harder to
+use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate
+this valley for about ten years, and at first kept their wives and
+children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker
+were sent here to determine the astronomical position of Espiritu
+Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their
+families. Perhaps it is doubtful whether they knew just what he was
+doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+All the men and older boys wore white fillets of bamboo. The married
+men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the
+characteristic lip ornament of the Campas. Some of the children wore
+no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One
+of them had a truly savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet,
+had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must
+have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows. All the
+women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One
+little girl, not more than six years old, was carrying on her back a
+child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It
+will be remembered that forest Indians nearly always use tump-lines
+so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer
+than the others and looked as though she might have had a Spanish
+ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad,
+wore a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied
+around her waist. All her children were naked. The children of the
+woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics,
+and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite, was decorated with
+bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled
+from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy as monkey
+meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by
+the highlanders, may be doubted. Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's
+preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards "rather
+than to perish of famine." His Indian allies lived perfectly well in
+a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever
+have permitted Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able
+to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of
+this valley having been an important part of the domain of the last
+Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the
+carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas. Although they did not
+have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous
+as to what use the latter might some day make of the powerful bows
+and long arrows.
+
+At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar
+for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a row along the
+side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed
+handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The result was a confection or
+"emergency ration" which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst
+of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed out of
+the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked
+with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had been falling
+above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor
+Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's fire and filled our
+tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet,
+and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly nothing
+ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas
+
+It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the
+last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which we could not
+fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important
+of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its buildings are far older than
+the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we
+may have found at Machu Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story
+of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at
+the time of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca
+towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far away
+from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were
+the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly seven hundred
+years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536
+and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about 800 A.D.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty
+generations, when, as has been told in Chapter VI, invaders came
+from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful
+civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering feats which
+we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the
+Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti VI, who was killed by
+an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos,
+whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been translated
+for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University,
+tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body to
+"Tampu-tocco." This, says the historian, was "a healthy place" where
+there was a cave in which they hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the
+finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General
+anarchy prevailed throughout the ancient empire. The good old days
+of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the
+old empire was destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In
+these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which
+followed the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire,
+Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units. Each
+district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against
+its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen in the ruins of
+small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas
+were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests,
+wise men, and chiefs of the ancient régime, built a new city at
+"Tampu-tocco." Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and
+lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to them,
+little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing
+chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent chiefs or
+"robber barons." In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi
+Truaman Quicho.
+
+The survivors of the old régime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco,
+because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or tremblings
+there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young
+king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed, they could bury him
+in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of
+Pachacuti VI.
+
+Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen
+an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed. To their
+ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth
+recording happened for centuries. During this period several of the
+kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great
+Amautas had reigned, but for one reason or another were obliged to
+forego their ambitions.
+
+One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called
+Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began to write on
+the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the
+highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping idols and animals,
+to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall
+of the Amautas, and to return to the ways of their ancestors. He
+met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were
+killed and little or no change took place. Discouraged by the failure
+of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause,
+Tupac Cauri was told by his soothsayers that the matter which most
+displeased the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade
+anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate was
+observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used
+letters. Instead, they used quipus, strings and knots. It was supposed
+that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one
+realized how near the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most
+momentous step.
+
+This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed
+to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest. We
+have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it
+aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons with
+Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste
+Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal ancestors
+and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful
+investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard. As a matter of fact,
+to students of Sumner's "Folkways," the story rings true. Some young
+fellow, brighter than the rest, developed a system of ideographs
+which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were
+beginning to adopt it. The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did
+not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets,
+heretofore handed down orally to the neophytes, might become public
+property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to
+spread. There followed some extremely unlucky event--the ambassadors
+were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a
+result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by the priests,
+determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet
+been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient; the leaves
+withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were
+lost. Had the new invention been permitted to exist a little longer,
+some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it
+would have persisted. The rulers and priests, however, found that the
+important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well
+by means of the quipus. And the "job" of those whose duty it was to
+remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is
+nothing unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the
+history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from
+making important advances.
+
+Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco
+a kind of university where boys were taught the use of quipus, the
+method of counting and the significance of the different colored
+strings, while their fathers and older brothers were trained in
+military exercises--in other words, practiced with the sling, the
+bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows and arrows. Around the
+name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called,
+is gathered the story of various intellectual movements which took
+place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and
+military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The
+ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition of their
+ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to
+make the attempt to reestablish themselves there. An earthquake, which
+ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses,
+destroyed towns, and was followed by the outbreak of a disastrous
+epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although
+in healthy Tampu-tocco there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became
+more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was
+terraced and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized,
+and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure
+arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic ruler
+of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca,
+the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown
+to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how he could secure new
+lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined
+to set out with them "toward the hill over which the sun rose," as
+we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was
+a descendant of a long line of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived
+in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the
+antiquities of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it
+was handed down to the descendants of the former rulers of Peru. In
+it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in
+reaching Cuzco and settled there. With the return of the descendants
+of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco
+married his own sister in order that he might not lose caste and that
+no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with
+his. He made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded
+as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now
+came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief, the most
+valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains
+and soldiers were brave, well disciplined, and well armed. All his
+affairs prospered greatly. "Afterward he ordered works to be executed
+at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he
+descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco." I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or
+near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south of Cuzco. I
+learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in
+the town. The most important are the ruins of Maucallacta, an Inca
+village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting
+of several crags and large rocks, the surface of one of which is
+carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma
+Urco. Beneath the rocks are some caves. I was told they had recently
+been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and
+the characteristics of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the
+story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if
+Tampu-tocco must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better
+defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would it
+have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army
+to have taken refuge there and set up an independent kingdom in the
+face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid
+in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu is not a natural citadel.
+
+The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no
+precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no natural
+defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of
+the Amautas. Furthermore, tampu means "a place of temporary abode,"
+or "a tavern," or "an improved piece of ground" or "farm far from a
+town"; tocco means "window." There is an old tavern at Maucallacta
+near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to
+justify the name of "window tavern" or "place of temporary abode"
+(or "farm far from a town") "noted for its windows." There is nothing
+of a "masonry wall with three windows" corresponding to Salcamayhua's
+description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace. The word
+"Tampu-tocco" does not occur on any map I have been able to consult,
+nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru compiled by Paz Soldan.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Machu Picchu
+
+It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of
+the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions near Cuzco
+by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy
+to Colpani the road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the
+majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling
+beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of
+the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the
+power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare
+with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more
+than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite
+rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening,
+roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and
+tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the
+mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward
+by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning
+and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all,
+there is the fascination of finding here and there under the swaying
+vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of
+a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering romance
+of the ancient builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which
+appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give
+expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty. Space forbids
+any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama,
+the rank tropical foliage, the countless terraces, the towering cliffs,
+the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor
+Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told us of ruins at
+Machu Picchu, as was related in Chapter X.
+
+The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered
+and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he
+would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb
+for such a wet day. When he found that we were willing to pay him a
+sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity,
+he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed that they
+would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco
+I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance upstream. On the
+road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This
+region has an unpleasant notoriety for being the favorite haunt of
+"vipers." The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the
+fer-de-lance, a very venomous serpent capable of making considerable
+springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two
+of our mules died from snake-bite.
+
+After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road
+and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of the river. Here
+there was a primitive "bridge" which crossed the roaring rapids at
+its narrowest part, where the stream was forced to flow between two
+great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs,
+some of which were not long enough to span the distance between the
+boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga
+and Carrasco took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using
+their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would
+immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite boulders. I
+am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled
+across, six inches at a time. Even after we reached the other side
+I could not help wondering what would happen to the "bridge" if a
+particularly heavy shower should fall in the valley above. A light
+rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the
+bridge was already threatened by the foaming rapids. It would not
+take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should
+happen during the day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact,
+it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to
+cross the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle,
+and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous slope. For
+an hour and twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the
+distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips
+of our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the
+roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way as to
+help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable
+cliff. In another place the slope was covered with slippery grass
+where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide
+said that there were lots of snakes here. The humidity was great,
+the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several
+good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected arrival,
+welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then
+they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes, called here cumara,
+a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian kumala, as has been
+pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from
+our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a few ancient
+stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and
+Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their home. They said they
+had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and
+they were usually free from undesirable visitors. They did not speak
+Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more
+ruins "a little farther along." In this country one never can tell
+whether such a report is worthy of credence. "He may have been lying"
+is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly,
+I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry to move. The heat
+was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool
+and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench, hospitably covered
+immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most
+comfortable. Furthermore, the view was simply enchanting. Tremendous
+green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba
+below. Immediately in front, on the north side of the valley, was
+a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the
+solitary peak of Huayna Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible
+precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped
+mountains rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we
+had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more difficult--a
+perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side
+of the ridge. It was their only means of egress in the wet season,
+when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was
+not surprised to learn that they went away from home only "about once
+a month."
+
+Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It
+seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon had
+been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of
+the new government road settlers began once more to occupy this
+region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on
+the slopes of Machu Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the
+sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial
+terraces, in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared
+off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of
+maize, sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree
+tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of the
+ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found,
+however, that there were neither springs nor wells near the ancient
+buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream
+to the citadel had long since disappeared beneath the forest, filled
+with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter
+of the ruins, the Indians were now enjoying the convenience of living
+near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting
+than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had a glimpse, and
+the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered
+at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy,
+I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed
+farther up the ridge and around a slight promontory. Arteaga had
+"been here once before," and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte
+and Alvarez in the hut. They sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the
+stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then
+recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large
+trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the
+untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a maze of
+beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and
+the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow, hiding in bamboo
+thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls
+of white granite ashlars most carefully cut and exquisitely fitted
+together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a
+"place far from town and conspicuous for its windows."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco
+------
+
+
+Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined
+with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended to be a Royal
+Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building
+had been constructed. The wall followed the natural curvature of the
+rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I
+have ever seen. This beautiful wall, made of carefully matched ashlars
+of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the
+work of a master artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken
+by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly
+simple and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars,
+gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing in size
+toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing
+lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars, and the gradual
+gradation of the courses, combined to produce a wonderful effect,
+softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the
+Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar, there are no ugly spaces
+between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me
+to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the eye of a
+master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the
+square. He had no instruments of precision, so he had to depend on
+his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry
+and beauty of form. His product received none of the harshness of
+mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular
+blocks are not really rectangular. The apparently straight lines of
+the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular
+temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework in the
+far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in
+bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great stairway of large
+granite blocks, walked along a pampa where the Indians had a small
+vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins
+of two of the finest structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were
+they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite;
+their walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length,
+and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the
+side toward the clearing. The principal temple was lined with
+exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the
+back wall. There were seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under
+the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long,
+probably a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though
+it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+The other temple is on the east side of the pampa. I called it the
+Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among
+Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking the citadel, is a massive
+stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too
+large to serve any useful purpose, yet most beautifully made with the
+greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of
+peculiar significance. Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there
+a similar structure conspicuous as "a masonry wall with three windows."
+
+These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the
+slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would
+have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries when it
+was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was
+essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness protected by natural
+bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable
+stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent excavations and the clearing
+made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that
+this was the chief place in Uilcapampa.
+
+It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu
+Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco and
+I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting
+ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by the Indians for
+their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick
+jungle growth--some walls were actually supporting trees ten and
+twelve inches in diameter--that it was impossible to determine just
+what would be found here. As soon as I could get hold of Mr. Tucker,
+who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the
+Urubamba with Dr. Bowman, I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I
+knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential
+for Mr. Tucker to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of
+October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte
+and Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days
+while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data from which
+Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could
+any words of mine the importance of this site and the necessity for
+further investigation.
+
+With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco
+had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their importance. No
+one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of
+the ridge. It had never been visited by any of the planters of the
+lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds
+through the canyon two thousand feet below.
+
+It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey
+from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed by travelers
+and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the
+conquistadores ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it
+surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly
+refers to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a
+Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges was
+at Huadquiña in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near,
+he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the walls of one of the
+finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by
+Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately below the bridge of San
+Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have
+visited Machu Picchu long before that; because in 1875, as has been
+said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of
+there being ruins at "Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu." He tried to
+find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the
+canyon of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through
+the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which brought
+him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five
+miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the
+needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up the lower
+valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the
+banks of the river through the grand canyon to enable the much-desired
+coca and aguardiente to be shipped from Huadquiña, Maranura, and Santa
+Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids
+the necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous
+snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very
+expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent repair. In
+fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days
+or weeks at a time, following some tremendous avalanche. Yet it was
+this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near
+the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where he could raise food for his
+family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this
+new road which brought Richarte, Alvarez, and their enterprising
+friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of
+occupying the ancient terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow
+for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over
+the precipices, and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It
+was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between
+Ollantaytambo and Huadquiña and enabled us to learn that the Incas,
+or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses of
+the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty
+of their ancient civilization, more interesting and extensive than any
+which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+The Origin of Machu Picchu
+
+Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating
+Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and of the ancient
+towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest
+content with a discussion of its probable identity. Here was a powerful
+citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful
+of defenders could prevent a great army from taking the place by
+assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture
+as to have built a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable
+land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced in
+order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for
+comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration. They
+were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture,
+sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world has ever
+seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently
+advanced in art to realize the beauty of simplicity. What could have
+induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes,
+with all its disadvantages, as the site for their capital, unless
+they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+The thought will already have occurred to the reader that the Temple
+of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native
+writer who had "heard from a child the most ancient traditions and
+histories," including the story already quoted from Sir Clements
+Markham's translation that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, "ordered
+works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a
+masonry wall with three windows, which were emblems of the house
+of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called
+'Tampu-tocco.' " Although none of the other chroniclers gives the
+story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the
+place of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a
+place called Tampu-tocco, "an inn or country place remarkable for
+its windows." Sir Clements Markham, in his "Incas of Peru," refers
+to Tampu-tocco as "the hill with the three openings or windows."
+
+The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the
+traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu, about nine
+miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and
+caves, but careful examination shows that while there are more than
+three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The
+buildings of Machu Picchu, on the other hand, have far more windows
+than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu,
+like that of most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite
+or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+
+So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of
+anything like a "masonry wall with three windows" of such a ceremonial
+character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would
+certainly seem as though the Temple of the Three Windows, the most
+significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred
+to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the
+first meaning of tocco in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is
+"ventana" or "window," and while "window" is the only meaning given
+this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908),
+a dictionary compiled from many sources, the second meaning of tocco
+given by Holguin is "alacena," "a cupboard set in a wall." Undoubtedly
+this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a
+niche. Now the drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's
+translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression
+of niches rather than of windows. Does Tampu-tocco mean a tampu
+remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be
+any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu, on the other hand,
+there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has
+been referred to as a "Royal Mausoleum." As a matter of fact, nearly
+all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches
+were so common a feature of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir
+Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling
+Tampu-tocco "the hill with the three openings or windows." In any case
+Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However,
+in view of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that
+Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that they
+did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual
+remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco
+were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by Toledo at the
+time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended
+from those who used to live near Las Salinas, the important salt works
+near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their
+fathers and grandfathers repeat the tradition that when the first Inca,
+Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did
+not say that the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems
+to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the
+still older testimony of some Indians born before the arrival of the
+first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A
+chief, aged ninety-two, testified that Manco Ccapac came out of a cave
+called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not
+one of the witnesses stated that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu,
+although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done
+so if, as the contemporary historians believed, this was really the
+original Tampu-tocco. The chroniclers were willing enough to accept
+the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco
+Ccapac was born, and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were
+the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they
+should have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was
+their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts had been
+successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco
+to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body after the
+overthrow of the old régime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they
+know it was in the same fastnesses of the Andes to which in the days
+of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the
+cause of their reticence?
+
+Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The
+splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba made it
+an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries
+of lawlessness and confusion which succeeded the barbarian invasions
+from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent
+earthquakes and also its healthfulness, both marked characteristics
+of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the
+existence of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the
+common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location might
+have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is
+reasonable to conclude that the first name of the ruins at Machu Picchu
+was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of
+the little kingdom where during the centuries between the Amautas and
+the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions
+of the ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail
+before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great organization
+of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform
+mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools of wood, stone,
+and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes
+who knew little of the arts of peace. The defeated leaders had to
+choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce
+enemies. Furthermore, in the environs of Machu Picchu they found
+every variety of climate--valleys so low as to produce the precious
+coca, yucca, and plantain, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics;
+slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize,
+quinoa, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops,
+including both sweet and white potatoes, oca, añu, and ullucu. Here,
+within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry
+and cure the coca leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in
+the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with
+the most careful terracing was not large enough to support a very
+great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel to the
+chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged
+to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the broad, pleasant
+valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a
+people which had reached such a stage in engineering, architecture,
+and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged
+canyons. Certainly there is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature
+to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief
+need was a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great
+ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they utilized
+their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in
+between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and their enemies
+on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for
+generations. Aided by the temperate climate in which they lived,
+and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours'
+climb up or down from their towns and cities, they became a hardy,
+vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought
+its way back to the rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants
+of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital,
+the Empire of the Incas.
+
+After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco,
+what more natural than that he should have built a fine temple in
+honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas,
+and nothing would have been more reasonable than the construction
+of the Temple of the Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and
+extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from
+whom they traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led
+them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of Cuzco
+itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of
+Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco grew and the Inca
+Empire flourished.
+
+As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account
+for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry to the islands of
+Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace
+was forgotten by the common people--although undoubtedly known to the
+priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+Then came Pizarro and the bigoted conquistadores. The native chiefs
+faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient
+religion. The Spaniards coveted gold and silver. The most precious
+possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but
+the sacred Virgins of the Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome,
+were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great
+Sun God. Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who
+needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep them from
+hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices
+and secure the good effects of his smiling face. If he delayed his
+coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize would mildew
+and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his
+accustomed brightness after the harvest, the ears of corn could not be
+properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual
+behavior on the part of the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently
+their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as
+"Virgins" who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of
+priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some
+of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others escaped and
+accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the
+first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril of their lives
+urged the Inca to let them visit the "University of Idolatry," at
+"Vilcabamba Viejo," "the largest city" in the province. Machu Picchu
+admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very
+easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to have kept the monks in the vicinity
+of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single
+glimpse of its unique temples and remarkable palaces. It would have
+been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego
+to the village of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the
+Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley
+crossed the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful
+ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the friars
+might easily have been lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain
+without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca
+"university." Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little
+knowledge of the architectural character of "Vilcabamba Viejo" that
+no description of it could be given their friends, eventually to
+be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey across
+country from Puquiura might easily have taken "three days."
+
+Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents
+of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial caves which
+we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion
+of skulls belonging to men is very large. There are many so-called
+"trepanned" skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured
+in war by having their skulls crushed in, either with clubs or
+the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found
+more than twenty-five skulls without encountering some "trepanned"
+specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the
+excavations at Machu Picchu, where one hundred sixty-four skulls
+were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been "trepanned." Of
+the one hundred thirty-five skeletons whose sex could be accurately
+determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore,
+it was in the graves of the females that the finest artifacts were
+found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not
+a single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was
+found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+
+Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the
+female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast. This fits in
+with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only
+with beautiful women of the highlands, but also with those who came
+from the tribes of the Yungas, or "warm valleys." The "warm valleys"
+may be those of the rubber country, but Sir Clements Markham thought
+the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts
+discovered at Machu Picchu was a "snuffing tube" intended for use with
+the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers
+to induce a hypnotic state. This powder was made from the seeds of
+the tree which the Incas called huilca or uilca, which, as has been
+pointed out in Chapter XI, grows near these ruins. This seems to me
+to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with
+Calancha's "Vilcabamba."
+
+It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the
+requirements of "the largest city, in which was the University of
+Idolatry." Until some one can find the ruins of another important place
+within three days' journey of Pucyura which was an important religious
+center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am
+inclined to believe that this was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Calancha,
+just as Espiritu Pampa was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Ocampo.
+
+In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting to be by Titu
+Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos,
+he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from Cuzco went first "to
+Vilcabamba, the head of all that province."
+
+In the "Anales del Peru" Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro,
+thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried
+to please the Inca by sending him a present of a very fine pony and
+a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger,
+the Inca killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this,
+he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite wife,
+and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that "when she
+should be dead they would put her remains in a basket and let it float
+down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it
+to her husband, the Inca." She must have believed that at that time
+Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu
+Pampa is not.
+
+We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos,
+where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his house. Surrounded
+by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which
+the Spaniards were obliged to use in passing from Lima to Cuzco, he
+could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been
+so conveniently located for robbing the Spanish caravans nor for
+supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu
+Picchu was at one time occupied by the Incas and partly built by them
+on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably
+of the so-called Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent
+buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of
+Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore, they
+are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old
+province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which would naturally
+be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the "head of the province." Espiritu
+Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a place which was so important
+as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as
+"the largest city."
+
+It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of
+Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest refuge for
+those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in
+the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants Manco probably
+built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older
+ones. Here they lived out their days, secure in the knowledge that
+no Indians would ever breathe to the conquistadores the secret of
+their sacred refuge.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu
+Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence was so well
+kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the
+theories of its identity with "Tampu-tocco" and "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles
+Wiener heard about it.
+
+Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents
+of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate that
+the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of
+this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza de Leon
+and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information
+about all the holy places of the Incas, give the names of many places
+which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may
+finally recognize the temples of Machu Picchu. On the other hand,
+it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or
+other chroniclers had seen this citadel, they would have described
+its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it
+seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have the ruins of
+Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also
+the ruins of a sacred city of the last Incas. Surely this granite
+citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of
+its striking beauty and the indescribable charm of its surroundings,
+appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800
+A.D. as the safest place of refuge for the last remnants of the
+old régime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the
+capital of a new kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family
+which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire,
+it seems to have been again sought out in time of trouble, when in
+1534 another foreign invader arrived--this time from Europe--with a
+burning desire to extinguish all vestiges of the ancient religion. In
+its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the
+Sun, priestesses of the most humane cult of aboriginal America. Here,
+concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and
+nature, these consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no
+known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls
+and artifacts to be described in another volume. Whoever they were,
+whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure--that few romances can ever surpass that of the
+granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu Picchu,
+the crown of Inca Land.
+
+
+
+
+
+Glossary
+
+Añu: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way
+as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes the bar-hold
+is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually
+found in the gateway of a compound or group of Inca houses.
+
+Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are
+chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered
+hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2
+inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles
+to its slope and flush with its surface. To it the purlins of the roof
+could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the
+lintel of a gateway to a compound. If the "bar-holds" were intended
+to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders
+may have been for a vertical bar.
+
+Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The alcaldes are
+his Indian aids.
+
+Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often
+applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+Mañana: To-morrow, or by and by. The "mañana habit" is Spanish-American
+procrastination.
+
+Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The
+milpa system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire,
+destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+Montaña: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to
+the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys and the
+Amazon Basin.
+
+Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians
+to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into a gable
+wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used
+in connection with "eye-bonders," the roof-pegs served as points to
+which the roof could be tied down.
+
+Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little
+less than half a gold dollar.
+
+Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the
+walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside so as
+to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often
+found alternating with niches and placed on a level with the lintels
+of the niches.
+
+Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so
+depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village
+or hamlet.
+
+Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state,
+used for making chuño, after drying, freezing, and pressing out the
+bitter juices.
+
+Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+Viejo: Old.
+
+
+
+Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the
+National Geographic Society
+
+Thomas Barbour:
+
+Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. Proceedings of
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, LXV, 505-507, September,
+1913. 1 pl.
+
+(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian
+Expedition of 1914-1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+609-620, 1921.
+
+Hiram Bingham:
+
+The Ruins of Choqquequirau. American Anthropologist, XII, 505-525,
+October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi,
+405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8°.
+
+Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLIV, 20-26, January, 1912.
+
+The Ascent of Coropuna. Harper's Magazine, CXXIV, 489-502, March,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. Proceedings of American Antiquarian
+Society, XXII, N.S., 135-196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. American
+Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 297-305, April, 1912. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+A Search for the Last Inca Capital. Harper's Magazine, CXXV, 696-705,
+October, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Discovery of Machu Picchu. Ibid., CXXVI, 709-719, April,
+1913. Illus.
+
+In the Wonderland of Peru. National Geographic Magazine, XXIV, 387-573,
+April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in
+1911. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211, 1-2, July, 1913.
+
+The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. American Anthropologist, XVI,
+No. 2, 185-199. April-June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. Harper's Magazine, CXXIX, 452-463,
+August, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Pampaconas River. The Geographical Journal, XLIV, 211-214, August,
+1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+The Story of Machu Picchu. National Geographic Magazine, XXVII,
+172-217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. American Anthropologist, XVII, 257-271,
+April-June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. Proceedings of Nineteenth
+International Congress of Americanists, Washington, D.C., pp. 253-260,
+December, 1915.
+
+Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. National Geographic
+Magazine, XXIX, 431-473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. The Builder, II,
+No. 12, 361-366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. American Journal
+of Science, XXXIV, 12-16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+Isaiah Bowman:
+
+The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. American Journal of
+Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 306-325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca
+Race. Ibid., XXXIV, No. 204, 497-509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Cañon of the Urubamba. Bulletin of American Geographical Society,
+XLIV, 881-897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the
+Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336 pp., plates,
+maps, plans.
+
+Lawrence Bruner:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera
+(Acridiidae--Short Horned Locusts). Proceedings of U.S. National
+Museum, XLIV, 177-187, 1913.
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to
+the Acridiidae). Ibid., XLV, 585-586, 1913.
+
+A. N. Caudell:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of
+Acridiidae). Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV, 347-357, 1913.
+
+Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. Bulletin of
+Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177-299,
+1916. 25 pl.
+
+Frank M. Chapman:
+
+The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of
+Peru. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+
+O. F. Cook:
+
+Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. Journal of Washington Academy of
+Sciences, VI, No. 4, 86-90, 1916.
+
+Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. Ibid., VI, No. 10, 284-293,
+1916. Illus.
+
+Staircase Farms of the Ancients. National Geographic Magazine, XXIX,
+474-534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. Smithsonian Report for 1918,
+487-491. 4 pl.
+
+Domestication of Animals in Peru. Journal of Heredity, x, 176-181,
+April, 1919. Illus.
+
+(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+Polar Bear Cacti. Journal of Heredity, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113-120,
+March, 1917. Illus.
+
+William H. Dall:
+
+Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XXXVIII, 177-182, 1911. Illus.
+
+Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale
+Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 627-649, 1913.
+
+George F. Eaton:
+
+Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of
+Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 325-333, April,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. Ibid., XXXVI, No. 211, 3-14,
+July, 1913. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 218,
+141-154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
+Picchu. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, v, 3-96, May,
+1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Yale Medical Journal,
+XVIII, 325-335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+Alexander W. Evans:
+
+Hepaticæ: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts
+and Sciences, XVIII, 291-345, April, 1914.
+
+Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. Memoirs, American
+Anthropological Assoc., III, No. 2, 59-148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga
+Indians. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, XXV, 1-92, April,
+1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+Harry W. Foote:
+
+(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze
+Axes. American Journal of Science, XXXIV, 128-132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+The Gravels at Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211,
+15-29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+The La Paz Gorge. Ibid., XXXVI, 141-150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLV, 561-575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. American
+Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 213, 187-213, September, 1913. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. Ibid., XXXVII,
+No. 218, 125-140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 220,
+289-298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. Ibid., XLI, No. 241,
+1-100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+Osgood Hardy:
+
+Cuzco and Apurimac. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, XLVI,
+No. 7, 500-512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. American Anthropologist, XXI,
+1-27, January-March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+Sir Clements Markham:
+
+Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, Geographical Journal, XXXVIII, No. 6,
+590-591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+C. H. Mathewson:
+
+A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from
+Machu Picchu. American Journal of Science, XL, No. 240, 525-602,
+December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+P. R. Myers:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Addendum to the
+Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLVII, 361-362, 1914.
+
+S. A. Rohwer:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Hymenoptera, Superfamilies
+Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV,
+439-454, 1913.
+
+Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
+Reptiles. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 541-547, 1913.
+
+Oldfield Thomas:
+
+Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian
+Expedition of 1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+217-249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+H. L. Viereck:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of
+1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLIV, 469-470, 1913.
+
+R. S. Williams:
+
+Peruvian Mosses. Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club, XLIII, 323-334,
+June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua
+words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as they are
+written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt
+is made by a Spanish writer, he is always likely to put a silent
+"h" at the beginning of such words as huilca which is pronounced
+"weel-ka." In the middle of a word "h" is always sounded. Machu
+Picchu is pronounced "Mah'-chew Pick'-chew." Uiticos is pronounced
+"Weet'-ee-kos." Uilcapampa is pronounced "Weel'-ka-pahm-pah." Cuzco is
+"Koos'-koh."
+
+[2] A league, usually about 3 1/3 miles, is really the distance an
+average mule can walk in an hour.
+
+[3] Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth
+century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower of
+that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having
+contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark or quinine
+and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into
+Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the botanical name
+of the genus cinchona. Montesinos was well educated and appears to
+have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled
+extensively in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas
+was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the
+leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless, one
+finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham,
+foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology, was inclined
+to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of
+pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for the Hakluyt Society
+by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+
+[4] Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game
+of chess between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees,
+who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the tone and
+language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego
+Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him. A totally different
+account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is
+that in a volume purporting to have been dictated to Friar Marcos by
+Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation:
+
+"After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in
+the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much good fellowship,
+playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a
+boy [ten years old]. Without having any suspicion, although an Indian
+woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the
+Inca, my Father was playing with them as usual. In this game, just as
+my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded,
+strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed, and they were
+seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they
+left him for dead. I, being a little boy, and seeing my Father treated
+in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned
+furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill
+me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes. They looked
+for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father
+had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate, in high spirits, saying,
+'Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.' But at
+this moment the captain Rimachi Yupanqui arrived with some Antis,
+and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get
+very far along a difficult road, they were caught and pulled from
+their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were
+burnt. Notwithstanding his wounds my Father lived for three days."
+
+Another version is given by Montesinos in his Anales. It is more like
+Titu Cusi's.
+
+[5] A Spanish derivative from the Quichua mucha, "a kiss." Muchani
+means "to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands."
+
+[6] Uiticos is probably derived from Uiticuni, meaning "to withdraw
+to a distance."
+
+[7] Described in "Across South America."
+
+[8] On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species
+of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: "Of all the novelties,
+by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial .... Members of the
+family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador." Mr. Heller's
+discovery greatly extends the recent range of the kangaroo family.
+
+[9] Mr. Safford says in his article on the "Identity of Cohoba"
+(Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Sept. 19, 1916):
+"The most remarkable fact connected with Piptadenia peregrina, or
+'tree-tobacco' is that ... the source of its intoxicating properties
+still remains unknown." One of the bifurcated tubes."in the first
+stages of manufacture," was found at Machu Picchu.
+
+[10] See the illustrations in Chapters XVII and XVIII.
+
+[11] Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical
+with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river and the old
+Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by
+using the correct, official spelling for the river and town, viz.,
+Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place
+referred to in the contemporary histories of the Inca Manco.
+
+[12] In those days the term "Andes" appears to have been very limited
+in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of Cuzco where
+lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its
+culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+
+[13] Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not
+of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
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+
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html
+PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
+
+<!-- This HTML file has been automatically generated from an XML source, using XSLT. If you find any mistakes, please edit the XML source. --><html lang="en-us">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
+
+<title>Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru</title>
+<link href="style/gutenberg.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
+<link href="style/arctic.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
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+<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/">
+<meta name="author" content="Hiram Bingham (1875&#8211;1956)">
+<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Hiram Bingham (1875&#8211;1956)">
+<meta name="DC.Title" content="Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru">
+<meta name="DC.Date" content="1 January 2004">
+<meta name="DC.Language" content="en-us">
+
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: July 10, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<a id="d0e68"></a><p id="d0e69"></p>
+<div id="d0e70" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p000.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e71">&#8220;Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8212;Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you.
+Go!&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e73">Kipling: &#8220;<i>The Explorer</i>&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><p><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e78"></a></span>
+
+</p>
+<h1 class="docTitle">Inca Land</h1>
+<h1 class="docTitle">Explorations in the Highlands of Peru</h1>
+<h2 class="byline">By
+<br>
+<span class="docAuthor">Hiram Bingham</span>
+<br>
+Director of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society, <br>Member of the American Alpine Club, <br>Professor of Latin-American History in Yale University; <br>author of &#8220;Across South America,&#8221; etc.
+</h2>
+<h2 class="docImprint">With Illustrations
+<br id="d0e106">
+Boston and New York
+<br id="d0e108">
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+<br id="d0e110">
+The Riverside Press Cambridge
+<br id="d0e112">
+1922
+</h2>
+
+<a id="d0e132"></a><p id="d0e133">This Volume
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e135">is affectionately dedicated
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e137">to
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e139">the Muse who inspired it
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e141">the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e143"></a>Page vii</span></p><a id="d0e144"></a><h1>Preface</h1>
+<p id="d0e147">The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into the interior of Peru and also many explorations into
+the labyrinth of early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my travels covered only a part of southern
+Peru, they took me into every variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude at which men have constructed
+houses or erected tents in the Western Hemisphere&#8212;from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to cross bleak Andean
+passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into the
+dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of
+violent contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys
+have more plant life than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from glaciers to tree ferns within a few
+hours. So also in the labyrinth of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas&#8212;no historians go more rapidly from fact
+to fancy, from accurate observation to grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give conflicting statements
+with greater frequency. The story of the Incas is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e149">It was the mystery and romance of some of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e151"></a>Page viii</span>wonderful pictures of a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively unknown region between the Apurimac
+and the Urubamba, sometimes called &#8220;the Cradle of the Incas.&#8221; Although my photographs cannot compete with the imaginative
+pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther into
+the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e153">Some of my story has already been told in <i>Harper's</i> and the <i>National Geographic</i>, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale
+University and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course of preparation. My own observations are
+based partly on a study of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly on the maps and notes made by my
+companions, and partly on a study of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven thousand negatives.
+Another source of information was the opportunity of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great advantages
+of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e161">My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay; in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote,
+Dr. William G. Erving,<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e163"></a>Page ix</span> Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius; in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr.
+Luther T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald, Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy,
+and Joseph Little; and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller, E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence
+F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck, Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my comrades in enterprises
+which were not always free from discomfort or danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In the following
+pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork; at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps in
+another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to cover more particularly Machu Picchu<a id="d0e165src" href="#d0e165" class="noteref">1</a> and its vicinity, they will eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e171">Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult
+to secure; to Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal and enthusiastic support; to President
+Taft of the United States and President Leguia of Peru for <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e173"></a>Page x</span>official help of a most important nature; to Messrs. W. R. Grace &amp; Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and Mr. L. S. Blaisdell,
+of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and untiring co&ouml;peration; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque, and their sons,
+and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University, for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and Miss
+Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible
+the writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+<i>October</i> 1, 1922
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e178"></a>Page xi</span>
+
+</p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e165" href="#d0e165src" class="noteref">1</a> Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as
+they are written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt is made by a Spanish writer, he is always
+likely to put a silent &#8220;h&#8221; at the beginning of such words as <i>huilca</i> which is pronounced &#8220;weel-ka.&#8221; In the middle of a word &#8220;h&#8221; is always sounded. Machu Picchu is pronounced &#8220;Mah'-chew Pick'-chew.&#8221;
+Uiticos is pronounced &#8220;Weet'-ee-kos.&#8221; Uilcapampa is pronounced &#8220;Weel'-ka-pahm-pah.&#8221; Cuzco is &#8220;Koos'-koh.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e180"></a><h1>Contents</h1>
+<ul id="d0e183">
+<li id="d0e184">I.	<a id="d0e186" href="#d0e554">Crossing the Desert</a>	1
+</li>
+<li id="d0e189">II.	<a id="d0e191" href="#d0e761">Climbing Coropuna</a> 23
+</li>
+<li id="d0e194">III.	<a id="d0e196" href="#d0e1006">To Parinacochas</a> 50
+</li>
+<li id="d0e199">IV.	<a id="d0e201" href="#d0e1207">Flamingo Lake</a> 74
+</li>
+<li id="d0e204">V.	<a id="d0e206" href="#d0e1381">Titicaca</a>  95
+</li>
+<li id="d0e209">VI.	<a id="d0e211" href="#d0e1538">The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders</a> 110
+</li>
+<li id="d0e214">VII.	<a id="d0e216" href="#d0e1769">The Valley of the Huatanay</a> 133
+</li>
+<li id="d0e219">VIII.	<a id="d0e221" href="#d0e1988">The Oldest City in South America</a> 157
+</li>
+<li id="d0e224">IX.	<a id="d0e226" href="#d0e2088">The Last Four Incas</a> 170
+</li>
+<li id="d0e229">X.	<a id="d0e231" href="#d0e2362">Searching for the Last Inca Capital</a> 198
+</li>
+<li id="d0e234">XI.	<a id="d0e236" href="#d0e2558">The Search Continued</a> 217
+</li>
+<li id="d0e239">XII.	<a id="d0e241" href="#d0e2831">The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun</a> 241
+</li>
+<li id="d0e244">XIII.	<a id="d0e246" href="#d0e2979">Vilcabamba</a> 255
+</li>
+<li id="d0e249">XIV.	<a id="d0e251" href="#d0e3081">Conservidayoc</a> 266
+</li>
+<li id="d0e254">XV.	<a id="d0e256" href="#d0e3359">The Pampa of Ghosts</a> 292
+</li>
+<li id="d0e259">XVI.	<a id="d0e261" href="#d0e3495">The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas</a> 306
+</li>
+<li id="d0e264">XVII.	<a id="d0e266" href="#d0e3571">Machu Picchu</a> 314
+</li>
+<li id="d0e269">XVIII.	<a id="d0e271" href="#d0e3683">The Origin of Machu Picchu</a> 326<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e274"></a>Page xii</span></li>
+<li id="d0e275">	<a id="d0e277" href="#d0e3835">Glossary</a>  341
+</li>
+<li id="d0e280">	<a id="d0e282" href="#d0e3908">Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society</a>    345
+</li>
+<li id="d0e285">	Index    353</li>
+</ul><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e290"></a>Page xiii</span><a id="d0e291"></a><h1>Illustrations</h1>
+<ul id="d0e294">
+<li id="d0e295"><a id="d0e296" href="#d0e70">&#8220;Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8221;</a> <i>Frontispiece</i></li>
+<li id="d0e301"><a id="d0e302" href="#d0e548">Sketch Map of Southern Peru</a> 1
+</li>
+<li id="d0e305"><a id="d0e306" href="#d0e674">Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest</a> 12
+</li>
+<li id="d0e309"><a id="d0e310" href="#d0e769">Mt. Coropuna from the South</a> 24
+</li>
+<li id="d0e313"><a id="d0e314" href="#d0e873">The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet</a> 32
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e317"><a id="d0e318" href="#d0e878">Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna</a> 32
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e321"><a id="d0e322" href="#d0e964">One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna</a> 42
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e325"><a id="d0e326" href="#d0e959">The Camp on the Summit</a> 42
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e329"><a id="d0e330" href="#d0e1085">The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker, Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local
+Rug-weaving Industry</a> 60
+Photograph by C. Watkins
+</li>
+<li id="d0e333"><a id="d0e334" href="#d0e1129">Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta</a>    66
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e337"><a id="d0e338" href="#d0e1240">Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara</a> 78
+</li>
+<li id="d0e341"><a id="d0e342" href="#d0e1339">Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli</a> 90
+</li>
+<li id="d0e345"><a id="d0e346" href="#d0e1344">The Main Street of Chuquibamba</a> 90
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e349"><a id="d0e350" href="#d0e1433">A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno</a> 98<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e353"></a>Page xiv</span></li>
+<li id="d0e354"><a id="d0e355" href="#d0e1438">A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati</a> 98
+</li>
+<li id="d0e358"><a id="d0e359" href="#d0e1573">Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa</a> 114
+</li>
+<li id="d0e362"><a id="d0e363" href="#d0e1578">Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani</a> 114
+</li>
+<li id="d0e366"><a id="d0e367" href="#d0e1635">Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya</a> 120
+</li>
+<li id="d0e370"><a id="d0e371" href="#d0e1640">Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya</a> 120
+</li>
+<li id="d0e374"><a id="d0e375" href="#d0e1735">The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche</a> 128
+</li>
+<li id="d0e378"><a id="d0e379" href="#d0e1764">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912</a> 132
+</li>
+<li id="d0e382"><a id="d0e383" href="#d0e1800">Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta</a> 136
+</li>
+<li id="d0e386"><a id="d0e387" href="#d0e1849">Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall</a> 140
+</li>
+<li id="d0e390"><a id="d0e391" href="#d0e1854">Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca</a> 140
+</li>
+<li id="d0e394"><a id="d0e395" href="#d0e1948">Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada</a> 150
+</li>
+<li id="d0e398"><a id="d0e399" href="#d0e2009">Map of Peru and View of Cuzco</a> 158
+From the &#8220;Speculum Orbis Terrarum,&#8221; Antwerp, 1578
+</li>
+<li id="d0e402"><a id="d0e403" href="#d0e2056">Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco</a> 162
+</li>
+<li id="d0e406"><a id="d0e407" href="#d0e2096">Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos</a> 170
+</li>
+<li id="d0e410"><a id="d0e411" href="#d0e2136">The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa</a> 176
+</li>
+<li id="d0e414"><a id="d0e415" href="#d0e2223">Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac</a> 186
+</li>
+<li id="d0e418"><a id="d0e419" href="#d0e2377">Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains</a> 198
+</li>
+<li id="d0e422"><a id="d0e423" href="#d0e2403">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915</a> 202
+</li>
+<li id="d0e426"><a id="d0e427" href="#d0e2449">Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa</a> 206
+</li>
+<li id="d0e430"><a id="d0e431" href="#d0e2483">Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay</a> 210
+</li>
+<li id="d0e434"><a id="d0e435" href="#d0e2544">The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu</a> 214
+</li>
+<li id="d0e438"><a id="d0e439" href="#d0e2623">Huadqui&ntilde;a</a> 220<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e442"></a>Page xv</span></li>
+<li id="d0e443"><a id="d0e444" href="#d0e2670">Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadqui&ntilde;a</a> 225
+Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e447"><a id="d0e448" href="#d0e2803">Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley</a> 238
+</li>
+<li id="d0e451"><a id="d0e452" href="#d0e2846">Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata</a> 242
+Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+</li>
+<li id="d0e455"><a id="d0e456" href="#d0e2851">Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata</a> 242
+</li>
+<li id="d0e459"><a id="d0e460" href="#d0e2897">Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi</a> 246
+</li>
+<li id="d0e463"><a id="d0e464" href="#d0e2922">Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 248
+Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e467"><a id="d0e468" href="#d0e2943">Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 250
+</li>
+<li id="d0e471"><a id="d0e472" href="#d0e2948">Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock</a> 250
+Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e475"><a id="d0e476" href="#d0e3007">&Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 256
+</li>
+<li id="d0e479"><a id="d0e480" href="#d0e3105">Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins</a> 268
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e483"><a id="d0e484" href="#d0e3110">One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River</a> 268
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e487"><a id="d0e488" href="#d0e3327">Saavedra and his Inca Pottery</a> 288
+</li>
+<li id="d0e491"><a id="d0e492" href="#d0e3332">Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa</a> 288
+</li>
+<li id="d0e495"><a id="d0e496" href="#d0e3389">Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa</a> 294
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e499"><a id="d0e500" href="#d0e3469">Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa</a> 302
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e503"><a id="d0e504" href="#d0e3474">Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa</a> 302
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e507"><a id="d0e508" href="#d0e3501">Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</a> 306
+</li>
+<li id="d0e511"><a id="d0e512" href="#d0e3549">The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu</a> 312<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e515"></a>Page xvi</span></li>
+<li id="d0e516"><a id="d0e517" href="#d0e3554">The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu</a> 312
+</li>
+<li id="d0e520"><a id="d0e521" href="#d0e3620">Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu</a> 320
+</li>
+<li id="d0e524"><a id="d0e525" href="#d0e3625">Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-tocco</a> 320
+</li>
+<li id="d0e528"><a id="d0e529" href="#d0e3663">Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu</a> 324
+</li>
+<li id="d0e532"><a id="d0e533" href="#d0e3668">Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu</a> 324
+</li>
+<li id="d0e536"><a id="d0e537" href="#d0e3700">The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu</a> 328
+</li>
+<li id="d0e540"><a id="d0e541" href="#d0e3821">The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land</a> 338
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p id="d0e544">Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs by the author.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e547"></p>
+<div id="d0e548" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p001.jpg" alt="Sketch Map of Southern Peru."></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Sketch Map of Southern Peru.</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e552"></a>Page 1</span></p><a id="d0e554"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter I</h2>
+<h1>Crossing the Desert</h1>
+<p id="d0e557">A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled
+&#8220;Peru. Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas.&#8221; In that volume is a marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In
+the foreground is a delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face of a precipitous cliff and hangs in
+mid-air at great height above the swirling waters of the &#8220;great speaker.&#8221; In the distance, towering above a mass of stupendous
+mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that bridge
+decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e559">As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities
+to visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of &#8220;Across South America&#8221; will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau,
+an interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e561"></a>Page 2</span>There was some doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that the ruins represented the residence of
+the Inca Manco and his sons, who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru in the Andes between the
+Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e563">While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing
+glimpses of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region, &#8220;behind the Ranges,&#8221; which might contain great possibilities.
+Our guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For
+months afterwards the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and beyond. In the words of Kipling's &#8220;Explorer&#8221;:
+
+</p>
+<p class="poetry"><br id="d0e566">&#8220;&#8230; a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes <br id="d0e568">On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated&#8212;so: <br id="d0e570">&#8216;Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8212;<br id="d0e572">Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+</p>
+<p id="d0e574">To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's &#8220;Titicaca and Koati,&#8221; which had just appeared. In one
+of the interesting footnotes was this startling remark: &#8220;It is much to be desired that the elevation of the most prominent
+peaks of the western or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely &#8230; that <i>Coropuna</i>, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa, is the culminating point of the continent. It <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e579"></a>Page 3</span>exceeds 23,000 feet in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763
+feet (6940 meters) above sea level.&#8221; His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil engineers of the Southern Railways
+of Peru, using a section of the railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to describe. Although I had
+been studying South American history and geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have heard of Coropuna.
+On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found &#8220;Coropuna&#8212;6,949
+m.&#8221;&#8212;9 <i>meters higher than Aconcagua!</i>&#8212;one hundred miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e584">Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed
+very near Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands &#8220;behind the Ranges&#8221; which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence
+was intriguing. The desire to go and find that &#8220;something hidden&#8221; was now re&euml;nforced by the temptation to go and see whether
+Coropuna really was the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an expedition whose object was a geographical
+reconnaissance of Peru along the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba to tidewater on the Pacific.
+We achieved more than we expected.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e586">Our success was due in large part to our &#8220;unit-food-boxes,&#8221; a device containing a balanced ration <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e588"></a>Page 4</span>which Professor Harry W. Foote had cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to facilitate the provisioning
+of small field parties by packing in a single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions for a given
+period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction, not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had
+the responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words in regard to this feature of our equipment may not
+be unwelcome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e590">The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary
+their diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn,
+eggs, mutton, and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed
+oats, milk, cheese, coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams, pickles, and dried fruits and
+vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient variety was
+procured without destroying the balanced character of the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned
+fruits, however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food, we <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e592"></a>Page 5</span>found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap, two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth
+bags, to be used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly appreciated article of food in our boxes was
+the rolled oats, a dish which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily prepared at high elevations, where
+rice cannot be properly boiled. It was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing the right amount of
+sugar. At the beginning of the field season the allowance&#8212;one third of a pound per day per man&#8212;seemed excessive, and I was
+criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be
+supplemented.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e594">Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer to &#8220;rough it,&#8221; and to &#8220;trust to luck&#8221; for his food.
+I had found on my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South America, that the result of being obliged
+to subsist on irregular and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While &#8220;roughing it&#8221; is far more enticing to the inexperienced
+and indiscreet explorer, I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing, months in advance, a comprehensive
+bill of fare sufficiently varied, wholesome, and well-balanced, is &#8220;the better part of valor,&#8221; The truth is that providing
+an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble and expense
+for one's transportation department, and some of the younger men may feel that their reputations as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e596"></a>Page 6</span>explorers are likely to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and pickles are frequently found on
+their menu! Nevertheless, experience has shown that the results of &#8220;trusting to luck&#8221; and &#8220;living as the natives do&#8221; means
+not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for the drudgery
+of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery; and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome
+food.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e598">We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian
+&#8220;winter&#8221; reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms.
+On the other hand, the &#8220;summer months,&#8221; beginning with November, are cloudy and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties
+of climbing a new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes
+in the upper Amazon Basin, the lands &#8220;behind the Ranges.&#8221; Although the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, or jungle country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the other months of the year; so we decided to
+go first to the Urubamba Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos, the capital of the last Incas,
+and of the finding of Machu Picchu will be found in later chapters. In September <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e603"></a>Page 7</span>I returned to Arequipa and started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate transportation facilities
+for crossing the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e605">Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its large
+mules. Unfortunately, a &#8220;mule trust&#8221; had recently been formed&#8212;needless to say, by an American&#8212;and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing, the Tejada brothers appeared, two <i>arrieros</i>, or muleteers, who seemed willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand <i>soles</i> (five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever
+we chose, we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues<a id="d0e613src" href="#d0e613" class="noteref">1</a> a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy <i>arrieros</i> that they were not going to be everlastingly ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules, knew the
+great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch.
+The argument that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my promise that after the first week the cargo
+would be so much less that at <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e619"></a>Page 3</span>least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas, realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get
+sore backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e621">Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker, a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing, whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper
+equipment, was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the
+mountain was due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss guides, and had originally intended to ask
+two other members of the Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making a geological and topographical
+cross section along the 73d meridian through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest passes in the Andes
+(17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna before
+the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy season it did not seem wise to wait for their co&ouml;peration.
+Accordingly, I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of
+the Harvard Observatory. It was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti (19,120 ft.), should accompany
+us to the top, while Mr. Watkins, who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take charge of the Base Camp.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e623"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e624"></a>Page 9</span>The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of
+rather more than average height and considerably more than average courage, who knew the country. As a member of the mounted
+<i>gendarmerie</i>, Gamarra had been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous
+revolutionists stormed the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood his ground and, when they attempted
+to force their way past him, shot the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made him a corporal and,
+realizing that his life was no longer safe in that particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of his
+race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered
+by the prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert, was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage
+could not be called in question even though his habits might lead him to become troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did
+not know we were planning to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the trials that were before him
+on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have begged off&#8212;but I am anticipating.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e629">On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage
+of the journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty miles. The <i>arrieros</i> sent the cargo along too. In addition <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e634"></a>Page 10</span>to the food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers, thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes,
+duffle bags, and a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would
+reach Vitor about the same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of <i>arrieros</i> on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near the primitive little railway station.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e639">We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring <i>pampa</i> and studying the <i>m&eacute;danos</i>, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical jungles
+of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert, broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers,
+coming from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru,
+is in one of the largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog, the Peruvian coastal towns are almost
+never subjected to rain. The causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from the east, laden with the
+moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of the Andes and forced
+to deposit this moisture in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>. By the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come
+from the warm Pacific Ocean <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e650"></a>Page 11</span>strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current, which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To
+be sure, there are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes of the coast range that the hillsides are
+clothed with flowers, but this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the great stretches of desert
+<i>pampa</i> in the midst of which we now were. Like the other <i>pampas</i> of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These <i>m&eacute;danos</i> interested us greatly.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e661">The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward
+the ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving
+the heavier particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up
+from the ocean to fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air that rise from the overheated <i>pampas</i>. During the early afternoon this wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It is now strong enough
+to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits them in
+pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains stationary at night while the lighter particles are <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e666"></a>Page 12</span>rolled downhill, but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of the following afternoon. The result is
+the beautiful crescent-shaped <i>m&eacute;dano</i>.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e671">About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot&#8212;far superior to any that we had been able to secure near Cuzco&#8212;trotted briskly
+into the dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was nearly seven o'clock before we started off
+in the moonlight for the oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail winding down into a dark canyon
+we caught a glimpse of something white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest; Coropuna! Shortly before
+nine o'clock we reached a little corral, where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with a clean, stone-paved
+floor, where we set up our cots, only to be awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to avoid the
+terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e673"></p>
+<div id="d0e674" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p012.jpg" alt="Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e678">Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day, but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or
+ten hours' steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most
+caravans travel, so far as possible, by night. Our first desert, the <i>pampa</i> of Sihuas, was reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see what was to be seen. We got up about half-past
+four and were off before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in Arequipa or because they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e683"></a>Page 13</span>thought he looked like a good horseman, or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given Mr. Hinckley a very
+spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew, her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and a large
+mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory, was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was
+done, and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on
+his dangerous mule we rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over paths flanked by willows and fig
+trees. The chief industry of Vitor is the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The wine is aged in
+huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line, awaiting
+sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean
+crocks.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e685">The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out
+of foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards;
+on the other side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the oasis there is an abundance of water. Much
+of it runs to waste. The wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land could easily be put under cultivation.
+The chief difficulties are the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer world, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e687"></a>Page 14</span>the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now
+unoccupied.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e689">A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of
+Coropuna, glistening in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was a short one, for in less than
+three minutes we had to descend another canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the <i>pampa</i> of Sihuas. There was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the distance was Coropuna, and I had just
+begun to study the problem of possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's mule trotted briskly across
+the trail directly in front of me, kicked up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer, camera, plates,
+and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance before
+he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little &#8220;Mummery&#8221; tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid
+to the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in
+Mr. Hinckley's leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain climbing. With <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e694"></a>Page 15</span>Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached
+the glaciers. To be sure, there was the corporal&#8212;but would he go? Indians do not like snow mountains. Packing up the tent
+again, we resumed our course over the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e696">The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon.
+We should have been compelled to camp in the open with the <i>arrieros</i> had not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes
+and sweet native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps
+the widest, hottest, and most barren in this region. Our <i>arrieros</i> were unwilling to cross it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water and water. The next day we enjoyed
+the hospitality of our kindly host until after supper.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e704">So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against
+the sun and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating
+ditches. On the roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried mud. It is not necessary to plaster the
+sides of the houses, for it is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e706"></a>Page 16</span>to look out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e708">That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after
+hour, across the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of
+a tumbled mass of enormous sand dunes&#8212;the result of hundreds of <i>m&eacute;danos</i> blown across the <i>pampa</i> of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert
+to a point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks
+and sand. The bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes River, too deep to be forded even in the
+dry season. A very large part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and consists of a wild jungle, difficult
+of access in the dry season and impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast between the gigantic
+hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape was the
+long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e716">At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley
+and have some breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado), a huge volcanic boulder covered with
+rude pictographs. Further search in the vicinity <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e718"></a>Page 17</span>revealed about one hundred of these boulders, each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of houses
+near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars,
+birds, men, and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the interest and excitement of investigating
+the <i>&#8220;rocas jeroglificos,&#8221;</i> as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few
+pictures we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary bridge. It was built to last only during the
+dry season. To construct a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant
+little village where it was almost impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e723">The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of
+Castilla, called by its present inhabitants &#8220;Majes,&#8221; although on Raimondi's map that name is applied only to the river and
+the neighboring desert. In 1865, at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now it seems more healthy.
+The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e725">The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian ancestry. Many of them appeared to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e727"></a>Page 18</span>be unusually businesslike. The proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes, the name of which he
+pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a long time. &#8220;W&#8221; is unknown in Spanish and the letters &#8220;a,&#8221; &#8220;l,&#8221; and &#8220;k&#8221; are never
+found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of &#8220;Valluck-ofair&#8242;,&#8221; accenting strongly the last syllable, we could
+not imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately
+the well-advertised name of a widely known shoe.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e729">At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa, alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar
+cane, from which <i>aguardiente</i>, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so
+much wine in the community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives, who were not only hospitable but energetic&#8212;far
+more so, in fact, than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold and the difficulty of making a living
+have reacted upon the Indians, often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The residences of the wine growers
+are sometimes very misleading. A typical country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long, low, flat roof
+and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it an unattractive appearance; yet to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e734"></a>Page 19</span>one's intense surprise the inside may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and a phonograph.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e736">Our conscientious and hard-working <i>arrieros</i> rose at two o'clock the next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead of them, from an elevation of
+1000 feet above sea level to 10,000 feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could be obtained. We
+had now left the region of tropical products and come back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought
+us past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic &#8220;treasure seeker&#8221; of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000
+inhabitants and is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which we had selected several months before
+as the rendezvous for the attack on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals of the temperate zone
+are easily raised. The town is surrounded by gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence of intensive
+cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e741">The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by Se&ntilde;or Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told
+us to set up our cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from the local officials, including the
+provincial physician, Dr. Past&oacute;r, and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro Coello. The last two were
+keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e743"></a>Page 20</span> They told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the mountain could be seen, and offered to take us
+up there. We accepted, thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to join in the climb, for we needed
+another man on the rope. Professor Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e745">From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away.
+It seemed clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the mass (<i>koro</i> = &#8220;cut off at the top&#8221;; <i>puna</i> = &#8220;a cold, snowy height&#8221;), was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped
+dome we could just make out a northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to be higher than the western
+peak which we decided to climb. No one knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be had. The wildest
+opinions were expressed as to the best routes and methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he knew
+how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him &#8220;guide&#8221; for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring
+was now well advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that there had been a heavy snowstorm on the
+mountain a few days before. If summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time, and we proceeded to arrange
+the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e753">Our instruments for determining altitude consisted <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e755"></a>Page 21</span>of a special mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures
+as one might expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie
+Institution of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green; a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the
+Harvard Observatory, which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was still doing good service; and
+one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials should get broken.
+Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks, the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct, with
+special care, two large &#8220;Watkins&#8221; aneroids capable of recording altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed
+to be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter
+had miscarried. It was not until we opened our specially ordered &#8220;mountain grub&#8221; boxes here in Chuquibamba that we found,
+alongside of the pemmican and self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by Grace Brothers, the two
+precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety, we
+felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed
+the top of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e757"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e758"></a>Page 22</span>For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey
+along the 73d meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a signal at or near the top which Hendriksen
+could use as a station in order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must be confessed, was to enjoy the
+satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel, of conquering a &#8220;virgin peak.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e760"></a>Page 23</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e613" href="#d0e613src" class="noteref">1</a> A league, usually about 3&#8531; miles, is really the distance an average mule can walk in an hour.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e761"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter II</h2>
+<h1>Climbing Coropuna</h1>
+<p id="d0e764">The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October
+10th before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it
+with care. The plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is
+really a range about twenty miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one end to the other. So deep
+did the fresh snow lie that it was generally impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could see that
+of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern,
+end of the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged
+to a later volcanic period than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of all. To reach it did not appear
+to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls, appeared to culminate
+in a saddle at the base of the great snowy dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken, if steep, path
+to the top. If we could once reach the snow line, it looked as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e766"></a>Page 24</span>though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes, we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e768"></p>
+<div id="d0e769" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p024.jpg" alt="Mt. Coropuna from the South"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Coropuna from the South</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e773">Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep <i>quebradas</i>, and very rough <i>aa</i> lava. Directed by our &#8220;guide,&#8221; we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the lava flows and slowly ascending
+the gentle slope of the plateau. As it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting for them to get their
+wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a steep-walled
+canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued
+as to how much he knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any huts whatever in the canyon. <i>&#8220;Abandonado; despoblado; desierto.&#8221;</i> &#8220;A waste; a solitude; a wilderness.&#8221; So he described it. Had he been there? &#8220;No, Se&ntilde;or.&#8221; Luckily we had been able to make
+out from the rim of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no question that we ought to get to the
+snow line as soon as possible, we decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a &#8220;guide,&#8221; and make such way as
+we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from mountain
+sickness. The <i>arrieros</i> began to complain loudly, but <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e787"></a>Page 25</span>did what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears; the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing
+for <i>soroche</i>. As soon as the timid <i>arrieros</i> reached a point where they could see down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture, cheered up a bit,
+and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the &#8220;guide.&#8221; Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e795">Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay
+in advance and offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents and took advantage of the sheltering stone
+wall of her corral for our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly evident that we were harmless,
+the door of one of the huts opened and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance before our arrival
+had been the easily discernible presence in our midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had selected
+this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a guilty conscience and at the sight of a <i>gendarme</i> decided that he had better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of a recruiting party, since it is quite
+likely that he had not served his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife discovered that we were not
+looking for her man, she allowed his curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a few llamas. They also
+made crude pottery, firing it with straw and llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from <i>chu&ntilde;o</i>, frozen bitter <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e803"></a>Page 26</span>potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000 feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family, a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e805">Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help
+to carry the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they declined absolutely and positively. I think
+one of the men might have gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering she broke out in a torrent of
+violent denunciation, telling him the mountain would &#8220;eat him up&#8221; and that unless he wanted to go to heaven before his time
+he had better let well enough alone and stay where he was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna &#8220;the devil&#8221; talks &#8220;more freely&#8221; than usual. &#8220;For some secret reason known to God, it is said
+that devils walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are much terrified. I have also heard that
+these devils have appeared to Christians in the form of Indians.&#8221; Perhaps the voluble housewife was herself one of the famous
+Coropuna devils. She certainly talked &#8220;more freely&#8221; than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna &#8220;devils&#8221; were now
+appearing to Indians &#8220;in the form of&#8221; Christians! Anyhow the Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful,
+warm paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those
+faithful <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e807"></a>Page 27</span>denizens of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy themselves in this charming spot on their upward
+flight. Like most primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an abject terror of the forbidding summits
+and the snowstorms that seem to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate the demons who dwell on the mountain
+tops by inventing charming stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca,
+the great explorer Raimondi, in 1865, found the natives &#8220;exiled from the civilized world, still preserving their primitive
+customs&#8230; carrying idols to the slopes of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a sacrifice.&#8221; Apparently
+the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts of all those who live near it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e809">The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity,
+that we added offers of the precious <i>coca</i> leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired &#8220;fire-water,&#8221; the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually coveted by Peruvian
+highlanders, had no effect in the face of the terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness was one
+of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood
+all these matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e814"></a>Page 28</span>of our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian
+gentlemen always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and improper. I have known one of the most energetic
+and efficient business men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to dislike being obliged to carry
+a rolled and unmounted photograph, little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a <i>cargador</i>, an Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e819">As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to
+climb with heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument
+with the Indians was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made more and more generous. All was in vain.
+We finally came to realize that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would have to be borne on our own
+shoulders. That evening the top of the truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp, was bathed in
+a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air, however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the <i>gendarme's</i> mule became homesick and disappeared with Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders to follow
+us as soon as possible.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e824">As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to persuade the Tejadas to take their pack <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e826"></a>Page 29</span>mules up as far as the snow, a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone as far as and farther
+than mules had any business to go. Soon after reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that there
+was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on the lower slopes of the mountains. The <i>arrieros</i> denied the accuracy of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed to go as far as there was a good path,
+and no farther. There was no question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as high up as possible before
+we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It may be imagined that the <i>arrieros</i> packed very slowly and grudgingly, although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving behind our saddles,
+ordinary supplies, and everything not considered absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e834">We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as
+not to hear the <i>arrieros'</i> constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the edge
+of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse, black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced
+to unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a violent and acrimonious dispute as to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e839"></a>Page 30</span>whether the letter of the contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone &#8220;as far as they could reasonably be expected
+to go.&#8221; The truth was, the Tejadas were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure it would take revenge
+on them by destroying their mules, who would &#8220;certainly die the following day of <i>soroche.</i>&#8221; We offered a bonus of thirty <i>soles</i>&#8212;fifteen dollars&#8212;if they would go on for another hour, and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e847">The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep little rise the <i>arrieros</i> stopped again. This time they succeeded in unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and boulders to
+stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement &#8220;in writing&#8221; that in case any mule or mules died as a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line,
+I should pay in gold two hundred <i>soles</i> for each and every mule that died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty <i>soles</i> if they would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document, having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello,
+seated on a lava rock amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed and sealed. In order that there
+might be no dispute as to the time, my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until noon. The mules were
+reloaded and again the ascent <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e858"></a>Page 31</span>began. Presently the mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with huge lava boulders and scoriaceous
+sand. We expected more trouble every minute. However, the <i>arrieros</i>, having made an advantageous bargain, did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the snow line just fifteen
+minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return in ten days,
+and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the side of the mountain.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e863">We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents, the &#8220;Mummery,&#8221; a very light and diminutive wall tent
+about four feet high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of fairly heavy material, with floor sewed
+in; and an improved pyramidal tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after one used on Mt. McKinley by
+Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two openings&#8212;a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being closed by an adjustable
+cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any desired extent
+with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor, measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the
+ground, or snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily
+ventilated and yet <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e865"></a>Page 32</span>giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent
+with us on the climb. We determined to carry the &#8220;Mummery&#8221; to the top of the mountain to use while taking observations.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e867">The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites
+and no <i>soroche</i>. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water
+for cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal
+pulse is 70. After I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to 120. After I had been seated awhile
+it dropped down to 100. Gradually our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of malaise and general disability.
+There was a splendid sunset, but we were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had some headache.
+A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what moment
+we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters, we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair
+warning of what might happen higher up.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e872"></p>
+<div id="d0e873" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p032-1.jpg" alt="The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e877"></p>
+<div id="d0e878" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p032-2.jpg" alt="Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e882">For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e884"></a>Page 33</span>prepared for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever tasted it before. We decided that it is not very
+palatable on first acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend long periods of time in the Arctic,
+where even seal's blubber is a delicacy &#8220;as good as cow's cream,&#8221; I presume we could have done just as well without it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e886">It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of
+a week's duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures due to the necessity of the explorers' being
+obliged to return to food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of a new peak. One remembers the frequent
+disappointments that came to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile
+and Argentina, due to high winds, the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by <i>soroche</i>. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that
+no unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e891">Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds
+in a single day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other chores, they started off, packing loads of
+about twenty-five pounds each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e893"></a>Page 34</span>slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult
+at a high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for those suffering from <i>soroche</i> as it is for a sailor to appreciate the sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e898">During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be
+weighed, so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following day. We had two small kerosene stoves with
+Primus burners. Our grub, ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican in 8&frac14;-pound tins, Kola chocolate
+in half-pound tins, seeded raisins in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6&frac12;-pound tins, jam, sticks of
+dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few of Silver's self-heating &#8220;messtins&#8221; containing Irish stew, beef &agrave; la mode,
+<i>et al</i>. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did
+not relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm clothes which we had provided for him and learned that
+he would get a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e903">Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the
+first part of the climb and that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e905"></a>Page 35</span>a cache had been established about 2000 feet above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs for the morrow
+and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness with which we were to carry them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e907">Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican
+pudding with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better,
+one reason being that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The weather continued fine. Watkins was due
+to arrive from Arequipa in a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further risk of encountering an early
+summer snowstorm. The next morning, after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs, we left camp about nine
+o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain Club snow-creepers, or <i>crampons</i>, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be remembered by visitors
+to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been maimed for
+life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy
+underdrawers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e912">Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I had woolen puttees and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e914"></a>Page 36</span>&#8220;Arctic&#8221; overshoes. Tucker improvised what he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and pieces of a
+rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing ahead of us, we decided to depend on <i>crampons</i> rather than on the heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e919">The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We
+found that, loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty steps at a time. On the more level snow
+fields we took twenty-five or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint it seemed as though they would
+be the last steps we should ever take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with mountain-sickness, we
+would stop and lean on our ice axes until able to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e921">It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very
+wide, and nearly all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although there was an occasional fall no great
+strain was put on the rope. Then came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part our day was simply an
+unending succession of stints&#8212;twenty-five steps and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five steps
+and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow
+stopped all progress. At an altitude <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e923"></a>Page 37</span>of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that the two big
+aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood at
+22&deg; F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9&deg; F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in
+the northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us considerably. We feared the expected November storms
+might be ahead of time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to the ventilating device at the top of
+the tent, we managed to breathe fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally observed that one of the
+symptoms of acute <i>soroche</i> is a very annoying, racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied by nausoa. We had not experienced
+this at 17,000 feet, but now it began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing days and nights, particularly
+nights, until we got back to the Indians' huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another by coughing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e928">The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing
+for it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with the same steady drudgery&#8212;now a little harder than
+the day before. We broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field
+within a mile of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e930"></a>Page 38</span>saddle between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked possible to reach the summit in one more day's
+climb from here. The aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch the tent, the others went back to
+the cache to bring up some of the supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy as those which Tucker
+and Coello had first brought up, we had not passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared again I was
+so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e932">We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow
+and make a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer
+registered 7&deg; F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent
+they are obliged to sleep so close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown sleeping-bag, blankets,
+and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We did, however, suffer from <i>soroche</i>. Violent whooping cough assailed us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by counting my pulse occasionally,
+only to find that it persistently refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't know where it went
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e937"></a>Page 39</span>on the actual climb. So far as I could determine, it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e939">On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was
+found to be frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough
+for practical purposes when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the tea-pot! Never did men keep their
+tempers better under more aggravating circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my clumsy accident, although
+poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder (but somewhat
+drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more frozen
+snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of
+our outfit and provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things as were absolutely necessary. They included
+the Mummery tent with pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of
+Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks, six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer, a Stanley pocket level,
+an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope, three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale flag. In <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e941"></a>Page 40</span>order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle
+soup, a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about
+twenty pounds each.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e943">To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon
+the snow had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five
+o'clock. It was still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls.
+To reach it we must first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently unbroken slope extended to the top.
+Our progress was distressingly slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came a painful surprise.
+To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now it
+actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly
+seemed to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly facing the possibility that our painful labors
+might be in vain and that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to doubt whether we should have strength
+enough for both. Loss of sleep, <i>soroche</i>, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e948">The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e950"></a>Page 41</span>We should have had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly.
+As it was, not more than a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest part. Tucker was first on the
+rope, I was second, Coello third, and Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high altitude was sapping
+all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires.
+A single cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course, one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did
+help to tide over difficult places.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e952">We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be
+the top, obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were
+too much out of breath to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we painfully came to the edge of
+what looked like the summit we saw the cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope three hundred feet
+higher than where we were standing. It may seem strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to find that
+we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however, that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e954"></a>Page 42</span>give to the consideration of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts had sunk within us at the thought
+that possibly, after all, we might find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another three hundred feet,
+which would undoubtedly take us above the highest point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of two possible
+evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e956">With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at
+last, at half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the 20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point
+of Coropuna. As we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having successfully engineered the first ascent
+of this great mountain, stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly motioned me to go ahead in order
+that the director of the Expedition might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In order to appreciate
+how great a sacrifice he was willing to make, it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition was due chiefly
+to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated his
+kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e958"></p>
+<div id="d0e959" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p042-1.jpg" alt="The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e963"></p>
+<div id="d0e964" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p042-2.jpg" alt="One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna</p>
+</div><p>
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e968">The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e970"></a>Page 43</span>field, almost flat, having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and south and 175 feet east and west. If it
+once were, as we suppose, a volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and ice. There were no rocks
+to be seen on the rim&#8212;only the hard crust of the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in the extreme.
+We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have
+frequently spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest, twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada,
+a reddish desert, rose snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the range of Coropuna itself; several
+of the lesser peaks being only a few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined we could see the faint
+blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e972">My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction
+coming from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak
+in the Pacific, Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be
+appreciative of the views which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I could not take the least interest
+or pleasure in the view from the top of Coropuna, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e974"></a>Page 44</span>nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt greatly
+depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e976">After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my
+surprise and dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a
+thousand feet higher, 22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of 22,775 feet, and considerably below
+Bandelier's &#8220;23,000 feet.&#8221; This was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would at least show a margin
+over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763 feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We took what comfort
+we could from the fact that the aneroids, which had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so obviously
+untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now be
+reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the
+wooden box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow, leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level,
+and took a squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So each of us in turn lay down in the snow and
+took a squint. It was all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e978"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e979"></a>Page 45</span>We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight.
+At any rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After
+arriving at this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent, set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer,
+arranged the boiling point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and notebooks proceeded to take as many
+observations as possible in the next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that at the same hour readings
+were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The barometer was
+suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now stood
+at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the barometer was exactly +32&deg; F. At the same time, inside the tent
+we got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water boils at sea level at a temperature of 212&deg; F. Here
+it boiled at 174&deg; F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been heated for the hypsometer. We were
+thirsty enough to have drunk five times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions except a few raisins,
+some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e981">After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left
+it on top, first having placed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e983"></a>Page 46</span>in it one of the Appalachian Mountain Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag, a contemporary
+map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole, which
+we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make
+his survey, it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and buried it in the snow.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e985">We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part
+of the way down to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and we got up too much speed for comfort,
+so we finally had to be content with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little wind. Mountain climbers
+have more to fear from excessively high winds than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred to interfere
+with the best progress we were physically capable of making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many supplies
+with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful.
+No one in the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e987"></a>Page 47</span>or pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities,
+apparently not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could have stood it. It is difficult to believe
+that with strength enough to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e989">That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated
+again in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower
+altitude as fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes
+later, without having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked up. Although many things had been abandoned,
+our loads seemed heavier than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but Gamarra was the only one actually
+to fall in, and he was easily pulled out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two animated specks
+far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks,
+although we did not see it at the time. The &#8220;specks&#8221; turned out to be Watkins and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was
+safe without ropes or <i>crampons</i>, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached at half-past <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e994"></a>Page 48</span>twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while
+he had given me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course, does not include the weight of our ice-creepers,
+axes, or rope.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e996">The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even
+to lift one's hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed
+best to make every effort to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp, got the loads ready without
+waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately our malaise
+left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without
+getting out of breath; the aggravating &#8220;whooping cough&#8221; left us; and our appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered
+from the effects of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly had allowed myself to eat a considerable
+amount of snow. As a result my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit tasted like broken glass.
+Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling to keep his snow-glasses always <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e998"></a>Page 49</span>in place and thought to relieve his eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial snow-blindness. The
+rest of us were spared any inflammation of the eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling <i>arrieros</i>, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas
+gave us hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1003">In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15&deg; 31&#8242; South, and
+the longitude to be 72&deg; 42&#8242; 40&#8243; West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be 21,703 feet above sea level. The result
+of comparing the readings of our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous readings taken at Arequipa
+gave practically the same figures. There was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna proves to
+be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate, and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach
+the top, we all agreed we would never do it again!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1005"></a>Page 52</span></p><a id="d0e1006"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter III</h2>
+<h1>To Parinacochas</h1>
+<p id="d0e1009">After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set out for Parinacochas, the &#8220;Flamingo Lake&#8221; of the Incas. The
+late Sir Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of &#8220;The Conquest of Peru,&#8221; had called attention
+to this unexplored lake in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had named a bathymetric survey of
+Parinacochas as one of the principal desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge from the published
+maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough search
+of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it
+was that it had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted
+General San Martin in the Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs in London in 1828. During the
+campaigns against the Spanish forces in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the interior. On one
+of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is &#8220;brackish.&#8221; This
+statement of General Miller's and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1011"></a>Page 51</span>the suggestion of Sir Clements Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important contribution to geographical
+knowledge was all that we were able to learn. Our <i>arrieros</i>, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas, but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to get there.
+Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1016">First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman
+and Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a
+new supply of food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out
+of the Chuquibamba Valley by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over the gently sloping, semi-arid
+desert in a northerly direction, around the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night on the Pampa
+of Chumpillo, our <i>arrieros</i> used dried moss and dung for fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were llamas pasturing on the plains.
+Near our tent were some Inca ruins, probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains of a temple described
+by Cieza de Leon (1519&#8211;1560), whose remarkable accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the Pizarros
+are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most important temples in the Land of the Incas was one &#8220;much venerated
+and frequented by them, named <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1021"></a>Page 52</span>Coropuna.&#8221; &#8220;It is on a very lofty mountain which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings of Peru visited
+this temple making presents and offerings &#8230;. It is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts offered to
+this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol, and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But
+as there are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is it known where these are hidden. This temple
+possessed many flocks, farms, and service of Indians.&#8221; No one lives here now, but there are many flocks and llamas, and not
+far away we saw ancient storehouses and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were kept awake by the
+bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1023">The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance
+of peat and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the
+lower spurs of Coropuna into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand, the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada.
+It is for the most part between 15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest by the canyon of the
+Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp and passed a more agreeable night. The following <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1025"></a>Page 53</span>morning we climbed out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail
+turned abruptly to the left, away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1027">We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day, less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks,
+like El Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been known in the memory of man to give forth great showers
+of cinders covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering
+of the ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this
+vicinity goes far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous amount of erosion that has taken place in
+the adjacent canyons and the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by the mighty streams of the glacial
+period all point to this conclusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1029">My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way.
+In her case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I
+took some notes, she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring
+or lashing with a stout quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I was particularly anxious to get
+a picture of our pack train jogging steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1031"></a>Page 54</span>Since my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, <i>run</i> a couple of hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the picture before they reached me. We were now
+at an elevation of 16,000 feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it was relatively as easy to run
+here as anywhere, so accustomed had my lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such a strenuous feat
+at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run two
+hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1036">We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches
+of tough grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we
+saw a number of vicu&ntilde;as, the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get near enough for a photograph.
+They were extremely timid and scampered away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1038">Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent
+canyon, the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon were covered with innumerable terraces&#8212;thousands
+of them. It seemed at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been either terraced or allotted to some
+compact little village. One could count more than a score of towns, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1040"></a>Page 55</span>including Cotahuasi itself, its long main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into the canyon our
+road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley
+bottoms showed any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent to which terracing had been carried on
+the side of the Cotahuasi Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it was evident from the extraordinary
+irrigation system that agriculture here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the great mountains in the
+interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1042">No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that
+there is no part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops where nature made it hard for them to be
+planted. In other countries, to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve to bring water long distances
+to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper chemical formula,
+the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great regions where nature has provided fertile fields and
+made <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1044"></a>Page 56</span>it easy to raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or prehistoric times, does one find farmers
+spending incredible amounts of labor in actually creating arable fields, <i>besides</i> bringing the water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that is what was done by the ancient highlanders
+of Peru. As they spread over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great an elevation as to be suitable
+for only the hardiest of root crops, like the white potato and the <i>oca</i>, they were driven to use narrow valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the precious maize and
+many of the other temperate and tropical plants which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were constantly
+confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently
+so very steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The farmer might wake up any morning to find that a
+heavy rain during the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted fields. Consequently there was developed,
+through the centuries, a series of stone-faced <i>andenes</i>, terraces or platforms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1055">Examination of the ancient <i>andenes</i> discloses the fact that they were not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a carefully constructed
+stone wall. The space back of the walls was first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1060"></a>Page 57</span>then followed smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and
+to a depth of eighteen inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The result was the best possible field for
+intensive cultivation. It seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains should have been taken for such
+relatively small results. The need must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few feet wide, although
+hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred yards
+wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1062">Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized
+of all Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak
+plateaus of the surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep, and alpacas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1064">We were cordially welcomed by Se&ntilde;or Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the
+locality, and, as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central government, was none too popular with some
+of the people of his province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi have ever been to Lima;&#8212;probably
+not a single member of the Lima government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not expect to find much sympathy
+between the two. The difficulties of traveling in <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1066"></a>Page 58</span>Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect.
+By nature a kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence, Se&ntilde;or Viscarra showed himself most courteous
+and hospitable to us in every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt
+and Elihu Root, and made a large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the flag did have only thirty-six
+stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1068">One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a
+barber-shop. The chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we accepted with pleasure. When the barber
+arrived, closely guarded by a <i>gendarme</i> armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his
+crime, but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag,
+I wished I was in a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The sub-prefect, however, had been so kind
+and was so apologetic as to the inconveniences of the &#8220;barber-shop&#8221; that there was nothing for it but to go bravely forward.
+Although it was unpleasant to have one's hair trimmed by an <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1073"></a>Page 59</span>uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a pair of
+shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his
+fees with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away
+by the <i>gendarme</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1078">We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary
+difficulties in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now past the worst of it. Their supplies were
+exhausted, so those which we had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned to assist Mr. Hendriksen
+and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him as escort
+Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was
+Gamarra who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some
+months previous to our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For Gamarra's sake they left the house at
+three o'clock in the morning and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his important monograph, &#8220;The
+Andes of Southern Peru,&#8221; Dr. Bowman writes: &#8220;At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened the gates noiselessly
+and our small cavalcade hurried <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1080"></a>Page 60</span>through the pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle across his saddle, and directly behind him
+rode the sub-prefect and myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the end of the street when a door
+opened suddenly and a shower of sparks flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his mule and turned into
+a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed me against
+the wall and whispered, &#8216;For God's sake, who is it?&#8217; Then suddenly he shouted. &#8216;Stop blowing! Stop blowing!&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1082">The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's
+work by pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals,
+on which he had been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor and his ancient goose should have been able
+to cause such terrific excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was
+fond of referring to this picturesque apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose that Startled
+the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1084"></p>
+<div id="d0e1085" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p060.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e1086">The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker, Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local
+rug-weaving industry.
+</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1089">The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers
+make the warp and woof <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1091"></a>Page 61</span>of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray, or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are
+cut so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm, gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has
+no pile. Probably the industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It seems to be restricted to this remote
+region. The rug makers are a small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their hand looms from house to
+house, as required. It is the custom for the person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish the weaver
+with board, lodging, <i>coca</i>, tobacco and wine, and watch the rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug weavers are very clever
+in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy of Se&ntilde;or Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven especially
+for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1096">Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host, and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he
+knew the road to Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring stream on a treacherous-looking bridge,
+the central pier of which was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic boulder in midstream. The main
+arch of the bridge consisted of two long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down by earth and stones.
+There was no rail on either side, but our mules had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On the northern
+side of the valley we rode <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1098"></a>Page 62</span>through a compact little town called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds of very fine artificial
+terraces, at present used for crops of maize and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall, an altogether
+surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as well as
+the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1100">Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture.
+Wherever the sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced terraces and irrigation had transformed them
+long ago into arable fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very fine series of beautiful terraces.
+On a shelf near the top of the canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by shepherds whose flocks grazed
+on the lofty plateau beyond, and near a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our camp was at an elevation
+of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1102">The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one
+of these we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna,
+now growing fainter and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500 feet we <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1104"></a>Page 63</span>struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and sand&#8212;hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came
+to a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged
+along beside my mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my experiences on Coropuna I suffered no
+discomfort, nor any symptoms of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five hundred yards. In the afternoon
+we began to descend from the plateau toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha, where <i>ichu</i> grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and alpacas.
+Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1109">Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the
+upper courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the
+softest in the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool
+was highly desired, many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the &#8220;alpaca&#8221; of commerce, a material used for coat
+linings, umbrellas, and thin, warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard surface, and generally dyed
+black. It usually contains no real alpaca wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1111"></a>Page 64</span>alpaca wool which comes into the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than the sheep's wool, it is strong,
+small of fiber, very soft, pliable and elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and comfort. Many
+of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as &#8220;vicu&ntilde;a,&#8221; &#8220;camel's hair,&#8221; etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1113">The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of
+the camels of the New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas
+are extremely variegated. The llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for wearing apparel, although
+heavy blankets made from it are in use by the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to the presence
+of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage&#8212;short, tender grass and plenty of water&#8212;frequents the most remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only
+when the fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds, and is extremely shy of strangers, although
+not nearly as timid as its distant cousin the vicu&ntilde;a. I shall never forget the first time I ever saw some alpacas. They looked
+for all the world like the &#8220;woolly-dogs&#8221; of our toys shops&#8212;woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and woolly along the
+legs right down to the invisible wheels! There <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1115"></a>Page 65</span>was something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop
+like cows.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1117">The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing, but in a different way. His expression is haughty
+and supercilious in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is due to circumstances over which he really
+had no control. Pride of race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high and his neck so stiffly erect that
+he can be corralled, with others of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire group. Yet he can be
+bought for ten dollars.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1119">On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs, both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly
+children, more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our
+notice. About five o'clock in the afternoon, on a dry <i>pampa</i>, we found the ruins of one of the largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder of the days when benevolent
+despots ruled the Andes and, like the Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is not occupied, yet
+near by are populous valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1124">As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep
+canyons so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail.
+It overhangs the mud-colored <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1126"></a>Page 66</span>Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair,
+but those near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes, and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered
+with cacti, thorn bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the town itself were half a dozen specimens
+of the Australian eucalyptus, that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one encounters not only in the
+heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1128"></p>
+<div id="d0e1129" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p066.jpg" alt="Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1133">Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them have open verandas on the second floor&#8212;a sure indication
+that the climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched
+huts of the majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and the great number of terraces in and around town,
+one may conclude that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most
+Peruvian towns. The cities of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta, we wound around the base of the
+projecting ridge, on the sides of which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the valley of Huancahuanca,
+a large arid canyon. The guide said that we were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1135"></a>Page 67</span>away, across two canyons, was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1137">Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand
+feet above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers
+at the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to enable them to cultivate a larger part of the <i>pampa</i> on which they lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of being carried out and has probably long
+since been completed. Our reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that our military escort, Corporal Gamarra,
+had gone back to Arequipa with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent <i>arrieros</i>, the Tejada brothers, declared they preferred to travel without any &#8220;brass buttons,&#8221; so we had not asked the sub-prefect
+of Cotahuasi to send one of his small handful of <i>gendarmes</i> along with us. Probably this was a mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood matter, such as prospecting
+for mines or representing one of the great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods, one cannot help arousing
+the natural suspicions of a people to whom traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific exploration for
+its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the explorers arrive accompanied by a <i>gendarme</i> it is perfectly evident that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial backing of the government. It is
+surmised that the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1151"></a>Page 68</span>explorers are well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely one of the ordinary experiences of life.
+South American governments almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are led to expect that all measures
+connected with research, whether it be scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government and paid for
+out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had had
+such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize, how often an ever-present <i>gendarme</i>, provided through the courtesy of President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us a cordial welcome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1156">Now, however, when without a <i>gendarme</i> we entered the smart little town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the objects of extreme suspicion
+and distrust. Yet we could not help admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and general air of prosperity
+and enterprise. The <i>gobernador</i> of the town lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and colonnade were probably two hundred years
+old. He had heard nothing of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take some hostile action. Fortunately,
+our <i>arrieros</i>, respectable men of high grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions temporarily. We were not placed
+under arrest, although I am sure his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors, who found it far <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1167"></a>Page 69</span>easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1169">The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that
+Lampa is famous for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep, alpacas, and vicu&ntilde;as in this vicinity
+to make ponchos and blankets of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in Arequipa. These are marketed,
+as so often happens in the outlying parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who come hundreds of miles,
+bringing the manufactured articles of the outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded towns. The
+great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general
+enjoyment&#8212;like a large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate
+as our own fair-grounds, with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the purposes of the fair. Had we
+been bound for Parinacochas at the proper season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why anybody should
+want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension or understanding
+of these village worthies. So, to our &#8220;selectmen,&#8221; are the idiosyncrasies <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1171"></a>Page 70</span>of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our deserted fair-grounds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1173">The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town&#8212;probably because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the
+mules devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive in town than in the country. It was just as well
+for us that this was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would have persuaded the <i>gobernador</i> to arrest us. As it was, however, he was pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment of an Indian
+woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree.
+So she covered her eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian
+women are invariably extremely shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape observation and notice.
+The ladies of the <i>gobernador's</i> own family, however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no objection to being photographed, but were moved
+to unseemly and unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1181">After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due
+to the enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might expect that citizens who kept their town so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1183"></a>Page 71</span>clean and neat and were engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would have a comfortable road in the
+direction toward which they usually would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1185">As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides
+of the valley or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa and whose products have made its people well
+fed and energetic. The town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so few, if any, evidences of the
+ancient r&eacute;gime when there are so many a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot believe that the
+Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing
+unnecessary in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand, it may have been occupied until late Inca
+times by one of the coast tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca divides two very different
+regions. To come in a few hours, from thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give us cause for thought
+and speculation. It is well known that in the early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before the Spanish
+Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1187"></a>Page 72</span>different as possible in design and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is absolutely distinct. Relative
+abundance of flat lands never led them to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had done. Perhaps
+on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1189">Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower
+slopes separated from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near the top of the mountain. Our road ran
+near the towns of Pararca and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of thatched huts surrounded by
+hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed fields of barley
+and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in agriculture,
+utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We noticed
+hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1191">Our <i>arrieros</i> avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the roadside near the <i>Finca Rodadero</i>. After all, when one has a comfortable tent, good food, and skillful <i>arrieros</i> it is far pleasanter to spend the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1202"></a>Page 73</span>of 12,000 or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an Indian town.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1204">The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe
+houses placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the best arable land available for agriculture. It is in
+a shallow, well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi.
+The desert and its steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of gently sloping hills, covered with
+terraces, where the cereals of the temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain fields, we climbed
+up to a shallow depression in the low range at the head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland basin
+more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most
+of the lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color?
+Nothing but flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes&#8212;Parinacochas at last!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1206"></a>Page 74</span></p><a id="d0e1207"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter IV</h2>
+<h1>Flamingo Lake</h1>
+<p id="d0e1210">The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and 12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest
+of Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams.
+In past geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas
+has no visible outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed
+from the lake. On the other hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake, generally occurring in
+swampy hillocks&#8212;built up perhaps by mineral deposits&#8212;three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There are very
+old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at
+present, although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had been much more than a foot above its present level.
+Nevertheless a rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1212">When making preparations in New Haven for the &#8220;bathymetric survey of Lake Parinacochas,&#8221; suggested by Sir Clements Markham,
+we found it impossible to discover any indication in geographical <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1214"></a>Page 75</span>literature as to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand feet. We decided to take a chance on its
+not being more than ten hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured a thousand feet of stout fish
+line, known to anglers as &#8220;24 thread,&#8221; wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we were at Chuquibamba
+Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot intervals
+in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1216">Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for
+fodder, and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles on muleback, for the sounding operations. The
+&#8220;Acme&#8221; proved easy to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its lightness enabled it to be floated at
+the edge of the lake even in very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late afternoon when the high
+winds raised a vicious little &#8220;sea.&#8221; Rowing out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before been navigated
+by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding
+slow work, and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1218">It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1220"></a>Page 76</span>that I rowed out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard.
+The reel gave a turn or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was the reel stuck? No, the apparatus
+was in perfect running order. Then what <i>was</i> the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best
+strong 24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient insertion of one hundred and sixty-six &#8220;fathom-markers&#8221;!
+The bottom of the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After three or four days of strenuous rowing up
+and down the eighteen miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen miles of its width, I never succeeded
+in wetting Watkins's first marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of water anywhere. Possibly
+if we had come in the rainy season we might at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November, 1911), the
+lake had a maximum depth of 4&frac12; feet. The satisfaction of making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1225">Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story
+of the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor
+was reported by the natives to be &#8220;bottomless.&#8221; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1227"></a>Page 77</span>He ordered one of the ship's heavy boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt lake, at great expenditure
+of strength and labor. The story told me in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow, they found
+this &#8220;fathomless&#8221; body of water to be not more than fifteen feet deep.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1229">Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat,
+for it enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite
+feeding ground; pink flamingoes, white gulls, small &#8220;divers,&#8221; large black ducks, sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large
+geese. On the banks were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the natives should have named this body of
+water &#8220;Parinacochas&#8221; (<i>Parina</i> = &#8220;flamingo,&#8221; <i>cochas</i> = &#8220;lake&#8221;). The flamingoes are here in incredible multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said, actually
+make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid.
+After two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me approach within twenty yards before finally taking
+wing. The coloring, in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The head is white, the beak black, the
+neck white shading into salmon-pink; the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail salmon-pink. The wings
+are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and the under-parts are black. As they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1237"></a>Page 78</span>stand or wade in the water their general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the water, however, the
+black under-parts of the wings become strikingly conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful contrast
+in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the
+ropelike neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless,
+I thought the heavy body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform speed, the difference being caught
+up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1239"></p>
+<div id="d0e1240" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p078.jpg" alt="Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1244">The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in
+a most incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse
+croaking, <i>&#8220;What is it,&#8221; &#8220;What is it,&#8221;</i> seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes were
+very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse &#8220;What-is-it's.&#8221; Apparently they failed to find out the answer in
+time to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads
+tucked under their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In
+the afternoon, as winds and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left the water. The great extent of shallow
+water in Parinacochas offers them a splendid, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1249"></a>Page 79</span>wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were thousands
+and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests, either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1251">Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean
+lake 11,500 feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several hundred. There were quantities of small black
+divers in the deeper parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were very quick and keen, true individualists
+operating alone and showing astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large black ducks were much more
+fearless than the flamingoes and were willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over the water at a
+tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about as
+common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest,
+possibly belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers,
+who in this country look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1253">Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle,
+calmly eating the succulent <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1255"></a>Page 80</span>water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head and neck well under the surface.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1257">While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes, Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the
+first accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point to point he often stirred up little ground owls,
+who gazed at him with solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to regard his activities with suspicion
+and dislike. Part of my work was to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on the well-rounded hills
+so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations would
+disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods
+set up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle
+feeding on flat lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas Basin are bare of trees, and offer some
+pasturage. In some places they are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by the degenerate descendants
+of sheep brought into the country during Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in color, although
+there were many black ones. We were told that the sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1259">On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame
+their shyness, and a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1261"></a>Page 81</span>group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to
+gaze stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house, actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake,
+and busied themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women
+wore dresses of heavy material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of hats they had small variegated
+shawls, made on hand looms, folded so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck and shoulders from sun
+and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a hammock
+or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated
+with attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats
+and long trousers much too large for them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1263">At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than
+it is at present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In the days of its greater altitude, and consequently
+wider snow fields, the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much larger body of water. Although we were
+here at the beginning of summer, the wind that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1265"></a>Page 82</span>came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our minimum thermometer registered 22&deg; F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most
+shallow bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten
+inches below the surface, was 61&deg; F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By noon the temperature of the
+water half a mile from shore was 67.5&deg; F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring up the shallow
+water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining brightly
+almost directly overhead, it went down to 65&deg; by 2:30 P.M.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1267">The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although
+in each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water, taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and
+analyzed by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He found that it contained small quantities of silica,
+iron phosphate, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate,
+sodium sulphate, and a considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains more carbonate and potassium
+than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical &#8220;salt&#8221; waters, that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1269"></a>Page 83</span>of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position, containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1271">When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there
+was excellent alfalfa forage. The <i>arrieros</i> engaged at their own expense a pack train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the custom hereabouts to
+enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The Indians
+who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy fellows, dressed in &#8220;store clothes&#8221; and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty, but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to
+haul them near the loads.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1276">Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, &#8220;the house of the Inca,&#8221; at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi
+visited it in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies one of the houses. The other buildings are used
+only during the third week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted plaza were many low stone rectangles
+partly covered with adobe and ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long, thatched buildings of adobe
+and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient stonemasons. Some
+loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled the attempts of modern builders.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1278"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1279"></a>Page 84</span>In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well
+named; there had been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple&#8212;lakes were once objects of worship&#8212;or rest-house,
+constructed in order to enable the chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains of the Incas. We found
+the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably potatoes and
+other root crops were once raised here in fairly large quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches
+in which are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe,
+but these walls had been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of whatever objects of value they
+might have contained. We found nine or ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls seemed to have
+been trepanned.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1281">On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones.
+No effort had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no evidence of its having been used in recent times.
+It runs from the lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley, where there are many terraces and cultivated
+fields; it is not far from Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1283"></a>Page 85</span>and piled on each side to save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The llama dislikes to step over
+any obstacle, even a very low wall. The grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to proceed in the
+desired direction.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1285">In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for
+temporary protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation
+(12,000 feet). The shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough, scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures
+varied from 8 to 25 feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent occupation. The smaller walls may
+have been the foundation of small circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to keep alpacas and llamas
+from straying at night and to guard against wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age of these remains.
+It is possible that they represent a settlement of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and size of the
+walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the hills
+west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca, which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center
+of one of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its very delicate pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1287">Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1289"></a>Page 86</span>Near us the traces of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals, substantiating my belief that this
+curious roadway was intended to keep the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south shores of the lake
+there were more signs of occupation than on the north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of the Incas
+as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations
+of the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very
+primitive dwellings had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could easily be defended. We found among
+the ruins a few crude potsherds and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the little hill village to
+give any indication of Inca origin. Probably it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about it. If there
+were traditions concerning it they were well concealed by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1291">The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly terraced and cultivated. The <i>tutu</i> potato would grow here, a hardy variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable for making potato
+flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the Peruvians,
+such as the <i>oca</i>, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1299"></a>Page 87</span><i>a&ntilde;u</i>, a kind of nasturtium, and the <i>ullucu</i> (<i>ullucus tuberosus</i>).
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1309">On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the
+time of our visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs,
+inhabited by drovers and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer
+the sweet water grasses of the lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1311"><i>Viscachas</i> were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the &#8220;chinchilla&#8221;
+of commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees
+them, although they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa, a region rarely visited by any one on account
+of treacherous bogs and deep tams. Writers sometimes call <i>viscachas</i> &#8220;rabbit-squirrels.&#8221; They have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do look like a cross between a
+rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1318">Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon an unusually large herd of wild vicu&ntilde;as. It included more
+than one hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount
+of hunting that is done here. Vicu&ntilde;as have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for their skins. Their silky fleece
+is even finer than <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1320"></a>Page 88</span>alpaca. The more fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts, as soft as eider down and of a golden brown
+color.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1322">After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the <i>arrieros</i> to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured &#8220;Arequipa,&#8221; and started south. We soon came to the rim of the Maraicasa
+Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley
+is well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were
+smooth and well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We passed through it and, after dark, reached
+Sondor, a tiny hamlet inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the
+owners of a well-thatched hut, and told them how &#8220;important&#8221; we were. They were unwilling to give us any shelter, so we were
+forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs, dogs, and
+cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime,
+when they can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1327">The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion.
+We had now left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1329"></a>Page 89</span>the desert. At length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes were gladdened at sight of the rich
+green oasis, a striking contrast to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding road we passed many
+fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement by
+a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers
+were unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety.
+After an exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals and men were glad enough to leave the high,
+arid desert and enter the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa, its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus.
+The air, pungent with the smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1331">We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of &#8220;La Victoria.&#8221; Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates
+at the camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall long remember. After two months in the coastal
+desert it seemed like home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain had had in bringing his machinery
+across the plateau from the nearest port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on muleback each of
+the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was equivalent to the price of a first-class pack <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1333"></a>Page 90</span>mule. As a matter of fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs are not built to survive the strain
+of carrying pieces of machinery weighing <i>five hundred pounds</i> over a desert plateau up to an altitude of 4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of the canyon,
+but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered, piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the
+obstacles with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man who designed the machinery ever traveled with
+a pack train, climbing up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am sure that he would have made his
+castings much smaller.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1338"></p>
+<div id="d0e1339" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p090-1.jpg" alt="Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1343"></p>
+<div id="d0e1344" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p090-2.jpg" alt="The Main Street of Chuquibamba"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Main Street of Chuquibamba</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1348">It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior of South America fail to realize that no single piece should
+be any heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on <i>one side</i>. One hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even a large, strong mule will last only a few days
+on such trails as are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of his cargo is over three hundred pounds.
+When a single piece weighs more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the animal. Then the load rocks,
+and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a matter of expediency
+it is better to have the individual units weigh about seventy-five <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1353"></a>Page 91</span>pounds. Such a weight is easier for the <i>arrieros</i> to handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as
+usually happens in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair load for a man or a llama, two are right
+for a burro, and three for an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1358">The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at &#8220;La Victoria,&#8221; but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant
+shade trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were
+surprised to find near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little circular or oval huts averaging eight
+feet in diameter. There was no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen in the vicinity, yet here
+had once been a village. It seemed to belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of the Parinacochas Basin.
+The road was one of the worst we encountered anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among huge piles
+of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides
+men and animals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1360">Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga, where we pitched our camps among the most extensive
+ruins that I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely
+together. It gave one a strange sensation to find <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1362"></a>Page 92</span>such a very large metropolis in what is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was strikingly reminiscent
+of some of the large groups of ruins in our own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were no terraces
+in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses
+had seats, or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained two or three small cells, possibly storerooms,
+with neither doors nor windows. We found a number of burial cists&#8212;some square, others rounded&#8212;lined with small cobblestones.
+In one house, at the foot of &#8220;cellar stairs&#8221; we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance to it was covered with a
+single stone lintel. In examining this tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a <i>boba</i>, a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth, long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled
+skin. At one place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1367">Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The
+dishes must have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar, probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone
+war club; and a broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding corn. Two <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1369"></a>Page 93</span>stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled sinkers
+used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie
+down roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever
+decoration they once had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for archeological investigation. Unfortunately,
+we had heard nothing of it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to give it. After the first night
+camp in the midst of the dead city we made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it was, as a matter
+of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece.
+We wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1371">Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud.
+Near it we encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking into town to sell and were willing to dispose
+of cheaply. The Tejadas could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain, although the circumstances were
+suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only to discover on
+reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from thieves. We were able to clear our <i>arrieros</i> of any complicity in the theft. Nevertheless, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1376"></a>Page 94</span>the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We spent
+one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Se&ntilde;or Benavides, the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route
+to Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before, spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1378">About three o'clock in the morning&#8212;after we had been jogging steadily along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of
+the night, the only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly
+visible in the starlight&#8212;the eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since set. Could this be the
+approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding the day; &#8220;the
+dawn comes up like thunder.&#8221; Surely the moon could not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly brightening
+eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy
+as a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor, neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us.
+It was the morning star. For sheer beauty, &#8220;divine, enchanting ravishment,&#8221; Venus that day surpassed anything I have ever
+seen. In the words of the great Eastern poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, &#8220;the morning stars sang
+together and all the sons of God shouted for joy.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1380"></a>Page 95</span></p><a id="d0e1381"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter V</h2>
+<h1>Titicaca</h1>
+<p id="d0e1384">Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air, bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling
+atmosphere dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau, surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani
+(20,000 ft.), El Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only one nightmare&#8212;earthquakes. About twice
+in a century the spirits of the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But they shake the bed! And Arequipa
+rests on their bed. The possibility of a <i>&#8220;terremoto&#8221;</i> is always present in the subconscious mind of the Arequipe&ntilde;o.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1389">One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently
+and we heard a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To the members of the club, however, it meant
+only one thing&#8212;an earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded with hysterical people, crying, shouting,
+and running toward the great open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on their knees in gratitude
+at having escaped from falling walls, others prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls had fallen!
+In the business district a great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1391"></a>Page 96</span>column of black smoke was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs that the noise and the trembling
+had not been due to an earthquake, but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline, kerosene, dynamite
+and giant powder!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1393">In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that
+there were no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the roaring furnace by dipping water from one
+of the <i>azequias</i>, or canals, that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense masses of smoke and flame. In any American
+city such a blaze would certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1398">While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter
+amazement the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even warm. Such is the result of building houses with
+massive walls of stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently no harm was done by sparks. So, without
+a fire department, this really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day the newspapers talked about the &#8220;dire
+necessity&#8221; of securing fire engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine could have done. Nothing could
+have saved the warehouse itself once the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have suffered more had
+they been deluged with streams of water. The facts are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1400"></a>Page 97</span>course that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1402">A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts
+a soldier's monument and a new theater, really a &#8220;movie palace.&#8221; There is a good harbor, although dredging is necessary to
+provide for steamers like the <i>Inca</i>. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine&#8212;or, rather, a <i>lacustrine</i>&#8212;railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of <i>totoras</i>, giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers learned to dry the <i>totoras</i>, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the sides as
+a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or <i>balsa</i>. Of course the <i>balsas</i> eventually become water-logged and spend a large part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so, they are
+not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one
+should go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1422">The <i>balsas</i> are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast
+is an A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied together and fastened, one to each side of the
+craft, slightly forward of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region&#8212;lumber has to be brought from Puget Sound,
+6000 miles away&#8212;so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1427"></a>Page 98</span>nearly all the masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three times. To the apex of the &#8220;A&#8221; is attached
+a forked stick, over which run the halyards. The rectangular &#8220;sail&#8221; is nothing more nor less than a large mat made of rushes.
+A short forestay fastened to the sides of the &#8220;A&#8221; about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from falling when the sail
+is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of a backstay. The <i>balsas</i> cannot beat to windward, but behave very well in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the boatmen
+must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard, for the water in the lake is cold, 55&deg; F., and none of them know
+how to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and
+near the shore.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1432"></p>
+<div id="d0e1433" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p098-1.jpg" alt="A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1437"></p>
+<div id="d0e1438" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p098-2.jpg" alt="A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1442">When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very small <i>balsa</i> not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting the weight of one man. On the other hand, large <i>balsas</i> constructed for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the lake are capable of carrying a dozen people
+and their luggage. Once I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake on a bulrush raft. To give greater
+security two <i>balsas</i> are sometimes fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1453">One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Se&ntilde;or Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic <i>balsas</i> were used in bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This theory <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1458"></a>Page 99</span>is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography,
+have not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with
+the ocean.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1460">Nevertheless, Se&ntilde;or Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the
+Andes rose. The fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms does not bother him. Se&ntilde;or Posnansky
+pins his faith to a small dried seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget that dried specimens of
+marine life, including starfish, are frequently offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who may
+be found in almost every market-place. Probably Se&ntilde;or Posnansky's seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly
+enterprising trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse has actually found its resting-place
+in La Paz, this does not alter the fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine fauna in Lake Titicaca.
+On the other hand, it has two or three kinds of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in the Rimac
+River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted the desirable <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1462"></a>Page 100</span>fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1464">Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners,
+and that &#8220;they have records in their <i>quipus</i> of the fish having been brought from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues.&#8221; The actual transference of water
+jars containing the fish would have offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea happened to appeal
+to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong as Se&ntilde;or Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic inland
+sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated
+with respectful skepticism.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1469">Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia, is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique
+among prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved monolithic images. Although they have suffered
+from weathering and from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed human figures. The richly decorated
+girdles and long tunics are carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of the designs are undoubtedly symbolic
+of the rank, achievements, or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is nothing hieroglyphic. The images
+are stiff and show no appreciation of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never had an opportunity
+to study the human body. In Andean villages, even little <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1471"></a>Page 101</span>children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia
+are always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel,
+they have developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which is in striking contrast to people who live on
+the warm sands of the South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human body as a <i>motif</i>. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the
+taboo against &#8220;nakedness&#8221; was too much for him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1476">Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves,
+out of which, say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves are not large enough for a man to stand
+upright, but to a people who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires no stretch of the imagination to
+believe that those bright disks came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated with dwellers on the western
+shore of the lake who would often see the sun or moon rise <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1478"></a>Page 102</span>over this island. On an ancient road that runs across the island my native guide pointed out the &#8220;footprints of the sun and
+moon&#8221;&#8212;two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1480">The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives,
+in his &#8220;Islands of Titicaca and Koati,&#8221; of the degradation and surly character of these Indians was not apparent at the time
+of my short visit in 1915. It is quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as he did for several months,
+digging up their ancient places of worship, disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting, in their minds,
+the proper balance between wet weather and dry, I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish treatment
+such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The
+brilliant sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air, causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come
+torrential rains. I shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the steamer encountered a rain squall. The
+resulting deluge actually came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash away the soil which the farmers
+have painfully gathered for field or garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1482"></a>Page 103</span>difference in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely
+penetrating. Fuel is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes, and none for artificial heat.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1484">Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The
+principal crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried, becomes the insipid <i>chu&ntilde;o</i>, chief reliance of the poorer families. The Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast has long
+since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from
+one to three <i>inches</i>. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double its
+size and productiveness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1492">Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause
+acute hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently
+appears to be sullen and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted.
+Those fortunate Polynesians are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim, trees from which delicious
+food can always be obtained, and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1494"></a>Page 104</span>cocoanuts from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1496">On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration
+of the large, re&euml;ntrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one within the other. Small ornamental niches are
+used to break the space between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle containing them. Also unusual
+are the niches between the doorways, made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first glance as though
+this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the
+step-shaped design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly
+for ornamental or ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man; others are in miniature. Frequently
+the steps were cut into the sacred boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca architect, accustomed
+to the stairway <i>motif</i>, to have conceived these curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them, even if he had never seen
+any representation of a Papal cross, or a cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested a striking
+resemblance which the sedilia-like niches <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1501"></a>Page 105</span>bear to Arabic or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped
+arch is distinctly Oriental in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1503">The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a
+slight depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and
+the wonderful snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than 17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks
+of surpassing beauty culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the sun and moon, who came to the sacred
+islands for some of their most elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries, rising over the majestic
+snow mountains, their glories reflected in the shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such occasions
+the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the
+colors of &#8220;rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning,&#8221; their ceremonial formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated
+walls of the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had special stations in front of the large, step-topped
+niches. One may be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able to manufacture exquisite textiles, and
+who loved to decorate their garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no opportunity <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1505"></a>Page 106</span>for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1507">On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great annual pageant is still staged every August. Although
+at present connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous image of the &#8220;Virgin of Copacabana,&#8221; this vivid
+spectacle, the most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested
+and corresponds to our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front of a large, bizarre church. During the
+first ten days in August there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and near. Everything dear to the
+heart of the Aymara Indian is offered for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders, usually women, sit
+in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive umbrellas,
+consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped
+corn; in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated
+high-laced boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another
+is devoted to such trinkets as one might expect to find in a &#8220;needle-and-thread&#8221; shop at home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers
+with scores of bamboo flutes varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with piles of freshly made native
+felts, warranted to last for at least a year; and vendors of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1509"></a>Page 107</span>aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among Inca
+ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although
+the modern Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not
+only easier to secure, but produce more striking results.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1511">As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of
+the plaza, bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain&#8212;locks, keys, spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other
+&#8220;wooden nutmegs.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1513">At the tables of the &#8220;money-changers,&#8221; just outside of the sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or
+the unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know
+all the tricks of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence of various Aymara secret societies, whose
+members, wearing repulsive masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be invented by primitive imaginations.
+Each society has its own uniform, made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf, gaudy textiles, magnificent
+epaulets bearing large golden stars on a background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1515"></a>Page 108</span>glass; tinted &#8220;ostrich&#8221; plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy
+ribbons, beruffled bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange costumes are actually reminiscent of
+the sixteenth century. The wearers are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums, and rattles, or other
+noise-makers. The result is an indescribable hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor and unmusical
+noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1517">The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels, their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number
+of tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many
+wore colored goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned
+in the din of big bass drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in
+the most tawdry manner with gewgaws from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on a rustic syrinx or
+Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1519">At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary
+barriers are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1521"></a>Page 109</span>pleasure-seekers, well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are ready to run helter-skelter in every direction
+should the bull take it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There are no <i>picadors</i>, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no <i>banderilleros</i>, with barbed darts; no heroic <i>matador</i>, ready with shining blade to give a mad and weary bull the <i>coup de grace</i>. Here all is fun and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or drunken Aymaras, who prod him with
+sticks and shake bright ponchos in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty scattering of some spectators,
+amid shrieks of delight from everybody else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is no chance of a bull
+being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage was
+let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that
+he could not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He galloped madly after any individual who crossed
+the plaza. Five or six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done, and every one had an uproariously
+good time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1535">Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is
+not pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles,
+blowing mightily with puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1537"></a>Page 110</span></p><a id="d0e1538"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VI</h2>
+<h1>The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders</h1>
+<p id="d0e1541">In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of
+alpacas thrive on the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here wool-buyers come to bid for the clip.
+The high prices which alpaca fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned in southern Peru for their
+weight and texture, are made here on hand looms. Notwithstanding the altitude&#8212;nearly as great as the top of Pike's Peak&#8212;the
+stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous, and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1543">They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally
+attached to their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance
+to secure the skin and skeleton of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known and spoke the Quichua language
+fluently. He offered a good price and obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1545"></a>Page 111</span>bones of one of their &#8220;camels&#8221; for shipment; but they never did. Apparently they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and
+none happened to die at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters, as horses often do. On the other
+hand I have never seen a llama kick or bite at his owner.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1547">The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards
+in all parts of Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it to walk easily on slopes too rough or
+steep for even a nimble-footed, mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet, due to its ability to
+sneeze or spit for a considerable distance a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's Circus came to
+town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size&#8212;they are only
+three feet high at the shoulder
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1549">tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight
+and the result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces.
+Curiously enough, in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have never seen a llama so attack a single
+human being. On the other hand, when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicu&ntilde;a which was perfectly willing to
+sneeze straight at any stranger who came within twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1551"></a>Page 112</span>more annoying than scientific curiosity. The vicu&ntilde;a is the smallest American &#8220;camel,&#8221; yet its long, slender neck, small head,
+long legs, and small body, from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an ostrich than a camel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1553">In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects
+of respect and veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the tree line, but the presence of these
+trees at Santa Rosa would seem to show that the use of the words <i>&#8220;tree</i> line&#8221; is a misnomer in the Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception of the coastal deserts,
+was once well covered with forests. When man first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields, and glaciers
+was covered with forest growth. Although many districts are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample
+fertility of soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts of forests which I found growing alongside
+of glaciers at very high elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha, has been accurately determined
+by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls and precipices,
+so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1558"></a>Page 113</span>with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong
+to many different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have this striking peculiarity&#8212;when cut down they sprout
+readily from the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable evidence of the fact that the primeval forests
+of Peru were long ago cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1560">Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes
+hanging each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells,
+&#8220;out of tune with themselves,&#8221; or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The resulting clangor and din is unforgettable.
+I presume the Chinese would say it was intended to drive away the devils&#8212;and surely such noise must be &#8220;thoroughly uncongenial
+even to the most irreclaimable devil,&#8221; as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells in the United
+States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once
+in a while one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament
+is being administered to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this part of the world seems to be to
+make the greatest possible amount <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1562"></a>Page 114</span>of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices
+which again remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental fondness for making a noise which is found
+in all healthy children.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1564">On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely
+of <i>chicha</i>, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of
+laughter and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation, and sociability. On week days, most of them, even
+the smaller boys, are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes
+finds the mountain Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with <i>chicha</i>, and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1572"></p>
+<div id="d0e1573" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p114-1.jpg" alt="Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1577"></p>
+<div id="d0e1578" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p114-2.jpg" alt="Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1582">To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the
+plaza, did not enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward, very much interested in my endeavors.
+Some of the Indian <i>alcaldes</i>, local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful
+and, armed with their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the shy, retiring women of the market-place to
+stand in a frightened, disgruntled, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1587"></a>Page 115</span>barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were
+reversible &#8220;pancake&#8221; hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather
+side with tinsel and velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung down on both sides. It is said that
+the first Inca ordered the dresses of each village to be different, so that his officials might know to which tribe an Indian
+belonged. It was only with great difficulty and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the <i>gobernador</i> or mayor, and the <i>alcaldes</i> that a dozen very reluctant females were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their faces was very eloquent.
+Some were highly indignant, others looked foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not knowing what
+evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that was
+the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact, some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken
+that they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1595">Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were
+large felt hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1597"></a>Page 116</span>ponchos, decorated with bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and ankle, a convenient style for
+herdsmen who have to walk in the long, dewy grasses of the plateau. These &#8220;high-water&#8221; pantaloons do not look badly when worn
+with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots, which did
+not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1599">The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require
+less attention and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also be securely bolted to the rafters. On
+this wind-swept plateau we frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes passed over the house and weights
+resting on the roof. Sometimes to the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of animals&#8212;probably
+to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed very
+efficacious.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1601">On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular
+raindrop will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad
+station of Araranca flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the sources of the Urubamba River,
+an important affluent of the Ucayali and also of the Amazon, but I never have <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1603"></a>Page 117</span>heard it referred to as &#8220;the source of the Amazon&#8221; except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain Blank, whose moving picture
+entertainment bore the alluring title, &#8220;From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon.&#8221; As most of his pictures of wild animals
+&#8220;in the jungle&#8221; looked as though they were taken in the zo&ouml;logical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly <i>hacienda</i> at Santa Ana, less than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure him for giving this particular
+little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1608">The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of
+as the Vilcanota, a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks of the cordillera in this vicinity.
+The lower portion was called by the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1610">Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide
+the Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by
+the owners of grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the valley and up the neighboring slopes to the
+cliffs of the Cordillera Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall are the ruins of ancient houses,
+possibly once occupied by an Inca garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of careful masonry. It
+seems to me likely that it was a hastily <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1612"></a>Page 118</span>thrown-up fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any permanent affair like the Roman wall of North
+Britain or the Great Wall of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between the peoples of the Titicaca
+Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1614">On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,<a id="d0e1616src" href="#d0e1616" class="noteref">1</a> one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui, Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800 A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and
+east, laying waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian migrations which appear to have continued for
+some time. During these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with so much care and difficulty <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1622"></a>Page 119</span>during the preceding twenty centuries, was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike, ruler of a people
+whose great achievements had been agricultural rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests; they told
+him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the strategic points and make preparations for defense. The
+invaders may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual
+exhaustion of forested areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great <i>pampas</i>. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were &#8220;fleeing from a race of giants&#8221;&#8212;possibly Patagonians or Araucanians&#8212;who had expelled them from their own lands.
+On their journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious that a great readjustment of the aborigines
+was in progress. The governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not able to summon enough strength
+to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the approach of the
+enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true, this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago, by the
+chiefs who were told to &#8220;fortify the strategic points.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1627">Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1632"></a>Page 120</span>from the Titicaca Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the key to the situation. It is probable
+that Pachacuti VI drew up his army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings, the weapon most familiar
+to the highland shepherds. The invaders, however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more difficult to
+see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded,
+they fled to &#8220;Tampu-tocco,&#8221; a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they hid the precious body of their ruler. Most
+writers believe this to be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved rock. There is no place in Peru
+to-day which still bears the name of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which do exist, and whose
+modern names are not found in the early Spanish writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to Peru,
+as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1634"></p>
+<div id="d0e1635" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p120-1.jpg" alt="A Potato-field at La Raya"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Potato-field at La Raya</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1639"></p>
+<div id="d0e1640" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p120-2.jpg" alt="Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1644">Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas, numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of
+herdsmen. The Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the manufacture of textiles&#8212;shawls, girdles, ponchos,
+and blankets&#8212;on hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending flocks or walking along the road they are
+always winding <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1646"></a>Page 121</span>or spinning yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The younger children, used as shepherds as soon
+as they reach the age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch their charges. Some of them were accompanied
+by long-haired <i>suncca</i> shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the <i>sunccas</i>, as well as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them showed any desire to make the acquaintance
+of &#8220;Checkers,&#8221; my faithful Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that &#8220;Checkers&#8221; could understand
+English. They had never seen a dog that could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1654">On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet,
+a record altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato field on the high slopes near here, it is the
+custom of the Indians to mark it off into squares, by &#8220;furrows&#8221; about fifteen feet apart. The Quichuas commence their task
+soon after daybreak. Due to the absence of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold before dawn,
+their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock, at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1656">We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more of Indians who were engaged in &#8220;ploughing&#8221; a potato field.
+Although he was <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1658"></a>Page 122</span>dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any except the implements of their ancestors. The process of
+&#8220;ploughing&#8221; this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries, probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The
+men, working in unison and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or &#8220;foot plough,&#8221; to the handle of which footholds
+were lashed, would, at a signal, leap forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing each pair of men
+was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to secure
+greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls
+over their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was lightened by the joyous contact of community activity.
+Every one worked with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to keep up with the procession. Those who
+fell behind were subjected to good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though it appears to require
+a strong directing hand. The &#8220;boss&#8221; was right there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1660">In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for individual effort. Private property was not understood.
+Everything belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1662"></a>Page 123</span>priests, the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything
+was done in common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas
+to go forth in huge family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village gossip and choral singing, interspersed
+at regular intervals with rest periods, in which quantities of <i>chicha</i> quenched the thirst and cheered the mind.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1667">Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of
+sheaves of wheat or barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the other in a parallel line, engaged
+in ploughing synchronously small portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit Lima and sometimes go
+to Paris and New York, where they purchase for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are still cultivated
+in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the <i>conquistadores</i>, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1672">Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant, almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima,
+is <i>ca&ntilde;ihua</i>, a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit in April. The threshing floor for <i>ca&ntilde;ihua</i> is a large blanket laid on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail applied, the blanket serving to
+prevent the small grayish seeds from escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1680"></a>Page 124</span>origin and has probably not changed for centuries.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1682">We noticed also <i>quinoa</i> and even barley growing at an elevation of 14,000 feet. <i>Quinoa</i> is another species of pigweed. It often attains a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The white-seeded
+variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article, both
+for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being cooked and &#8220;do not appear so slimy as oatmeal.&#8221; Other varieties
+of <i>quinoa</i> are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water being frequently changed. The growing <i>quinoa</i> presents an attractive appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1696">As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation, both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers
+of old terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them growing high up on the mountain side in what
+are called <i>temporales</i>, where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some
+kind of a crop in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani, we saw fields where <i>habas</i> beans had been gathered and the dried stalks piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the <i>pampa</i> where <i>oca</i> grows, we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary
+use of night watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1710">The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1712"></a>Page 125</span>roadside were different in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin or even of Santa Rosa, which is
+not far away. They were typical Quichuas&#8212;peaceful agriculturists&#8212;usually spinning wool on the little hand spindles which have
+been used in the Andes from time immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with coarse grass.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1714">The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men
+in certain localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem
+to be more enduring than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved teeth was everywhere noteworthy except
+on sugar plantations, where there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled from cakes or mixed with parched
+corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1716">The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be
+limited to face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the other hand, a large proportion of the Indians
+are pock-marked and show the effects of living in a country which is &#8220;free from medical tyranny.&#8221; There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1718">One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack
+of fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander has made the best use he could of the llama, he was
+never able to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1720"></a>Page 126</span>develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently,
+for the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr.
+Ferris that while his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back muscles stronger, and the calves of his
+legs larger and more powerful than those of almost any other race.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1722">The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony
+with each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times.
+In any event, this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to undergraduates at the beginning of the college
+year. As a matter of fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In testing the hand grip of the Quichuas
+by a dynamometer our surgeons found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the Quichua and the maximum grip
+was weak in both sexes, the average for the man being only about half of that found among American white adults of sedentary
+habits.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1724">Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and South America are perhaps due to their environmental history
+during the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American Museum of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1726"></a>Page 127</span>Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions
+of Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to
+that with which they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions
+of southern Peru, living in towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the sea, have physical peculiarities
+closely resembling those living at sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says the Labrador Eskimo
+and the Quichua constitute the two &#8220;best-known short-stature races on the American continent.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1728">So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which
+have children the average number is three or four. Large families are not common, although we generally learned that the living
+children in a family usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant mortality is very great. The
+proper feeding of children is not understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1730">Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are
+those of the throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded of all local diseases. It is really terrifying.
+Due to the rarity of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so
+at 11,000 feet. Patients <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1732"></a>Page 128</span>are frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common, its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living
+conditions practiced among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is not tightly closed and protected
+against any possible intrusion of fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the natives to use huts of
+thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of course,
+there are no &#8220;boards of health,&#8221; nor are the people bothered by being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water
+supplies are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat
+quantities of soup.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1734"></p>
+<div id="d0e1735" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p128.jpg" alt="The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1739">In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and
+lowland maize fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native &#8220;druggists&#8221; were present. Their stock usually consisted
+of &#8220;medicines,&#8221; whose efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds of simples and curiosities, cure-alls,
+and specifics. Fully half were reported to me as being &#8220;useful against fresh air&#8221; or the evil effects of drafts. The &#8220;medicines&#8221;
+included such minerals as iron ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the leaves of plants domesticated
+hundreds of years ago by the Incas or gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and such animals as starfish
+brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them were really useful herbs, while others <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1741"></a>Page 129</span>have only a psychopathic effect on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored woolen bag. The bags,
+differing in design and color, woven on miniature hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts turned
+over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1743">Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described
+by Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet
+high! Closer inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of a great temple. The wall is pierced with
+large doors and the spaces between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at the bottom. There are small
+holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The ashlars are
+beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive, but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence
+that the builders did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time plastered with clay, a very significant
+fact. The builders wanted the wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay wall rested on the ground,
+floods and erosion might have succeeded in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built foundation of
+solid masonry. Even <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1745"></a>Page 130</span>so, the great wall does not stand absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also seems to be less weathered
+on the west side. Probably the prevailing or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1747">An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty feet high&#8212;a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture.
+It also is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were
+to be seen, but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double row of these columns to support the stringers
+and tiebeams of the roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column and the other end was embedded in
+the main wall. The holes where the tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1749">Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall,
+decorated with large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of adobe, while the upper third is of
+rough, uncut stones. It looks very odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several cases the plastered
+walls are still standing, in fairly good condition, particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1751">The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly
+disintegrating, as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so long in a rainy region without any roof or
+protecting cover. It is incredible that for at least five <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1753"></a>Page 131</span>hundred years a wall of sun-dried clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels, made of hard-wood timbers
+and partially embedded in the wall, are all gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out whether
+the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to resist weathering. The factors which have caused this
+extraordinary adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy
+rains of each summer season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1755">It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity
+of the place, the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry of the neighboring village is still the manufacture
+of pottery. No better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1757">It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so
+much perhaps out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well
+known that the best pottery of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are well aware of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1759"></a>Page 132</span>uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are taken.
+Might it not have been possible that the people who were most concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple
+to insure success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple is a small modern church with two towers.
+The churchyard appears to be a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use the church to pray for success
+in their baking, just as the ancient potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are composed partly
+of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1761">Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the
+clay beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering
+to the god of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send the lava flow might be appeased. It may be
+that the Inca Viracocha, an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and was responsible for building
+the temple. If so, it would be natural for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped his memory.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1763"></p>
+<div id="d0e1764" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p132.jpg" alt="Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1768"></a>Page 133</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e1616" href="#d0e1616src" class="noteref">1</a> Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower
+of that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark
+or quinine and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the
+botanical name of the genus <i>cinchona</i>. Montesinos was well educated and appears to have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled extensively
+in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless,
+one finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham, foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology,
+was inclined to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for
+the Hakluyt Society by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e1769"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VII</h2>
+<h1>The Valley of the Huatanay</h1>
+<p id="d0e1772">The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land
+located under climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the ancient Peruvians. Containing an area
+estimated at less than 160 square miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has ever seen. It is still
+intensively cultivated, the home of a large percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself sometimes meanders
+through the valley in a natural manner, but at other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls constructed
+by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold
+is unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season, in June and July, and frost may occur any night in
+the year above 13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither warm nor cold.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1774">This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor
+of the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on
+their way to and from town. Although mules <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1776"></a>Page 134</span>are essentially the most reliable saddle animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses, which are
+larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated
+saddle, over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood
+decorated with silver bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered necessary and is usually decorated
+with a broad, embossed panel, from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The bridle is usually made
+of carefully braided leather, decorated with silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or blinder,
+to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade, which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely,
+is more useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1778">The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs
+near Oropesa divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura, or &#8220;the narrows,&#8221; is the natural gateway
+between the Oropesa Basin and the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre Basin the most interesting
+are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1780">At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca
+(<i>Rumi</i> = &#8220;stone&#8221;; <i>ccolca</i> = &#8220;granary&#8221;). It is commonly supposed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1788"></a>Page 135</span>that this was an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred
+to as a <i>&#8220;fortaleza.&#8221;</i> The major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay, while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully
+cut andesite ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some great chieftain built the rough wall in the
+days when the highlands were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one of the Incas, no longer needing
+any fortifications between the Huatanay Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built a fine gateway.
+The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the ancient
+masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention
+of the stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu
+I noticed similar bosses. The name &#8220;Stone-granary&#8221; was probably originally applied to a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1793">On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca,
+on the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called Piquillacta. A large number of its houses
+have extraordinarily high walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south, was obviously built to protect
+it from enemies approaching from the Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1795"></a>Page 136</span>slopes are so steep as to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava rock, with which the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich enough to attract
+the attention of agriculturists, who come here from neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the city
+are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat and barley are the principal crops.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1797">As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called
+Rumiccolca is figured in Squier's &#8220;Peru&#8221; as &#8220;Piquillacta.&#8221; On the other hand, the ruins of the large city, &#8220;covering thickly
+an area nearly a square mile,&#8221; are called by Squier &#8220;the great Inca town of Muyna,&#8221; a name also applied to the little lake
+which lies in the bottom of the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw Mt. Piquillacta first, then
+the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous, harmless, natural
+phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1799"></p>
+<div id="d0e1800" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p136.jpg" alt="Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1804">Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who has a country place in the neighborhood and is very
+familiar with this region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From him I learned that the city ruins
+are called Piquillacta, the name which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1806"></a>Page 137</span>ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently, it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction
+to give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. <i>Piqui</i> means &#8220;flea&#8221;; <i>llacta</i> means &#8220;town, city, country, district, or territory.&#8221; Was this &#8220;The Territory of the Fleas&#8221; or was it &#8220;Flea Town&#8221;? And what
+was its name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it was considered unlucky?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1814">Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca,
+long since abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out in regular fashion, the streets crossing
+each other at right angles, the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town of Ollantaytambo. Not a
+soul lives here. It is true that across the Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating in Mt. Ausangate,
+the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly settled
+valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely populated
+valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius
+of twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1816"></a>Page 138</span>on the increase. It is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the railroad. Yet it is <i>&#8220;abandonado&#8212;desierto&#8212;despoblado&#8221;!</i> Undoubtedly here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its being abandoned appears to be the absence
+of running water. Although Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles wide, rising to a point of
+2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated, extinct volcano
+surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites, and basalts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1821">How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams?
+Has the climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the surrounding region is still the populous part
+of southern Peru? It is inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied on a plateau four hundred feet
+above the nearest water unless there was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing every drop up the
+hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there were no places near here better provided with water than this site, one could
+understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling
+problem I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1823"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1824"></a>Page 139</span>Squier says that this &#8220;fortress&#8221; was &#8220;the southern limit of the dominions of the first Inca.&#8221; &#8220;The fortress reaches from the
+mountain, on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly called <i>'El Aqueducto,'</i> perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an aqueduct&#8212;but the name is evidently misapplied.&#8221; Yet he admits that the cross-section
+of the wall, diminishing as it does &#8220;by graduations or steps on both sides,&#8221; &#8220;might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification&#8221; if it occupied &#8220;a different position.&#8221; He noticed that &#8220;the top of the wall
+is throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately
+in thickness&#8221; as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the &#8220;fortress&#8221; idea that he rejected not only local tradition
+as expressed in the native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own eyes. It seems to me that there is little
+doubt that instead of the ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the remains of an ancient <i>azequia</i>, or aqueduct, built by some powerful chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1832">A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water
+power for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such an <i>azequia</i>. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet, could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road, on this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1837"></a>Page 140</span>aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their
+upper limit corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an <i>azequia</i> would have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside which looks as though an <i>azequia</i> had once passed that way. In the valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old <i>azequias</i>. There has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills, and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been
+out of order for several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have disappeared in places. I regret very
+much that circumstances over which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the possibilities of such a theory.
+It remains for some fortunate future investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta, how they secured their
+water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1848"></p>
+<div id="d0e1849" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p140-1.jpg" alt="Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1853"></p>
+<div id="d0e1854" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p140-2.jpg" alt="Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1858">Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its
+chiefs and people cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community they were a separate political entity
+from the people of Cuzco; that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became sufficiently powerful to conquer
+the people of the Lucre Basin, and removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of his domain, a system
+of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1860"></a>Page 141</span>colonization well known in the history of the Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta departed,
+no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe
+that at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses, unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have
+been considered not desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed city had there been plenty of water
+available. In any case, the ruins of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1862">In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon, a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above
+the village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses of characteristic Inca construction, containing many
+symmetrically arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon
+was probably the residence of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant view of the village and of
+the hills to the south, which to-day are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a nicely constructed fountain
+of cut stone. Some of the terraces are extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly together. Access
+from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi.
+No one lives <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1864"></a>Page 142</span>at Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists
+to live at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom, than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow
+valley and occupy the old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here rather than in the open plain.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1866">While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President
+of the University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence
+of a fortification near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable and happy by the generous hospitality
+of Dr. Aguilar, whose <i>finca</i> is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1871">From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern
+town of San Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score
+or more of gable-roofed houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings have doors, windows, and niches
+in walls of small stones laid in clay, the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name of these ruins
+we were told that it was Saylla, although that is the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay, in the
+Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water supply at present. It is not <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1873"></a>Page 143</span>far from a stream called the Kkaira and could easily have been supplied with water by an <i>azequia</i> less than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It looks very much like the case of a village originally
+placed on the hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages
+of living near the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had established peace over the highlands. There
+may be another explanation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1878">It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage
+on unterraced slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1880">Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material
+from its slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory
+noticed that the streams traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by &#8220;transporting gravel from the
+head of the fan to its lower margin,&#8221; and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed in between the
+Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned
+when the rule of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand, it seems more likely that the people who
+built <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1882"></a>Page 144</span>Saylla were farmers and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation, due to increased erosion, they abandoned
+this site for one nearer the arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural residents of these ancient
+houses saw their beautiful fields at the bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous quantities
+of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students
+of agriculture will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading gravel banks probably drove the folk
+out of Saylla.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1884">The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point,
+is connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay
+Valley is much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little
+peaks are frequently snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in the Huatanay Valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1886">The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia.
+Firewood is scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1888"></a>Page 145</span>trees in sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has
+been thought of and written of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence of trees on the neighboring
+hills is due entirely to the hand of man, the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who cleared the forests
+before the days of intensive terrace agriculture, and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of Cuzco
+do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for
+cooking purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1890">In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged
+and many of the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding and the failure to improve the original stock
+by the introduction of new and superior strains.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1892">When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat
+land near the Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed a concentration of population very unusual
+in the Andes. Most of the important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in the immediate vicinity of Cuzco
+itself or on the <i>&#8220;pampas&#8221;</i> north of the city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato cultivation could be carried out are nearly
+all in this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1897"></a>Page 146</span>quadrant. In the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a
+picturesque ruin which bears the native name of Pucar&aacute;.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1899"><i>Pucar&aacute;</i> is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification
+to realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage
+was taken of small cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We noticed openings or drains which had
+been cut in the wall by the original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on the terraced floor of the
+enclosed area, which is several feet above that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in many of the
+old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucar&aacute; is occupied by llama herdsmen and drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral.
+Probably Pucar&aacute; was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas
+and alpacas on the neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1903">A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucar&aacute;, is a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut
+stone. Near by are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall containing four large, ceremonial niches,
+level with the ground and about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de Ondegardo, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1905"></a>Page 147</span>who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the &#8220;hot springs&#8221;
+near Tambo Machai, &#8220;called so from the manner in which the water boils up.&#8221; The next <i>huaca</i>, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself, &#8220;a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he went
+to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1910">The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly
+assume a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word <i>macchini</i> means &#8220;to wash&#8221; or &#8220;to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher.&#8221; It may be that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils
+devoted to royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is the place where, according to Molina, all the
+youths of Cuzco who had been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st day of the month to bathe and
+change their clothes. Afterwards they returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. &#8220;Each relation that offered
+a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the
+Sun and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1915">Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca, a small stream which finally joins <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1917"></a>Page 148</span>the Huatanay near the town of San Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the Cachimayo, famous
+as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named the
+place <i>Las Salinas</i>, or &#8220;the Salt Pits,&#8221; on account of the salt pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had filled the
+Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro
+and Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory.
+Near the salt pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches, called <i>Rumihuasi</i>, or &#8220;Stone House.&#8221; The presence of salt in many of the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance to
+our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in districts where the only water available was so saline as
+to spoil it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1925">The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, &#8220;an ancient water-body whose surface,&#8221; says Professor Gregory, &#8220;lay
+well above the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo.&#8221; This lake is believed to have reached its maximum expansion
+in early Pleistocene times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, <i>habas</i> beans, and <i>quinoa</i>, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively cultivated. It has been named &#8220;Lake Morkill&#8221; in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1933"></a>Page 149</span>research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq., without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian explorations
+as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons
+grazed on its banks. &#8220;Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly all of the glacial epoch.&#8221; Its drainage was finally
+accomplished by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1935">In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which
+may be found potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost
+third of Cuzco from the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for gardens and food crops. Here the
+hospitable Canadian missionaries have their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1937">On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>, an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight
+of several bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel banks of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1942"></a>Page 150</span>little gulch. Further examination showed that recent erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished stones more or less carefully fitted together, which
+at first sight appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and
+flush with its surface the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that the wall antedated the gravel deposits.
+Fifty feet farther up the <i>quebrada</i> another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging
+in the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that
+the wall was about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on both sides with roughly cut stone and filled
+in with rubble, a type of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older buildings in the western part of
+the city of Cuzco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1947"></p>
+<div id="d0e1948" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p150.jpg" alt="Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1952">Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man, was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by
+a compact water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand, yet a few days later, while endeavoring to
+solve the puzzle, I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to
+the compact, perpendicular gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like one of the small rocks which
+are freely interspersed throughout the gravels here. Closer examination <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1954"></a>Page 151</span>showed it to be the end of a human femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank, which rose almost perpendicularly
+for seventy or eighty feet above it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be true that here, in the
+heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it until I
+could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the
+Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although
+the gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery, ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel
+Central, where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline, packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought
+to New Haven. Here they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in the Peabody Museum. In the meantime
+Dr. Bowman had become convinced that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1959">When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a
+careful examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments which were excavated by us on July 11th failed
+to reveal this particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1961"></a>Page 152</span>being questioned, said that he had dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation of July 11th and had
+added these to the original lot. Presumably this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were packed. It did
+not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care if we
+had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that the age of the vertebrate remains might be &#8220;provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years,&#8221; until further studies could be made of the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article
+on the buried wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that &#8220;the wall is pre-Inca, that its relations to alluvial deposits
+which cover it indicate its erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed, and that it represents
+the earliest type of architecture at present known in the Cuzco basin.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1963">Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight of them were fragments of human bones representing at least
+three individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone of a dog, and three were &#8220;bovine remains.&#8221; The human
+remains agreed &#8220;in all essential respects&#8221; with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama and dog might all have belonged to Inca,
+or even more recent times, but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three fragments were from bones which
+&#8220;are among the least characteristic parts of the skeleton.&#8221; That which was of greatest interest was the fragment of a first
+rib, resembling the first rib of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1965"></a>Page 153</span>the extinct bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently characteristic of bisons and not seen in the
+domestic cattle of the United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied &#8220;that the material examined suggests the
+possibility that some species of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance with conservative methods
+to differentiate bison from domestic cattle solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small number
+of individuals.&#8221; Although staunchly supporting his theory of the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on
+their geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the fact that the bovine remains were not sharply
+differentiated from the bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that &#8220;the bluff in which the bones were found
+may be faced by younger gravel and that the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods of partial
+valley filling, &#8230; although it still seems very unlikely.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1967">Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation,
+however, has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary
+character of the skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could be drawn from the characters of the human
+skeletal parts, and the suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels which contained the bones might
+be of a later origin than he thought, we determined <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1969"></a>Page 154</span>to make further and more complete investigations in 1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all skepticism.
+I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the
+same skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions.
+Accordingly, I believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent testimony would give great weight to those
+conclusions should he find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague,
+Professor Gregory, to make the necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay Valley was prepared under
+the direction of Chief Topographer Albert H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru, was invited to
+accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1971">Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took
+the bones in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald
+dug a tunnel eleven feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into the solid mass of gravel. He expected
+to have to use timbering, but so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1973"></a>Page 155</span>No bones or artifacts were found&#8212;nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture and containing no unmistakable evidences of
+stratification. Apparently the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact gravel mass.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1975">In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been
+repeatedly buried and re&euml;xcavated many times during the past few centuries. He found evidence indicating periodic destruction
+and rebuilding of some gravel terraces, &#8220;even within the past one hundred years.&#8221; Accordingly there was no longer any necessity
+to ascribe great antiquity to the bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>. Although the &#8220;Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent and thickness in late Pleistocene times,&#8221;
+more recent deposits have, however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. &#8220;Surface wash from the bordering slopes,
+controlled in amount and character by climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since glacial times, and
+has greatly increased since human occupation began.&#8221; &#8220;Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of years as the
+age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1980">But how about the &#8220;bison&#8221;? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals
+offered for sale in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the &#8220;bison&#8221; was a Peruvian domestic ox. &#8220;Under
+the life-conditions prevailing in this part of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1982"></a>Page 156</span>the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed in bison.&#8221; Such was the sad end of the &#8220;bison&#8221; and
+the &#8220;Cuzco man,&#8221; who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and now believe to have been two hundred years
+old, perhaps. The word <i>Ayahuaycco</i> in Quichua means &#8220;the valley of dead bodies&#8221; or &#8220;dead man's gulch.&#8221; There is a story that it was used as a burial place for
+plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1987"></a>Page 157</span></p><a id="d0e1988"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VIII</h2>
+<h1>The Oldest City in South America</h1>
+<p id="d0e1991">Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably
+since my own first impressions of it were published in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221; To be sure, there are still the evidences of
+antiquity to be seen on every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences of advancement. Telephones, electric
+lights, street cars, and the &#8220;movies&#8221; have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern traveler finds fault with
+some of the conditions he encounters he must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient Cuzco are not
+yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is steadily
+progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nu&ntilde;ez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade
+of the citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1993">The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of
+the food-stuffs and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently thronged with Indians, buying and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1995"></a>Page 158</span>selling, arguing and jabbering, it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source of entertainment to one
+who is fond of the picturesque and interested in strange manners and customs.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1997">The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats;
+in another those who sell <i>coca</i>. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their light seems
+to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those
+who specialize in everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the <i>arriero</i>: richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry
+his <i>coca</i> or other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond
+hitch than to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey, and candles to be burned before his patron
+saint as he starts for some distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2008"></p>
+<div id="d0e2009" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p158.jpg" alt="Map of Peru and view of Cuzco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Map of Peru and view of Cuzco</p>
+<p id="d0e2012">From the &#8220;Speculum Orbis Terrarum,&#8221; Antwerp, 1578.</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2015">In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure
+anthropometric measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His
+subjects were the unwilling victims <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2017"></a>Page 159</span>of friendly <i>gendarmes</i> who went out into the streets with orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most of the Indians showed
+no resentment and were in the end pleased and surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin as compensation
+for loss of time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2022">One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but
+this was not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo,
+and Maras. This may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place, the <i>gendarmes</i> may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk were
+presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation
+which the <i>gendarmes</i> could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than
+those of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore,
+the attention of the <i>gendarmes</i> might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city fashions
+do not prevail, than to those who through long residence in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day
+a large proportion of the individuals whom <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2033"></a>Page 160</span>one sees in the streets appears to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are visitors from outlying
+villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2035">Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua ancestry. The Spanish <i>conquistadores</i> did not bring European women with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed of such an extraordinary
+mixture of peoples from Europe and northern Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians, Berbers,
+and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with
+results which are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once 200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods
+of transportation it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559, there were, according to Montesinos, only
+20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2040">One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed
+Cuzce&ntilde;os past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous
+application of his brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged
+in bringing small sacks of potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built of stones taken from ancient
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2042"></a>Page 161</span>Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a bill-board
+advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the 2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos
+with broad fringes, brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume
+whose design shows no trace of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors was a barefooted Cuzco urchin
+clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap, coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2044">One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls
+which themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone
+wires intercept one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now part of the University of Cuzco. It
+is built of reddish basalt from the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor Gregory says that this
+Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately carved
+stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense diorite
+which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions
+gives to the Jesuit Church an <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2046"></a>Page 162</span>atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit teachers long
+before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the shouts
+of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, <i>&#8220;Mens sana in corpore sano.&#8221;</i>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2051">Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the political capital of the most important department in southern
+Peru, it had in 1911 only one hospital&#8212;a semi-public, non-sectarian organization on the west of the city, next door to the
+largest cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and
+the more prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the patients have to look at. The building has large
+courtyards and open colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to take advantage of open-air treatment.
+At the time of Surgeon Erving's visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows were small and practically
+always closed and shuttered, so that the atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly imagine a stronger
+contrast than exists between such wards and those to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum of sunlight
+and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was no
+resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2053"></a>Page 163</span>hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects
+of sunlight and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality and a very poor local reputation; yet it is
+the only hospital in the Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was no provision for caring for
+the sick except in their own homes. In the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs may be obtained,
+but in the great majority of towns and villages no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke, of the
+University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2055"></p>
+<div id="d0e2056" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p162.jpg" alt="Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2060">On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived
+Carlos Inca, a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded in maintaining a precarious existence in the
+wilds of the Cordillera Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata is still preserved one of the
+most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine palace, or
+whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once
+a banker, an exporter of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of every description, including pencils
+and sugar mills, lumber and hats, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2062"></a>Page 164</span>candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas.
+Furthermore, he has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his large business to assist our expeditions.
+He has frequently brought us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters of introduction, so that our
+paths were made easy. He has provided us with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy muleteers,
+seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal, just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying
+clients. As a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation for the many favors he showed us. So important
+a factor was he in the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2064">Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making
+more exertion than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to reach the famous &#8220;fortress&#8221; is by following
+the course of the little Tullumayu, &#8220;Feeble Stream,&#8221; the easternmost of the three canalized streams which divide Cuzco into
+four parts. On its banks one first passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the remains of an old mill.
+The stone flume and the adjoining ruins are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2066"></a>Page 165</span>but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is
+hardly likely that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally, careful examination of the flume discloses
+the presence of lead cement, a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2068">A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221; Here the ancient builders constructed
+three great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest
+terrace of the &#8220;fortress&#8221; is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten tons and some weigh more than twenty tons,
+yet all are fitted together with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each time it invariably overwhelms
+and astounds. To a superstitious Indian who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been built by gods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2070">About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be
+composed entirely of gray-blue rock chips&#8212;chips from the great limestone blocks quarried here for the &#8220;fortress&#8221; and later
+conveyed with the utmost pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless thousands of quarrymen. Even in
+modern times, with steam drills, explosives, steel tools, and light railways, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2072"></a>Page 166</span>these hills would be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these mechanical devices were known to the ancient
+stonemasons and that these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all carried from the quarries by hand,
+it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2074">The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization.
+That thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract
+the blocks from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them several miles over rough country, and bond them
+together in such an intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability to organize and arrange the affairs
+of a very large population. Such a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for warfare. Their building
+operations required infinite pains, endless time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called forth, even
+by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily agriculturists.
+They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance
+with their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose that a people to whom stone-faced <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2076"></a>Page 167</span>terraces meant so much in the way of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of Cyclopean character,
+like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more likely object
+for the gigantic labor involved in the construction of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally strong
+defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in
+an infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2078">Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been
+caused by the supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient Peruvians were religious rather than warlike,
+more inclined to worship the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire to please, at whatever cost,
+the god that fructified the crops which grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors, warriors themselves
+and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value
+of its salients and re&euml;ntrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had been only recently acquired by <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2080"></a>Page 168</span>their crusading ancestors. The height and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest service to the soldiers
+of that day. They saw that it was virtually impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact, in the wars
+of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2082">So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians, who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery,
+did not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with.
+So natural did it seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress that it has seldom been thought of in
+any other way. The fact that the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders coming up the valley, or
+even over the gentle slopes from the west, or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been used as part of
+the main highway of the central Andes, never seems to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a fortress.
+It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season
+to celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for the sun's return from his &#8220;farthest north.&#8221; In any
+case I believe that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably intended for religious rather than military
+purposes. It is more likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2084"></a>Page 169</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2085">It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account
+of the last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2087"></a>Page 170</span></p><a id="d0e2088"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter IX</h2>
+<h1>The Last Four Incas</h1>
+<p id="d0e2091">Readers of Prescott's charming classic, &#8220;The Conquest of Peru,&#8221; will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca
+who had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the
+throne of the Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna
+Capac, named for the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected as the most acceptable figurehead.
+He was a young man of ability and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate ceremonies, the barbaric splendor
+of which only made the farce the more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might have been foreseen, he
+chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful Quichuas.
+There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as &#8220;the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world.&#8221; When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance
+of regaining the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river
+Urubamba, Manco made a determined stand, but Ollantaytambo <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2093"></a>Page 171</span>was too easily reached by Pizarro's mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their utmost endeavors by
+the presence of the magnificent stone edifices, fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors, found
+it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2095"></p>
+<div id="d0e2096" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p170.jpg" alt="Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2100">The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods, was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents,
+or crossing the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous
+for Hannibal and Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible
+to follow the Inca Manco over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. In no
+part of the Peruvian Andes are there so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle of Mt. Veronica (elevation
+19,342 ft.). Not far away is another magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the sea. Near Salcantay
+is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.), while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197 ft.).
+On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some
+hardy prospector or <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2102"></a>Page 172</span>inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by violent
+storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season
+the difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without
+assistance from man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2104">The <i>conquistador</i>, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a &#8220;great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts &#8230; and many loads of rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy.&#8221; The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of the ruler of a country traveling without rich &#8220;treasure.&#8221;
+It is extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or silver. Except for ornament there was little use
+to which he could have put the precious metals and they would have served only to arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His
+people had never been paid in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it as was needed to raise their
+own crops and make their own clothing was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the custom and usage
+of centuries made them faithful followers of their great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him beautiful
+textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2109"></a>Page 173</span>the benefits of a delightful climate, and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white and sweet, and the
+fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth against
+the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him,
+with a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses, cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive
+rafts, and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business
+led them over this route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by making them realize that in these raids
+they were taking sweet revenge on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting to note that Cieza de Leon
+justifies Manco in his attitude, for the Spaniards had indeed &#8220;seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave his native land,
+and to live in banishment.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2111">Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies,
+led many of the <i>Orejones</i> of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were called <i>Orejones</i>, &#8220;big ears,&#8221; by the Spaniards because the lobes of their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold earrings
+which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in
+the year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess and one of the <i>conquistadores.</i> <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2122"></a>Page 174</span>As a small child Garcilasso heard of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and spent the rest of his
+life in Spain. After forty years in Europe he wrote, partly from memory, his &#8220;Royal Commentaries,&#8221; an account of the country
+of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child, he speaks
+apologetically. He says: &#8220;In the time of Manco Inca, several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but still
+they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the
+countrey &#8230;. The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel; and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents
+of twenty-five and thirty feet long, with other venomous insects.&#8221; (I am quoting from Sir Paul Rycaut's translation, published
+in London in 1688.) Garcilasso says Manco's soldiers took only &#8220;such food as they found in the hands of the Indians; which
+the Inca did usually call his own,&#8221; saying, &#8220;That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge such a proportion
+thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary and natural support&#8221;&#8212;a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt whether
+Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them of their &#8220;wares and merchandise.&#8221; As will be seen later, we
+found in Manco's palace some metal <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2124"></a>Page 175</span>articles of European origin which might very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should be remembered
+that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott, left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were largely
+colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised
+by the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2126">The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says
+the Indians had no defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used &#8220;lances, arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts,
+and slings, and another weapon which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones sewn up in leather, and
+each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and sometimes they
+will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they will
+bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon, however, is the sling &#8230;. With it, they will hurl a huge stone
+with such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little less great than that of an arquebus; and I have
+seen a stone, thus hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in a man's hand at a distance of thirty
+paces.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2128">Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the
+Inca. Captain Villadiego <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2130"></a>Page 176</span>found it impossible to use horses, although he realized that cavalry was the &#8220;important arm against these Indians.&#8221; Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief
+reported to be traveling surrounded by his family &#8220;<i>and with rich treasure</i>,&#8221; he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here,
+fatigued and exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found
+themselves ambushed by the Inca, who with a small party, &#8220;little more than eighty Indians,&#8221; &#8220;attacked the Christians, who
+numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three.&#8221; To any one who has clambered
+over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or that the
+Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force
+of weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders,
+and surrounded by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas,
+who could &#8220;hurl a huge stone with such force that it would kill a horse,&#8221; to have literally stoned to death Captain Villadiego's
+little company before they could have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2135"></p>
+<div id="d0e2136" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p176.jpg" alt="The Urubamba Canyon"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Urubamba Canyon</p>
+<p id="d0e2139">A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2142">The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2144"></a>Page 177</span>their misfortune. The importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers that the size of the force with
+which Pizarro conquered Peru was less than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's company which had
+been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers, with all
+their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only &#8220;a little more than eighty Indians.&#8221; Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as being several thousand.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2146">Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted
+such a blow on the prestige of Spanish arms, &#8220;but this attempt also failed,&#8221; for the Inca had withdrawn across the rivers
+and mountains of Uilcapampa to Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers with the sight of the
+heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy, the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's enemies
+was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their
+enemies, remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face, and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as
+the North American Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists
+of central Peru. There were no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage on the bodies of Captain
+Villadiego's <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2148"></a>Page 178</span>unfortunate men. Probably the <i>conquistadores</i> supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have done under similar circumstances.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2153">Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos, his brother, Gonzalo, &#8220;undertook the pursuit of the Inca
+and occupied some of his passes and bridges,&#8221; but was unsuccessful in penetrating the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy
+than Captain Villadiego, he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue the young Inca or prevent his raids
+on travelers from Cuzco to Lima, Francisco Pizarro, &#8220;with the assent of the royal officers who were with him,&#8221; established
+the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless, according to
+Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, &#8220;having taken one
+of Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her, and then shot her to death with arrows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2155">Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in
+1639 his <i>&#8220;Coronica Moralizada,&#8221;</i> or &#8220;pious account of the missionary activities of the Augustinians&#8221; in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed by all the
+Indians who lived in a region extending &#8220;for two hundred leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces.&#8221; With customary monastic zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha
+accuses <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2160"></a>Page 179</span>the Inca of compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to abandon their new faith, torturing those
+who would no longer worship the old Inca &#8220;idols.&#8221; This story need not be taken too literally, although undoubtedly the escaped
+Indians acted as though they had never been baptized.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2162">Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa, in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen
+other Spanish fugitives, adherents of Almagro, &#8220;rascals,&#8221; says Calancha, &#8220;worthy of Manco's favor.&#8221; Obliged by the civil wars
+of the <i>conquistadores</i> to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and
+taught the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride
+horseback and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which,
+as we shall see, was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of what was going on in the viceroyalty.
+Although &#8220;encompassed within craggy and lofty mountains,&#8221; the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of all those &#8220;revolutions&#8221; which
+might be of benefit to him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2167">Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He
+brought the New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The
+New Laws provided, among other things, that all the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2169"></a>Page 180</span>officers of the crown were to renounce their <i>repartimientos</i> or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory personal service was to be entirely abolished. <i>Repartimientos</i> given to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave
+evidence that the Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve of the Pizarros. This was good news for
+Manco and highly pleasing to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the new viceroy, asking permission
+to appear before him and offer his services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by this means he might some
+day recover his empire, &#8220;or at least the best part of it.&#8221; Their object in persuading the Inca to send such a message to the
+viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they &#8220;also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past&#8221; and permission
+to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2177">Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from
+the Inca and the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left
+Uilcapampa, presented his letters to the viceroy, and gave him &#8220;a large relation of the State and Condition of the Inca, and
+of his true and real designs to doe him service.&#8221; &#8220;The Vice-king joyfully received the news, and granted a full and ample
+pardon of all crimes, as desired. And as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect, truly considering
+that the Interest of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2179"></a>Page 181</span>the Inca might be advantageous to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer Gomez Perez returned both
+to the Inca and to his companions.&#8221; The refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king and country.
+Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2181">&#8220;The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them, had given directions for making a bowling-green; where
+playing one day with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this Perez about the measure of a Cast,
+which often happened between them; for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any judgment or understanding,
+would take the least occasion in the world to contend with and provoke the Inca &#8230;. Being no longer able to endure his rudeness,
+the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat and passion
+either his own safety or the safety of his Companions, lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently
+on the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their
+Prince, joined together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house, and with their Swords in their hands defended
+the door; the Indians set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out into the Marketplace, where the
+Indians assaulted them and shot them with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then afterwards, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2183"></a>Page 182</span>out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast
+their bodies into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air, which they supposed to be the highest indignity
+and dishonour that they could show to their Corps.&#8221; Garcilasso concludes: &#8220;I informed myself very perfectly from those chiefs
+and nobles who were present and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash and hair-brained fool; and
+heard them tell this story to my mother and parents with tears in their eyes.&#8221; There are many versions of the tragedy.<a id="d0e2185src" href="#d0e2185" class="noteref">1</a> They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2201"></a>Page 183</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2202">Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young
+sons, Sayri Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not yet reached his majority, became Inca in his
+father's stead, and with the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish neighbors or being annoyed
+by them, unless the reference in Montesinos to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555, is correct.
+By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the
+inaccessible wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix
+Coya, an aunt of the Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and dispatched to Uiticos a messenger,
+of the blood royal, attended by Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down and the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2204"></a>Page 184</span>treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver
+the viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even
+though brought to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage and sent a messenger of their own to
+Cuzco to see if any foul play could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more trusted cousin, be sent
+to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2206">In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter
+of the unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his wife's language. Montesinos says he was a &#8220;great
+linguist.&#8221; They started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups
+of gilded silver as presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the Inca, they traveled as fast as they
+could to the Chuquichaca bridge, &#8220;the key to the valley of Uiticos.&#8221; Here they were detained by the soldiers of the regents.
+A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed, while the friar
+and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage Sayri
+Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of
+the Inca, with the presents which the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2208"></a>Page 185</span>viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done, so he requested the
+ambassadors to depart immediately with their silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes across the
+Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca decided
+to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate, observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but according
+to Garcilasso &#8220;made no inquiries of the devil.&#8221; The omens were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca
+to accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2210">Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried
+by relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to
+Cuzco, where he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome him. &#8220;I, myself,&#8221; says Garcilasso, &#8220;went in
+the name of my Father. I found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians &#8230;. I kissed his hands, and delivered
+my Message; he commanded me to sit down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor, made of Mayz [<i>chicha</i>] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink; he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me; he drank,
+and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why
+I did <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2215"></a>Page 186</span>not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, &#8216;Inca, as I am but a Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place
+me in such Ceremonies as these!&#8217; &#8216;How,&#8217; replied the Inca, &#8216;I would rather have seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in
+Town.&#8217; As I was going away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of the Indians, who are of his Alliance
+and Kindred, at which he was so much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection, as appeared by his Countenance.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2217">Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty, was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her
+in baptism, and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned
+to Uiticos. His only daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older, Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2222"></p>
+<div id="d0e2223" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p186.jpg" alt="Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2227">The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac,
+and to have felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa.
+Their first visitor, so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an interesting account of Uiticos and says
+he gave the Inca a pair of scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go to Cuzco. In time there came
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2229"></a>Page 187</span>an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the rough country of
+Uilcapampa, &#8220;a land of moderate wealth, large rivers, and the usual rains,&#8221; whose &#8220;forested mountains,&#8221; says Father Calancha,
+&#8220;are magnificent.&#8221; Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked
+up. The few Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the friar could not get there &#8220;unless he should
+be able to change himself into a bird.&#8221; However, with that courage and pertinacity which have marked so many missionary enterprises,
+Friar Marcos finally overcame all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2231">The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find
+that a Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca was annoyed to have any one preach against his
+&#8220;idolatries.&#8221; Titu Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos
+built a little church in a place called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. &#8220;He planted crosses in
+the fields and on the mountains, these being the best things to frighten off devils.&#8221; He &#8220;suffered many insults at the hands
+of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for their vices and abominated <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2233"></a>Page 188</span>among his converts the possession of four or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced him to send
+to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack, which was for him a most delicious banquet.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2235">Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on
+the road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his presence in company with Friar Marcos. &#8220;Although the
+Inca was not too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an entrance because the Inca &#8230; thought Friar Diego
+would not vex him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a license. They selected the town of Huarancalla,
+which was populous and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and villages. There was a distance of two
+or three days journey from one Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego went to his new establishment
+and in a short time built a church, a house for himself, and a hospital,&#8212;all poor buildings made in a short time.&#8221; He also
+started a school for children, and became very popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time than Friar
+Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician, was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2237">The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as follows: &#8220;Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called
+Chuquipalpa, is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2239"></a>Page 189</span>water where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped by those idolators. This was the principal <i>mochadero</i> of those forested mountains. The word <i>&#8216;mochadero&#8217;</i><a id="d0e2246src" href="#d0e2246" class="noteref">2</a> is the common name which the Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the only place where they practice
+the sacred ceremony of kissing. The origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very practice which Job
+abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all offences before God and says to Him: &#8216;Lord, all these punishments and even
+greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon
+shines clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward the sun and throw kisses to it,&#8217; an act of very
+grave iniquity which is equivalent to denying the true God.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2255">Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient
+Hebrew prophets. Apparently this ceremony &#8220;of the most profound resignation and reverence&#8221; was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close
+to Uiticos, in the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2257">Calancha goes on to say: &#8220;In this white stone of the aforesaid House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2259"></a>Page 190</span>there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses,
+and many of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have given them.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2261">One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some
+of their outlying estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular attack on this particular Devil, who
+was at the great &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221; The two monks summoned all their converts to gather at Puquiura, in
+the church or the neighboring plaza, and asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn up this Devil
+who had tormented them. &#8220;An innumerable multitude&#8221; came together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see
+the result; the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians'; while, as may readily be imagined, the rest
+of the population came to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to &#8220;the Temple of the Sun, in the village
+of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2263">Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring,
+the white rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then, having <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2265"></a>Page 191</span>exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and
+finally commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. &#8220;The
+poor Devil then fled roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2267">It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they
+were dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley, separated from their friends and far from the protecting
+hand of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as
+soon as the Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura.
+The chiefs wished to &#8220;slay the monks and tear them into small pieces,&#8221; and undoubtedly would have done so had it not been
+for the regard in which Friar Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to the Indians that even the
+Inca himself dared not punish him for the attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably originated
+the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out
+of the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians
+who came from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to remain, and finally became a trusted friend
+and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2269"></a>Page 192</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2270">One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold, was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded
+in getting permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too successful. Both gold and silver were found
+among the hills and he showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing that his reports might encourage
+others to enter Uilcapampa, put the unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations of Friar Diego. Foreigners
+were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2272">In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth
+while to make every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco
+and the major portion of Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians who lived in the province of
+Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live where he would
+always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2274">During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party, the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the
+meantime the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2276"></a>Page 193</span>Titu Cusi to come to Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against
+him. Titu Cusi's illness was very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual remedies. Unfortunately, all
+the monk's skill was unavailing and his royal patient died. The &#8220;remedies&#8221; were held by Titu Cusi's mother and her counselors
+to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer the penalty of death &#8220;for having caused the death of the Inca.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2278">The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and
+now happily married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty,
+but, thanks to the jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had not been that of a soldier. He was
+destined to have a brief, unhappy existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger was coming from the viceroy,
+seven warriors were sent to meet him on the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca bridge when he
+was attacked and killed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2280">The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow
+had been struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers
+of the viceroy of Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the energetic Toledo, surrounded by his
+council, determined to make war on the unfortunate young Tupac <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2282"></a>Page 194</span>Amaru and give a reward to the soldier who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that &#8220;many Insurrections
+might be raised in that Empire by this young Heir.&#8221; &#8220;Moreover it was alledged,&#8221; says Garcilasso &#8230;. &#8220;That by the Imprisonment
+of the Inca, all that <i>Treasure</i> might be discovered, which appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which Huayna Capac commanded to
+be made for himself to wear on the great and solemn days of their Festival&#8221;! Furthermore, the &#8220;Chain of Gold with the remaining
+Treasure <i>belong'd</i> to his Catholic Majesty by right of Conquest&#8221;! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2290">The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in
+case he should cross the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly been used by his father, Manco,
+in his marauding expeditions. The other company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from Cuzco by way
+of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had been
+met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending
+this important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2292">The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply in the middle and swayed so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2294"></a>Page 195</span>threateningly over the gorge of the Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river was too deep to be
+forded. There were no canoes. It would have been a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees that
+grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had
+never been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son, Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters.
+The chiefs and nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying
+on their ability to take care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from crossing the narrow, swaying
+structure. General Hurtado was not taking any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain field pieces,
+with which the raw troops of the Inca were little acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from the
+river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before.
+A few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2296">Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road &#8220;narrow
+in the ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2298"></a>Page 196</span>depth.&#8221; It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at
+the head of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight
+of Tupac Amaru, sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and endeavored to hurl him over the cliff.
+The captain's life was saved by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him, carrying his sword. Drawing
+it from the scabbard &#8220;with much dexterity and animation,&#8221; the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2300">Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the
+Inca had &#8220;gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to the country of the Ma&ntilde;aries Indians, a warlike
+tribe and his friends, where <i>balsas</i> and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to escape.&#8221; Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids
+of the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself,
+he descended the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived at a place called Momori, only to find
+that the Inca, learning of their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed hard after, although he and his
+men were by this time barefooted and suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso says that Tupac
+Amaru, &#8220;considering <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2305"></a>Page 197</span>that he had not People to make resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime, or disturbance he had done
+or raised, suffered himself to be taken; choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards, than to perish
+in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those great Rivers &#8230;. The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca, and
+on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him, amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went, so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor
+Prince.&#8221; A mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was
+mangled before his eyes. His own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His little boys did not long survive.
+So perished the last of the Incas, descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2307">Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2309">1534. The Inca <i>Manco</i> ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2314">1536. <i>Manco</i> flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2319">1542. Promulgation of the &#8220;New Laws.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2321">1545. Murder of <i>Manco</i> and accession of his son <i>Sayri Tupac</i>.
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2329">1555. <i>Sayri Tupac</i> goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2334">1560. Death of <i>Sayri Tupac</i>. His half brother <i>Titu Cusi</i> becomes Inca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2342">1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2344">1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2346">1568&#8211;9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in Chuquipalpa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2348">1571. <i>Titu Cusi</i> dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. <i>Tupac Amaru</i> becomes Inca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2356">1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de Loyola. Execution of <i>Tupac Amaru.</i>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2361"></a>Page 198</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2185" href="#d0e2185src" class="noteref">1</a> Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game of <i>chess</i> between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees, who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the
+tone and language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him.
+A totally different account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is that in a volume purporting to have
+been dictated to Friar Marcos by Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from Sir Clements Markham's
+translation:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2191" class="notetext">&#8220;After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much
+good fellowship, playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a boy [ten years old]. Without having
+any suspicion, although an Indian woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the Inca, my Father was
+playing with them as usual. In this game, just as my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded, strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed,
+and they were seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they left him for dead. I, being a little
+boy, and seeing my Father treated in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2193"></a>Page 183n</span>furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes.
+They looked for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate,
+in high spirits, saying, &#8216;Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.&#8217; But at this moment the captain Rimachi
+Yupanqui arrived with some Antis, and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get very far along a difficult
+road, they were caught and pulled from their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were burnt. Notwithstanding
+his wounds my Father lived for three days.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2195" class="notetext">Another version is given by Montesinos in his <i>Anales</i>. It is more like Titu Cusi's.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2246" href="#d0e2246src" class="noteref">2</a> A Spanish derivative from the Quichua <i>mucha</i>, &#8220;a kiss.&#8221; <i>Muchani</i> means &#8220;to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2362"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter X</h2>
+<h1>Searching for the Last Inca Capital</h1>
+<p id="d0e2365">The events described in <a id="d0e2367" href="#d0e2088">the preceding chapter</a> happened, for the most part, in Uiticos<a id="d0e2370src" href="#d0e2370" class="noteref">1</a> and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy, in
+what Prescott calls &#8220;the remote fastnesses of the Andes.&#8221; One looks in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several
+of the older maps give it. In 1625 &#8220;Viticos&#8221; is marked on de Laet's map of Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima
+and three hundred and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by some later cartographers, including Mercator,
+until about 1740, when &#8220;Viticos&#8221; disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers had learned that there was no such place
+in that vicinity. Its real location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at Nuremberg in 1599 gives &#8220;Pincos&#8221;
+in the &#8220;Andes&#8221; mountains, a small range west of &#8220;Cusco.&#8221; This does not seem to have been adopted by other cartographers; although
+a Palls map of 1739 gives &#8220;Picos&#8221; in about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth century who give
+&#8220;Viticos&#8221; supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g., &#8220;Los Viticos&#8221; or &#8220;Les Viticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2376"></p>
+<div id="d0e2377" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p198.jpg" alt="Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2381"></a>Page 199</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2382">The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer, Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing
+Peru, does not contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos, Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally,
+it may seem strange that Uiticos could ever be written <i>&#8220;Biticos.&#8221;</i> The Quichua language has no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital letter U exactly like a capital
+V. In official documents and letters Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard the word pronounced,
+naturally used the V sound instead of the U sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and Uilcapampa
+became Vilcabamba.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2387">Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before
+or is likely to do again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865 he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa;
+yet found no Uiticos. He believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of the last Incas. This view had
+been held by the French explorer, Count de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned when Sayri Tupac,
+Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including Paz
+Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nu&ntilde;ez and his friends in 1909, at the time of my visit to Choqquequirau.<a id="d0e2389src" href="#d0e2389" class="noteref">2</a> The only dissenter was the learned Peruvian historian, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2392"></a>Page 200</span>Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance of searching for
+Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian Expedition
+of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2394">That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco,
+mostly wealthy planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One told us that he went to Santa Ana every year
+and was acquainted with a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity
+of his countrymen to exaggerate, however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his shoulders, had crossed
+the bridge a score of times without taking the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, whose plantation
+was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar
+Marcos had established the first church in the &#8220;province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; But that was &#8220;near&#8221; Uiticos and near a village called
+Chuquipalpa, where should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins a &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221;
+Yet neither these friendly <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2396"></a>Page 201</span>planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting
+rock; nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2398">One of Se&ntilde;or Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins &#8220;finer than Choqquequirau&#8221; at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had
+never been to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders and did not seem to place much confidence in
+his word. Too often he had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not &#8220;pan out.&#8221; Yet his report resembled that of Charles
+Wiener, a French explorer, who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes, visited Ollantaytambo. While there
+he was told that there were fine ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called &#8220;Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu.&#8221; He decided
+to go down the valley and look for these ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla, descended the Lucumayo
+River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published a detailed
+map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name &#8220;Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m.&#8221; and to another &#8220;Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m.&#8221; His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find
+any ruins of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope to be any more successful? Would the rumors <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2400"></a>Page 202</span>that had reached us &#8220;pan out&#8221; as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since his day, to be sure, the Peruvian
+Government had actually finished a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard Anthropological Expedition,
+under the leadership of Dr. William C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting any ruins of importance.
+They were looking for savages and not ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was &#8220;finer than Choqquequirau&#8221; why had no one pointed
+it out to them?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2402"></p>
+<div id="d0e2403" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p202.jpg" alt="Peruvian Expedition of 1915"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Peruvian Expedition of 1915</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2407">To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded
+that &#8220;cradle of gold&#8221; as &#8220;the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent times.&#8221; They assured us there was nothing
+half so good. They even assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to <i>dig for buried treasure!</i> Denials were of no avail. To a people whose ancestors made fortunes out of lucky &#8220;strikes,&#8221; and who themselves have been
+brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of <i>tesoro</i>&#8212;treasure, wealth, riches&#8212;is an ever-present source of conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau&#8212;and that
+I was in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the members of the Expedition received no more than their
+expenses. He told me confidentially that Professor Foote <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2415"></a>Page 203</span>would sell his collection of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to see any one do scientific
+work except as he was paid by the government or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found our work
+misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco Historical Society.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2417">The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route
+for those going to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway, past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica
+(12,000 ft.) the road crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the last point from which one can
+see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians, whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward the east, facing
+the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I believe that the words they use now are those of the <i>&#8220;Ave Maria,&#8221;</i> or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of
+the first Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries
+immediately preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca himself, that divine individual who was
+at once the head of Church and State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in sight of his residence
+to perform an act of veneration. This in turn might have led those leaving the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2422"></a>Page 204</span>city to fall into the same habit at the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass this point. None
+of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume, which betokened that they considered themselves to be
+Indians rather than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2424">Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came
+at length to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River
+by the untiring energy of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes bear many remains of narrow terraces,
+some of which are still in use. Above them are <i>&#8220;temporales,&#8221;</i> fields of grain, resting like a patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could be cultivated. Still higher
+up, their heads above the clouds, are the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture, rich in contrast,
+majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under
+circumstances which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the
+night in Urubamba, the modern capital of the province, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2429"></a>Page 205</span>much favored by Peruvians of to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate, and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000
+feet, is too high to have charming surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley, there is everything
+to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2431">Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. <i>Uru</i> is the Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, <i>pampa</i> means flat land. <i>Urubamba</i> is &#8220;flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars.&#8221; Had it been named by people who came up from a warm region where insects
+abound, it would hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land where caterpillars and grubs flourished
+would have been struck by such a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau dwellers who were working
+their way down into a warm region where butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated caterpillars,
+Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies, and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get
+everything.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2442">The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo, described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener,
+and Squier many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated.
+Here, as at Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2444"></a>Page 206</span>fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks.
+The village itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of
+curious gabled buildings, storehouses, &#8220;prisons,&#8221; or &#8220;monasteries,&#8221; perched here and there on well-nigh inaccessible crags
+above the village. Below are broad terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still harvested; terraces which
+will stand for ages to come as monuments to the energy and skill of a bygone race. The &#8220;fortress&#8221; is on a little hill, surrounded
+by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which cultivated
+the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As centuries passed in which the land came under the control
+of the Incas, whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it is likely that this fortress became a royal
+garden. The six great ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and placed in line on the summit of
+the hill, were brought from a quarry several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They were probably intended
+to be a record of the magnificence of an able ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number of men
+to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of
+the hill; he had to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2446"></a>Page 207</span>supply the men with food. The building of such a monument meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source
+of pride. To his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2448"></p>
+<div id="d0e2449" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p206.jpg" alt="Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2453">A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a &#8220;granite
+palace, whose appearance [<i>appareil</i>] resembles the more beautiful parts of Ollantaytambo,&#8221; was only a storehouse. The other was probably a <i>tampu</i>, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under
+official orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal property were not understood. No one had anything
+to sell; no one had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an elaborate system of tax collecting. Two
+thirds of the produce raised by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It was a reasonable provision
+of the benevolent despotism of the Incas that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica should be provided
+with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in Cuzco
+in 1560, says that the food of the <i>chasquis</i>, Inca post runners, was provided from official storehouses; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2464"></a>Page 208</span>&#8220;those who worked for the Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense.&#8221; In Manco's day these buildings
+at Havaspampa probably sheltered the outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2466">Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes,
+one by way of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and
+Wiener in 1875; and one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the Salcantay River to Huadqui&ntilde;a, followed
+by the Count de Sartiges in 1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands between Mt. Salcantay and
+Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the villages of Piri and Huadqui&ntilde;a. This region was in 1911 undescribed in the geographical
+literature of southern Peru. We decided not to use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It led us
+into a fascinating country.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2468">Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass
+of granite mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the surrounding highlands which are composed
+of schists, conglomerates, and limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province, but it was closed for
+centuries by the combined efforts of nature and man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range, forms
+rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can be scaled only with great effort <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2470"></a>Page 209</span>and considerable peril. At one time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians, by crawling along the face
+of the cliff and sometimes swinging from one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way to any of the
+alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in various
+inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the
+foundations of an old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric man had built, at the foot of the precipices,
+close to the river, a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of Salapunco; <i>sala</i> = ruins; <i>punco</i> = gateway. Fashioned after famous Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large ashlars and also
+by reason of the salients and re&euml;ntrant angles which enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2478">Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy, Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable
+him to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate
+zone, to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon.
+On the other hand, it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2480"></a>Page 210</span>occupying the fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies coming down the valley from the direction
+of Ollantaytambo. They could easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully built and constructed
+with skill. Supplies from the plantations of Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path which antedated
+the present government road. Salapunco may have been occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however, have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely
+that he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore,
+its style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it
+seem all the more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was
+built by folk who once occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2482"></p>
+<div id="d0e2483" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p210.jpg" alt="Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2487">When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred
+to us that, in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as the Inca Manco had the force and time to
+build, we were to discover remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins enough to explain why such a
+fortress as Salapunco might possibly have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and Cuzco and not those
+well-known <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2489"></a>Page 211</span>Inca cities against the savages of the Amazon jungles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2491">Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered a most interesting region, where we were surprised
+and charmed by the extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence of many Inca ruins, the beauty of
+the deep, narrow valleys, and the grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across the river, near Qquente,
+on top of a series of terraces, we saw the extensive ruins of Patallacta (<i>pata</i> = height or terrace; <i>llacta</i> = town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's
+map, although he does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any reference to it in the chronicles. We
+spent several months here in 1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another volume I hope to tell
+more of the antiquities of this region. At present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta disclosed
+no &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221; None of the place names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings, their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone
+roof-pegs, bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these towns and villages flourished, who built
+them, why they were deserted, we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant, or silent, as to their
+history.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2499">At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2501"></a>Page 212</span>valley, we found another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured
+some mummies. The ancient wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out the vampire bats that lived
+in the cave. On the opposite side of the river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other ruins first visited
+by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a large surveying
+instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2503">Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In 1915 rumors of Andean or &#8220;spectacled&#8221; bears having been
+seen here and of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led us to go and investigate. We found no bears,
+but at an elevation of 12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering moss not hitherto known to science.
+Above them I was so fortunate as to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians first developed many
+varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2505">Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near relative of the c&#339;nolestes. It turned out to be new
+to science. To find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen
+bears.<a id="d0e2507src" href="#d0e2507" class="noteref">3</a>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2512"></a>Page 213</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2513">Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba, and such a canyon! The river &#8220;road&#8221; runs recklessly up and
+down rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets
+against granite cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices permitted it, the land between them and the
+river was once terraced and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable wonderland. Emotions came thick and
+fast. We marveled at the exquisite pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips of arable land from
+the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge of the
+dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built
+a temple, whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot of the interesting ruins, unable to ford
+the intervening rapids. High up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple, are the ruins of Corihuayrachina
+(<i>kori</i> = &#8220;gold&#8221;; <i>huayara</i> = &#8220;wind&#8221;; <i>huayrachina</i> = &#8220;a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place.&#8221; Possibly this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above
+us on another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2524"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2525"></a>Page 214</span>On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called <i>&#8220;La Maquina,&#8221;</i> where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of
+a &#8220;machine&#8221; destined never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to a sugar estate in the lower valley,
+and years ago left here to rust in the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for us to pitch our camp,
+so we pushed on over the very difficult road, which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part of the
+cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic
+bridge built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds, tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth
+and pebbles to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder
+&#8220;the machine&#8221; rested where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2530">Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we
+passed a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land of steep mountains is called a <i>pampa</i>. Were the dwellers on the <i>pampas</i> of Argentina&#8212;where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight line, except for the curvature of the earth&#8212;to see this
+little bit of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been joking or else grossly misusing a word which
+means to them illimitable space with not a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2538"></a>Page 215</span>hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while to
+build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing
+space in the bottom of the canyon is called a <i>pampa</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2543"></p>
+<div id="d0e2544" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p214.jpg" alt="The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2548">We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the
+river Urubamba on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders which interfered with the progress of the surging
+stream, was a steep mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp, near the road and yet secluded. Our
+actions, however, aroused the suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the lands of Mandor Pampa. He
+was anxious to know why we did not stay at his hut like respectable travelers. Our <i>gendarme</i>, Sergeant Carrasco, reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned that we were interested in the
+architectural remains of the Incas, he said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity&#8212;in fact, some excellent ones
+on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu, and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to reach. The story of my experiences on the following
+day will be found in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of
+very little importance, while those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2553"></a>Page 215</span>&#8220;National Geographic Magazine,&#8221; are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2555">When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered
+if it could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo, a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring
+when he said: &#8220;The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos], which is on a very high mountain, whence
+the view commanded a great part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level space, with very sumptuous
+and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as the ordinary
+ones, being of marble, elaborately carved.&#8221; Could it be that &#8220;Picchu&#8221; was the modern variant of &#8220;Pitcos&#8221;? To be sure, the
+white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty
+about fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there was no difference between the lintels of the doors
+and the walls themselves. Furthermore, there is no &#8220;white rock over a spring of water&#8221; which Calancha says was &#8220;near Uiticos.&#8221;
+There is no Pucyura in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not satisfy the geographical requirements
+of Uiticos. Although containing ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that last Inca capital for which
+we were searching. We had not yet found Manco's palace.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2557"></a>Page 217</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2370" href="#d0e2370src" class="noteref">1</a> Uiticos is probably derived from <i>Uiticuni</i>, meaning &#8220;to withdraw to a distance.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2389" href="#d0e2389src" class="noteref">2</a> Described in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2507" href="#d0e2507src" class="noteref">3</a> On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2509"></a>Page 213n</span>of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: &#8220;Of all the novelties, by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial &#8230;. Members
+of the family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador.&#8221; Mr. Heller's discovery greatly extends the recent range of
+the kangaroo family.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2558"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XI</h2>
+<h1>The Search Continued</h1>
+<p id="d0e2561">Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below
+the ruins, both Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in the flora and fauna. From the point of
+view of historical geography, Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of <i>huilca</i>, a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries tell us <i>huilca</i> is a &#8220;medicine, a purgative.&#8221; An infusion made from the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in which it is also shown that from seeds of the <i>huilca</i> a powder is prepared, sometimes called <i>cohoba</i>. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a narcotic snuff &#8220;inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated tube.&#8221; &#8220;All writers
+unite in declaring that it induced a kind of intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were regarded by
+the natives as supernatural. While under its influence the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication with
+unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the
+sick the physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the person or spirit by whom the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2575"></a>Page 218</span>patient was bewitched.&#8221; Mr. Safford quotes Las Casas as saying: &#8220;It was an interesting spectacle to witness how they took
+it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and while he was engaged all remained silent &#8230;. When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on
+his knees. Then he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must have been his prayer to the true God, or
+to him whom he held as God; after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this they did with a loud voice
+or sound. Then they gave thanks and said to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and begging him to
+reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born, or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with
+their neighbors, and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed with that intoxication.&#8221;<a id="d0e2577src" href="#d0e2577" class="noteref">1</a>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2586">Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place where <i>huilca</i> was first found and used in their incantations would be important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name
+of this river was <i>Uilca-mayu</i>: the &#8220;huilca river.&#8221; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2594"></a>Page 219</span>The <i>pampa</i> on this river where the trees grew would likely receive the name <i>Uilca pampa</i>. If it became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named <i>Uilcapampa</i> after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact
+that denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search of this highly prized narcotic, must have found
+the first trees not far from Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2605">Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of
+San Miguel, passed the house of Se&ntilde;or Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to write his name on the granite walls of Machu
+Picchu, and came to the sugar-cane fields of Huadqui&ntilde;a. We had now left the temperate zone and entered the tropics.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2607">At Huadqui&ntilde;a we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of the plantation, Se&ntilde;ora Carmen Vargas, and her children,
+were spending the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco, but when summer brings fine weather they
+come to Huadqui&ntilde;a to enjoy the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not only with that hospitality to
+passing travelers which is common to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance in our explorations. Se&ntilde;ora
+Carmen's estate covers more than two hundred square miles. Huadqui&ntilde;a is a splendid example of the ancient patriarchal system.
+The Indians who come from other parts of Peru to work on the plantation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2609"></a>Page 220</span>enjoy perquisites and wages unknown elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Se&ntilde;ora Carmen with an affectionate
+reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted in <i>encomienda</i> to the lords of the <i>repartimiento</i> or allotted territory.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2617">Huadqui&ntilde;a once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar cane and established the mill. After their expulsion
+from the Spanish colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadqui&ntilde;a was bought by a Peruvian. It was first described
+in geographical literature by the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when on his way to Choqquequirau.
+He says that the owner of Huadqui&ntilde;a &#8220;is perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses on his estates
+all the products of the four parts of the globe. In the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair, potatoes,
+wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, <i>coca</i>, many mines of silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold.&#8221; Truly a royal principality.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2622"></p>
+<div id="d0e2623" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p220.jpg" alt="Huadqui&ntilde;a"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Huadqui&ntilde;a</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2627">Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca
+ruins, he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadqui&ntilde;a one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without
+crossing the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind
+hosts in 1911. They scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2629"></a>Page 221</span>and extent of the Inca edifices.<a id="d0e2631src" href="#d0e2631" class="noteref">2</a> When my photographs were developed, however, and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the principal temples,
+Se&ntilde;ora Carmen and her family were struck dumb with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was possible
+that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower
+of no great interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge of San Miguel, had reported the presence of
+the ruins which he first visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little attention to his stories. We
+were soon to have a demonstration of the causes of such skepticism.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2640">Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of Calaucha's &#8220;Chronicle&#8221; which referred to the location of
+the last Inca capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of which they had never heard, they ordered
+the most intelligent tenants on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all was a sturdy <i>mestizo</i>, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there were
+&#8220;important ruins&#8221; which had been seen by some of Se&ntilde;ora Carmen's Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement
+that on a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2645"></a>Page 222</span>(<i>yurak</i> = &#8220;white&#8221;; <i>rumi</i> = &#8220;stone&#8221;) where some very interesting ruins had been found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from Calancha's &#8220;Chronicle&#8221; was the statement that &#8220;close to
+Uiticos&#8221; is the &#8220;white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak Rumi.&#8221; Our hosts assured us that this
+must be the place, since no one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman, on being closely questioned,
+said that he had seen the ruins once or twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great ruins at Ollantaytambo,
+and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi were &#8220;as good as those at Ollantaytambo.&#8221; Here was a definite statement made
+by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman
+said that the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of Indians could open it in less than a week.
+Our hosts, excited by the pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that even finer ruins might be found
+on their own property, immediately gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2653">While this was being done, Se&ntilde;ora Carmen's son, the manager of the plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu,
+where other &#8220;important ruins&#8221; had been found, which could be reached in a few hours without cutting any new trails. Acting
+on his assurance that we should not need tent or <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2655"></a>Page 223</span>cots, we left our camping outfit behind and followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We found Ccllumayu
+to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of the Indian
+tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in vain
+for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadqui&ntilde;a, but Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat <i>cuys</i> (guinea pigs), the chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough wattles which admitted plenty of
+fresh air and gave us comfortable ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles, constructed for the needs
+of short, stocky Indians, kept us from being overrun by inquisitive <i>cuys</i>, but could hardly be called as comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadqui&ntilde;a.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2663">The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts
+which probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins,
+&#8220;important&#8221; or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was our first disillusionment.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2665">On our return to Huadqui&ntilde;a, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi would be ready &#8220;in a day or two.&#8221; In the meantime our
+hosts became much interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2667"></a>Page 224</span>They brought an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded by high walls in a secluded place back
+of the house was &#8220;a great place for spiders.&#8221; We found that their statement was not exaggerated and immediately engaged in
+an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these Huadqui&ntilde;a spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy, Dr. Chamberlain
+found among them the representatives of four new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a reward of merit,
+he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2669"></p>
+<div id="d0e2670" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p225.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e2671">Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadqui&ntilde;a. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+from measurements and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2674">Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the
+foreman to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were &#8220;better than those of Ollantaytambo.&#8221; It was
+to be presumed that in the pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it never entered my head what
+I was actually to find. After several hours spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the walls I learned
+that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in clay. The building was without a doorway, although it
+had several small windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels of the windows and of the small
+apertures leading into the subterranean shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side or on the ends,
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2676"></a>Page 225</span>but there were four on the south side through which it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize, potatoes,
+or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of public
+storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on
+top of the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadqui&ntilde;a valleys, probably on an ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa.
+As such it was interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had done, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2678"></a>Page 226</span>was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places
+could have thought for a moment that one was &#8220;as good as the other.&#8221; To be sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and
+his interest in Inca buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo are so well known and so impressive
+that even the most casual traveler is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud of them. The real cause
+of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner is a common
+trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on us. We
+now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation
+on the part of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were interested in visiting the remains of Inca
+civilization. They knew only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and their inability to report facts
+accurately.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2680">Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to Se&ntilde;ora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani
+and proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where
+the Urubamba is joined by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2682"></a>Page 227</span>Vilcabamba River.<a id="d0e2684src" href="#d0e2684" class="noteref">3</a> Both rivers are restricted here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on their way to the lower valley.
+A few rods from Chauillay was a fine bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded the old suspension
+bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet here
+it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy, Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado
+and Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief
+preliminary fire the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled
+to accomplish that which had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of the surroundings showed that
+Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge of Chuquichaca
+&#8220;was a measure of no small importance for the royal force.&#8221; It certainly would have caused the Spaniards &#8220;great trouble&#8221; if
+they had had to rebuild it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2687">We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the
+plantation of Santa Ana, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2689"></a>Page 228</span>Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice
+of prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca, we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders
+through a broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of
+green sugar cane, the hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians fortunate enough to dwell in this
+tropical &#8220;Garden of Eden.&#8221; The day was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees loaded with ripe
+fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver <i>real</i> she dragged out a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her to permit us to take only as many as
+our pockets could hold; but she seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2694">At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town
+of Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is
+one of the principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was
+the scene of unusual activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond it, we came to the long colonnades
+of the celebrated sugar estate of Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2696"></a>Page 229</span>way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He says that he was received here &#8220;with a thousand signs of friendship&#8221;
+(<i>&#8220;mille t&eacute;moignages d'amiti&eacute;&#8221;</i>). We were received the same way. Even in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from government officials
+and generous hospitality from private individuals, our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2701">Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible information about the little-known region into which
+we proposed to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested,
+not only in the administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in the intellectual movements of the outside
+world. He entered with zest into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new to him, but after reading over
+with us our extracts from the Spanish chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he did. Santa Ana
+is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator; the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the &#8220;winter&#8221; nights are cool; but the
+heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless, our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the
+towns and valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was not much. They all agreed that &#8220;if only Se&ntilde;or
+Lopez Torres were alive he could have been of great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2703"></a>Page 230</span>service&#8221; to us, as &#8220;he had prospected for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had once seen some Inca
+ruins in the forest!&#8221; Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don Pedro's friends
+had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging, until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa Ana another
+friend of Don Pedro's, the <i>teniente gobernador</i> of the village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba&#8212;a crusty old fellow named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo,
+had been a member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and
+had left their names on its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried treasure, but he was totally unable
+otherwise to comprehend our desire to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the contemporaries of
+Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was the sub-prefect of the province of Convenci&oacute;n, lived at
+Quillabamba near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had received orders from his own official superior,
+the prefect of Cuzco, to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave particular orders to Mogrovejo
+to see to it that we were given every facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places of historic interest.
+Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin in the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2708"></a>Page 231</span>savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2710">Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and
+charming conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma, taking the road on the southwest side of the
+Urubamba and using the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious cargoes of <i>coca</i> and <i>aguardiente</i> from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start; not one of those meant-to-be-early
+but really late-in-the-morning departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2718">We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested, had long since been cleared, and was now covered with
+bushes and second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging
+rocks. As a boy in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting those beautiful and fascinating mollusks,
+which usually prefer the trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of gathering a large number of such
+as could easily be secured. None of the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting period. Some weeks
+later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in color,
+on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They were fairly &#8220;glued to their <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2720"></a>Page 232</span>resting places&#8221;; clustered so closely in some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2722">Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer
+had preceded us&#8212;the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence
+here of mines and minerals, but with the exception of an &#8220;abandoned <i>tampu</i>&#8221; at Maracnyoc (&#8220;the place which possesses a millstone&#8221;), he makes no mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed
+from the story of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that we were now entering the valley of Uiticos,
+it was with feel-hags of considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem strange that we should have
+been in any doubt. Yet before our visit nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos Romero still
+believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word <i>choqquequirau</i> means &#8220;cradle of gold&#8221; and this lent color to the legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had &#8220;retired to Uilcapampa,&#8221;
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau
+was Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the requirements of Calancha that it was &#8220;two or three
+days' journey&#8221; from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2730"></a>Page 233</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2731">A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack
+animals to travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces
+the cliffs in a series of little tunnels. My <i>gendarme</i> missed this road and took the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of Captain Garcia's expedition,
+&#8220;the road was narrow in the ascent with forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth.&#8221; We reached Paltaybamba
+about dusk. The owner, Se&ntilde;or Jos&eacute; S. Pancorbo, was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles of the
+river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo
+to be on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the plantation and his friends that evening. They had
+heard little of any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere
+in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> there was &#8220;an Inca city.&#8221; All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach; and none of them had ever been there. In
+the morning the manager gave us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man at that house should relay
+us to the next, and so on. These people, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2739"></a>Page 234</span>all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders, although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2741">The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle
+and dark green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the
+road is very winding, and the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must be like in February, the
+rainy season, we could only surmise. About two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi &#8220;Maracnyoc,&#8221;
+an &#8220;abandoned <i>tampu</i>,&#8221; we came to some old stone walls, the ruins of a place now called Huayara or &#8220;Hoyara.&#8221; I believe them to be the ruins of
+the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's army
+were &#8220;brought back to the valley of Hoyara,&#8221; where they were &#8220;settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+&#8230;. This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were
+taken for the service of the city, the water being very good.&#8221; The water here is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco
+Basin. On the plain near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation of Paltaybamba. &#8220;Hoyara&#8221; was abandoned
+after the discovery of gold mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish &#8220;city&#8221; was moved to the village now
+called Vilcabamba.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2746"></a>Page 235</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2747">Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of <i>Teniente Gobernador</i> Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount
+of prosperity due to the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior, the pass to the rubber estates
+in the San Miguel Valley. Here are &#8220;houses of refreshment&#8221; and two shops, the only ones in the region. One can buy cotton
+cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of
+agriculture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2752">There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived
+on the little plaza around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He had just returned from Santa Ana
+by the way of Idma, using a much worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled him to avoid passing
+through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had happened
+to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2754">We offered to pay Mogrovejo a <i>gratificaci&oacute;n</i> of a <i>sol</i>, or Peruvian silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double that amount if the locality should prove
+to contain particularly interesting <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2762"></a>Page 236</span>ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He summoned his <i>alcaldes</i> and other well-informed Indians to appear and be interviewed. They told us there were &#8220;many ruins&#8221; hereabouts! Being a practical
+man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of
+Quillabamba. So he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2767">The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower
+Vilcabamba. On all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places they were covered with forest growth, chiefly
+above the cloud line, where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on the more gentle slopes recent
+clearings gave evidence of enterprise on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's climb we reached
+what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures, on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia
+speak of a number of forts or <i>pucar&aacute;s</i> which had to be stormed and captured before Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those &#8220;fortresses.&#8221;
+Its strategic position and the ease with which it could be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2772"></a>Page 237</span>the &#8220;fortress of Pitcos,&#8221; nor the &#8220;House of the Sun&#8221; near the &#8220;white rock over the spring.&#8221; It is called <i>Incahuaracana</i>, &#8220;the place where the Inca shoots with a sling.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2777">Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices&#8212;one of two rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not particularly well built and resemble in many respects the
+ruins at Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows, although each has three front doors and is lined
+with niches, four or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three rooms, and had several front doors.
+A force of two hundred Indian soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2779">We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated
+hill, its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes, its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name
+of the hill was &#8220;Rosaspata,&#8221; a word of modern hybrid origin&#8212;<i>pata</i> being Quichua for &#8220;hill,&#8221; while <i>rosas</i> is the Spanish word for &#8220;roses.&#8221; Mogrovejo said his Indians told him that on the &#8220;Hill of Roses&#8221; there were more ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2787">At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a &#8220;wretched
+hamlet with a paltry chapel.&#8221; To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large public school here, to which children come from
+villages many miles away. So crowded is the school <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2789"></a>Page 238</span>that in fine weather the children sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls wear high boots. I once
+saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of the first school
+in this whole region. For it was to <i>&#8220;Puquiura&#8221;</i> that Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the <i>&#8220;mezquina capilla&#8221;</i> which Raimondi scorned. If this were the <i>&#8220;Puquiura&#8221;</i> of Friar Marcos, then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with their famous procession of converts from
+&#8220;Puquiura&#8221; to the House of the Sun and the &#8220;white rock&#8221; which was &#8220;close to Uiticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2800">Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing
+quartz on a considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo, who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended
+masses said by his friend Friar Diego in a chapel which is &#8220;near my houses and on my own lands, in the mining district of
+Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2802"></p>
+<div id="d0e2803" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p238.jpg" alt="Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2807">One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite,
+hollowed out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian
+mortar and pestle, heavy enough to need the services of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2809"></a>Page 239</span>four men to work it. The mortar was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected a few inches above the
+surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from time immemorial
+by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2811">Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo
+to an old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa,
+or Inca pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single
+house, 166 feet long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since disappeared. There were six doorways in
+front, none on the ends or in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near Lucma. The walls had originally
+been built of rough stones laid in clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all at one end of the structure,
+were irregular, about two feet in width and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building which was still
+standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2813">Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and followed a path along <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2815"></a>Page 240</span>its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found myself
+on a pleasant <i>pampa</i> near the top of the mountain. The view from here commands &#8220;a great part of the province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; It is remarkably
+extensive on all sides; to the north and south are snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2820">Furthermore, on the north side of the <i>pampa</i> is an extensive level space with a very sumptuous and majestic building &#8220;erected with great skill and art, all the lintels
+of the doors, the principal as well as the ordinary ones,&#8221; being of white granite elaborately cut. At last we had found a
+place which seemed to meet most of the requirements of Ocampo's description of the &#8220;fortress of Pitcos.&#8221; To be sure it was
+not of &#8220;marble,&#8221; and the lintels of the doors were not &#8220;carved,&#8221; in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully
+finished, as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might easily pass for marble. If only we could find
+in this vicinity that Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was &#8220;near&#8221; Uiticos, all doubts would be at an end.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2825">That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings
+when in response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring valley there was a great white <i>rock</i> over a spring of water! If his story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It behooved us to make a very
+careful study of what we had found.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2830"></a>Page 241</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2577" href="#d0e2577src" class="noteref">1</a> Mr. Safford says in his article on the &#8220;Identity of Cohoba&#8221; (<i>Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences</i>, Sept. 19, 1916): &#8220;The most remarkable fact connected with <i>Piptadenia peregrina</i>, or &#8216;tree-tobacco&#8217; is that &#8230; the source of its intoxicating properties still remains unknown.&#8221; One of the bifurcated tubes.&#8220;in
+the first stages of manufacture,&#8221; was found at Machu Picchu.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2631" href="#d0e2631src" class="noteref">2</a> See the illustrations in Chapters <a id="d0e2633" href="#d0e3571">XVII</a> and <a id="d0e2636" href="#d0e3683">XVIII</a>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2684" href="#d0e2684src" class="noteref">3</a> Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river
+and the old Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by using the correct, official spelling for the
+river and town, viz., Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place referred to in the contemporary histories
+of the Inca Manco.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2831"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XII</h2>
+<h1>The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun</h1>
+<p id="d0e2834">When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied
+the supreme power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru.
+Captain Garcia earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the &#8220;<i>ma&ntilde;ana</i> habit&#8221; was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's
+Royal Council of the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this
+he says: &#8220;and having arrived at the principal fortress, Guay-napucar&aacute; [&#8220;the young fortress&#8221;], which the Incas had fortified,
+we found it defended by the Prince Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains and soldiers. It is
+on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger.
+Thus we gained the province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; The viceroy himself says this important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill
+and courage in storming <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2839"></a>Page 242</span>the heights of Guaynapucar&aacute;, &#8220;on Saint John the Baptist's day, in 1572.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2841">The &#8220;Hill of Roses&#8221; is indeed &#8220;a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags.&#8221; The side of easiest approach is protected by
+a splendid, long wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa
+could have furnished a contingent to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on all sides, and it would
+have been extremely easy for a small force to have defended it. It was undoubtedly &#8220;almost impregnable.&#8221; This was the feature
+Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2843">On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged
+so as to form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The outside dimensions of the compound are about
+160 feet by 145 feet. The builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging the houses, Due to the wanton destruction
+of many buildings by the natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so pulled down that it is impossible
+to get the exact dimensions of the buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been any niches.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2845"></p>
+<div id="d0e2846" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p242-1.jpg" alt="Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2850"></p>
+<div id="d0e2851" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p242-2.jpg" alt="Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2855">Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains
+of this building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from
+Cuzco. It is 245 feet by 43 feet. There were no <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2857"></a>Page 243</span>windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways, fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms, besides
+three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not, to be sure, of &#8220;marble&#8221; as Ocampo said&#8212;there is no marble
+in the province&#8212;but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary
+ones, are also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as eight feet in length. The doorways are better
+than any other ruins in Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention of them made by Ocampo, who lived
+near here and had time to become thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very small portion of the edifice
+was still standing. Most of the rear doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous fence. Other walls
+had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out of the cultivated <i>pampa</i>. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops and
+sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2862">On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide,
+containing doors on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It was probably a barracks for a company
+of soldiers.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2864"></a>Page 244</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2865">The intervening <i>&#8220;pampa&#8221;</i> might have been the scene of those games of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who fled from the
+wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2870">Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number
+of iron articles of European origin, heavily rusted&#8212;horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of scissors, several bridle or saddle
+ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one time, although the
+necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to
+make raids on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily have brought back with him a Spanish bridle.
+In the second place the musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have enjoyed whiling away their exile
+with melancholy twanging. In the third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish market in Cuzco, where
+there would have been displayed at times a considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally Rodriguez de
+Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European artifacts
+has been turned <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2872"></a>Page 245</span>up in the excavations of other important sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they were abandoned
+before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2874">Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the
+palace of the last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is
+astonishing how few details we have by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries are strangely silent.
+When he left Cuzco and sought refuge &#8220;in the remote fastnesses of the Andes,&#8221; there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza de Leon,
+in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;&#8212;Manco had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had &#8220;retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in
+the most retired part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes.&#8221;<a id="d0e2876src" href="#d0e2876" class="noteref">1</a> The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we
+can learn they left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2879"></a>Page 246</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2880">Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers,
+are fully described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that &#8220;close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water.&#8221; Our guide had told us there was such a place close
+to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2882">On the day after making the first studies of the &#8220;Hill of Roses,&#8221; I followed the impatient Mogrovejo&#8212;whose object was not
+to study ruins but to earn dollars for finding them&#8212;and went over the hill on its northeast side to the Valley of <i>Los Andenes</i> (&#8220;the Terraces&#8221;). Here, sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top, which had a carved seat or platform
+on its northern side. Its west side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been walled in on one side.
+When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there was a <i>manantial de agua</i> (&#8220;spring of water&#8221;) near by, I became greatly interested. On investigation, however, the&#8221; spring&#8221; turned out to be nothing
+but part of a small irrigating ditch. (<i>Manantial</i> means &#8220;spring&#8221;; it also means &#8220;running water&#8221;). But the rock was not &#8220;over the water.&#8221; Although this was undoubtedly one
+of those <i>huacas</i>, or sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important
+accessory to ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2896"></p>
+<div id="d0e2897" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p246.jpg" alt="Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2901">Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2903"></a>Page 247</span>had been the house of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a large number of very handsomely built
+agricultural terraces, the first we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in the valley. So scarce
+are <i>andenes</i> in this region and so noteworthy were these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were probably built
+under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of carved boulders, <i>huacas</i>. One had an <i>intihuatana</i>, or sundial nubbin, on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we followed a trickling stream through
+thick woods until we suddenly arrived at an open place called &ntilde;usta Isppana. Here before us was a great white rock over a
+spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly enclosing the
+gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name of
+this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2914">It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every
+side. There was not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal place for practicing the mystic ceremonies
+of an ancient cult. The remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its shadow had caused this to become
+a place of worship. Here, without doubt, was &#8220;the principal <i>mochadero</i> of those forested mountains.&#8221; It is still <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2919"></a>Page 248</span>venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests
+faced the east, greeted the rising sun, &#8220;extended their hands toward it,&#8221; and &#8220;threw kisses to it,&#8221; &#8220;a ceremony of the most
+profound resignation and reverence.&#8221; We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent robes of office, standing on
+the top of the rock at the edge of its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the early morning, awaiting
+the moment when the Great Divinity should appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it rose they saluted
+it and cried: &#8220;O Sun! Thou who art in peace and safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health and safety.
+O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu, grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it is for this that thou hast created them.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2921"></p>
+<div id="d0e2922" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p248.jpg" alt="Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana Formerly Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana Formerly Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2926">It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying
+a stick of firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself
+in the water. Since the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect the sky, but only the overhanging,
+dark, mossy rock, the water looks black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to believe that simple-minded
+Indian worshipers in this secluded spot could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2928"></a>Page 249</span>&#8220;as a visible manifestation&#8221; in the water. Indians came from the most sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship
+here and to offer gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised the standard of the cross, recited
+their orisons, and piled firewood all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him by all the vile names
+they could think of, the friars commanded him never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple, scorched
+the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and causing the poor Devil to flee, &#8220;roaring in a fury.&#8221; &#8220;The cruel
+Devil never more returned to the rock nor to this district.&#8221; Whether the roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or
+of the flames we can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up the swamp or interfered with the arrangements
+of the water supply so that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no chance to appear in the water, where
+he had formerly been accustomed to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2930">The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state, but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well
+preserved notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height
+above the present level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are seats and large steps or platforms.
+It was customary to kill llamas at these holy <i>huacas</i>. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may have been used for such sacrifices. From <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2935"></a>Page 250</span>it runs a little crack in the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been intended to carry off the blood
+of the victim killed on top of the rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which are quietly practiced
+here by the more superstitious Indian women of the valley, possibly in memory of the &ntilde;usta or Inca princess for whom the shrine
+is named.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2937">On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four or five small seats which have been cut in the rock.
+Great care was exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly square, level, and straight. The east side
+of the rock projects over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the water. On the north side there are
+no seats. Near the water, steps have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven steps. Above them the
+rock has been flattened artificially and carved into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones, like those
+usually called <i>intihuatana</i> or &#8220;places to which the sun is tied.&#8221; In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six others. The other three are
+arranged in a triangular position above the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast face of the rock,
+where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2942"></p>
+<div id="d0e2943" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p250-1.jpg" alt="Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2947"></p>
+<div id="d0e2948" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p250-2.jpg" alt="Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2952">Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running
+water under the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained the swamp which adjoins the great rock <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2954"></a>Page 251</span>on its northeastern side, we found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the water ran through the dark
+pool. We also found that what looked like a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the top of the back
+of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock.
+Since the pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used only by priests or sorcerers. It would have
+been a splendid place to practice divination. No doubt the devils &#8220;roared.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2956">All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have failed to disclose the presence of any other &#8220;white rock over
+a spring of water&#8221; surrounded by the ruins of a possible &#8220;House of the Sun.&#8221; Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the
+following conclusions: <i>First</i>, &ntilde;usta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers as Chuquipalpa.
+<i>Second</i>, Uiticos, &#8220;close to&#8221; this shrine, was once the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and Lucma. This
+is the &#8220;Viticos&#8221; of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco, who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that &#8220;having reached Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from
+various parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca, established himself <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2964"></a>Page 252</span>in the strongest place he could find, whence he sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those parts
+which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards, whom he considered as cruel enemies.&#8221; <i>Third</i>, the &#8220;strongest place&#8221; of Cieza, the Guaynapucar&aacute; of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by Ocampo as &#8220;the fortress of Pitcos,&#8221;
+where, he says, &#8220;there was a level space with majestic buildings,&#8221; the most noteworthy feature of which was that they had
+two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone lintels. <i>Fourth</i>, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although he was disappointed in the insignificance of the &#8220;wretched
+little village.&#8221; The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca, which has already been noted, the distance from
+the &#8220;House of the Sun,&#8221; not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura near the fortress, all point
+to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2972">Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary
+station in Uilcapampa, selected &#8220;the town of Huarancalla, which was populous and well located in the midst of a number of
+other little towns and villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from one convent to the other. Leaving
+Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a church.&#8221; There is no &#8220;Huarancalla&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2974"></a>Page 253</span>to-day, nor any tradition of any, but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, in the temperate
+zone where the crops with which the Incas were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and alpacas could
+have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and villages.
+Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region now
+use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows
+into the Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros,
+which Mr. Hay and I crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was founded by Pizarro, a day's journey
+from this bridge. The necessity for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point made it easy for Manco's
+foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque, which is
+probably the &#8220;Huarancalla&#8221; of Calancha's &#8220;Chronicles.&#8221; He must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac
+and its magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable
+snow fields and glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2976"></a>Page 254</span>even though they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been
+known even in recent years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding not only security from his Spanish
+enemies, but any climate that he desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to be no reason to doubt
+that the retired region around the modern town of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2978"></a>Page 255</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2876" href="#d0e2876src" class="noteref">1</a> In those days the term &#8220;Andes&#8221; appears to have been very limited in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of
+Cuzco where lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2979"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XIII</h2>
+<h1>Vilcabamba</h1>
+<p id="d0e2982">Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not
+mention Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father Calancha says it was a very large area, &#8220;covering
+fourteen degrees of longitude,&#8221; about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage tribes &#8220;of the far interior&#8221; who acknowledged
+the supremacy of the Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. &#8220;The Ma&ntilde;aries and the Pilcosones came a hundred and
+two hundred leagues&#8221; to visit the Inca in Uiticos.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2984">The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha
+says it was &#8220;two days' journey from Puquiura.&#8221; Raimondi thought it must be Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however,
+speak of it as being down in the warm valleys of the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, the present rubber country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on the maps of Peru is near the source
+of the Vilcabamba River, not more than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2989"></a>Page 256</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2990">We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750 feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba
+has threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually
+heavy thatch, seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the <i>gobernador</i>, Manuel Condor&eacute;. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2995">The <i>gobernador</i> said that the reason the town was deserted was that most of the people were now attending to their <i>chacras</i>, or little farms, and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring valleys. He said that only at special
+festival times, such as the annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here, <i>once a year</i>, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name,
+Condor&eacute; said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru.
+The solidity of the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The present air of desolation and absence
+of population is probably due to the decay of that industry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3006"></p>
+<div id="d0e3007" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p256.jpg" alt="&Ntilde;usta Isppana"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">&Ntilde;usta Isppana</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3011">The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building, is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells.
+Condor&eacute; said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It is probably the very structure whose construction
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3013"></a>Page 257</span>was carefully supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria
+from Hoyara to the neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers, went to Cuzco as agent of the interested
+parties, to take the matter up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3015">&#8220;The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal
+fifths, as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having examined the capitulations and reasons, the said
+Don Luis de Velasco [the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is now founded, ordering that it should
+have the title and name of the city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its first name. By this change
+of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo, performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my care, industry
+and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its principal chapel and great doors.&#8221; We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and the whole to show considerable &#8220;industry and solicitude.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3017">The site was called &#8220;Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered this land found the flocks and herds.&#8221; Modern Vilcabamba
+is on grassy slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes potatoes are still raised, although the valley
+itself is given up to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and sheep in abundance where the Incas
+must have pastured their <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3019"></a>Page 258</span>llamas and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that
+this was Onccoy, although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3021">We met at the <i>gobernador's</i> an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we interviewed
+through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied having heard of &#8220;Uiticos&#8221; or any of its variations.
+If we were indeed in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar with that name?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3026">Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands have now for so many generations been neglected by
+their rulers and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine
+they can secure, through the constant chewing of <i>coca</i> leaves, that they have lost much if not all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated <i>mestizos</i> of the principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but
+also from the blood of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve
+the remains of the wonderful civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba was an unknown land to
+most of the Peruvians, even those who live in the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3034"></a>Page 259</span>Incas been in a region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources were sufficient to support a large population,
+and whose roads made transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes, it would have been occupied from the
+days of Captain Garcia to the present by Spanish-speaking <i>mestizos</i>, who might have been interested in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions connected with it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3039">After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends &#8220;petered out,&#8221; or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura
+with Cuzco and civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably impassable during a large part of the
+year even to people accustomed to Andean &#8220;roads.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3041">The possibility of raising sugar cane and <i>coca</i> between Huadqui&ntilde;a and Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding
+the difficult transportation over the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing to lead any one to visit
+the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire to make it a place of residence. And until Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo opened the road to Lucma,
+Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa between
+the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the &#8220;Hill
+of Roses&#8221; in the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3046"></a>Page 260</span>days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who once
+lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the
+renaissance of historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that it occurred to any one to look for Manco's
+capital. When Raimondi, the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one thought to tell him that on the
+hilltop opposite the village once lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were still there, hidden
+underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3048">A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of &#8220;San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba&#8221; was in the &#8220;valley of Viticos.&#8221;
+The town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so
+marked on Raimondi's map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3050">Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin,
+would also seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is
+difficult to believe that if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca times to the present we should
+not have found at least a few of the indigenous American camels here. By <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3052"></a>Page 261</span>itself, such an occurrence would hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of traditions regarding
+Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of consequence
+lived in this vicinity.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3054">We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to
+at least a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles,
+chicken pox, and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction of a large proportion of those unfortunates
+whose untimely deaths were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the early Spanish miners and treasure seekers.
+Both causes undoubtedly contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the population diminished enormously
+in early colonial days. If this is true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions where the conditions
+of existence and human intercourse were less severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3056">The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier,
+are of the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time
+of the Conquest. In other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent disappearance of bad living conditions
+and forced labor at the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3058"></a>Page 262</span>mines, also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and the more comfortable conditions of existence which
+have followed the coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the number of highland Indians has increased.
+With this increase has come a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural tendency to seek less crowded
+regions, even at the expense of using difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote and inaccessible
+a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the demand
+for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years
+when no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma.
+The adobe houses of these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built in the nineteenth century.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3060">Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had
+been privileged to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that
+Choqquequirau, the only ruins reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the capital of the Incas who
+took refuge there. It also makes it seem more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and &ntilde;usta Isppana should not have
+been known to Peruvian geographers and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3062"></a>Page 263</span>historians, or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3064">We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were
+called Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century shows that there may have been three places bearing
+that name; one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo (&#8220;the old&#8221;), another also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded
+by the Spaniards, namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in Calancha's account of the trials and
+tribulations of Friar Marcos and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with considerable detail of their
+visit to &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo.&#8221; It was after the monks had already founded their religious establishment at Puquiura that they
+learned of the existence of this important religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit it. For a long time
+he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them to continue
+their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied
+the two friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road.
+The Inca, however, did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably
+along in a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3066"></a>Page 264</span>litter by servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail
+soon demoralized their footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road, &#8220;<i>Ungacacha</i>,&#8221; the trail went for some distance through water. The monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their monastic garments while passing through the water. However,
+the monks persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, &#8220;on account of its being the largest city in which was the University
+of Idolatry, where lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination.&#8221; If one may judge by the name of the place,
+Uilcapampa, the wizards and sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient snuff made from <i>huilca</i> seeds. After a three days' journey over very rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then Titu Cusi
+was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might
+not witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3074">Nothing is said about the appearance of &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; and it is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the
+city, although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks and kept up their preaching and teaching. During
+their stay Titu Cusi, who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying them <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3076"></a>Page 265</span>in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation
+with his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most beautiful Indian women, including some individuals
+of the Yungas who were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived at the &#8220;University of Idolatry&#8221; in
+&#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; were &#8220;Virgins of the Sun,&#8221; who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests and were selected
+from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is also evident that &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; was so constructed that the monks could
+be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+&#8220;abominations&#8221; which were practiced there, as they did those at the white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it
+is possible that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; was on the slopes of the mountain
+now called Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3078">In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins of Vilcabamba called &#8220;the old&#8221; by Ocampo, to distinguish
+it from the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely
+as Vilcabamba by Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3080"></a>Page 266</span></p><a id="d0e3081"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XIV</h2>
+<h1>Conservidayoc</h1>
+<p id="d0e3084">When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to &#8220;Vilcabamba
+Viejo,&#8221; or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told
+us that in 1902 Lopez Torres, who had traveled much in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> looking for rubber trees, reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don Pedro's friends assured us
+that Conservidayoc was a terrible place to reach. &#8220;No one now living had been there.&#8221; &#8220;It was inhabited by savage Indians
+who would not let strangers enter their villages.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3089">When we reached Paltaybamba, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo's manager confirmed what we had heard. He said further that an individual named
+Saavedra lived at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's
+house was extremely difficult to find. &#8220;No one had been there recently and returned alive.&#8221; Opinions differed as to how far
+away it was.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3091">Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins near Rosaspata, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, returning from his
+rubber estate in the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by, took great pains to find us and see
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3093"></a>Page 267</span>how we were progressing. When he learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc, he asked us to desist
+from the attempt. He said Saavedra was &#8220;a very powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in grand state,
+with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being visited by anybody.&#8221; The Indians were &#8220;of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile to strangers.&#8221; Admitting that he had heard there were
+Inca ruins near Saavedra's station, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our lives by going to look for them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3095">By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar with the current stories regarding the habits of savage
+tribes who lived in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> and whose services were in great demand as rubber gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like to
+work for Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man, anxious to achieve many things, results which required more
+laborers than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had
+escaped from the rubber estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo's own life would have been at the mercy of their
+poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited with impunity by the
+explorers of the nineteenth century to become so savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3100">Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3102"></a>Page 268</span>its aspects. We finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports regarding the presence of Inca ruins at
+Conservidayoc we could not afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least make an effort to reach them,
+meanwhile taking every precaution to avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage retainers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3104"></p>
+<div id="d0e3105" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p268-1.jpg" alt="Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3109"></p>
+<div id="d0e3110" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p268-2.jpg" alt="One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3114">On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the <i>gobernador</i>, Condor&eacute;, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a very
+picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry was in progress. He took off his hat&#8212;but not his knitted
+cap&#8212;and endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about the surrounding country. It was he who said that
+the Inca Tupac Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins
+in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> near Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condor&eacute;. Several had heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently,
+none of them, nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited their immediate vicinity. They all agreed
+that Saavedra's place was &#8220;at least four days' hard journey on foot in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> beyond Pampaconas.&#8221; No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru, although it is frequently mentioned in the documents
+of the sixteenth <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3125"></a>Page 269</span>century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place
+called Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere down in the dense forests of the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> and presented him with a macaw and two hampers of peanuts&#8212;products of a warm region.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3130">We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map which covered this locality. We also had the new map
+of South Peru and North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical Society and gave a summary of all
+available information. The Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's
+map all of the rivers which rise in the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac and flow southwest.
+We wondered whether the stories about ruins at Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those we had
+heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadqui&ntilde;a. One of our informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the
+&#8220;Pampa of Ghosts.&#8221; Would the ruins turn out to be &#8220;ghosts&#8221;? Would they vanish on the arrival of white men with cameras and
+steel measuring tapes?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3132">No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at the village of Pampaconas, &#8220;about five leagues from here,&#8221;
+there were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies were getting low. There were no shops nearer than
+Lucma; no food was obtainable from the natives. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3134"></a>Page 270</span>Accordingly, notwithstanding the protestations of the hospitable <i>gobernador</i>, we decided to start immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3139">At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening
+meal and we were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of our favorite beverage. Several years ago,
+when traveling on muleback across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant
+and bracer in the high Andes. At first astonished to see how much tea the Indian <i>arrieros</i> drank, I learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water, which often brings on mountain-sickness. This
+particular evening, one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most horrible stuff imaginable. Examination
+showed small, oily particles floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery that one of our <i>arrieros</i> had that day placed our can of kerosene on top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had dripped down
+into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to throw
+away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more
+one seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3147">After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical
+investigations to stray far <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3149"></a>Page 271</span>up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the boundaries of known topography, headed for &#8220;Conservidayoc,&#8221; a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3151">Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the <i>gobernador</i> told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules
+could not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to
+be extremely alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two <i>gendarmes</i> who were now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our
+pack train until dusk. The <i>gobernador</i> said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this was due in part to that love of freedom which had led
+them to abandon the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords could not call on them for forced labor.
+Consequently, before the arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as our <i>gendarmes</i>, the <i>gobernador</i> and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen sturdy Indians. Their
+methods will be described presently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3168">Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an old glaciated valley, in which <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3170"></a>Page 272</span>one of our mules got thoroughly mired while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous bog. Fording the
+Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook, we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains above
+us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide.
+He does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted long before his day. As to the other minerals, the
+difficulties of transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3172">At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the
+town of Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi, followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not
+leave room enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude
+to be 73&deg; west, and our latitude to be 13&deg; 8&#8242; south. Yet according to the latest map of this region, published in the preceding
+year, this was the very position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river Pampas. We ought to have been
+swimming &#8220;the Great Speaker.&#8221; Actually we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and glaciers. The
+mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when he determined the Apurimac <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3174"></a>Page 273</span>and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored region, 1500
+square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and
+the site of a university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so long defy investigation and exploration shows
+better than anything else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable labyrinth of snow-clad peaks,
+unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3176">Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our
+maps that we were now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact, we were on the rim of the valley of
+the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas, a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead of being the Apurimac
+Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3178">At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood from Condor&eacute; that somewhere far down in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> below us was Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that
+the Incas could have built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were accustomed. The &#8220;road&#8221; was now
+so bad that only with the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3183"></a>Page 274</span>greatest difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we had to dismount, as the path led down a long,
+steep, rocky stairway of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a lonesome little hut perched on a
+shoulder of the mountain. In front of it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as they saw the
+<i>gobernador</i> approaching, they stopped their work and began to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to be
+told that Se&ntilde;or Condor&eacute; and his friends had not had anything but a cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet
+the emergency of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing <i>cuys</i> (guinea pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts of mountain Indians. Before long the savory
+odor of roast <i>cuy</i>, well basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3194">In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite
+of the celebrated dogma that &#8220;Pigs is Pigs,&#8221; this form of &#8220;pork&#8221; has never found its way to our kitchens, even though these
+&#8220;pigs&#8221; live on a very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come from Guinea and are in no way related to
+pigs&#8212;Mr. Ellis Parker Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the same family as rabbits and Belgian
+hares and have long been a highly prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are of a grayish brown color,
+which enables them to escape observation in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3196"></a>Page 275</span>which one sees in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny, varying from one another in color as much
+as do the llamas, which were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years ago. Although Anglo-Saxon &#8220;folkways,&#8221;
+as Professor Sumner would say, permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at short-eared rabbits, yet
+they were bred to be eaten.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3198">I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in
+the capital of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had I not been very hungry, I might never have
+known how delicious a roast guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose supply of animal food is
+small, whose fowls are treasured for their eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as mutton, the
+succulent guinea pig, &#8220;most prolific of mammals,&#8221; as was discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for
+emergencies. Her sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little <i>cuys</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3203">After lunch, Condor&eacute; and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome
+farm to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home
+or working in his little <i>chacra</i> they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward to shake hands, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3208"></a>Page 276</span>in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was informed
+that he had accepted pay for services which must now be performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3210">During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A paternal government saw to it that they were properly
+fed and clothed and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own necessities or else permitted to draw on official
+stores. In colonial days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of the ancient system and enforced it without
+taking pains to see that it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless landlords, backed by local authority,
+forced the Indians to work without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or even pretending to carry out promises
+and wage agreements. The peons learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having received a considerable
+portion of their pay. When once they accepted money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided that they
+must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant legal punishment.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3212">Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized
+that service was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was &#8220;busy,&#8221; that his &#8220;crops needed attention,&#8221; that his &#8220;family
+could not spare him,&#8221; that &#8220;he lacked food for a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3214"></a>Page 277</span>journey.&#8221; Condor&eacute; and Mogrovejo were accustomed to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in <i>&#8220;engaging&#8221;</i> half a dozen carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small huts scattered over grassy hillsides,
+at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3219">In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a &#8220;high, cold
+place.&#8221; This is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's
+day as being &#8220;an important town of the Incas.&#8221; There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts of Pampaconas were newly built of stone
+and mud, and thatched with grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians, who enjoyed unusual freedom from
+official or other interference and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes, on the very edge of the dense
+forest. We found that there was some excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar, or possibly a cougar,
+had come out of the forest, attacked, killed, and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3221">We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had
+been selected to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood
+in his veins, although he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied one of the best huts. A fire in
+one corner frequently filled it with acrid smoke. It was very small and had no <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3223"></a>Page 278</span>windows. At one end was a loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from molestation. Piles of sheep
+skins were arranged for visitors to sit upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves and tables.
+The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space with
+the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with a whip; only to return again and again, each time to
+be driven out as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions, we carried on a most interesting conversation
+with Guzman. He had been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu Pampa. At last the mythical &#8220;Pampa
+of Ghosts&#8221; began to take on in our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind ourselves that another
+very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins &#8220;finer than Ollantaytambo&#8221; near Huadqui&ntilde;a. Guzman did not seem to dread Conservidayoc
+as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for the journey. Although it was August and the middle of
+the dry season, rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived after dark with our pack animals, but,
+missing the trail as he neared Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3225"></a>Page 279</span>and was extracted only with considerable difficulty.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3227">We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the
+evening, after we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the rain to our comfortable little tent, only
+to hear various and sundry grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large sow and six fat young pigs,
+unable to settle down comfortably at the Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available place on the
+mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs
+to return at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman, with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming
+soup, which at first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni&#8212;a dish of which one of us was particularly fond.
+The white hollow cylinders proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As a matter of fact, we learned
+that the evening meal which Guzman's wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3229">Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be
+lying in puddles of water. Everything <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3231"></a>Page 280</span>was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what we should cook
+for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this time
+more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and
+jaws of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3233">We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the
+ten days' journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our other carriers, spent the morning grinding
+<i>chu&ntilde;o</i> (frozen potatoes) with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or toasting large quantities of sweet
+corn in a terra-cotta olla. With <i>chu&ntilde;o</i> and <i>tostado</i>, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of <i>coca</i> leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of our own provisions we had so small a quantity that
+we were unable to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have liked them as much as the food to which
+they had long been accustomed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3247">Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc.
+We were told that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San Fernando, our first stop, was &#8220;seven leagues&#8221;
+away, far down in the densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the mountain back of Guzman's hut
+and followed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3249"></a>Page 281</span>a faint trail by a dangerous and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not improved the path. Our saddle
+mules were of little use. We had to go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could see but little of
+the deep canyon which opened below us, and into which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep, zigzag path,
+four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path, across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally
+we came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts;
+and this was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room enough in them for our six carriers. It was
+with great difficulty we found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only seven feet square. There was
+no really flat land at all.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3251">At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent, I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians
+in the near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail structure and made a great disturbance, crying out
+that there was a <i>temblor</i>. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it might have done during the stormy night which followed, they
+were in no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes
+do very serious harm, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3256"></a>Page 282</span>they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds,
+a gentle rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks later, near Huadqui&ntilde;a, we happened to stop at
+the Colpani telegraph office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th&#8212;one at five o'clock, which had shaken
+the books off his table and knocked over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and south. He said the
+shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3258">During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself to the &#8220;dry season&#8221; and we were more comfortable. Furthermore,
+camping out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of
+the bridge of San Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics.
+Sugar cane, peppers, bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and sweet potatoes. None of these things
+will grow at Pampaconas. The Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come to San Fernando to make <i>chacras</i> or small clearings. The three or four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of brass buttons that they
+disappeared during the night rather than take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands in the morning!
+From San Fernando, we sent one of our <i>gendarmes</i> back to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty pounds apiece.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3266"></a>Page 283</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3267">Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil
+here seemed to be very rich. In the <i>chacra</i> we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height, near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of a <i>mato-palo</i>, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves its name, for it commands a &#8220;charming view&#8221; of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain, whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction; now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were
+mystified; for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3275">We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under
+branches, along slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock, over a trail which not even dogs could
+follow unassisted, slowly we made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon
+before we reached another little clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet above the river, our
+men decided to spend the night in a tiny little shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had to dig
+a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3277">The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train, we made an early start. As we followed the faint little
+trail across the gulches <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3279"></a>Page 284</span>tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on
+primitive bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3281">By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled
+thickets, through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while,
+as we were now in the territory of <i>los salvajes</i>, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be particularly
+afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He
+said we should never be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was selected to go ahead did not relish
+his task. Leaving his pack behind, he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost to view almost immediately.
+There followed an exciting half-hour while we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us, and trying
+to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra, who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury, &#8220;surrounded
+by fifty servants,&#8221; and directing his myrmidons to checkmate <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3286"></a>Page 285</span>our desires to visit the Inca city on the &#8220;pampa of ghosts.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3288">Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little
+tighter in readiness for whatever might befall&#8212;when there burst out of the woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally
+clad, who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible,
+but a glance at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was with a sigh of relief that we realized there
+was to be no shower of poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs, we continued along the jungle
+trail, through woods which gradually became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight ahead and, to our
+intense astonishment, the bright green of waving sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found us at
+a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it
+was never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured
+Indian wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work, evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said
+some called this place &#8220;Jes&uacute;s Maria&#8221; because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3290">It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's invitation to make ourselves at <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3292"></a>Page 286</span>home, and sat down to an abundant meal of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (<i>manioc</i>). Saavedra gave us to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had, but that he would do everything to
+enable us to see the ruins, which were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the valley, to be reached
+only by a hard trail passable for barefooted savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a good part of the
+distance on hands and knees. The next day, while our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote collected
+a large number of insects, including eight new species of moths and butterflies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3297">I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar
+cane than he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead
+of being &#8220;a very powerful chief having many Indians under his control&#8221;&#8212;a kind of &#8220;Pooh-Bah&#8221;&#8212;he was merely a pioneer. In the
+utter wilderness, far from any neighbors, surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established his home. He was
+not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman, soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic, a modest
+Peruvian of the best type.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3299">Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate such <i>pampas</i> as he could find&#8212;one an alluvial fan near his house, another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was a thatched
+shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3304"></a>Page 287</span>each capable of being turned, with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of roughly hewn timbers fastened
+together with wooden pins and lashed with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been unable to coax any
+pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that of his
+active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other
+trade articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were
+a game. At other times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3306">Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using in the process of boiling the juice and making crude
+sugar. He said he had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by the Incas. Four of them were of the
+familiar <i>aryballus</i> type. Another was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base, single incised, conventionalized, animal-head
+nubbin attached to the shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median line. Although capable of holding
+more than ten gallons, this huge pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a rope passing through
+the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined with stones,
+with a flat stone on top&#8212;evidently ancient graves. The bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3311"></a>Page 288</span>graves had been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He had also found a few stone implements and
+two or three small bronze Inca axes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3313">On the <i>pampa</i>, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have
+taken the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no pack animals and was usually obliged to bring
+the cane to the mill on his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier, while the cane was growing,
+to construct a new mill near the cane field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the hill. He said his
+hardest task was to get money with which to send his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in which
+he could get any cash was by making <i>chancaca</i>, crude brown sugar, and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days' journey on foot up the mountain
+to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could usually sell such a
+load for five <i>soles</i>, equivalent to two dollars and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain, although he smilingly admitted
+that it was very difficult to keep the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the river continually washed
+away his little rustic bridges. His chief regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he had had nothing
+to do, the government had decreed that all firearms should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3324"></a>Page 289</span>needed to enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3326"></p>
+<div id="d0e3327" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p288-1.jpg" alt="Saavedra and his Inca Pottery"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Saavedra and his Inca Pottery</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3331"></p>
+<div id="d0e3332" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p288-2.jpg" alt="Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3336">In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large turkey-like bird, the <i>pava de la monta&ntilde;a</i>, glossy black, its most striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly
+domesticated. It would make an attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3341">Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe
+said it was without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3343">So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about
+taxes and have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers
+ran toward the house in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a &#8220;savage&#8221; in the bushes near by. The &#8220;wild
+man&#8221; was very timid, but curiosity finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage to accept Saavedra's
+urgent invitation that he come out and meet us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad cold in his
+head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that I have ever seen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3345">He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his ankles. It was made of a large square <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3347"></a>Page 290</span>of coarsely woven cotton cloth, with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up, leaving holes for the
+arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large mouth.
+His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber
+net. Around his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together.
+Although I did not see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees, he used this stout loop to fasten his
+ankles together and thus secure a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3349">By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us
+that these Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra and his son spoke a little of their language,
+which sounded to our unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and gutturals. It was pieced out by signs.
+The long tunics worn by the men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they wear very scanty attire&#8212;nothing
+more than a few rags hanging over one shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough garment to wear
+during the cold nights, and their only covering, must impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that
+they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3351"></a>Page 291</span>found it uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber
+estate.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3353">Saavedra said that he had named his plantation <i>Conservidayoc</i>, because it was in truth &#8220;a spot where one may be preserved from harm.&#8221; Such was the home of the potentate from whose abode
+&#8220;no one had been known to return alive.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3358"></a>Page 292</span></p><a id="d0e3359"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XV</h2>
+<h1>The Pampa of Ghosts</h1>
+<p id="d0e3362">Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been
+clearing. We emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine view down the valley and particularly of a
+heavily wooded alluvial fan just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little oval huts of the savages
+of Espiritu Pampa, the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3364">On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower.
+From here to Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about four feet in width and nearly a third of a
+mile long. It was built of uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief duty it was to watch from
+the top of the promontory and who used their spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as a heavy
+thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle.
+We hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not
+our nervousness. The hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs driven endwise into the ground <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3366"></a>Page 293</span>and fastened together with vines. A small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two old black ollas of
+Inca origin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3368">In the little <i>chacra</i>, cassava, <i>coca</i>, and sweet potatoes were growing in haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical <i>milpa</i> farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if
+this could be the &#8220;Inca city&#8221; which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+There was nothing Incaic about the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all the rest were round. The
+buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down, but gave
+no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other
+circular walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If the savages have extended their <i>milpa</i> clearings since our visit, the falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient village probably belonged
+to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication of their having
+been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began to wonder whether the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts&#8221; really had anything important in
+store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been
+inhabited, off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an &#8220;Inca city.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3382"></a>Page 294</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3383">While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here, there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy
+young savage, armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a
+bird he had shot. Soon afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's, accompanied by a cross-eyed friend,
+all wearing long tunics. They offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to follow their rapid pace.
+Half an hour's scramble through the jungle brought us to a <i>pampa</i> or natural terrace on the banks of a little tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found several old
+artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long, rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only
+a foot high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently the structure had never been completed. Near by
+was a typical Inca fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous,
+hidden behind a curtain of hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few feet in any direction, the
+savages showed us the ruins of a group of stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3388"></p>
+<div id="d0e3389" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p294.jpg" alt="Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3393">One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by itself at the south end of a little <i>pampa</i>, had neither doors nor windows. It was <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3398"></a>Page 295</span>rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an unusual
+dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side of the <i>pampa</i> was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones laid
+in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo, the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the <i>pampa</i> was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed
+fountain or bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of the houses, their general arrangement, the
+niches, stone roof-pegs and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3406">Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments
+we could find would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different sizes, as though some one had been experimenting.
+Perhaps an Inca who had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them here in the jungle, but without
+success.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3408">At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands, and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary
+and sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were
+doomed to disappointment. During the day some <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3410"></a>Page 296</span>one had brought to the hut eight tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined to make the night hideous
+with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose of exorcising
+the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3412">The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as much as possible of the tangled growth near the best
+ruins. In this process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of the savages, they discovered, just below
+the &#8220;bathhouse&#8221; where we had stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of superior construction, well
+fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches, very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a little artificial
+terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery were found on the floor, including pieces of a large <i>aryballus</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3417">Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the fact that the savages themselves had often been within five
+feet of these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3419">Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search,
+but all that any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages
+carefully. They said they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of Espiritu Pampa <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3421"></a>Page 297</span>and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Father Calancha, that &#8220;University of Idolatry where lived the teachers
+who were wizards and masters of abomination,&#8221; the place to which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering?
+Was there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they
+handled their monastic robes in the water? They called it a &#8220;three days' journey over rough country.&#8221; Another reference in
+Father Calancha speaks of Puquiura as being &#8220;two long days' journey from Vilcabamba.&#8221; It took us five days to go from Espiritu
+Pampa to Pucyura, although Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity, might do it in three. It is possible
+to fit some other details of the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road called Ungacacha. Nevertheless
+it does not seem to me reasonable to suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the &#8220;University of
+Idolatry&#8221;) who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa would
+have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and
+Egypt, or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could
+have found the seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other parts of the province, particularly at
+Machu Picchu, together with a cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3423"></a>Page 298</span>nearly resembling those to which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says <i>&#8220;Vilcabamba</i> the Old&#8221; was &#8220;the largest city&#8221; in the province, a term far more applicable to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than
+to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3428">On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his forces lost the &#8220;young fortress&#8221; of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless
+wishing to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of
+Tupac &#8220;Vilcabamba the old.&#8221; Ocampo's new &#8220;Vilcabamba&#8221; was not in existence when Friar Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this
+province. If Calancha wrote his chronicles from their notes, the term &#8220;old&#8221; would not apply to Espiritu Pampa, but to an older
+Vilcabamba than either of the places known to Ocampo.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3433">The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have required a long period to build. The unfinished building
+may have been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez
+de Figueroa should meet him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common
+at Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3438"></a>Page 299</span>the ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences of this Inca&#8212;the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he
+spent his boyhood and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565.<a id="d0e3440src" href="#d0e3440" class="noteref">1</a>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3443">In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled &#8220;inland toward
+the valley of Sima-ponte &#8230; to the country of the Ma&ntilde;aries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends, where <i>balsas</i> and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to escape.&#8221; There is now no valley in this vicinity called Simaponte, so
+far as we have been able to discover. The Ma&ntilde;aries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower Urubamba. In order
+to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts&#8221; to canoe
+navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that, not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river,
+he constructed five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them himself, went down the rapids, escaping
+death many times by swimming, until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of his approach,
+had gone farther into the woods. Nothing daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go on foot and barefooted,
+with hardly anything <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3448"></a>Page 300</span>to eat, most of their provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught Tupac and his friends; a tragic
+ending to a terrible chase, hard on the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3450">It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed
+possible that the Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of which were believed by Dr. Bowman's
+canoe-men to rise in the mountains of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we were able definitely
+to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the &#8220;Sima-ponte.&#8221;
+Whether the Comberciato is the &#8220;Momori&#8221; is hard to say.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3452">To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and
+Maynard. They found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were tormented by insects and great quantities
+of ants&#8212;a small red ant found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length, frequently seen among the leaves
+on the ground. The bite of the red ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of their carriers who
+was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also his leg and
+hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3454"></a>Page 301</span>made of palm leaves a few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three Indians fished all night and caught
+only one fish, a perch weighing about four pounds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3456">The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to
+become blue with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3458">The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The
+lower course of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation, but the valley is much narrower than the
+Cosireni. The width of the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the Cosireni. The climate is very trying.
+The nights are hot. Insect pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that &#8220;the forest was filled with annoying, though sting-less,
+bees which persisted in attempting to roost on the countenance of any human being available.&#8221; On the banks of the Comberciato
+he found several families of savages. All the men were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful bows
+made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3460">Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found, including the large red howler, inert and easily located
+by its deep, roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles; the giant black spider monkey, very alert,
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3462"></a>Page 302</span>and, when frightened, fairly flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey, black in color, and very
+intelligent in expression, frequently tamed by the savages, who &#8220;enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to eating them
+when food is scarce.&#8221; &#8220;The flesh of monkeys is greatly appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3464">On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened
+proved to contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies
+into a small bag, saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3466">The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it
+harder to use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate this valley for about ten years, and at first
+kept their wives and children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker were sent here to determine the astronomical
+position of Espiritu Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their families. Perhaps it is doubtful
+whether they knew just what he was doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3468"></p>
+<div id="d0e3469" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p302-1.jpg" alt="Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3473"></p>
+<div id="d0e3474" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p302-2.jpg" alt="Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3478">All the men and older boys wore white fillets of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3480"></a>Page 303</span>bamboo. The married men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the characteristic lip ornament of the
+Campas. Some of the children wore no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One of them had a truly
+savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet, had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows.
+All the women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One little girl, not more than six years old, was
+carrying on her back a child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It will be remembered that forest
+Indians nearly always use tump-lines so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer than the others and
+looked as though she might have had a Spanish ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad, wore
+a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied around her waist. All her children were naked. The children
+of the woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics, and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite,
+was decorated with bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3482">Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy
+as monkey meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by the highlanders, may be doubted. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3484"></a>Page 304</span>Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards &#8220;rather than to perish of famine.&#8221;
+His Indian allies lived perfectly well in a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever have permitted
+Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3486">At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of this valley having been an important part of the domain
+of the last Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas.
+Although they did not have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous as to what use the latter might
+some day make of the powerful bows and long arrows.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3488">At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a
+row along the side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The
+result was a confection or &#8220;emergency ration&#8221; which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3490">At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed
+out of the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had
+been falling above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's
+fire and filled <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3492"></a>Page 305</span>our tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet, and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly
+nothing ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3494"></a>Page 306</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e3440" href="#d0e3440src" class="noteref">1</a> Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e3495"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVI</h2>
+<h1>The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas</h1>
+<p id="d0e3498">It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which
+we could not fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its
+buildings are far older than the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we may have found at Machu
+Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at the time
+of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far
+away from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly
+seven hundred years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536 and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about
+800 A.D.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3500"></p>
+<div id="d0e3501" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p306.jpg" alt="Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3505">The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty generations, when, as has been told in <a id="d0e3507" href="#d0e1538">Chapter VI</a>, invaders came from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering
+feats which we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti
+VI, who was killed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3510"></a>Page 307</span>by an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos, whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been
+translated for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University, tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI
+fled with his body to &#8220;Tampu-tocco.&#8221; This, says the historian, was &#8220;a healthy place&#8221; where there was a cave in which they
+hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General anarchy prevailed throughout
+the ancient empire. The good old days of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the old empire was
+destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which followed
+the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire, Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units.
+Each district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen
+in the ruins of small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3512">Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests, wise men, and chiefs of the ancient r&eacute;gime, built a new city at
+&#8220;Tampu-tocco.&#8221; Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to
+them, little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3514"></a>Page 308</span>chiefs or &#8220;robber barons.&#8221; In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi Truaman Quicho.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3516">The survivors of the old r&eacute;gime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco, because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or
+tremblings there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed,
+they could bury him in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of Pachacuti VI.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3518">Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed.
+To their ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth recording happened for centuries. During this
+period several of the kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great Amautas had reigned, but for
+one reason or another were obliged to forego their ambitions.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3520">One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began
+to write on the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping
+idols and animals, to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall of the Amautas, and to return to the
+ways of their ancestors. He met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were killed and little or no change
+took place. Discouraged by the failure of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause, Tupac Cauri was
+told by his soothsayers that the matter which most displeased <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3522"></a>Page 309</span>the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate
+was observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used letters. Instead, they used <i>quipus</i>, strings and knots. It was supposed that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one realized how near
+the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most momentous step.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3527">This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest.
+We have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons
+with Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal
+ancestors and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard.
+As a matter of fact, to students of Sumner's &#8220;Folkways,&#8221; the story rings true. Some young fellow, brighter than the rest,
+developed a system of ideographs which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were beginning to adopt it.
+The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets, heretofore handed
+down orally to the neophytes, might become public property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to spread.
+There followed some extremely unlucky event&#8212;the ambassadors were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3529"></a>Page 310</span>that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by
+the priests, determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient;
+the leaves withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were lost. Had the new invention been permitted to
+exist a little longer, some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it would have persisted. The rulers
+and priests, however, found that the important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well by means of the <i>quipus</i>. And the &#8220;job&#8221; of those whose duty it was to remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is nothing
+unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from making important advances.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3534">Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco a kind of university where boys were taught the use of
+<i>quipus</i>, the method of counting and the significance of the different colored strings, while their fathers and older brothers were
+trained in military exercises&#8212;in other words, practiced with the sling, the bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows
+and arrows. Around the name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called, is gathered the story of various
+intellectual movements which took place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3539"></a>Page 311</span>military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition
+of their ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to make the attempt to reestablish themselves
+there. An earthquake, which ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses, destroyed towns, and was
+followed by the outbreak of a disastrous epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although in healthy Tampu-tocco
+there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was terraced
+and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized, and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic
+ruler of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca, the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3541">There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how
+he could secure new lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined to set out with them &#8220;toward the hill
+over which the sun rose,&#8221; as we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was a descendant of a long line
+of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the antiquities
+of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it was handed down to the descendants of the former <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3543"></a>Page 312</span>rulers of Peru. In it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in reaching Cuzco and settled there. With
+the return of the descendants of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco married his own sister in
+order that he might not lose caste and that no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with his. He
+made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief,
+the most valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains and soldiers were brave, well disciplined,
+and well armed. All his affairs prospered greatly. <i>&#8220;Afterward he ordered works to be executed at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three windows, which
+were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco.&#8221;</i> I quote from Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3548"></p>
+<div id="d0e3549" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p312-1.jpg" alt="The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3553"></p>
+<div id="d0e3554" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p312-2.jpg" alt="The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3558">The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south
+of Cuzco. I learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in the town. The most important are the ruins
+of Maucallacta, an Inca village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting of several crags and large rocks,
+the surface of one of which is carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma Urco. Beneath the rocks <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3560"></a>Page 313</span>are some caves. I was told they had recently been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and the characteristics
+of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if Tampu-tocco
+must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would
+it have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army to have taken refuge there and set up an independent
+kingdom in the face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu
+is not a natural citadel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3562">The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no
+natural defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of the Amautas. Furthermore, <i>tampu</i> means &#8220;a place of temporary abode,&#8221; or &#8220;a tavern,&#8221; or &#8220;an improved piece of ground&#8221; or &#8220;farm far from a town&#8221;; <i>tocco</i> means &#8220;window.&#8221; There is an old tavern at Maucallacta near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to justify
+the name of &#8220;window tavern&#8221; or &#8220;place of temporary abode&#8221; (or &#8220;farm far from a town&#8221;) &#8220;noted for its windows.&#8221; There is nothing
+of a &#8220;masonry wall with three windows&#8221; corresponding to Salcamayhua's description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace.
+The word &#8220;Tampu-tocco&#8221; does not occur on any map I have been able to consult, nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru
+compiled by Paz Soldan.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3570"></a>Page 314</span></p><a id="d0e3571"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVII</h2>
+<h1>Machu Picchu</h1>
+<p id="d0e3574">It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions
+near Cuzco by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy to Colpani the road runs through a land
+of matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali
+near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the power of
+its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds
+more than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming,
+glistening, roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious
+vegetation, and the mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward by ever-recurring surprises through
+a deep, winding gorge, turning and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all, there is the fascination
+of finding here and there under the swaying vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of a bygone race;
+and of trying to understand the bewildering romance of the ancient <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3576"></a>Page 315</span>builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty.
+Space forbids any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama, the rank tropical foliage, the countless
+terraces, the towering cliffs, the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3578">We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told
+us of ruins at Machu Picchu, as was related in <a id="d0e3580" href="#d0e2362">Chapter X</a>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3583">The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay
+him well if he would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb for such a wet day. When he found that
+we were willing to pay him a <i>sol</i>, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity, he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed
+that they would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance
+upstream. On the road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This region has an unpleasant notoriety for
+being the favorite haunt of &#8220;vipers.&#8221; The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the fer-de-lance, a very venomous
+serpent capable of making considerable springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two of our mules died
+from snake-bite.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3588"></a>Page 316</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3589">After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of
+the river. Here there was a primitive &#8220;bridge&#8221; which crossed the roaring rapids at its narrowest part, where the stream was
+forced to flow between two great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs, some of which were not long
+enough to span the distance between the boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga and Carrasco
+took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite
+boulders. I am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled across, six inches at a time. Even after we
+reached the other side I could not help wondering what would happen to the &#8220;bridge&#8221; if a particularly heavy shower should
+fall in the valley above. A light rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the bridge was already threatened
+by the foaming rapids. It would not take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should happen during the
+day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact, it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to cross
+the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3591">Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle, and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous
+slope. For an hour and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3593"></a>Page 317</span>twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips of
+our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way
+as to help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable cliff. In another place the slope was covered with
+slippery grass where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide said that there were lots of snakes here.
+The humidity was great, the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3595">Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected
+arrival, welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes,
+called here <i>cumara</i>, a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian <i>kumala</i>, as has been pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3603">Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a
+few ancient stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their
+home. They said they had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and they were usually free from undesirable
+visitors. They did not speak Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more ruins &#8220;a little farther
+along.&#8221; In this country one never can tell whether such a report is worthy of credence. &#8220;He may have <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3605"></a>Page 318</span>been lying&#8221; is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly, I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry
+to move. The heat was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench,
+hospitably covered immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most comfortable. Furthermore, the view
+was simply enchanting. Tremendous green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba below. Immediately in front,
+on the north side of the valley, was a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the solitary peak of Huayna
+Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped mountains
+rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3607">The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more
+difficult&#8212;a perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side of the ridge. It was their only means of egress
+in the wet season, when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was not surprised to learn that they
+went away from home only &#8220;about once a month.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3609">Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon
+had been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of the new government road settlers began once more to
+occupy this region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on the slopes of Machu <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3611"></a>Page 319</span>Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial terraces,
+in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of maize,
+sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of
+the ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found, however, that there were neither springs nor wells
+near the ancient buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream to the citadel had long since disappeared
+beneath the forest, filled with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter of the ruins, the Indians
+were now enjoying the convenience of living near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3613">Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had
+a glimpse, and the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo
+and Torontoy, I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed farther up the ridge and around a slight
+promontory. Arteaga had &#8220;been here once before,&#8221; and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte and Alvarez in the hut. They
+sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3615">Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3617"></a>Page 320</span>recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a
+maze of beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow,
+hiding in bamboo thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls of white granite ashlars most carefully
+cut and exquisitely fitted together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a &#8220;place far from town and conspicuous
+for its windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3619"></p>
+<div id="d0e3620" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p320-1.jpg" alt="Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3624"></p>
+<div id="d0e3625" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p320-2.jpg" alt="Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3629">Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended
+to be a Royal Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building had been constructed. The wall followed
+the natural curvature of the rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I have ever seen. This beautiful
+wall, made of carefully matched ashlars of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the work of a master
+artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly simple
+and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars, gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing
+in size toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars,
+and the gradual gradation of the courses, combined to produce a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3631"></a>Page 321</span>wonderful effect, softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar,
+there are no ugly spaces between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3633">The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the
+eye of a master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the square. He had no instruments of precision, so
+he had to depend on his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry and beauty of form. His product received
+none of the harshness of mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular blocks are not really rectangular.
+The apparently straight lines of the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3635">To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework
+in the far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great
+stairway of large granite blocks, walked along a <i>pampa</i> where the Indians had a small vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins of two of the finest
+structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite; their
+walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length, and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3640">Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the side toward the clearing. The <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3642"></a>Page 322</span>principal temple was lined with exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the back wall. There were
+seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long, probably
+a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3644">The other temple is on the east side of the <i>pampa</i>. I called it the Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking
+the citadel, is a massive stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too large to serve any useful purpose,
+yet most beautifully made with the greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of peculiar significance.
+Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there a similar structure conspicuous as &#8220;a masonry wall with three windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3649">These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries
+when it was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness
+protected by natural bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent
+excavations and the clearing made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that this was the chief place
+in Uilcapampa.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3651"></a>Page 323</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3652">It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco
+and I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by
+the Indians for their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick jungle growth&#8212;some walls were actually supporting
+trees ten and twelve inches in diameter&#8212;that it was impossible to determine just what would be found here. As soon as I could
+get hold of Mr. Tucker, who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the Urubamba with Dr. Bowman,
+I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential for Mr. Tucker
+to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte and
+Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data
+from which Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could any words of mine the importance of this site
+and the necessity for further investigation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3654">With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their
+importance. No one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of the ridge. It had never been visited by
+any of the planters of the lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds through the canyon two thousand
+feet below.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3656"></a>Page 324</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3657">It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed
+by travelers and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the <i>conquistadores</i> ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly refers
+to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges
+was at Huadqui&ntilde;a in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near, he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the
+walls of one of the finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately
+below the bridge of San Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have visited Machu Picchu long before
+that; because in 1875, as has been said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of there being ruins at
+&#8220;Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu.&#8221; He tried to find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the canyon
+of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which
+brought him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3662"></p>
+<div id="d0e3663" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p324-1.jpg" alt="Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3667"></p>
+<div id="d0e3668" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p324-2.jpg" alt="Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3672">It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up
+the lower valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the banks of the river through the grand <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3674"></a>Page 325</span>canyon to enable the much-desired <i>coca</i> and <i>aguardiente</i> to be shipped from Huadqui&ntilde;a, Maranura, and Santa Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids the
+necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent
+repair. In fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days or weeks at a time, following some tremendous
+avalanche. Yet it was this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where
+he could raise food for his family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this new road which brought Richarte,
+Alvarez, and their enterprising friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of occupying the ancient
+terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over the precipices,
+and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between Ollantaytambo
+and Huadqui&ntilde;a and enabled us to learn that the Incas, or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses
+of the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty of their ancient civilization, more interesting
+and extensive than any which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3682"></a>Page 326</span></p><a id="d0e3683"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVIII</h2>
+<h1>The Origin of Machu Picchu</h1>
+<p id="d0e3686">Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and
+of the ancient towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest content with a discussion of its probable
+identity. Here was a powerful citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful of defenders could prevent
+a great army from taking the place by assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture as to have built
+a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3688">The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced
+in order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration.
+They were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture, sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world
+has ever seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently advanced in art to realize the beauty of
+simplicity. What could have induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes, with all its disadvantages,
+as the site for their capital, unless they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3690">The thought will already have occurred to the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3692"></a>Page 327</span>reader that the Temple of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native writer who had &#8220;heard from a child
+the most ancient traditions and histories,&#8221; including the story already quoted from Sir Clements Markham's translation that
+Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, &#8220;ordered works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called &#8216;Tampu-tocco.&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+Although none of the other chroniclers gives the story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the place
+of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a place called Tampu-tocco, &#8220;an inn or country place remarkable
+for its windows.&#8221; Sir Clements Markham, in his &#8220;Incas of Peru,&#8221; refers to Tampu-tocco as &#8220;the hill with the three openings
+or windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3694">The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu,
+about nine miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and caves, but careful examination shows that
+while there are more than three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The buildings of Machu Picchu,
+on the other hand, have far more windows than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu, like that of
+most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3696"></a>Page 328</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3697">So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of anything like a &#8220;masonry wall with three windows&#8221; of
+such a ceremonial character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would certainly seem as though the Temple of
+the Three Windows, the most significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3699"></p>
+<div id="d0e3700" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p328.jpg" alt="The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3704">The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the first meaning of <i>tocco</i> in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is &#8220;ventana&#8221; or <i>&#8220;window,&#8221;</i> and while &#8220;window&#8221; is the <i>only</i> meaning given this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908), a dictionary compiled from many sources,
+the second meaning of <i>tocco</i> given by Holguin is <i>&#8220;alacena,&#8221;</i> &#8220;a cupboard set in a wall.&#8221; Undoubtedly this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a niche. Now the
+drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression of
+niches rather than of windows. Does <i>Tampu-tocco</i> mean a <i>tampu</i> remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu,
+on the other hand, there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has been referred to as a &#8220;Royal Mausoleum.&#8221;
+As a matter of fact, nearly all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches were so common a feature
+of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling Tampu-tocco
+&#8220;the hill with <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3727"></a>Page 329</span>the three openings or windows.&#8221; In any case Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However, in view
+of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that
+they did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3729">It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by
+Toledo at the time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended from those who used to live near Las Salinas,
+the important salt works near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their fathers and grandfathers repeat
+the tradition that when the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did not say that
+the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the still older testimony of some Indians born before the
+arrival of the first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A chief, aged ninety-two, testified that
+Manco Ccapac came out of a cave called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not one of the witnesses stated
+that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu, although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done so if, as the
+contemporary historians believed, this was really the original Tampu-tocco. The <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3731"></a>Page 330</span>chroniclers were willing enough to accept the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco Ccapac was born,
+and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they should
+have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts
+had been successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with
+his body after the overthrow of the old r&eacute;gime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they know it was in the same fastnesses
+of the Andes to which in the days of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the cause of their reticence?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3733">Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the
+Urubamba made it an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries of lawlessness and confusion which
+succeeded the barbarian invasions from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent earthquakes and also its
+healthfulness, both marked characteristics of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the existence
+of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location
+might have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3735">So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is reasonable to conclude that the first name <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3737"></a>Page 331</span>of the ruins at Machu Picchu was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of the little kingdom where
+during the centuries between the Amautas and the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions of the
+ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3739">It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great
+organization of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools
+of wood, stone, and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes who knew little of the arts of peace. The
+defeated leaders had to choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce enemies. Furthermore, in the environs
+of Machu Picchu they found every variety of climate&#8212;valleys so low as to produce the precious <i>coca, yucca</i>, and <i>plantain</i>, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics; slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize, <i>quinoa</i>, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops, including both sweet and white potatoes, <i>oca, a&ntilde;u</i>, and <i>ullucu</i>. Here, within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry and cure the <i>coca</i> leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3759">Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with the most careful terracing was not large enough to support
+a very great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3761"></a>Page 332</span>to the chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the
+broad, pleasant valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a people which had reached such a stage
+in engineering, architecture, and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged canyons. Certainly there
+is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief need was
+a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3763">Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they
+utilized their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and
+their enemies on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for generations. Aided by the temperate climate
+in which they lived, and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours' climb up or down from their towns
+and cities, they became a hardy, vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought its way back to the
+rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital, the Empire
+of the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3765">After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco, what more natural than that he should have built a fine
+temple in honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas, and nothing would have been more reasonable than
+the construction of the Temple of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3767"></a>Page 333</span>Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from whom they
+traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of
+Cuzco itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco
+grew and the Inca Empire flourished.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3769">As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry
+to the islands of Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace was forgotten by the common people&#8212;although
+undoubtedly known to the priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3771">Then came Pizarro and the bigoted <i>conquistadores</i>. The native chiefs faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient religion. The Spaniards coveted gold
+and silver. The most precious possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but the sacred Virgins of the
+Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome, were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great Sun God.
+Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep
+them from hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices and secure the good effects of his smiling
+face. If he delayed his coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3776"></a>Page 334</span>would mildew and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his accustomed brightness after the harvest,
+the ears of corn could not be properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual behavior on the part of
+the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as &#8220;Virgins&#8221;
+who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others
+escaped and accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3778">It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril
+of their lives urged the Inca to let them visit the &#8220;University of Idolatry,&#8221; at &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; &#8220;the largest city&#8221; in
+the province. Machu Picchu admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to
+have kept the monks in the vicinity of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single glimpse of its unique
+temples and remarkable palaces. It would have been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego to the village
+of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley crossed
+the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the
+friars might easily have been <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3780"></a>Page 335</span>lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca &#8220;university.&#8221;
+Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little knowledge of the architectural character of &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; that no
+description of it could be given their friends, eventually to be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey
+across country from Puquiura might easily have taken &#8220;three days.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3782">Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial
+caves which we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion of skulls belonging to men is very large. There
+are many so-called &#8220;trepanned&#8221; skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured in war by having their skulls crushed
+in, either with clubs or the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found more than twenty-five skulls without
+encountering some &#8220;trepanned&#8221; specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the excavations at Machu Picchu,
+where one hundred sixty-four skulls were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been &#8220;trepanned.&#8221; Of the one hundred thirty-five
+skeletons whose sex could be accurately determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore, it was in the
+graves of the females that the finest artifacts were found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not a
+single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3784"></a>Page 336</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3785">Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast.
+This fits in with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only with beautiful women of the highlands, but
+also with those who came from the tribes of the Yungas, or &#8220;warm valleys.&#8221; The &#8220;warm valleys&#8221; may be those of the rubber country,
+but Sir Clements Markham thought the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3787">Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts discovered at Machu Picchu was a &#8220;snuffing tube&#8221; intended
+for use with the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers to induce a hypnotic state. This powder
+was made from the seeds of the tree which the Incas called <i>huilca</i> or <i>uilca</i>, which, as has been pointed out in <a id="d0e3795" href="#d0e2558">Chapter XI</a>, grows near these ruins. This seems to me to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with Calancha's
+&#8220;Vilcabamba.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3798">It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the requirements of &#8220;the largest city, in which was the University
+of Idolatry.&#8221; Until some one can find the ruins of another important place within three days' journey of Pucyura which was
+an important religious center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am inclined to believe that this was
+the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Calancha, just as Espiritu Pampa was the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Ocampo.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3800">In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3802"></a>Page 337</span>to be by Titu Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos, he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from
+Cuzco went first &#8220;to Vilcabamba, the head of all that province.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3804">In the <i>&#8220;Anales del Peru&#8221;</i> Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro, thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried to please the Inca
+by sending him a present of a very fine pony and a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger, the Inca
+killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this, he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite
+wife, and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that &#8220;when she should be dead they would put her remains in a
+basket and let it float down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it to her husband, the Inca.&#8221; She
+must have believed that at that time Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu Pampa is not.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3809">We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos, where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his
+house. Surrounded by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which the Spaniards were obliged to use in
+passing from Lima to Cuzco, he could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been so conveniently located for
+robbing the Spanish caravans nor for supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3811">There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu Picchu was at one time occupied <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3813"></a>Page 338</span>by the Incas and partly built by them on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably of the so-called
+Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore,
+they are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which
+would naturally be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the &#8220;head of the province.&#8221; Espiritu Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a
+place which was so important as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as &#8220;the largest city.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3815">It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest
+refuge for those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants
+Manco probably built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older ones. Here they lived out their days, secure
+in the knowledge that no Indians would ever breathe to the <i>conquistadores</i> the secret of their sacred refuge.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3820"></p>
+<div id="d0e3821" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p338.jpg" alt="The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3825">When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence
+was so well kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the theories of its identity with &#8220;Tampu-tocco&#8221;
+and &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles Wiener heard about it.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3827"></a>Page 339</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3828">Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate
+that the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza
+de Leon and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information about all the holy places of the Incas, give the
+names of many places which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may finally recognize the temples of Machu
+Picchu. On the other hand, it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or other chroniclers had seen this
+citadel, they would have described its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3830">Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have
+the ruins of Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also the ruins of a sacred city of the last
+Incas. Surely this granite citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of its striking beauty and the indescribable
+charm of its surroundings, appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800 A.D. as the safest place of
+refuge for the last remnants of the old r&eacute;gime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the capital of a new
+kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire, it seems to have been again sought out in time of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3832"></a>Page 340</span>trouble, when in 1534 another foreign invader arrived&#8212;this time from Europe&#8212;with a burning desire to extinguish all vestiges
+of the ancient religion. In its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the Sun, priestesses of the most
+humane cult of aboriginal America. Here, concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and nature, these
+consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls and artifacts
+to be described in another volume. Whoever they were, whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure&#8212;that few romances can ever surpass that of the granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu
+Picchu, the crown of Inca Land.
+
+</p><a id="d0e3835"></a><h1>Glossary</h1>
+<p id="d0e3838">A&ntilde;u: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3840">Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3842">Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3844">Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes
+the bar-hold is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually found in the gateway of a compound or group
+of Inca houses.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3846">Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3848">Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3850">Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches
+wide, and 2 inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles to its slope and flush with its surface.
+To it the purlins of the roof could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the lintel of a gateway to a
+compound. If the &#8220;bar-holds&#8221; were intended to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders may have been
+for a vertical bar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3852">Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The <i>alcaldes</i> are his Indian aids.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3857">Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3859">Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3861">Ma&ntilde;ana: To-morrow, or by and by. The &#8221;<i>ma&ntilde;ana</i> habit&#8221; is Spanish-American procrastination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3866">Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3868">Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The <i>milpa</i> system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire, destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3873">Monta&ntilde;a: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys
+and the Amazon Basin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3875">Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3877">Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3879">Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3881">Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3883"></a>Page 344</span>a gable wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used in connection with &#8220;eye-bonders,&#8221; the roof-pegs served
+as points to which the roof could be tied down.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3885">Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little less than half a gold dollar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3887">Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3889">Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside
+so as to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often found alternating with niches and placed on a level
+with the lintels of the niches.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3891">Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3893">Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3895">Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village or hamlet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3897">Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3899">Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3901">Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state, used for making chu&ntilde;o, after drying, freezing, and pressing
+out the bitter juices.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3903">Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3905">Viejo: Old.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3907"></a>Page 347</span></p><a id="d0e3908"></a><h1>Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society</h1>
+<p id="d0e3911">Thomas Barbour:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3913">Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. <i>Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</i>, LXV, 505&#8211;507, September, 1913. 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3918">(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3920">Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian Expedition of 1914&#8211;1915. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, LVIII, 609&#8211;620, 1921<i></i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3927">Hiram Bingham:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3929">The Ruins of Choqquequirau. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XII, 505&#8211;525, October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3934">Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi, 405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8&deg;.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3936">Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLIV, 20&#8211;26, January, 1912.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3941">The Ascent of Coropuna. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXIV, 489&#8211;502, March, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3946">Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. <i>Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society</i>, XXII, N.S., 135&#8211;196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3951">The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 297&#8211;305, April, 1912. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3956">A Search for the Last Inca Capital. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXV, 696&#8211;705, October, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3961">The Discovery of Machu Picchu. <i>Ibid</i>., CXXVI, 709&#8211;719, April, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3966">In the Wonderland of Peru. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIV, 387&#8211;573, April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3971">The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in 1911. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 211, 1&#8211;2, July, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3976">The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XVI, No. 2, 185&#8211;199. April&#8211;June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3981">Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXIX, 452&#8211;463, August, 1914. Illus., map.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3986"></a>Page 348</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3987">The Pampaconas River. <i>The Geographical Journal</i>, XLIV, 211&#8211;214, August, 1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3992">The Story of Machu Picchu. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXVII, 172&#8211;217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3997">Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XVII, 257&#8211;271, April&#8211;June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4002">The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. <i>Proceedings of Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists</i>, Washington, D.C., pp. 253&#8211;260, December, 1915.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4007">Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIX, 431&#8211;473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4012">Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. <i>The Builder</i>, II, No. 12, 361&#8211;366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4017">(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4019">Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIV, 12&#8211;16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4024">Isaiah Bowman:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4026">The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 306&#8211;325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4031">A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca Race. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXIV, No. 204, 497&#8211;509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4036">The Ca&ntilde;on of the Urubamba. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLIV, 881&#8211;897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4041">The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336
+pp., plates, maps, plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4043">Lawrence Bruner:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4045">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Acridiidae&#8212;Short Horned Locusts). <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 177&#8211;187, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4050">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to the Acridiidae). <i>Ibid</i>., XLV, 585&#8211;586, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4055">A. N. Caudell:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4057">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of Acridiidae). <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 347&#8211;357, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4062">Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4064">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. <i>Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy</i> at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177&#8211;299, 1916. 25 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4069">Frank M. Chapman:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4071">The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of Peru. <i>U.S. National Museum Bulletin</i> 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4076"></a>Page 349</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4077">O. F. Cook:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4079">Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. <i>Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences</i>, VI, No. 4, 86&#8211;90, 1916.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4084">Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. <i>Ibid</i>., VI, No. 10, 284&#8211;293, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4089">Staircase Farms of the Ancients. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIX, 474&#8211;534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4094">Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. <i>Smithsonian Report for 1918</i>, 487&#8211;491. 4 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4099">Domestication of Animals in Peru. <i>Journal of Heredity</i>, x, 176&#8211;181, April, 1919. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4104">(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4106">Polar Bear Cacti. <i>Journal of Heredity</i>, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113&#8211;120, March, 1917. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4111">William H. Dall:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4113">Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XXXVIII, 177&#8211;182, 1911. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4118">Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale Expedition. <i>Smithsonian Misc. Collections</i>, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4123">Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4125">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLV, 627&#8211;649, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4130">George F. Eaton:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4132">Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of Cuzco. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 325&#8211;333, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4137">Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVI, No. 211, 3&#8211;14, July, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4142">Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 218, 141&#8211;154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4147">The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu Picchu. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, v, 3&#8211;96, May, 1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4152">William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4154">Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. <i>Yale Medical Journal</i>, XVIII, 325&#8211;335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4159">Alexander W. Evans:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4161">Hepatic&aelig;: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, XVIII, 291&#8211;345, April, 1914.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4166"></a>Page 350</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4167">Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4169">The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. <i>Memoirs, American Anthropological Assoc</i>., III, No. 2, 59&#8211;148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4174">Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga Indians. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, XXV, 1&#8211;92, April, 1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4179">Harry W. Foote:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4181">(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4183">The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze Axes. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIV, 128&#8211;132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4188">Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4190">The Gravels at Cuzco. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 211, 15&#8211;29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4195">The La Paz Gorge. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVI, 141&#8211;150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4200">A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLV, 561&#8211;575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4205">Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 213, 187&#8211;213, September, 1913. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4210">Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 218, 125&#8211;140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4215">The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 220, 289&#8211;298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4220">A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. <i>Ibid</i>., XLI, No. 241, 1&#8211;100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4225">Osgood Hardy:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4227">Cuzco and Apurimac. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLVI, No. 7, 500&#8211;512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4232">The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XXI, 1&#8211;27, January&#8211;March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4237">Sir Clements Markham:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4239">Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, <i>Geographical Journal</i>, XXXVIII, No. 6, 590&#8211;591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4244">C. H. Mathewson:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4246">A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from Machu Picchu. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XL, No. 240, 525&#8211;602, December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4251">P. R. Myers:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4253">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911&#8212;Addendum to the Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLVII, 361&#8211;362, 1914.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4258"></a>Page 351</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4259">S. A. Rohwer:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4261">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911&#8212;Hymenoptera, Superfamilies Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 439&#8211;454, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4266">Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4268">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and Reptiles. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLV, 541&#8211;547, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4273">Oldfield Thomas:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4275">Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian Expedition of 1915. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, LVIII, 217&#8211;249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4280">H. L. Viereck:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4282">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 469&#8211;470, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4287">R. S. Williams:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4289">Peruvian Mosses. <i>Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club</i>, XLIII, 323&#8211;334, June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/10772-h/img/p324-1.jpg b/10772-h/img/p324-1.jpg
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diff --git a/10772-h/img/p324-2.jpg b/10772-h/img/p324-2.jpg
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diff --git a/10772-h/img/p328.jpg b/10772-h/img/p328.jpg
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/10772-h/img/p338.jpg b/10772-h/img/p338.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f666ee2
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diff --git a/10772-h/img/publisher-logo.jpg b/10772-h/img/publisher-logo.jpg
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/10772-h/style/amazonia.css b/10772-h/style/amazonia.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3a05a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/10772-h/style/amazonia.css
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+/* amazonia.css -- color scheme Amazonia, for use with Gutenberg stylesheet */
+
+body
+{
+	background:  #FFFFF5; /* #FFFFF5; very light green */
+}
+
+body, a.hidden
+{
+	color: black;
+}
+
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, .noteref, span.leftnote, p.legend, hr.noteseparator
+{
+	color: #880000; /* #880000; brownish red */
+}
+
+.navline, span.rightnote, span.pageno, span.lineno
+{
+	color: #808000; /* #808000;  olive green */
+}
+
+a.navline:hover, a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover
+{
+	color: red;
+}
diff --git a/10772-h/style/arctic.css b/10772-h/style/arctic.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63bc14d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/10772-h/style/arctic.css
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+/* arctic.css -- color scheme Arctic, for use with Gutenberg stylesheet */
+
+body
+{
+	background:  #FFFFFF;
+	font-family: Times, serif;
+}
+
+body, a.hidden
+{
+	color: black;
+}
+
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6
+{
+	color: #001FA4;
+	font-family: Arial, sans-serif;
+}
+
+.figureHead, .noteref, span.leftnote, p.legend
+{
+	color: #001FA4;
+}
+
+.navline, span.rightnote, span.pageno, span.lineno
+{
+	color: #AAAAAA;
+}
+
+a.navline:hover, a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover
+{
+	color: red;
+}
diff --git a/10772-h/style/borneo.css b/10772-h/style/borneo.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51cc9bc
--- /dev/null
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+/* borneo.css -- color scheme Borneo, for use with Gutenberg stylesheet */
+
+body
+{
+	background:  #FFFFEE; /* #FFFFEE;  light yellowish brown */
+}
+
+body, a.hidden
+{
+	color: black;
+}
+
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, .noteref, span.leftnote, p.legend
+{
+	color: #880000; /* #880000; brownish red */
+}
+
+.navline, span.rightnote, span.pageno
+{
+	color:  #AC8D70; /* #AC8D70; sepia */
+}
+
+a.navline:hover, a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover
+{
+	color: #D25C00; /* #D25C00; orange brown */
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/10772-h/style/gutenberg.css b/10772-h/style/gutenberg.css
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/10772-h/style/gutenberg.css
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+/* 
+	gutenberg.css --- A stylesheet for HTML in gutenberg HTML files
+
+	Jeroen Hellingman
+
+	This file is hereby irrevocably dedicated to the Public Domain.
+*/
+
+
+/*
+body - body of html page; define overall properties
+*/
+
+body
+{
+	line-height: 1.44em;
+	font-family: times, serif;
+	font-size: 1em;
+	font-weight: normal;
+	margin: 1.58em 16% 1.58em 16%; 
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+By
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+1922
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+"Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the
+Ranges--Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for
+you. Go!"
+
+Kipling: "The Explorer"
+------
+
+
+
+
+This Volume
+
+is affectionately dedicated
+
+to
+
+the Muse who inspired it
+
+the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into
+the interior of Peru and also many explorations into the labyrinth of
+early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my
+travels covered only a part of southern Peru, they took me into every
+variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude
+at which men have constructed houses or erected tents in the Western
+Hemisphere--from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to
+cross bleak Andean passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low
+temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into
+the dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as
+exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of violent
+contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of
+Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys have more plant life
+than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from
+glaciers to tree ferns within a few hours. So also in the labyrinth
+of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas--no historians
+go more rapidly from fact to fancy, from accurate observation to
+grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give
+conflicting statements with greater frequency. The story of the Incas
+is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+It was the mystery and romance of some of the wonderful pictures of
+a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively
+unknown region between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, sometimes called
+"the Cradle of the Incas." Although my photographs cannot compete with
+the imaginative pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that
+some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther
+into the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of
+identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+Some of my story has already been told in Harper's and the National
+Geographic, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission
+to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been
+published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course
+of preparation. My own observations are based partly on a study
+of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly
+on the maps and notes made by my companions, and partly on a study
+of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven
+thousand negatives. Another source of information was the opportunity
+of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great
+advantages of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same
+problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay;
+in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote, Dr. William
+G. Erving, Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius;
+in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr. Luther
+T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald,
+Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy, and Joseph Little;
+and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller,
+E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck,
+Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my
+comrades in enterprises which were not always free from discomfort or
+danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In
+the following pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork;
+at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps
+in another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to
+cover more particularly Machu Picchu [1] and its vicinity, they will
+eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for
+offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult to secure; to
+Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal
+and enthusiastic support; to President Taft of the United States and
+President Leguia of Peru for official help of a most important nature;
+to Messrs. W. R. Grace & Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and
+Mr. L. S. Blaisdell, of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and
+untiring cooeperation; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque,
+and their sons, and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University,
+for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and
+Miss Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but
+by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible the
+writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+October 1, 1922
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I.		Crossing the Desert	1
+II.		Climbing Coropuna 23
+III.	To Parinacochas 50
+IV.		Flamingo Lake 74
+V.		Titicaca  95
+VI.		The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders 110
+VII.	The Valley of the Huatanay 133
+VIII.	The Oldest City in South America 157
+IX.		The Last Four Incas 170
+X.		Searching for the Last Inca Capital 198
+XI.		The Search Continued 217
+XII.	The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun 241
+XIII.	Vilcabamba 255
+XIV.	Conservidayoc 266
+XV.		The Pampa of Ghosts 292
+XVI.	The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas 306
+XVII.	Machu Picchu 314
+XVIII.	The Origin of Machu Picchu 326
+
+		Glossary  341
+		Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+		and the National Geographic Society    345
+		Index	 353
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+"Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges"
+Frontispiece
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru 1
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest 12
+Mt. Coropuna from the South 24
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Camp on the Summit 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local Rug-weaving
+Industry 60
+	Photograph by C. Watkins
+Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta    66
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara 78
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli 90
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba 90
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno 98
+A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati 98
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa 114
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani 114
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya 120
+Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya 120
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche 128
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912 132
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta 136
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall 140
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca 140
+Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada 150
+Map of Peru and View of Cuzco 158
+	From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578
+Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco 162
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos 170
+The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in
+Uilcapampa 176
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac 186
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains 198
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915 202
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa 206
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay 210
+The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu 214
+Huadquina 220
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquina 225
+	Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley 238
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata 242
+	Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata 242
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi 246
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Nusta Isppana 248
+	Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Nusta Isppana 250
+Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock 250
+	Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+Nusta Isppana 256
+Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery 288
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa 288
+Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa 294
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu 306
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu 312
+The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu 312
+Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu 320
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-tocco 320
+Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu 324
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu 324
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu 328
+The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land 338
+
+
+Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs
+by the author.
+
+
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru.
+------
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Crossing the Desert
+
+A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most
+interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled "Peru. Travel
+and Exploration in the Land of the Incas." In that volume is a
+marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In the foreground is a
+delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face
+of a precipitous cliff and hangs in mid-air at great height above the
+swirling waters of the "great speaker." In the distance, towering above
+a mass of stupendous mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The
+desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that
+bridge decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire
+of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities to
+visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of "Across
+South America" will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau, an
+interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand
+feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac. There was some
+doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that
+the ruins represented the residence of the Inca Manco and his sons,
+who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru
+in the Andes between the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the
+clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing glimpses
+of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region,
+"behind the Ranges," which might contain great possibilities. Our
+guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in
+books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For months afterwards
+the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and
+beyond. In the words of Kipling's "Explorer":
+
+
+"... a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes
+On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated--so:
+'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges--
+Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!' "
+
+
+To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's
+"Titicaca and Koati," which had just appeared. In one of the
+interesting footnotes was this startling remark: "It is much to be
+desired that the elevation of the most prominent peaks of the western
+or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely ... that
+Coropuna, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa,
+is the culminating point of the continent. It exceeds 23,000 feet
+in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in
+the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763 feet (6940 meters) above
+sea level." His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil
+engineers of the Southern Railways of Peru, using a section of the
+railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to
+describe. Although I had been studying South American history and
+geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have
+heard of Coropuna. On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one
+of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found
+"Coropuna--6,949 m."--9 meters higher than Aconcagua!--one hundred
+miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the
+Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed very near
+Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands "behind
+the Ranges" which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence was
+intriguing. The desire to go and find that "something hidden" was now
+reenforced by the temptation to go and see whether Coropuna really was
+the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an
+expedition whose object was a geographical reconnaissance of Peru along
+the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba
+to tidewater on the Pacific. We achieved more than we expected.
+
+Our success was due in large part to our "unit-food-boxes," a device
+containing a balanced ration which Professor Harry W. Foote had
+cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to
+facilitate the provisioning of small field parties by packing in a
+single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions
+for a given period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction,
+not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had the
+responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words
+in regard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome.
+
+The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men
+for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men
+should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary their
+diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which
+in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn, eggs, mutton,
+and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned
+corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed oats, milk, cheese,
+coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams,
+pickles, and dried fruits and vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried
+fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient
+variety was procured without destroying the balanced character of
+the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large
+amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned fruits,
+however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food,
+we found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap,
+two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth bags, to be
+used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly
+appreciated article of food in our boxes was the rolled oats, a dish
+which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily
+prepared at high elevations, where rice cannot be properly boiled. It
+was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing
+the right amount of sugar. At the beginning of the field season the
+allowance--one third of a pound per day per man--seemed excessive, and
+I was criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the
+field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be supplemented.
+
+Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer
+to "rough it," and to "trust to luck" for his food. I had found on
+my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South
+America, that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular
+and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While "roughing it"
+is far more enticing to the inexperienced and indiscreet explorer,
+I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing,
+months in advance, a comprehensive bill of fare sufficiently varied,
+wholesome, and well-balanced, is "the better part of valor," The truth
+is that providing an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly
+to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble
+and expense for one's transportation department, and some of the
+younger men may feel that their reputations as explorers are likely
+to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and
+pickles are frequently found on their menu! Nevertheless, experience
+has shown that the results of "trusting to luck" and "living as the
+natives do" means not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but
+also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for
+the drudgery of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always
+easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery;
+and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome food.
+
+
+
+
+
+We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against
+Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian "winter"
+reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to
+try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms. On the other
+hand, the "summer months," beginning with November, are cloudy
+and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties of climbing a
+new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for
+exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Amazon
+Basin, the lands "behind the Ranges." Although the montana, or jungle
+country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the
+other months of the year; so we decided to go first to the Urubamba
+Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos,
+the capital of the last Incas, and of the finding of Machu Picchu will
+be found in later chapters. In September I returned to Arequipa and
+started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate
+transportation facilities for crossing the desert.
+
+Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of
+the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its
+large mules. Unfortunately, a "mule trust" had recently been
+formed--needless to say, by an American--and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing,
+the Tejada brothers appeared, two arrieros, or muleteers, who seemed
+willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand soles
+(five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train
+of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever we chose,
+we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues
+[2] a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument
+and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy arrieros that they were not going to be everlastingly
+ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules,
+knew the great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us
+and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the
+imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch. The argument
+that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my
+promise that after the first week the cargo would be so much less that
+at least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas,
+realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get sore
+backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of
+safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker,
+a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing,
+whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper equipment,
+was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent
+of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the mountain was
+due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss
+guides, and had originally intended to ask two other members of the
+Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making
+a geological and topographical cross section along the 73d meridian
+through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest
+passes in the Andes (17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to
+such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna
+before the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy
+season it did not seem wise to wait for their cooeperation. Accordingly,
+I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English
+naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of the Harvard Observatory. It
+was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti
+(19,120 ft.), should accompany us to the top, while Mr. Watkins,
+who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take
+charge of the Base Camp.
+
+The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in
+the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of rather more
+than average height and considerably more than average courage, who
+knew the country. As a member of the mounted gendarmerie, Gamarra had
+been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months
+previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous revolutionists stormed
+the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood
+his ground and, when they attempted to force their way past him, shot
+the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made
+him a corporal and, realizing that his life was no longer safe in that
+particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of
+his race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt
+that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered by the
+prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert,
+was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage could not be
+called in question even though his habits might lead him to become
+troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did not know we were planning
+to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the
+trials that were before him on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have
+begged off--but I am anticipating.
+
+On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left
+Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage of the
+journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty
+miles. The arrieros sent the cargo along too. In addition to the
+food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers,
+thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes, duffle bags, and
+a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from
+Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would reach Vitor about the
+same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of arrieros
+on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near
+the primitive little railway station.
+
+We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring pampa and
+studying the medanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in
+the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical
+jungles of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that
+it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert,
+broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers, coming
+from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for
+purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru, is in one of the
+largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog,
+the Peruvian coastal towns are almost never subjected to rain. The
+causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from
+the east, laden with the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the
+steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of
+the Andes and forced to deposit this moisture in the montana. By
+the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no
+rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come from the warm
+Pacific Ocean strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current,
+which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they
+reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To be sure, there
+are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes
+of the coast range that the hillsides are clothed with flowers, but
+this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the
+great stretches of desert pampa in the midst of which we now were. Like
+the other pampas of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the
+sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These medanos interested us greatly.
+
+The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle
+breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward the
+ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a
+regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving the heavier
+particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat
+increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up from the ocean to
+fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air
+that rise from the overheated pampas. During the early afternoon this
+wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It
+is now strong enough to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It
+sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits
+them in pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains
+stationary at night while the lighter particles are rolled downhill,
+but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of
+the following afternoon. The result is the beautiful crescent-shaped
+medano.
+
+
+
+
+
+About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot--far superior to any
+that we had been able to secure near Cuzco--trotted briskly into the
+dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was
+nearly seven o'clock before we started off in the moonlight for the
+oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail
+winding down into a dark canyon we caught a glimpse of something
+white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest;
+Coropuna! Shortly before nine o'clock we reached a little corral,
+where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with
+a clean, stone-paved floor, where we set up our cots, only to be
+awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to
+avoid the terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest
+------
+
+
+Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day,
+but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or ten hours'
+steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack
+animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most caravans travel, so far
+as possible, by night. Our first desert, the pampa of Sihuas, was
+reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see
+what was to be seen. We got up about half-past four and were off
+before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in
+Arequipa or because they thought he looked like a good horseman,
+or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given
+Mr. Hinckley a very spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew,
+her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was done,
+and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal
+Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on his dangerous mule we
+rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over
+paths flanked by willows and fig trees. The chief industry of Vitor is
+the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The
+wine is aged in huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the
+ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line,
+awaiting sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
+who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean crocks.
+
+The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which
+the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out of
+foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is
+the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards; on the other
+side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the
+oasis there is an abundance of water. Much of it runs to waste. The
+wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land
+could easily be put under cultivation. The chief difficulties are
+the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer
+world, the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over
+the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be
+extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now unoccupied.
+
+A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim
+of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of Coropuna, glistening
+in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was
+a short one, for in less than three minutes we had to descend another
+canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the pampa of Sihuas. There
+was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the
+distance was Coropuna, and I had just begun to study the problem of
+possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's
+mule trotted briskly across the trail directly in front of me, kicked
+up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer,
+camera, plates, and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a
+stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance
+before he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep
+the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little "Mummery"
+tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid to
+the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the
+vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in Mr. Hinckley's
+leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain
+climbing. With Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa
+that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have
+the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached the glaciers. To
+be sure, there was the corporal--but would he go? Indians do not like
+snow mountains. Packing up the tent again, we resumed our course over
+the desert.
+
+The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a
+huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We
+should have been compelled to camp in the open with the arrieros had
+not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his
+vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes and sweet
+native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert
+of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps the widest, hottest,
+and most barren in this region. Our arrieros were unwilling to cross
+it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water
+and water. The next day we enjoyed the hospitality of our kindly host
+until after supper.
+
+So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to
+rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against the sun
+and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the
+larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating ditches. On the
+roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried
+mud. It is not necessary to plaster the sides of the houses, for it
+is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing to look
+out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the
+valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after hour, across
+the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and
+at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of a tumbled mass of enormous
+sand dunes--the result of hundreds of medanos blown across the pampa
+of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us
+three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert to a
+point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles
+across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks and sand. The
+bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes
+River, too deep to be forded even in the dry season. A very large
+part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and
+consists of a wild jungle, difficult of access in the dry season and
+impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast
+between the gigantic hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was
+very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape
+was the long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger
+and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would
+be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley and have some
+breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado),
+a huge volcanic boulder covered with rude pictographs. Further
+search in the vicinity revealed about one hundred of these boulders,
+each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of
+houses near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been
+past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection
+of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars, birds, men,
+and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the
+interest and excitement of investigating the "rocas jeroglificos,"
+as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no
+food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few pictures
+we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary
+bridge. It was built to last only during the dry season. To construct
+a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We
+spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant little village where it was almost
+impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley
+to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of Castilla, called
+by its present inhabitants "Majes," although on Raimondi's map that
+name is applied only to the river and the neighboring desert. In 1865,
+at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now
+it seems more healthy. The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed
+by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian
+ancestry. Many of them appeared to be unusually businesslike. The
+proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes,
+the name of which he pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a
+long time. "W" is unknown in Spanish and the letters "a," "l," and "k"
+are never found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of
+"Valluck-ofair'," accenting strongly the last syllable, we could not
+imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we
+could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately the well-advertised
+name of a widely known shoe.
+
+At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa,
+alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar cane, from
+which aguardiente, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that
+the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far
+back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so much wine in the
+community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives,
+who were not only hospitable but energetic--far more so, in fact,
+than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold
+and the difficulty of making a living have reacted upon the Indians,
+often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The
+residences of the wine growers are sometimes very misleading. A typical
+country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long,
+low, flat roof and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it
+an unattractive appearance; yet to one's intense surprise the inside
+may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and
+a phonograph.
+
+Our conscientious and hard-working arrieros rose at two o'clock the
+next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead
+of them, from an elevation of 1000 feet above sea level to 10,000
+feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could
+be obtained. We had now left the region of tropical products and come
+back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought us
+past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic
+"treasure seeker" of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000 inhabitants and
+is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which
+we had selected several months before as the rendezvous for the attack
+on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals
+of the temperate zone are easily raised. The town is surrounded by
+gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence
+of intensive cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches
+of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by
+Senor Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told us to set up our
+cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from
+the local officials, including the provincial physician, Dr. Pastor,
+and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro
+Coello. The last two were keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna.  They
+told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the
+mountain could be seen, and offered to take us up there. We accepted,
+thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to
+join in the climb, for we needed another man on the rope. Professor
+Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes
+whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away. It seemed
+clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the
+mass (koro = "cut off at the top"; puna = "a cold, snowy height"),
+was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern
+peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped dome we could just make out a
+northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to
+be higher than the western peak which we decided to climb. No one
+knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be
+had. The wildest opinions were expressed as to the best routes and
+methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he
+knew how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him "guide"
+for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring was now well
+advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that
+there had been a heavy snowstorm on the mountain a few days before. If
+summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time,
+and we proceeded to arrange the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+Our instruments for determining altitude consisted of a special
+mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of
+Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures as one might
+expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the
+Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
+of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green;
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was
+still doing good service; and one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our
+most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials
+should get broken. Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks,
+the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct,
+with special care, two large "Watkins" aneroids capable of recording
+altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed to
+be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know
+anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter had miscarried. It
+was not until we opened our specially ordered "mountain grub" boxes
+here in Chuquibamba that we found, alongside of the pemmican and
+self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by
+Grace Brothers, the two precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm
+clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety,
+we felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether
+there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed the
+top of America.
+
+For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was
+due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey along the 73d
+meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a
+signal at or near the top which Hendriksen could use as a station in
+order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must
+be confessed, was to enjoy the satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel,
+of conquering a "virgin peak."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Climbing Coropuna
+
+The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than
+the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October 10th
+before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in
+sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it with care. The
+plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood
+out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is really a range about twenty
+miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one
+end to the other. So deep did the fresh snow lie that it was generally
+impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could
+see that of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably
+the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern, end of
+the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its
+smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged to a later volcanic period
+than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of
+all. To reach it did not appear to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes
+ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls,
+appeared to culminate in a saddle at the base of the great snowy
+dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken,
+if steep, path to the top. If we could once reach the snow line,
+it looked as though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes,
+we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the South
+------
+
+
+Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more
+than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep quebradas, and very rough aa lava. Directed by our "guide,"
+we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the
+lava flows and slowly ascending the gentle slope of the plateau. As
+it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting
+for them to get their wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short
+rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a
+steep-walled canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front
+of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of
+going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued as to how much he
+knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any
+huts whatever in the canyon. "Abandonado; despoblado; desierto." "A
+waste; a solitude; a wilderness." So he described it. Had he been
+there? "No, Senor." Luckily we had been able to make out from the rim
+of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no
+question that we ought to get to the snow line as soon as possible, we
+decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a "guide,"
+and make such way as we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the
+canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from
+mountain sickness. The arrieros began to complain loudly, but did
+what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears;
+the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing for soroche. As
+soon as the timid arrieros reached a point where they could see
+down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture,
+cheered up a bit, and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the
+"guide." Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us
+with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay in advance and
+offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents
+and took advantage of the sheltering stone wall of her corral for
+our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly
+evident that we were harmless, the door of one of the huts opened
+and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance
+before our arrival had been the easily discernible presence in our
+midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had
+selected this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a
+guilty conscience and at the sight of a gendarme decided that he had
+better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of
+a recruiting party, since it is quite likely that he had not served
+his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife
+discovered that we were not looking for her man, she allowed his
+curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a
+few llamas. They also made crude pottery, firing it with straw and
+llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from chuno,
+frozen bitter potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000
+feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family,
+a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to
+persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help to carry
+the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they
+declined absolutely and positively. I think one of the men might have
+gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering
+she broke out in a torrent of violent denunciation, telling him the
+mountain would "eat him up" and that unless he wanted to go to heaven
+before his time he had better let well enough alone and stay where he
+was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna "the devil" talks "more freely" than
+usual. "For some secret reason known to God, it is said that devils
+walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are
+much terrified. I have also heard that these devils have appeared to
+Christians in the form of Indians." Perhaps the voluble housewife was
+herself one of the famous Coropuna devils. She certainly talked "more
+freely" than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna "devils"
+were now appearing to Indians "in the form of" Christians! Anyhow the
+Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful, warm
+paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of
+brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those faithful denizens
+of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy
+themselves in this charming spot on their upward flight. Like most
+primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an
+abject terror of the forbidding summits and the snowstorms that seem
+to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate
+the demons who dwell on the mountain tops by inventing charming
+stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in
+the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca, the great explorer Raimondi,
+in 1865, found the natives "exiled from the civilized world, still
+preserving their primitive customs... carrying idols to the slopes
+of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a
+sacrifice." Apparently the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts
+of all those who live near it.
+
+The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten
+times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity, that we
+added offers of the precious coca leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired
+"fire-water," the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually
+coveted by Peruvian highlanders, had no effect in the face of the
+terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness
+was one of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages
+of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the
+realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood all these
+matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language of
+our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not
+only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian gentlemen
+always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and
+improper. I have known one of the most energetic and efficient business
+men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to
+dislike being obliged to carry a rolled and unmounted photograph,
+little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a cargador, an
+Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do
+his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to climb with
+heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several
+thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument with the Indians
+was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made
+more and more generous. All was in vain. We finally came to realize
+that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would
+have to be borne on our own shoulders. That evening the top of the
+truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp,
+was bathed in a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air,
+however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the gendarme's mule became homesick and disappeared with
+Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders
+to follow us as soon as possible.
+
+As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to
+persuade the Tejadas to take their pack mules up as far as the snow,
+a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone
+as far as and farther than mules had any business to go. Soon after
+reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that
+there was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on
+the lower slopes of the mountains. The arrieros denied the accuracy
+of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed
+to go as far as there was a good path, and no farther. There was no
+question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as
+high up as possible before we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It
+may be imagined that the arrieros packed very slowly and grudgingly,
+although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving
+behind our saddles, ordinary supplies, and everything not considered
+absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it
+best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as not to hear
+the arrieros' constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard
+climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the
+edge of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied
+equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse,
+black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced to
+unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a
+violent and acrimonious dispute as to whether the letter of the
+contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone "as far as they
+could reasonably be expected to go." The truth was, the Tejadas
+were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure
+it would take revenge on them by destroying their mules, who would
+"certainly die the following day of soroche." We offered a bonus of
+thirty soles--fifteen dollars--if they would go on for another hour,
+and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep
+little rise the arrieros stopped again. This time they succeeded in
+unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and
+boulders to stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The
+only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement "in writing" that in case any mule or mules died as
+a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line, I
+should pay in gold two hundred soles for each and every mule that
+died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty soles if they
+would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document,
+having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello, seated on a lava rock
+amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed
+and sealed. In order that there might be no dispute as to the time,
+my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until
+noon. The mules were reloaded and again the ascent began. Presently the
+mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with
+huge lava boulders and scoriaceous sand. We expected more trouble every
+minute. However, the arrieros, having made an advantageous bargain,
+did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the
+snow line just fifteen minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas
+lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return
+in ten days, and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the
+side of the mountain.
+
+We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents,
+the "Mummery," a very light and diminutive wall tent about four feet
+high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of
+fairly heavy material, with floor sewed in; and an improved pyramidal
+tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after
+one used on Mt. McKinley by Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two
+openings--a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being
+closed by an adjustable cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance
+through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any
+desired extent with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor,
+measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent
+upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the ground, or
+snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without
+difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily ventilated and yet
+giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the
+wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent with us on the
+climb. We determined to carry the "Mummery" to the top of the mountain
+to use while taking observations.
+
+The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised
+and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites and no
+soroche. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small
+diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water for
+cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in
+pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal pulse is 70. After
+I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to
+120. After I had been seated awhile it dropped down to 100. Gradually
+our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of
+malaise and general disability. There was a splendid sunset, but we
+were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had
+some headache. A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened
+to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what
+moment we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters,
+we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair warning
+of what might happen higher up.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We
+all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe
+heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially prepared
+for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever
+tasted it before. We decided that it is not very palatable on first
+acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend
+long periods of time in the Arctic, where even seal's blubber is a
+delicacy "as good as cow's cream," I presume we could have done just
+as well without it.
+
+It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and
+supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of a week's
+duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures
+due to the necessity of the explorers' being obliged to return to
+food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of
+a new peak. One remembers the frequent disappointments that came
+to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in
+Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile and Argentina, due to high winds,
+the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by
+soroche. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to
+try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that no
+unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the
+mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds in a single
+day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other
+chores, they started off, packing loads of about twenty-five pounds
+each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily
+slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops
+seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult at a
+high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for
+those suffering from soroche as it is for a sailor to appreciate the
+sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of
+observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the
+cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be weighed,
+so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following
+day. We had two small kerosene stoves with Primus burners. Our grub,
+ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican
+in 8 1/4-pound tins, Kola chocolate in half-pound tins, seeded raisins
+in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6 1/2-pound
+tins, jam, sticks of dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few
+of Silver's self-heating "messtins" containing Irish stew, beef a la
+mode, et al. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found
+his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did not
+relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm
+clothes which we had provided for him and learned that he would get
+a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided
+to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported
+that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the first part
+of the climb and that a cache had been established about 2000 feet
+above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs
+for the morrow and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness
+with which we were to carry them.
+
+Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I
+still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican pudding
+with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to
+eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better, one reason being
+that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The
+weather continued fine. Watkins was due to arrive from Arequipa in
+a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further
+risk of encountering an early summer snowstorm. The next morning,
+after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs,
+we left camp about nine o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain
+Club snow-creepers, or crampons, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen
+helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be
+remembered by visitors to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides
+who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been
+maimed for life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great
+altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs
+of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy underdrawers.
+
+Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I
+had woolen puttees and "Arctic" overshoes. Tucker improvised what
+he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and
+pieces of a rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing
+ahead of us, we decided to depend on crampons rather than on the
+heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it
+was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We found that,
+loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty
+steps at a time. On the more level snow fields we took twenty-five
+or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint
+it seemed as though they would be the last steps we should ever
+take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with
+mountain-sickness, we would stop and lean on our ice axes until able
+to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a
+glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very wide, and nearly
+all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although
+there was an occasional fall no great strain was put on the rope. Then
+came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part
+our day was simply an unending succession of stints--twenty-five steps
+and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five
+steps and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along
+until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow stopped all
+progress. At an altitude of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was
+pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that
+the two big aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the
+temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood
+at 22 deg. F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9 deg.
+F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in the
+northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us
+considerably. We feared the expected November storms might be ahead of
+time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to
+the ventilating device at the top of the tent, we managed to breathe
+fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally
+observed that one of the symptoms of acute soroche is a very annoying,
+racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied
+by nausoa. We had not experienced this at 17,000 feet, but now it
+began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing
+days and nights, particularly nights, until we got back to the Indians'
+huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another
+by coughing.
+
+The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a
+miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing for
+it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with
+the same steady drudgery--now a little harder than the day before. We
+broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude
+of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field within a mile of the saddle
+between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked
+possible to reach the summit in one more day's climb from here. The
+aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch
+the tent, the others went back to the cache to bring up some of the
+supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy
+as those which Tucker and Coello had first brought up, we had not
+passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared
+again I was so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like
+pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were
+within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before
+turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow and make
+a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the
+morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer registered
+7 deg. F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away
+four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent they are obliged to sleep so
+close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown
+sleeping-bag, blankets, and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We
+did, however, suffer from soroche. Violent whooping cough assailed
+us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by
+counting my pulse occasionally, only to find that it persistently
+refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't
+know where it went on the actual climb. So far as I could determine,
+it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet
+tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was found to be
+frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an
+hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough for practical purposes
+when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the
+tea-pot! Never did men keep their tempers better under more aggravating
+circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my
+clumsy accident, although poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the
+down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder
+(but somewhat drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated
+a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more
+frozen snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and
+Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker
+tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of our outfit and
+provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things
+as were absolutely necessary. They included the Mummery tent with
+pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins
+aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks,
+six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer,
+a Stanley pocket level, an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope,
+three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale
+flag. In order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried
+four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle soup,
+a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes
+of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about twenty pounds each.
+
+To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine
+and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon the snow
+had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now
+everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five o'clock. It was
+still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut
+off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls. To reach it we must
+first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently
+unbroken slope extended to the top. Our progress was distressingly
+slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came
+a painful surprise. To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the
+peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now
+it actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From
+the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly seemed
+to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly
+facing the possibility that our painful labors might be in vain and
+that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to
+doubt whether we should have strength enough for both. Loss of sleep,
+soroche, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. We should have
+had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for
+our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly. As it was, not more than
+a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest
+part. Tucker was first on the rope, I was second, Coello third, and
+Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high
+altitude was sapping all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump
+of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the
+system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires. A single
+cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course,
+one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did help to tide over
+difficult places.
+
+We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and
+climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be the top,
+obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then
+Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were too much out of breath
+to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we
+painfully came to the edge of what looked like the summit we saw the
+cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope
+three hundred feet higher than where we were standing. It may seem
+strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to
+find that we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however,
+that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to give to the consideration
+of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts
+had sunk within us at the thought that possibly, after all, we might
+find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another
+three hundred feet, which would undoubtedly take us above the highest
+point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of
+two possible evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us
+was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on
+our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at last, at
+half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the
+20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point of Coropuna. As
+we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having
+successfully engineered the first ascent of this great mountain,
+stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly
+motioned me to go ahead in order that the director of the Expedition
+might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In
+order to appreciate how great a sacrifice he was willing to make,
+it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition
+was due chiefly to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire
+to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated
+his kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far
+as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+
+The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow field, almost flat,
+having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and
+south and 175 feet east and west. If it once were, as we suppose, a
+volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and
+ice. There were no rocks to be seen on the rim--only the hard crust of
+the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in
+the extreme. We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted
+with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on
+top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have frequently
+spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest,
+twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada, a reddish desert, rose
+snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the
+range of Coropuna itself; several of the lesser peaks being only a
+few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined
+we could see the faint blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the
+difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction coming
+from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had
+led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak in the Pacific,
+Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing
+the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be appreciative of the views
+which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I
+could not take the least interest or pleasure in the view from the
+top of Coropuna, nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction
+in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt
+greatly depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his
+bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging
+the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my surprise and
+dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above
+sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a thousand feet higher,
+22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of
+22,775 feet, and considerably below Bandelier's "23,000 feet." This
+was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would
+at least show a margin over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763
+feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We
+took what comfort we could from the fact that the aneroids, which
+had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so
+obviously untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove
+to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now
+be reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we
+were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the wooden
+box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow,
+leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level, and took a
+squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So
+each of us in turn lay down in the snow and took a squint. It was
+all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and
+a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight. At any
+rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for
+any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After arriving at
+this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent,
+set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer, arranged the boiling
+point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and
+notebooks proceeded to take as many observations as possible in the
+next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that
+at the same hour readings were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp
+and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The
+barometer was suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the
+tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now
+stood at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the
+barometer was exactly +32 deg. F. At the same time, inside the tent we
+got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water
+boils at sea level at a temperature of 212 deg. F. Here it boiled at 174 deg.
+F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been
+heated for the hypsometer. We were thirsty enough to have drunk five
+times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions
+except a few raisins, some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent
+as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left it
+on top, first having placed in it one of the Appalachian Mountain
+Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag,
+a contemporary map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the
+ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole,
+which we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could
+be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief
+Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make his survey,
+it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and
+buried it in the snow.
+
+We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp
+two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part of the way down
+to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and
+we got up too much speed for comfort, so we finally had to be content
+with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little
+wind. Mountain climbers have more to fear from excessively high winds
+than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred
+to interfere with the best progress we were physically capable of
+making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many
+supplies with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute
+mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does
+get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful. No one in
+the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet or
+pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of
+mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities, apparently
+not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could
+have stood it. It is difficult to believe that with strength enough
+to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The
+violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated again
+in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little
+nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower altitude as
+fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our
+supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes later, without
+having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked
+up. Although many things had been abandoned, our loads seemed heavier
+than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but
+Gamarra was the only one actually to fall in, and he was easily pulled
+out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two
+animated specks far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing
+somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he
+could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks, although we
+did not see it at the time. The "specks" turned out to be Watkins
+and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was safe without ropes or
+crampons, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached
+at half-past twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning
+was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had
+carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while he had given
+me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course,
+does not include the weight of our ice-creepers, axes, or rope.
+
+The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was
+almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even to lift one's
+hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully
+swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed best to make every effort
+to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp,
+got the loads ready without waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets
+on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately
+our malaise left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths
+as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than
+the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without getting
+out of breath; the aggravating "whooping cough" left us; and our
+appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered from the effects
+of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly
+had allowed myself to eat a considerable amount of snow. As a result
+my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit
+tasted like broken glass. Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling
+to keep his snow-glasses always in place and thought to relieve his
+eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial
+snow-blindness. The rest of us were spared any inflammation of the
+eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling
+arrieros, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our
+adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas gave us
+hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the
+loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and
+found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15 deg. 31' South, and the longitude
+to be 72 deg. 42' 40'' West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be
+21,703 feet above sea level. The result of comparing the readings of
+our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous
+readings taken at Arequipa gave practically the same figures. There
+was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna
+proves to be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate,
+and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in
+North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach the top,
+we all agreed we would never do it again!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+To Parinacochas
+
+After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set
+out for Parinacochas, the "Flamingo Lake" of the Incas. The late Sir
+Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of
+"The Conquest of Peru," had called attention to this unexplored lake
+in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
+named a bathymetric survey of Parinacochas as one of the principal
+desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge
+from the published maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than
+Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough
+search of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding
+its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it was that it
+had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in
+Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted General San Martin in the
+Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs
+in London in 1828. During the campaigns against the Spanish forces
+in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the
+interior. On one of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of
+Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is "brackish." This
+statement of General Miller's and the suggestion of Sir Clements
+Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important
+contribution to geographical knowledge was all that we were able to
+learn. Our arrieros, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas,
+but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to
+get there. Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the
+capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman and
+Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the
+Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a new supply of
+food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance
+of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out of the Chuquibamba Valley
+by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over
+the gently sloping, semi-arid desert in a northerly direction, around
+the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night
+on the Pampa of Chumpillo, our arrieros used dried moss and dung for
+fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were
+llamas pasturing on the plains. Near our tent were some Inca ruins,
+probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains
+of a temple described by Cieza de Leon (1519-1560), whose remarkable
+accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the
+Pizarros are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most
+important temples in the Land of the Incas was one "much venerated and
+frequented by them, named Coropuna." "It is on a very lofty mountain
+which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings
+of Peru visited this temple making presents and offerings .... It
+is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts
+offered to this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and
+precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol,
+and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But as there
+are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is
+it known where these are hidden. This temple possessed many flocks,
+farms, and service of Indians." No one lives here now, but there are
+many flocks and llamas, and not far away we saw ancient storehouses
+and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were
+kept awake by the bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields
+of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from
+the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance of peat
+and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of
+its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the lower spurs of Coropuna
+into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand,
+the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada. It is for the most part between
+15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest
+by the canyon of the Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp
+and passed a more agreeable night. The following morning we climbed
+out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern
+slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail turned abruptly to the left,
+away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day,
+less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks, like El
+Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been
+known in the memory of man to give forth great showers of cinders
+covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great
+truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering of the
+ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast
+accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this vicinity goes
+far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous
+amount of erosion that has taken place in the adjacent canyons and
+the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by
+the mighty streams of the glacial period all point to this conclusion.
+
+My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle
+enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way. In her
+case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to
+her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I took some notes,
+she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and
+kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring or lashing with a stout
+quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I
+was particularly anxious to get a picture of our pack train jogging
+steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. Since
+my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, run a couple of
+hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the
+picture before they reached me. We were now at an elevation of 16,000
+feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it
+was relatively as easy to run here as anywhere, so accustomed had my
+lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such
+a strenuous feat at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it
+would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run
+two hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and
+pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches of tough
+grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered
+with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we saw a number of vicunas,
+the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get
+near enough for a photograph. They were extremely timid and scampered
+away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought
+us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent canyon,
+the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon
+were covered with innumerable terraces--thousands of them. It seemed
+at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been
+either terraced or allotted to some compact little village. One could
+count more than a score of towns, including Cotahuasi itself, its long
+main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into
+the canyon our road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces
+and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several
+weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley bottoms showed
+any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent
+to which terracing had been carried on the side of the Cotahuasi
+Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it
+was evident from the extraordinary irrigation system that agriculture
+here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the
+great mountains in the interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation
+canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired
+than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that there is no
+part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops
+where nature made it hard for them to be planted. In other countries,
+to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve
+to bring water long distances to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We
+also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper
+chemical formula, the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils
+with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great
+regions where nature has provided fertile fields and made it easy to
+raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or
+prehistoric times, does one find farmers spending incredible amounts
+of labor in actually creating arable fields, besides bringing the
+water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that
+is what was done by the ancient highlanders of Peru. As they spread
+over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great
+an elevation as to be suitable for only the hardiest of root crops,
+like the white potato and the oca, they were driven to use narrow
+valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the
+precious maize and many of the other temperate and tropical plants
+which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were
+constantly confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the
+valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear
+it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently so very
+steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The
+farmer might wake up any morning to find that a heavy rain during
+the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted
+fields. Consequently there was developed, through the centuries,
+a series of stone-faced andenes, terraces or platforms.
+
+Examination of the ancient andenes discloses the fact that they were
+not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a
+carefully constructed stone wall. The space back of the walls was
+first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; then followed
+smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the
+subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and to a depth of eighteen
+inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The
+result was the best possible field for intensive cultivation. It
+seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains
+should have been taken for such relatively small results. The need
+must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few
+feet wide, although hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow
+the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred
+yards wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and
+alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place
+where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized of all
+Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many
+landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak plateaus of the
+surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep,
+and alpacas.
+
+We were cordially welcomed by Senor Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and
+invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the locality, and,
+as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central
+government, was none too popular with some of the people of his
+province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi
+have ever been to Lima;--probably not a single member of the Lima
+government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not
+expect to find much sympathy between the two. The difficulties of
+traveling in Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With
+our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the
+government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect. By nature a
+kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence,
+Senor Viscarra showed himself most courteous and hospitable to us in
+every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They
+brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt and Elihu Root, and made a
+large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the
+flag did have only thirty-six stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid
+banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend
+us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a barber-shop. The
+chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we
+accepted with pleasure. When the barber arrived, closely guarded by a
+gendarme armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict
+from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his crime,
+but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of
+clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag, I wished I was in
+a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The
+sub-prefect, however, had been so kind and was so apologetic as to
+the inconveniences of the "barber-shop" that there was nothing for it
+but to go bravely forward. Although it was unpleasant to have one's
+hair trimmed by an uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not
+help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a
+pair of shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the
+period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his fees
+with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed
+with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away by the gendarme.
+
+We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and
+Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary difficulties
+in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now
+past the worst of it. Their supplies were exhausted, so those which we
+had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned
+to assist Mr. Hendriksen and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south
+to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him
+as escort Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the
+machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was Gamarra
+who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the
+time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some months previous to
+our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For
+Gamarra's sake they left the house at three o'clock in the morning
+and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his
+important monograph, "The Andes of Southern Peru," Dr. Bowman writes:
+"At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened
+the gates noiselessly and our small cavalcade hurried through the
+pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle
+across his saddle, and directly behind him rode the sub-prefect and
+myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the
+end of the street when a door opened suddenly and a shower of sparks
+flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his
+mule and turned into a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse
+back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed
+me against the wall and whispered, 'For God's sake, who is it?' Then
+suddenly he shouted. 'Stop blowing! Stop blowing!' "
+
+The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor
+who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's work by
+pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand
+an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals, on which he had
+been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor
+and his ancient goose should have been able to cause such terrific
+excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own
+Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was fond of referring to this picturesque
+apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose
+that Startled the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to
+His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local rug-weaving
+industry.
+------
+
+
+The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and
+carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers make the warp
+and woof of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray,
+or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are cut
+so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm,
+gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has no pile. Probably the
+industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It
+seems to be restricted to this remote region. The rug makers are a
+small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their
+hand looms from house to house, as required. It is the custom for the
+person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish
+the weaver with board, lodging, coca, tobacco and wine, and watch the
+rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug
+weavers are very clever in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy
+of Senor Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven
+especially for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host,
+and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he knew the road to
+Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring
+stream on a treacherous-looking bridge, the central pier of which
+was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic
+boulder in midstream. The main arch of the bridge consisted of two
+long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down
+by earth and stones. There was no rail on either side, but our mules
+had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On
+the northern side of the valley we rode through a compact little town
+called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds
+of very fine artificial terraces, at present used for crops of maize
+and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall,
+an altogether surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid
+region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as
+well as the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection
+between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky
+zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture. Wherever the
+sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced
+terraces and irrigation had transformed them long ago into arable
+fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very
+fine series of beautiful terraces. On a shelf near the top of the
+canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by
+shepherds whose flocks grazed on the lofty plateau beyond, and near
+a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our
+camp was at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were
+turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed
+occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one of these
+we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the
+glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna, now growing fainter
+and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500
+feet we struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and
+sand--hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came to
+a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was
+intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged along beside my
+mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my
+experiences on Coropuna I suffered no discomfort, nor any symptoms
+of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five
+hundred yards. In the afternoon we began to descend from the plateau
+toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha,
+where ichu grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain
+and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and
+alpacas. Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian
+herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly
+because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the upper
+courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe
+them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the softest in
+the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding
+that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool was highly desired,
+many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the "alpaca"
+of commerce, a material used for coat linings, umbrellas, and thin,
+warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard
+surface, and generally dyed black. It usually contains no real alpaca
+wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real alpaca wool which comes into
+the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than
+the sheep's wool, it is strong, small of fiber, very soft, pliable and
+elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and
+comfort. Many of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the
+highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as "vicuna," "camel's hair," etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by
+the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of the camels of the
+New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of
+uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas are extremely variegated. The
+llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for
+wearing apparel, although heavy blankets made from it are in use by
+the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to
+the presence of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our
+horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage--short, tender grass and plenty of water--frequents the most
+remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only when the
+fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds,
+and is extremely shy of strangers, although not nearly as timid as its
+distant cousin the vicuna. I shall never forget the first time I ever
+saw some alpacas. They looked for all the world like the "woolly-dogs"
+of our toys shops--woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and
+woolly along the legs right down to the invisible wheels! There was
+something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They
+look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop like cows.
+
+The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing,
+but in a different way. His expression is haughty and supercilious
+in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is
+due to circumstances over which he really had no control. Pride of
+race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high
+and his neck so stiffly erect that he can be corralled, with others
+of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire
+group. Yet he can be bought for ten dollars.
+
+On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs,
+both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly children,
+more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind
+rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our notice. About five o'clock
+in the afternoon, on a dry pampa, we found the ruins of one of the
+largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder
+of the days when benevolent despots ruled the Andes and, like the
+Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is
+not occupied, yet near by are populous valleys.
+
+As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the
+edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep canyons
+so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned
+as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail. It overhangs the
+mud-colored Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of
+a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the
+sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair, but those
+near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes,
+and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered with cacti, thorn
+bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the
+town itself were half a dozen specimens of the Australian eucalyptus,
+that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one
+encounters not only in the heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia
+and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta
+------
+
+
+Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them
+have open verandas on the second floor--a sure indication that the
+climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried
+adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched huts of the
+majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and
+the great number of terraces in and around town, one may conclude
+that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of
+the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most Peruvian towns. The cities
+of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta,
+we wound around the base of the projecting ridge, on the sides of
+which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the
+valley of Huancahuanca, a large arid canyon. The guide said that we
+were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles away, across two canyons,
+was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great
+natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand feet
+above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and
+under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers at
+the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to
+enable them to cultivate a larger part of the pampa on which they
+lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of
+being carried out and has probably long since been completed. Our
+reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that
+our military escort, Corporal Gamarra, had gone back to Arequipa
+with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent arrieros, the Tejada brothers,
+declared they preferred to travel without any "brass buttons,"
+so we had not asked the sub-prefect of Cotahuasi to send one of
+his small handful of gendarmes along with us. Probably this was a
+mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood
+matter, such as prospecting for mines or representing one of the
+great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods,
+one cannot help arousing the natural suspicions of a people to whom
+traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific
+exploration for its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the
+explorers arrive accompanied by a gendarme it is perfectly evident
+that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial
+backing of the government. It is surmised that the explorers are
+well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely
+one of the ordinary experiences of life. South American governments
+almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are
+led to expect that all measures connected with research, whether it be
+scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government
+and paid for out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is
+not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had
+had such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize,
+how often an ever-present gendarme, provided through the courtesy of
+President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us
+a cordial welcome.
+
+Now, however, when without a gendarme we entered the smart little
+town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the
+objects of extreme suspicion and distrust. Yet we could not help
+admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and
+general air of prosperity and enterprise. The gobernador of the town
+lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and
+colonnade were probably two hundred years old. He had heard nothing
+of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take
+some hostile action. Fortunately, our arrieros, respectable men of high
+grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions
+temporarily. We were not placed under arrest, although I am sure
+his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors,
+who found it far easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives
+from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well
+known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that Lampa is famous
+for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep,
+alpacas, and vicunas in this vicinity to make ponchos and blankets
+of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in
+Arequipa. These are marketed, as so often happens in the outlying
+parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who
+come hundreds of miles, bringing the manufactured articles of the
+outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded
+towns. The great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold
+generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an
+opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general enjoyment--like a
+large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin
+of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate as our own fair-grounds,
+with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the
+purposes of the fair. Had we been bound for Parinacochas at the proper
+season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why
+anybody should want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other
+fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension
+or understanding of these village worthies. So, to our "selectmen,"
+are the idiosyncrasies of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our
+deserted fair-grounds.
+
+The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town--probably
+because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the mules
+devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive
+in town than in the country. It was just as well for us that this
+was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would
+have persuaded the gobernador to arrest us. As it was, however, he was
+pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment
+of an Indian woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard
+and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around
+her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree. So she covered her
+eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at
+our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian women are invariably extremely
+shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape
+observation and notice. The ladies of the gobernador's own family,
+however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no
+objection to being photographed, but were moved to unseemly and
+unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we
+had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due to the
+enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might
+expect that citizens who kept their town so clean and neat and were
+engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would
+have a comfortable road in the direction toward which they usually
+would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences
+of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides of the valley
+or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa
+and whose products have made its people well fed and energetic. The
+town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so
+few, if any, evidences of the ancient regime when there are so many
+a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot
+believe that the Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural
+opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land
+and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing unnecessary
+in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand,
+it may have been occupied until late Inca times by one of the coast
+tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca
+divides two very different regions. To come in a few hours, from
+thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give
+us cause for thought and speculation. It is well known that in the
+early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before
+the Spanish Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes
+who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as different as possible in design
+and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is
+absolutely distinct. Relative abundance of flat lands never led them
+to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had
+done. Perhaps on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the
+coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and
+surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of
+Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower slopes separated
+from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near
+the top of the mountain. Our road ran near the towns of Pararca
+and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of
+thatched huts surrounded by hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on
+the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed
+fields of barley and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On
+every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in
+agriculture, utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared
+for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We
+noticed hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under
+cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+Our arrieros avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the
+roadside near the Finca Rodadero. After all, when one has a comfortable
+tent, good food, and skillful arrieros it is far pleasanter to spend
+the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation of 12,000
+or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an
+Indian town.
+
+The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town
+of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe houses
+placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the
+best arable land available for agriculture. It is in a shallow,
+well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country
+had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi. The desert and its
+steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of
+gently sloping hills, covered with terraces, where the cereals of the
+temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain
+fields, we climbed up to a shallow depression in the low range at the
+head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland
+basin more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was
+a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most of the
+lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light
+salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color? Nothing but
+flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes--Parinacochas at last!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Flamingo Lake
+
+The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and
+12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest of
+Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount
+of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams. In past
+geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not
+far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas has no visible
+outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we
+came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed from the lake. On the other
+hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake,
+generally occurring in swampy hillocks--built up perhaps by mineral
+deposits--three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There
+are very old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that
+in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at present,
+although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had
+been much more than a foot above its present level. Nevertheless a
+rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+When making preparations in New Haven for the "bathymetric survey of
+Lake Parinacochas," suggested by Sir Clements Markham, we found it
+impossible to discover any indication in geographical literature as
+to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand
+feet. We decided to take a chance on its not being more than ten
+hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured
+a thousand feet of stout fish line, known to anglers as "24 thread,"
+wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we
+were at Chuquibamba Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting
+one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot
+intervals in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able
+more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker
+and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for fodder,
+and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles
+on muleback, for the sounding operations. The "Acme" proved easy
+to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its
+lightness enabled it to be floated at the edge of the lake even in
+very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late
+afternoon when the high winds raised a vicious little "sea." Rowing
+out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before
+been navigated by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake
+Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought
+no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding slow work,
+and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation that I rowed
+out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel
+firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard. The reel gave a turn
+or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was
+the reel stuck? No, the apparatus was in perfect running order. Then
+what was the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains
+that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best strong
+24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient
+insertion of one hundred and sixty-six "fathom-markers"! The bottom of
+the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After
+three or four days of strenuous rowing up and down the eighteen
+miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen
+miles of its width, I never succeeded in wetting Watkins's first
+marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of
+water anywhere. Possibly if we had come in the rainy season we might
+at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November,
+1911), the lake had a maximum depth of 4 1/2 feet. The satisfaction of
+making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so
+shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story of
+the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near
+one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor was reported
+by the natives to be "bottomless." He ordered one of the ship's heavy
+boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt
+lake, at great expenditure of strength and labor. The story told me
+in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow,
+they found this "fathomless" body of water to be not more than fifteen
+feet deep.
+
+Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I
+was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat, for it
+enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which
+use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite feeding ground;
+pink flamingoes, white gulls, small "divers," large black ducks,
+sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large geese. On the banks
+were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the
+natives should have named this body of water "Parinacochas" (Parina =
+"flamingo," cochas = "lake"). The flamingoes are here in incredible
+multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said,
+actually make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately
+they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid. After
+two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me
+approach within twenty yards before finally taking wing. The coloring,
+in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The
+head is white, the beak black, the neck white shading into salmon-pink;
+the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail
+salmon-pink. The wings are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and
+the under-parts are black. As they stand or wade in the water their
+general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the
+water, however, the black under-parts of the wings become strikingly
+conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful
+contrast in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep
+his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the ropelike
+neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure
+that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless, I thought the heavy
+body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform
+speed, the difference being caught up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara
+------
+
+
+The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman
+nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in a most
+incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind
+from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse croaking, "What is it,"
+"What is it," seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the
+sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes
+were very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse
+"What-is-it's." Apparently they failed to find out the answer in time
+to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all
+sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads tucked under
+their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was
+quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In the afternoon, as winds
+and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left
+the water. The great extent of shallow water in Parinacochas offers
+them a splendid, wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all
+came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were
+thousands and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests,
+either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank
+Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or
+terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean lake 11,500
+feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several
+hundred. There were quantities of small black divers in the deeper
+parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were
+very quick and keen, true individualists operating alone and showing
+astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large
+black ducks were much more fearless than the flamingoes and were
+willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over
+the water at a tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their
+efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about
+as common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few
+tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest, possibly
+belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near
+our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers, who in this country
+look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great
+amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle, calmly eating
+the succulent water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head
+and neck well under the surface.
+
+While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes,
+Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the first
+accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point
+to point he often stirred up little ground owls, who gazed at him with
+solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to
+regard his activities with suspicion and dislike. Part of my work was
+to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on
+the well-rounded hills so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as
+rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations
+would disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived
+in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods set
+up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being
+preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle feeding on flat
+lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin are bare of trees, and offer some pasturage. In some places they
+are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by
+the degenerate descendants of sheep brought into the country during
+Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in
+color, although there were many black ones. We were told that the
+sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the
+shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame their shyness,
+and a group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought
+their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to gaze
+stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house,
+actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake, and busied
+themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering
+a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women wore dresses of heavy
+material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of
+hats they had small variegated shawls, made on hand looms, folded
+so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck
+and shoulders from sun and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with
+a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a
+hammock or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These
+sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated with
+attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys
+wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats and long trousers
+much too large for them.
+
+At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of
+Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be
+remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than it is at
+present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In
+the days of its greater altitude, and consequently wider snow fields,
+the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much
+larger body of water. Although we were here at the beginning of summer,
+the wind that came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our
+minimum thermometer registered 22 deg. F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the
+borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most shallow
+bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the
+water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten inches below the surface,
+was 61 deg. F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By
+noon the temperature of the water half a mile from shore was 67.5 deg.
+F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring
+up the shallow water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature
+of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining
+brightly almost directly overhead, it went down to 65 deg. by 2:30 P.M.
+
+The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our
+camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although in
+each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water,
+taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and analyzed
+by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He
+found that it contained small quantities of silica, iron phosphate,
+magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium
+nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate, sodium sulphate, and a
+considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains
+more carbonate and potassium than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical "salt"
+waters, that of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position,
+containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let
+their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there was excellent
+alfalfa forage. The arrieros engaged at their own expense a pack
+train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the
+custom hereabouts to enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of
+rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The
+Indians who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy
+fellows, dressed in "store clothes" and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty,
+but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to haul them
+near the loads.
+
+Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, "the house of the
+Inca," at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi visited it
+in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies
+one of the houses. The other buildings are used only during the third
+week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted
+plaza were many low stone rectangles partly covered with adobe and
+ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long,
+thatched buildings of adobe and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A
+few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient
+stonemasons. Some loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled
+the attempts of modern builders.
+
+In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully
+laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well named; there had
+been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple--lakes were once
+objects of worship--or rest-house, constructed in order to enable the
+chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains
+of the Incas. We found the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably
+potatoes and other root crops were once raised here in fairly large
+quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The
+hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches in which
+are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one
+time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe, but these walls had
+been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of
+whatever objects of value they might have contained. We found nine or
+ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls
+seemed to have been trepanned.
+
+On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet
+wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones. No effort
+had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no
+evidence of its having been used in recent times. It runs from the
+lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley,
+where there are many terraces and cultivated fields; it is not far from
+Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up and piled on each side to
+save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The
+llama dislikes to step over any obstacle, even a very low wall. The
+grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to
+proceed in the desired direction.
+
+In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and
+small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for temporary
+protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come
+up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation (12,000 feet). The
+shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough,
+scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures varied from 8 to 25
+feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent
+occupation. The smaller walls may have been the foundation of small
+circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to
+keep alpacas and llamas from straying at night and to guard against
+wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age
+of these remains. It is possible that they represent a settlement
+of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and
+size of the walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may
+have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the
+hills west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca,
+which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center of one
+of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its
+very delicate pottery.
+
+Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. Near us the traces
+of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals,
+substantiating my belief that this curious roadway was intended to keep
+the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south
+shores of the lake there were more signs of occupation than on the
+north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of
+the Incas as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of
+one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations of
+the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly
+precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very primitive dwellings
+had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could
+easily be defended. We found among the ruins a few crude potsherds
+and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the
+little hill village to give any indication of Inca origin. Probably
+it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about
+it. If there were traditions concerning it they were well concealed
+by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly
+terraced and cultivated. The tutu potato would grow here, a hardy
+variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable
+for making potato flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its
+bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the
+Peruvians, such as the oca, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the anu,
+a kind of nasturtium, and the ullucu (ullucus tuberosus).
+
+On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good
+repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the time of our
+visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts
+built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs, inhabited by drovers
+and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than
+elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer the sweet water grasses of the
+lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+Viscachas were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They
+are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the "chinchilla" of
+commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared
+from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees them, although
+they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa,
+a region rarely visited by any one on account of treacherous bogs and
+deep tams. Writers sometimes call viscachas "rabbit-squirrels." They
+have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do
+look like a cross between a rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon
+an unusually large herd of wild vicunas. It included more than one
+hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the
+remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount of hunting that is done
+here. Vicunas have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for
+their skins. Their silky fleece is even finer than alpaca. The more
+fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts,
+as soft as eider down and of a golden brown color.
+
+After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the
+arrieros to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured
+"Arequipa," and started south. We soon came to the rim of the
+Maraicasa Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the
+south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley is
+well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although
+few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were smooth and
+well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We
+passed through it and, after dark, reached Sondor, a tiny hamlet
+inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the
+darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the owners of a well-thatched hut,
+and told them how "important" we were. They were unwilling to give
+us any shelter, so we were forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky
+and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs,
+dogs, and cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark
+we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and
+wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime, when they
+can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also
+many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion. We had now
+left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into the desert. At
+length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes
+were gladdened at sight of the rich green oasis, a striking contrast
+to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding
+road we passed many fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the
+steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement
+by a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the
+Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers were
+unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a
+tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety. After an
+exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals
+and men were glad enough to leave the high, arid desert and enter
+the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa,
+its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus. The air, pungent with the
+smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of
+"La Victoria." Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates at the
+camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall
+long remember. After two months in the coastal desert it seemed like
+home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain
+had had in bringing his machinery across the plateau from the nearest
+port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on
+muleback each of the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was
+equivalent to the price of a first-class pack mule. As a matter of
+fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs
+are not built to survive the strain of carrying pieces of machinery
+weighing five hundred pounds over a desert plateau up to an altitude of
+4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of
+the canyon, but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep
+trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered,
+piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the obstacles
+with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man
+who designed the machinery ever traveled with a pack train, climbing
+up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am
+sure that he would have made his castings much smaller.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba
+------
+
+
+It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior
+of South America fail to realize that no single piece should be any
+heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on one side. One
+hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even
+a large, strong mule will last only a few days on such trails as
+are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of
+his cargo is over three hundred pounds. When a single piece weighs
+more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the
+animal. Then the load rocks, and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides
+causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a
+matter of expediency it is better to have the individual units weigh
+about seventy-five pounds. Such a weight is easier for the arrieros to
+handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day
+long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as usually happens
+in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair
+load for a man or a llama, two are right for a burro, and three for
+an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at
+"La Victoria," but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant shade
+trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse
+gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were surprised to find
+near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little
+circular or oval huts averaging eight feet in diameter. There was
+no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen
+in the vicinity, yet here had once been a village. It seemed to
+belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of
+the Parinacochas Basin. The road was one of the worst we encountered
+anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among
+huge piles of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered
+with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides men
+and animals.
+
+Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga,
+where we pitched our camps among the most extensive ruins that
+I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one
+hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely together. It gave
+one a strange sensation to find such a very large metropolis in what
+is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was
+strikingly reminiscent of some of the large groups of ruins in our
+own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were
+no terraces in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a
+large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and
+sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses had seats,
+or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained
+two or three small cells, possibly storerooms, with neither doors
+nor windows. We found a number of burial cists--some square, others
+rounded--lined with small cobblestones. In one house, at the foot of
+"cellar stairs" we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance
+to it was covered with a single stone lintel. In examining this
+tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a boba,
+a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth,
+long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled skin. At one
+place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its
+top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely
+carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The dishes must
+have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar,
+probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone war club; and a
+broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding
+corn. Two stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with
+a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled
+sinkers used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times
+larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie down
+roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of
+the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever decoration they once
+had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for
+archeological investigation. Unfortunately, we had heard nothing of
+it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to
+give it. After the first night camp in the midst of the dead city we
+made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it
+was, as a matter of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor
+T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece. We
+wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched
+houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud. Near it we
+encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking
+into town to sell and were willing to dispose of cheaply. The Tejadas
+could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain,
+although the circumstances were suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold
+sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only
+to discover on reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from
+thieves. We were able to clear our arrieros of any complicity in the
+theft. Nevertheless, the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay
+anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We
+spent one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Senor Benavides,
+the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route to
+Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before,
+spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+About three o'clock in the morning--after we had been jogging steadily
+along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of the night, the
+only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight
+an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly visible in the starlight--the
+eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since
+set. Could this be the approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at
+least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding
+the day; "the dawn comes up like thunder." Surely the moon could
+not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly
+brightening eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white
+light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy as
+a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor,
+neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us. It was the morning
+star. For sheer beauty, "divine, enchanting ravishment," Venus that day
+surpassed anything I have ever seen. In the words of the great Eastern
+poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, "the
+morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Titicaca
+
+Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air,
+bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling atmosphere
+dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau,
+surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani (20,000 ft.), El
+Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only
+one nightmare--earthquakes. About twice in a century the spirits of
+the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But
+they shake the bed! And Arequipa rests on their bed. The possibility
+of a "terremoto" is always present in the subconscious mind of the
+Arequipeno.
+
+One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable
+Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently and we heard
+a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To
+the members of the club, however, it meant only one thing--an
+earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded
+with hysterical people, crying, shouting, and running toward the great
+open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on
+their knees in gratitude at having escaped from falling walls, others
+prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls
+had fallen! In the business district a great column of black smoke
+was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs
+that the noise and the trembling had not been due to an earthquake,
+but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline,
+kerosene, dynamite and giant powder!
+
+In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are
+so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that there were
+no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the
+roaring furnace by dipping water from one of the azequias, or canals,
+that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense
+masses of smoke and flame. In any American city such a blaze would
+certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building
+to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter amazement
+the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even
+warm. Such is the result of building houses with massive walls of
+stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently
+no harm was done by sparks. So, without a fire department, this
+really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day
+the newspapers talked about the "dire necessity" of securing fire
+engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine
+could have done. Nothing could have saved the warehouse itself once
+the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have
+suffered more had they been deluged with streams of water. The facts
+are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of course
+that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody
+thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+
+
+A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief
+port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts a soldier's
+monument and a new theater, really a "movie palace." There is a good
+harbor, although dredging is necessary to provide for steamers like
+the Inca. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine--or, rather,
+a lacustrine--railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of totoras,
+giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers
+learned to dry the totoras, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten
+the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the
+sides as a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or balsa. Of
+course the balsas eventually become water-logged and spend a large
+part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so,
+they are not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use
+them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one should
+go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+The balsas are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of
+locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast is an
+A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied
+together and fastened, one to each side of the craft, slightly forward
+of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region--lumber has
+to be brought from Puget Sound, 6000 miles away--so nearly all the
+masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three
+times. To the apex of the "A" is attached a forked stick, over which
+run the halyards. The rectangular "sail" is nothing more nor less
+than a large mat made of rushes. A short forestay fastened to the
+sides of the "A" about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from
+falling when the sail is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of
+a backstay. The balsas cannot beat to windward, but behave very well
+in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the
+boatmen must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard,
+for the water in the lake is cold, 55 deg. F., and none of them know how
+to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during
+the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and near the shore.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati
+------
+
+
+When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very
+small balsa not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting
+the weight of one man. On the other hand, large balsas constructed
+for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the
+lake are capable of carrying a dozen people and their luggage. Once
+I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake
+on a bulrush raft. To give greater security two balsas are sometimes
+fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Senor
+Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic balsas were used in
+bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This
+theory is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much
+higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor
+Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography, have
+not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for
+Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with the ocean.
+
+Nevertheless, Senor Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a
+salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the Andes rose. The
+fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms
+does not bother him. Senor Posnansky pins his faith to a small dried
+seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget
+that dried specimens of marine life, including starfish, are frequently
+offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who
+may be found in almost every market-place. Probably Senor Posnansky's
+seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly enterprising
+trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse
+has actually found its resting-place in La Paz, this does not alter the
+fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine
+fauna in Lake Titicaca. On the other hand, it has two or three kinds
+of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in
+the Rimac River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the
+Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted
+the desirable fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas
+used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners, and that
+"they have records in their quipus of the fish having been brought
+from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues." The
+actual transference of water jars containing the fish would have
+offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea
+happened to appeal to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong
+as Senor Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic
+inland sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually
+surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated with
+respectful skepticism.
+
+Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia,
+is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique among
+prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved
+monolithic images. Although they have suffered from weathering and
+from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed
+human figures. The richly decorated girdles and long tunics are
+carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of
+the designs are undoubtedly symbolic of the rank, achievements,
+or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is
+nothing hieroglyphic. The images are stiff and show no appreciation
+of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never
+had an opportunity to study the human body. In Andean villages, even
+little children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples
+who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia are
+always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to
+seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel, they have
+developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which
+is in striking contrast to people who live on the warm sands of the
+South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human
+body as a motif. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are
+clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was
+observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the taboo against
+"nakedness" was too much for him.
+
+Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to
+Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with
+artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca
+structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves, out of which,
+say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves
+are not large enough for a man to stand upright, but to a people
+who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires
+no stretch of the imagination to believe that those bright disks
+came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated
+with dwellers on the western shore of the lake who would often see
+the sun or moon rise over this island. On an ancient road that runs
+across the island my native guide pointed out the "footprints of the
+sun and moon"--two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant
+resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and
+fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives, in his "Islands
+of Titicaca and Koati," of the degradation and surly character of these
+Indians was not apparent at the time of my short visit in 1915. It is
+quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as
+he did for several months, digging up their ancient places of worship,
+disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting,
+in their minds, the proper balance between wet weather and dry,
+I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish
+treatment such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind
+of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several
+months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The brilliant
+sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air,
+causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come torrential rains. I
+shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the
+steamer encountered a rain squall. The resulting deluge actually
+came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash
+away the soil which the farmers have painfully gathered for field or
+garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the difference
+in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the
+winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely penetrating. Fuel
+is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes,
+and none for artificial heat.
+
+Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some
+barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The principal
+crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried,
+becomes the insipid chuno, chief reliance of the poorer families. The
+Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast
+has long since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern
+fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in
+shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from one to
+three inches. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of
+maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double
+its size and productiveness.
+
+Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the
+elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause acute
+hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the
+Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently appears to be sullen
+and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for
+being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted. Those fortunate Polynesians
+are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim,
+trees from which delicious food can always be obtained, and cocoanuts
+from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not
+develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably
+good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration of the
+large, reentrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one
+within the other. Small ornamental niches are used to break the space
+between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle
+containing them. Also unusual are the niches between the doorways,
+made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first
+glance as though this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal
+cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is
+a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the step-shaped
+design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one
+finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly for ornamental or
+ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man;
+others are in miniature. Frequently the steps were cut into the sacred
+boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca
+architect, accustomed to the stairway motif, to have conceived these
+curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them,
+even if he had never seen any representation of a Papal cross, or a
+cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested
+a striking resemblance which the sedilia-like niches bear to Arabic
+or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the
+Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped arch is distinctly Oriental
+in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of
+a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a slight
+depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is
+open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and the wonderful
+snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than
+17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks of surpassing beauty
+culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the
+sun and moon, who came to the sacred islands for some of their most
+elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries,
+rising over the majestic snow mountains, their glories reflected in the
+shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such
+occasions the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may
+imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the colors
+of "rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning," their ceremonial
+formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated walls of
+the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had
+special stations in front of the large, step-topped niches. One may
+be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able
+to manufacture exquisite textiles, and who loved to decorate their
+garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no
+opportunity for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great
+annual pageant is still staged every August. Although at present
+connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous
+image of the "Virgin of Copacabana," this vivid spectacle, the
+most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the
+dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested and corresponds to
+our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front
+of a large, bizarre church. During the first ten days in August
+there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and
+near. Everything dear to the heart of the Aymara Indian is offered
+for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders,
+usually women, sit in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone
+pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive
+umbrellas, consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo
+frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped corn;
+in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear
+of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated high-laced
+boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row
+are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another is devoted to such
+trinkets as one might expect to find in a "needle-and-thread" shop at
+home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers with scores of bamboo flutes
+varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with
+piles of freshly made native felts, warranted to last for at least a
+year; and vendors of aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us
+from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among
+Inca ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive
+pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although the modern
+Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to
+adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not only easier to secure,
+but produce more striking results.
+
+As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly
+exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of the plaza,
+bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain--locks, keys,
+spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other "wooden nutmegs."
+
+At the tables of the "money-changers," just outside of the
+sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk
+business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or the
+unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and
+appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know all the tricks
+of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence
+of various Aymara secret societies, whose members, wearing repulsive
+masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be
+invented by primitive imaginations. Each society has its own uniform,
+made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf,
+gaudy textiles, magnificent epaulets bearing large golden stars on a
+background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored glass;
+tinted "ostrich" plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen
+inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy ribbons, beruffled
+bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange
+costumes are actually reminiscent of the sixteenth century. The wearers
+are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums,
+and rattles, or other noise-makers. The result is an indescribable
+hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor
+and unmusical noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is
+bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels,
+their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number of
+tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings
+resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many wore colored
+goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo
+flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned in the din of big bass
+drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a
+placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in the most tawdry manner with gewgaws
+from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on
+a rustic syrinx or Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of
+bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes
+disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary barriers
+are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their
+doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of pleasure-seekers,
+well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are
+ready to run helter-skelter in every direction should the bull take
+it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There
+are no picadors, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no
+banderilleros, with barbed darts; no heroic matador, ready with shining
+blade to give a mad and weary bull the coup de grace. Here all is fun
+and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or
+drunken Aymaras, who prod him with sticks and shake bright ponchos
+in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty
+scattering of some spectators, amid shrieks of delight from everybody
+else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is
+no chance of a bull being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of
+our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage
+was let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the
+crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that he could
+not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He
+galloped madly after any individual who crossed the plaza. Five or
+six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done,
+and every one had an uproariously good time.
+
+Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and
+pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is not
+pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired
+in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles, blowing mightily with
+puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders
+
+In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills
+of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of alpacas thrive on
+the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here
+wool-buyers come to bid for the clip. The high prices which alpaca
+fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned
+in southern Peru for their weight and texture, are made here on hand
+looms. Notwithstanding the altitude--nearly as great as the top of
+Pike's Peak--the stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous,
+and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas
+are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally attached to
+their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I
+attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance to secure the skin and skeleton
+of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known
+and spoke the Quichua language fluently. He offered a good price and
+obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and bones
+of one of their "camels" for shipment; but they never did. Apparently
+they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and none happened to die
+at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters,
+as horses often do. On the other hand I have never seen a llama kick
+or bite at his owner.
+
+The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South
+America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards in all parts of
+Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it
+to walk easily on slopes too rough or steep for even a nimble-footed,
+mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet,
+due to its ability to sneeze or spit for a considerable distance
+a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's
+Circus came to town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose
+supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size--they are
+only three feet high at the shoulder
+
+tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt
+that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight and the
+result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing
+their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces. Curiously enough,
+in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have
+never seen a llama so attack a single human being. On the other hand,
+when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicuna which was
+perfectly willing to sneeze straight at any stranger who came within
+twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing more annoying than
+scientific curiosity. The vicuna is the smallest American "camel,"
+yet its long, slender neck, small head, long legs, and small body,
+from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an
+ostrich than a camel.
+
+In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which
+have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects of respect and
+veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the
+tree line, but the presence of these trees at Santa Rosa would seem
+to show that the use of the words "tree line" is a misnomer in the
+Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception
+of the coastal deserts, was once well covered with forests. When man
+first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields,
+and glaciers was covered with forest growth. Although many districts
+are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient
+to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample fertility of
+soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts
+of forests which I found growing alongside of glaciers at very high
+elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha,
+has been accurately determined by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet
+above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls
+and precipices, so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests
+are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation
+with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces
+in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong to many
+different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have
+this striking peculiarity--when cut down they sprout readily from
+the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable
+evidence of the fact that the primeval forests of Peru were long ago
+cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a
+picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes hanging
+each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite
+otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells, "out of tune with
+themselves," or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The
+resulting clangor and din is unforgettable. I presume the Chinese would
+say it was intended to drive away the devils--and surely such noise
+must be "thoroughly uncongenial even to the most irreclaimable devil,"
+as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells
+in the United States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended
+to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing
+inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once in a while
+one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in
+Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament is being administered
+to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this
+part of the world seems to be to make the greatest possible amount
+of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by
+firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices which again
+remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental
+fondness for making a noise which is found in all healthy children.
+
+On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with
+Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely of
+chicha, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was
+remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of laughter
+and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation,
+and sociability. On week days, most of them, even the smaller boys,
+are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool
+brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes finds the mountain
+Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with chicha,
+and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so
+these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani
+------
+
+
+To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry
+native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the plaza, did not
+enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward,
+very much interested in my endeavors. Some of the Indian alcaldes,
+local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials
+for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful and, armed with
+their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the
+shy, retiring women of the market-place to stand in a frightened,
+disgruntled, barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed
+in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy
+woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were reversible
+"pancake" hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with
+coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather side with tinsel and
+velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung
+down on both sides. It is said that the first Inca ordered the dresses
+of each village to be different, so that his officials might know
+to which tribe an Indian belonged. It was only with great difficulty
+and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the gobernador
+or mayor, and the alcaldes that a dozen very reluctant females
+were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their
+faces was very eloquent. Some were highly indignant, others looked
+foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not
+knowing what evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence
+of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that
+was the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact,
+some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken that
+they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they
+seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were large felt
+hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky
+wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen ponchos, decorated with
+bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and
+ankle, a convenient style for herdsmen who have to walk in the long,
+dewy grasses of the plateau. These "high-water" pantaloons do not
+look badly when worn with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since
+this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots,
+which did not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced
+a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far
+less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require less attention
+and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also
+be securely bolted to the rafters. On this wind-swept plateau we
+frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes
+passed over the house and weights resting on the roof. Sometimes to
+the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of
+animals--probably to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes
+do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed
+very efficacious.
+
+On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level
+that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular raindrop
+will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic
+Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad station of Araranca
+flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the
+sources of the Urubamba River, an important affluent of the Ucayali
+and also of the Amazon, but I never have heard it referred to as
+"the source of the Amazon" except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain
+Blank, whose moving picture entertainment bore the alluring title,
+"From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon." As most of his pictures
+of wild animals "in the jungle" looked as though they were taken in
+the zooelogical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly hacienda at Santa Ana, less
+than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure
+him for giving this particular little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on
+its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of as the Vilcanota,
+a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks
+of the cordillera in this vicinity. The lower portion was called by
+the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an
+interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide the
+Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca
+Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by the owners of
+grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the
+valley and up the neighboring slopes to the cliffs of the Cordillera
+Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall
+are the ruins of ancient houses, possibly once occupied by an Inca
+garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of
+careful masonry. It seems to me likely that it was a hastily thrown-up
+fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any
+permanent affair like the Roman wall of North Britain or the Great Wall
+of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between
+the peoples of the Titicaca Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco
+valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,
+[3] one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui,
+Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800
+A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and east, laying
+waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian
+migrations which appear to have continued for some time. During
+these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with
+so much care and difficulty during the preceding twenty centuries,
+was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike,
+ruler of a people whose great achievements had been agricultural
+rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests;
+they told him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow
+a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the
+strategic points and make preparations for defense. The invaders
+may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred
+on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual exhaustion of forested
+areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great
+pampas. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up
+into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were "fleeing from a race of giants"--possibly Patagonians
+or Araucanians--who had expelled them from their own lands. On their
+journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious
+that a great readjustment of the aborigines was in progress. The
+governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not
+able to summon enough strength to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled
+the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the
+approach of the enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true,
+this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago,
+by the chiefs who were told to "fortify the strategic points."
+
+Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway from the Titicaca
+Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the
+key to the situation. It is probable that Pachacuti VI drew up his
+army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings,
+the weapon most familiar to the highland shepherds. The invaders,
+however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more
+difficult to see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried
+over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that
+only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded, they fled to
+"Tampu-tocco," a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they
+hid the precious body of their ruler. Most writers believe this to
+be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved
+rock. There is no place in Peru to-day which still bears the name
+of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which
+do exist, and whose modern names are not found in the early Spanish
+writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to
+Peru, as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Potato-field at La Raya
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya
+------
+
+
+Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas,
+numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of herdsmen. The
+Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the
+manufacture of textiles--shawls, girdles, ponchos, and blankets--on
+hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending
+flocks or walking along the road they are always winding or spinning
+yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The
+younger children, used as shepherds as soon as they reach the
+age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch
+their charges. Some of them were accompanied by long-haired suncca
+shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to
+barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the sunccas, as well
+as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them
+showed any desire to make the acquaintance of "Checkers," my faithful
+Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that
+"Checkers" could understand English. They had never seen a dog that
+could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited
+a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet, a record
+altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato
+field on the high slopes near here, it is the custom of the Indians to
+mark it off into squares, by "furrows" about fifteen feet apart. The
+Quichuas commence their task soon after daybreak. Due to the absence
+of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold
+before dawn, their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock,
+at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more
+of Indians who were engaged in "ploughing" a potato field. Although
+he was dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and
+intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any
+except the implements of their ancestors. The process of "ploughing"
+this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries,
+probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The men, working in unison
+and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or "foot plough,"
+to the handle of which footholds were lashed, would, at a signal, leap
+forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing
+each pair of men was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the
+clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to
+secure greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as
+usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls over
+their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was
+lightened by the joyous contact of community activity. Every one worked
+with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to
+keep up with the procession. Those who fell behind were subjected to
+good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though
+it appears to require a strong directing hand. The "boss" was right
+there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for
+individual effort. Private property was not understood. Everything
+belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the priests,
+the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we
+should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything was done in
+common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the
+crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas to go forth in huge
+family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village
+gossip and choral singing, interspersed at regular intervals with
+rest periods, in which quantities of chicha quenched the thirst and
+cheered the mind.
+
+Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a
+score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of sheaves of wheat or
+barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the
+other in a parallel line, engaged in ploughing synchronously small
+portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit
+Lima and sometimes go to Paris and New York, where they purchase
+for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are
+still cultivated in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the
+conquistadores, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive
+pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant,
+almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima, is canihua,
+a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit
+in April. The threshing floor for canihua is a large blanket laid
+on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail
+applied, the blanket serving to prevent the small grayish seeds from
+escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European origin and has
+probably not changed for centuries.
+
+We noticed also quinoa and even barley growing at an elevation of
+14,000 feet. Quinoa is another species of pigweed. It often attains
+a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The
+white-seeded variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared
+with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article,
+both for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being
+cooked and "do not appear so slimy as oatmeal." Other varieties of
+quinoa are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water
+being frequently changed. The growing quinoa presents an attractive
+appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation,
+both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers of old
+terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them
+growing high up on the mountain side in what are called temporales,
+where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or
+cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some kind of a crop
+in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani,
+we saw fields where habas beans had been gathered and the dried stalks
+piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the pampa where oca grows,
+we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by
+were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary use of night
+watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the roadside were different
+in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin
+or even of Santa Rosa, which is not far away. They were typical
+Quichuas--peaceful agriculturists--usually spinning wool on the
+little hand spindles which have been used in the Andes from time
+immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with
+coarse grass.
+
+The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray
+hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men in certain
+localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or
+lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem to be more enduring
+than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved
+teeth was everywhere noteworthy except on sugar plantations, where
+there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled
+from cakes or mixed with parched corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same
+as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be limited to
+face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the
+other hand, a large proportion of the Indians are pock-marked and
+show the effects of living in a country which is "free from medical
+tyranny." There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether
+this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack of
+fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander
+has made the best use he could of the llama, he was never able to
+develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for
+loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently, for
+the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As
+a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr. Ferris that while
+his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back
+muscles stronger, and the calves of his legs larger and more powerful
+than those of almost any other race.
+
+The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian
+joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony with
+each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by
+the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times. In any event,
+this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to
+undergraduates at the beginning of the college year. As a matter of
+fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In
+testing the hand grip of the Quichuas by a dynamometer our surgeons
+found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the
+Quichua and the maximum grip was weak in both sexes, the average
+for the man being only about half of that found among American white
+adults of sedentary habits.
+
+Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North
+and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and
+South America are perhaps due to their environmental history during
+the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American
+Museum of Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological
+fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions of
+Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at
+very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to that with which
+they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the
+inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions of southern Peru, living in
+towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the
+sea, have physical peculiarities closely resembling those living at
+sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says
+the Labrador Eskimo and the Quichua constitute the two "best-known
+short-stature races on the American continent."
+
+So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one
+quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which have children
+the average number is three or four. Large families are not common,
+although we generally learned that the living children in a family
+usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant
+mortality is very great. The proper feeding of children is not
+understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In
+fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are those of the
+throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded
+of all local diseases. It is really terrifying. Due to the rarity
+of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually
+fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so at 11,000 feet. Patients are
+frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common,
+its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living conditions practiced
+among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is
+not tightly closed and protected against any possible intrusion of
+fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the
+natives to use huts of thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight
+hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of
+course, there are no "boards of health," nor are the people bothered by
+being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water supplies
+are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid
+drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat quantities of soup.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche
+------
+
+
+In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and
+the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and lowland maize
+fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native "druggists"
+were present. Their stock usually consisted of "medicines," whose
+efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds
+of simples and curiosities, cure-alls, and specifics. Fully half
+were reported to me as being "useful against fresh air" or the evil
+effects of drafts. The "medicines" included such minerals as iron
+ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the
+leaves of plants domesticated hundreds of years ago by the Incas or
+gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and
+such animals as starfish brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them
+were really useful herbs, while others have only a psychopathic effect
+on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored
+woolen bag. The bags, differing in design and color, woven on miniature
+hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts
+turned over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the
+remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described by
+Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row
+of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet high! Closer
+inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of
+a great temple. The wall is pierced with large doors and the spaces
+between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at
+the bottom. There are small holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The
+base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The
+ashlars are beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly
+squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive,
+but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence that the builders
+did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time
+plastered with clay, a very significant fact. The builders wanted the
+wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay
+wall rested on the ground, floods and erosion might have succeeded
+in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built
+foundation of solid masonry. Even so, the great wall does not stand
+absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also
+seems to be less weathered on the west side. Probably the prevailing
+or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty
+feet high--a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture. It also
+is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now
+standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were to be seen,
+but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double
+row of these columns to support the stringers and tiebeams of the
+roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column
+and the other end was embedded in the main wall. The holes where the
+tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also
+unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall, decorated with
+large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of
+adobe, while the upper third is of rough, uncut stones. It looks very
+odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several
+cases the plastered walls are still standing, in fairly good condition,
+particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the
+temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly disintegrating,
+as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so
+long in a rainy region without any roof or protecting cover. It is
+incredible that for at least five hundred years a wall of sun-dried
+clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels,
+made of hard-wood timbers and partially embedded in the wall, are all
+gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out
+whether the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If
+so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to
+resist weathering. The factors which have caused this extraordinary
+adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for
+so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy rains of each summer
+season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship
+of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive
+folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity of the place,
+the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry
+of the neighboring village is still the manufacture of pottery. No
+better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to
+have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so much perhaps
+out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend
+off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well known that the best pottery
+of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are
+well aware of the uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck
+seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are
+taken. Might it not have been possible that the people who were most
+concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple to insure
+success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple
+is a small modern church with two towers. The churchyard appears to be
+a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use
+the church to pray for success in their baking, just as the ancient
+potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are
+composed partly of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It
+occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the clay
+beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The
+temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering to the god
+of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send
+the lava flow might be appeased. It may be that the Inca Viracocha,
+an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and
+was responsible for building the temple. If so, it would be natural
+for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped
+his memory.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912
+------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Valley of the Huatanay
+
+The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the
+Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land located under
+climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the
+ancient Peruvians. Containing an area estimated at less than 160 square
+miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has
+ever seen. It is still intensively cultivated, the home of a large
+percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself
+sometimes meanders through the valley in a natural manner, but at
+other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls
+constructed by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields
+from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold is
+unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season,
+in June and July, and frost may occur any night in the year above
+13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither
+warm nor cold.
+
+This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to
+soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor of
+the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may
+occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on their way to and
+from town. Although mules are essentially the most reliable saddle
+animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses,
+which are larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better
+gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated saddle,
+over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable
+stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood decorated with silver
+bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered
+necessary and is usually decorated with a broad, embossed panel,
+from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The
+bridle is usually made of carefully braided leather, decorated with
+silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or
+blinder, to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade,
+which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely, is more
+useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the
+basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs near Oropesa
+divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura,
+or "the narrows," is the natural gateway between the Oropesa Basin and
+the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre
+Basin the most interesting are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which
+leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca (Rumi =
+"stone"; ccolca = "granary"). It is commonly supposed that this was
+an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those
+of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred to as a "fortaleza." The
+major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay,
+while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully cut andesite
+ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some
+great chieftain built the rough wall in the days when the highlands
+were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one
+of the Incas, no longer needing any fortifications between the Huatanay
+Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built
+a fine gateway. The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except
+for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the
+ancient masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting
+the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention of the
+stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In
+one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu I noticed similar
+bosses. The name "Stone-granary" was probably originally applied to
+a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient
+terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca, on the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called
+Piquillacta. A large number of its houses have extraordinarily high
+walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south,
+was obviously built to protect it from enemies approaching from the
+Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the slopes are so steep as
+to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava
+rock, with which the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and
+thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich
+enough to attract the attention of agriculturists, who come here from
+neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the
+city are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat
+and barley are the principal crops.
+
+As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient
+Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called Rumiccolca is
+figured in Squier's "Peru" as "Piquillacta." On the other hand,
+the ruins of the large city, "covering thickly an area nearly a
+square mile," are called by Squier "the great Inca town of Muyna,"
+a name also applied to the little lake which lies in the bottom of
+the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw
+Mt. Piquillacta first, then the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the
+ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous,
+harmless, natural phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by
+those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta
+------
+
+
+Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who
+has a country place in the neighborhood and is very familiar with this
+region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From
+him I learned that the city ruins are called Piquillacta, the name
+which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward
+of the ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near
+Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently,
+it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction to
+give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the
+lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. Piqui means "flea";
+llacta means "town, city, country, district, or territory." Was this
+"The Territory of the Fleas" or was it "Flea Town"? And what was its
+name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it
+was considered unlucky?
+
+Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have
+here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca, long since
+abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out
+in regular fashion, the streets crossing each other at right angles,
+the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town
+of Ollantaytambo. Not a soul lives here. It is true that across the
+Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating
+in Mt. Ausangate, the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta
+is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly
+settled valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important
+Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely
+populated valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city
+in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius of
+twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is on the increase. It
+is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the
+railroad. Yet it is "abandonado--desierto--despoblado"! Undoubtedly
+here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its
+being abandoned appears to be the absence of running water. Although
+Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles
+wide, rising to a point of 2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota
+rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated,
+extinct volcano surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites,
+and basalts.
+
+How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built
+on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams? Has the
+climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the
+surrounding region is still the populous part of southern Peru? It is
+inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied
+on a plateau four hundred feet above the nearest water unless there
+was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing
+every drop up the hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there
+were no places near here better provided with water than this site,
+one could understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to
+depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running
+streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling problem
+I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are
+usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+Squier says that this "fortress" was "the southern limit of the
+dominions of the first Inca." "The fortress reaches from the mountain,
+on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly
+called 'El Aqueducto,' perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an
+aqueduct--but the name is evidently misapplied." Yet he admits that the
+cross-section of the wall, diminishing as it does "by graduations or
+steps on both sides," "might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification" if it occupied
+"a different position." He noticed that "the top of the wall is
+throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches
+the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately in thickness"
+as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the "fortress"
+idea that he rejected not only local tradition as expressed in the
+native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own
+eyes. It seems to me that there is little doubt that instead of the
+ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the
+remains of an ancient azequia, or aqueduct, built by some powerful
+chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which
+rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water power
+for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such
+an azequia. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet,
+could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road,
+on this aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would
+have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes
+of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their upper limit
+corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an azequia would
+have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside
+which looks as though an azequia had once passed that way. In the
+valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old azequias. There
+has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills,
+and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been out of order for
+several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have
+disappeared in places. I regret very much that circumstances over
+which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the
+possibilities of such a theory. It remains for some fortunate future
+investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta,
+how they secured their water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca
+------
+
+
+Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at
+Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its chiefs and people
+cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community
+they were a separate political entity from the people of Cuzco;
+that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became
+sufficiently powerful to conquer the people of the Lucre Basin, and
+removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of
+his domain, a system of colonization well known in the history of the
+Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta
+departed, no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the
+site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe that
+at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses,
+unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have been considered not
+desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed
+city had there been plenty of water available. In any case, the ruins
+of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon,
+a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above the
+village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses
+of characteristic Inca construction, containing many symmetrically
+arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses
+are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon was probably the residence
+of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant
+view of the village and of the hills to the south, which to-day
+are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a
+nicely constructed fountain of cut stone. Some of the terraces are
+extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly
+together. Access from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made
+each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces
+are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi. No one lives at
+Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the
+neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists to live
+at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom,
+than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow valley and occupy the
+old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here
+rather than in the open plain.
+
+While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive
+potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President of the
+University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above
+Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence of a fortification
+near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable
+and happy by the generous hospitality of Dr. Aguilar, whose finca
+is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of
+the valley.
+
+From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening
+in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern town of San
+Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just
+beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score or more of gable-roofed
+houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings
+have doors, windows, and niches in walls of small stones laid in clay,
+the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name
+of these ruins we were told that it was Saylla, although that is
+the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay,
+in the Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water
+supply at present. It is not far from a stream called the Kkaira
+and could easily have been supplied with water by an azequia less
+than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It
+looks very much like the case of a village originally placed on the
+hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later
+abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages of living near
+the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had
+established peace over the highlands. There may be another explanation.
+
+It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco
+Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage on unterraced
+slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides
+are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous
+feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material from its
+slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the
+village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory noticed that the streams
+traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by
+"transporting gravel from the head of the fan to its lower margin,"
+and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed
+in between the Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as
+fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old
+Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned when the rule
+of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand,
+it seems more likely that the people who built Saylla were farmers
+and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation,
+due to increased erosion, they abandoned this site for one nearer the
+arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural
+residents of these ancient houses saw their beautiful fields at the
+bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous
+quantities of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol
+after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of
+fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of
+San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students of agriculture
+will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading
+gravel banks probably drove the folk out of Saylla.
+
+The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking
+peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point, is
+connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals
+and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay Valley is
+much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to
+Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little peaks are frequently
+snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in
+the Huatanay Valley.
+
+The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no
+native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia. Firewood is
+scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only trees in
+sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of
+eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has been thought of and written
+of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence
+of trees on the neighboring hills is due entirely to the hand of man,
+the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who
+cleared the forests before the days of intensive terrace agriculture,
+and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of
+Cuzco do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm
+and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for cooking
+purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought
+into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we
+saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged and many of
+the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding
+and the failure to improve the original stock by the introduction of
+new and superior strains.
+
+When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the
+hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat land near the
+Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed
+a concentration of population very unusual in the Andes. Most of the
+important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in
+the immediate vicinity of Cuzco itself or on the "pampas" north of the
+city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato
+cultivation could be carried out are nearly all in this quadrant. In
+the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads
+directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a picturesque ruin which bears
+the native name of Pucara.
+
+Pucara is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance
+at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification to
+realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of
+irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage was taken of small
+cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We
+noticed openings or drains which had been cut in the wall by the
+original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on
+the terraced floor of the enclosed area, which is several feet above
+that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in
+many of the old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient
+folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucara is occupied by llama herdsmen and
+drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral. Probably
+Pucara was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who
+raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas and alpacas on the
+neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucara, is
+a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut stone. Near by
+are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall
+containing four large, ceremonial niches, level with the ground and
+about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de
+Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family
+of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among
+these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the "hot springs" near Tambo
+Machai, "called so from the manner in which the water boils up." The
+next huaca, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself,
+"a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he
+went to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the
+Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children."
+
+The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the
+ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly assume
+a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word macchini means
+"to wash" or "to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher." It may be
+that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils devoted to
+royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is
+the place where, according to Molina, all the youths of Cuzco who had
+been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st
+day of the month to bathe and change their clothes. Afterwards they
+returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. "Each relation
+that offered a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to
+him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the Sun
+and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors."
+
+Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca,
+a small stream which finally joins the Huatanay near the town of San
+Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the
+Cachimayo, famous as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have
+caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named
+the place Las Salinas, or "the Salt Pits," on account of the salt
+pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had
+filled the Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which
+took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro and
+Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of
+Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory. Near the salt
+pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches,
+called Rumihuasi, or "Stone House." The presence of salt in many of
+the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance
+to our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in
+districts where the only water available was so saline as to spoil
+it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, "an ancient
+water-body whose surface," says Professor Gregory, "lay well above
+the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo." This lake is
+believed to have reached its maximum expansion in early Pleistocene
+times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, habas beans,
+and quinoa, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively
+cultivated. It has been named "Lake Morkill" in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq.,
+without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian
+explorations as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill
+fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine
+materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons grazed
+on its banks. "Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly
+all of the glacial epoch." Its drainage was finally accomplished
+by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and
+developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of
+Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by
+the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which may be found
+potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the
+Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost third of Cuzco from
+the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for
+gardens and food crops. Here the hospitable Canadian missionaries have
+their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco quebrada,
+an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote
+and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight of several
+bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel
+banks of the little gulch. Further examination showed that recent
+erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished
+stones more or less carefully fitted together, which at first sight
+appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that
+side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and flush with its surface
+the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that
+the wall antedated the gravel deposits. Fifty feet farther up the
+quebrada another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On
+top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging in
+the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the
+field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that the wall was
+about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on
+both sides with roughly cut stone and filled in with rubble, a type
+of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older
+buildings in the western part of the city of Cuzco.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada
+------
+
+
+Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man,
+was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by a compact
+water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand,
+yet a few days later, while endeavoring to solve the puzzle,
+I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the
+gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to the compact, perpendicular
+gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like
+one of the small rocks which are freely interspersed throughout the
+gravels here. Closer examination showed it to be the end of a human
+femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank,
+which rose almost perpendicularly for seventy or eighty feet above
+it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be
+true that here, in the heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried
+under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it
+until I could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the
+naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the Ayahuaycco
+quebrada. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of
+a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and
+broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although the
+gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery,
+ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel Central,
+where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline,
+packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought to New Haven. Here
+they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in
+the Peabody Museum. In the meantime Dr. Bowman had become convinced
+that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised
+to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a careful
+examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments
+which were excavated by us on July 11th failed to reveal this
+particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon being questioned, said that he had
+dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation
+of July 11th and had added these to the original lot. Presumably
+this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were
+packed. It did not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his
+interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care
+if we had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that
+the age of the vertebrate remains might be "provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years," until further studies could be made of
+the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article on the buried
+wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that "the wall is pre-Inca,
+that its relations to alluvial deposits which cover it indicate its
+erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed,
+and that it represents the earliest type of architecture at present
+known in the Cuzco basin."
+
+Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight
+of them were fragments of human bones representing at least three
+individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone
+of a dog, and three were "bovine remains." The human remains agreed
+"in all essential respects" with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama
+and dog might all have belonged to Inca, or even more recent times,
+but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three
+fragments were from bones which "are among the least characteristic
+parts of the skeleton." That which was of greatest interest was the
+fragment of a first rib, resembling the first rib of the extinct
+bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently
+characteristic of bisons and not seen in the domestic cattle of the
+United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied "that
+the material examined suggests the possibility that some species
+of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance
+with conservative methods to differentiate bison from domestic cattle
+solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small
+number of individuals." Although staunchly supporting his theory of
+the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on their
+geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the
+fact that the bovine remains were not sharply differentiated from the
+bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that "the bluff
+in which the bones were found may be faced by younger gravel and that
+the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods
+of partial valley filling, ... although it still seems very unlikely."
+
+Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely
+separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation, however,
+has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable
+to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary character of the
+skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could
+be drawn from the characters of the human skeletal parts, and the
+suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels
+which contained the bones might be of a later origin than he thought,
+we determined to make further and more complete investigations in
+1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all
+skepticism. I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study
+of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if
+it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the same
+skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he
+was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions. Accordingly, I
+believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent
+testimony would give great weight to those conclusions should he
+find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay
+Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague, Professor Gregory, to make the
+necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay
+Valley was prepared under the direction of Chief Topographer Albert
+H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru,
+was invited to accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern
+Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the
+Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took the bones
+in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had
+been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald dug a tunnel eleven
+feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into
+the solid mass of gravel. He expected to have to use timbering, but
+so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. No bones
+or artifacts were found--nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture
+and containing no unmistakable evidences of stratification. Apparently
+the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact
+gravel mass.
+
+In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the
+conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been repeatedly
+buried and reexcavated many times during the past few centuries. He
+found evidence indicating periodic destruction and rebuilding of some
+gravel terraces, "even within the past one hundred years." Accordingly
+there was no longer any necessity to ascribe great antiquity to the
+bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco quebrada. Although
+the "Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent
+and thickness in late Pleistocene times," more recent deposits have,
+however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. "Surface
+wash from the bordering slopes, controlled in amount and character by
+climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since
+glacial times, and has greatly increased since human occupation
+began." "Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of
+years as the age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels."
+
+But how about the "bison"? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton
+examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals offered for sale
+in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the "bison"
+was a Peruvian domestic ox. "Under the life-conditions prevailing in
+this part of the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased
+action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed
+in bison." Such was the sad end of the "bison" and the "Cuzco man,"
+who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and
+now believe to have been two hundred years old, perhaps. The word
+Ayahuaycco in Quichua means "the valley of dead bodies" or "dead
+man's gulch." There is a story that it was used as a burial place
+for plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Oldest City in South America
+
+Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since
+Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably since my own
+first impressions of it were published in "Across South America." To
+be sure, there are still the evidences of antiquity to be seen on
+every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences
+of advancement. Telephones, electric lights, street cars, and the
+"movies" have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern
+traveler finds fault with some of the conditions he encounters he
+must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient
+Cuzco are not yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever
+been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is
+steadily progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was
+completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nunez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old
+cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade of the
+citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is
+crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of the food-stuffs
+and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently
+thronged with Indians, buying and selling, arguing and jabbering,
+it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source
+of entertainment to one who is fond of the picturesque and interested
+in strange manners and customs.
+
+The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of
+congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats; in
+another those who sell coca. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly
+all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their
+light seems to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are
+operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and
+patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those who specialize in
+everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the arriero:
+richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye
+from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry his coca or
+other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide
+lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond hitch than
+to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey,
+and candles to be burned before his patron saint as he starts for some
+distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Map of Peru and view of Cuzco
+
+From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578.
+------
+
+
+In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the
+streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure anthropometric
+measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up
+a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His subjects were the unwilling
+victims of friendly gendarmes who went out into the streets with
+orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most
+of the Indians showed no resentment and were in the end pleased and
+surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin
+as compensation for loss of time.
+
+One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's
+subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but this was
+not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than
+from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo, and Maras. This
+may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place,
+the gendarmes may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant
+villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk
+were presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their
+business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation which the
+gendarmes could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably
+true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than those
+of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two
+or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore, the attention
+of the gendarmes might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly
+caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city
+fashions do not prevail, than to those who through long residence
+in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of
+the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day a large
+proportion of the individuals whom one sees in the streets appears
+to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are
+visitors from outlying villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most
+densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua
+ancestry. The Spanish conquistadores did not bring European women
+with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed
+of such an extraordinary mixture of peoples from Europe and northern
+Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians,
+Berbers, and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy
+toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for
+centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with results which
+are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once
+200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods of transportation
+it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559,
+there were, according to Montesinos, only 20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street
+cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed Cuzcenos
+past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The
+driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous application of his
+brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of
+quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged in bringing small sacks of
+potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built
+of stones taken from ancient Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which
+left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a
+bill-board advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the
+2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote
+Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos with broad fringes,
+brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled
+tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume whose design shows no trace
+of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors
+was a barefooted Cuzco urchin clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap,
+coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses
+built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls which
+themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons
+centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone wires intercept
+one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now
+part of the University of Cuzco. It is built of reddish basalt from
+the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor
+Gregory says that this Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity
+of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately
+carved stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical
+architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense
+diorite which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers
+far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions gives
+to the Jesuit Church an atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of
+the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit
+teachers long before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with
+concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the
+shouts of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is
+teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, "Mens sana in corpore sano."
+
+Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the
+political capital of the most important department in southern Peru,
+it had in 1911 only one hospital--a semi-public, non-sectarian
+organization on the west of the city, next door to the largest
+cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and
+so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and the more
+prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the
+patients have to look at. The building has large courtyards and open
+colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to
+take advantage of open-air treatment. At the time of Surgeon Erving's
+visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows
+were small and practically always closed and shuttered, so that the
+atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly
+imagine a stronger contrast than exists between such wards and those
+to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum
+of sunlight and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to
+sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was
+no resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the
+hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to
+the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects of sunlight
+and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality
+and a very poor local reputation; yet it is the only hospital in the
+Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was
+no provision for caring for the sick except in their own homes. In
+the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs
+may be obtained, but in the great majority of towns and villages
+no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke,
+of the University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco
+------
+
+
+On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the
+interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived Carlos Inca,
+a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded
+in maintaining a precarious existence in the wilds of the Cordillera
+Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata
+is still preserved one of the most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to
+be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine
+palace, or whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty
+to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a
+merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once a banker, an exporter
+of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of
+every description, including pencils and sugar mills, lumber and hats,
+candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture
+as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas. Furthermore, he
+has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his
+large business to assist our expeditions. He has frequently brought
+us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters
+of introduction, so that our paths were made easy. He has provided us
+with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy
+muleteers, seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases
+of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal,
+just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying clients. As
+a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation
+for the many favors he showed us. So important a factor was he in
+the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully
+remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It
+is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making more exertion
+than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to
+reach the famous "fortress" is by following the course of the little
+Tullumayu, "Feeble Stream," the easternmost of the three canalized
+streams which divide Cuzco into four parts. On its banks one first
+passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the
+remains of an old mill. The stone flume and the adjoining ruins
+are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas,
+but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not
+understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is hardly likely
+that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally,
+careful examination of the flume discloses the presence of lead cement,
+a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive
+megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in
+"Across South America." Here the ancient builders constructed three
+great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile
+across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest terrace of the
+"fortress" is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten
+tons and some weigh more than twenty tons, yet all are fitted together
+with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each
+time it invariably overwhelms and astounds. To a superstitious Indian
+who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been
+built by gods.
+
+About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial
+hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be composed
+entirely of gray-blue rock chips--chips from the great limestone blocks
+quarried here for the "fortress" and later conveyed with the utmost
+pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless
+thousands of quarrymen. Even in modern times, with steam drills,
+explosives, steel tools, and light railways, these hills would
+be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these
+mechanical devices were known to the ancient stonemasons and that
+these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all
+carried from the quarries by hand, it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of
+human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization. That
+thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural
+pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract the blocks
+from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them
+several miles over rough country, and bond them together in such an
+intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability
+to organize and arrange the affairs of a very large population. Such
+a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for
+warfare. Their building operations required infinite pains, endless
+time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called
+forth, even by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing
+to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily
+agriculturists. They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying
+on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It
+seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance with
+their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose
+that a people to whom stone-faced terraces meant so much in the way
+of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of
+Cyclopean character, like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity
+who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more
+likely object for the gigantic labor involved in the construction
+of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally
+strong defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop
+back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in an
+infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of
+individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out
+of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been caused by the
+supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient
+Peruvians were religious rather than warlike, more inclined to worship
+the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire
+to please, at whatever cost, the god that fructified the crops which
+grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors,
+warriors themselves and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting
+race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military
+use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value of its salients
+and reentrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had
+been only recently acquired by their crusading ancestors. The height
+and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest
+service to the soldiers of that day. They saw that it was virtually
+impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact,
+in the wars of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry
+into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians,
+who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery, did
+not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the
+fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with. So natural did it
+seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress
+that it has seldom been thought of in any other way. The fact that
+the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders
+coming up the valley, or even over the gentle slopes from the west,
+or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been
+used as part of the main highway of the central Andes, never seems
+to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a
+fortress. It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where
+the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season to
+celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for
+the sun's return from his "farthest north." In any case I believe
+that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably
+intended for religious rather than military purposes. It is more
+likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+
+It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north
+of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account of the
+last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+The Last Four Incas
+
+Readers of Prescott's charming classic, "The Conquest of Peru,"
+will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca who
+had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels
+of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the throne of the
+Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young
+prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna Capac, named for the
+first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected
+as the most acceptable figurehead. He was a young man of ability
+and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate
+ceremonies, the barbaric splendor of which only made the farce the
+more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might
+have been foreseen, he chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as
+possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful
+Quichuas. There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized
+by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as "the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world." When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved
+by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance of regaining
+the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to
+Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river Urubamba, Manco made a
+determined stand, but Ollantaytambo was too easily reached by Pizarro's
+mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their
+utmost endeavors by the presence of the magnificent stone edifices,
+fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors,
+found it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and
+made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the fastnesses
+of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position
+practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods,
+was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents, or crossing
+the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than
+the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous for Hannibal and
+Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes
+of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible to follow the Inca Manco
+over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than
+the summit of Mont Blanc. In no part of the Peruvian Andes are there
+so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle
+of Mt. Veronica (elevation 19,342 ft.). Not far away is another
+magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the
+sea. Near Salcantay is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.),
+while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197
+ft.). On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and
+little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some hardy
+prospector or inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached
+only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by
+violent storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part
+of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season the
+difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed
+mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without assistance from
+man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+The conquistador, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account
+of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a "great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts ... and many loads of
+rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy." The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of
+the ruler of a country traveling without rich "treasure." It is
+extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or
+silver. Except for ornament there was little use to which he could
+have put the precious metals and they would have served only to
+arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His people had never been paid
+in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it
+as was needed to raise their own crops and make their own clothing
+was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the
+custom and usage of centuries made them faithful followers of their
+great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him
+beautiful textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken
+for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy the benefits of a delightful climate,
+and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white
+and sweet, and the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions
+easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth
+against the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His
+raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him, with
+a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses,
+cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive rafts,
+and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway
+of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business led them over this
+route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by
+making them realize that in these raids they were taking sweet revenge
+on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting
+to note that Cieza de Leon justifies Manco in his attitude, for the
+Spaniards had indeed "seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave
+his native land, and to live in banishment."
+
+Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using
+it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies, led
+many of the Orejones of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were
+called Orejones, "big ears," by the Spaniards because the lobes of
+their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold
+earrings which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's
+retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in the
+year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess
+and one of the conquistadores. As a small child Garcilasso heard
+of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and
+spent the rest of his life in Spain. After forty years in Europe
+he wrote, partly from memory, his "Royal Commentaries," an account
+of the country of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom
+he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child,
+he speaks apologetically. He says: "In the time of Manco Inca,
+several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but
+still they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let
+them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the
+Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the countrey
+.... The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel;
+and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents of twenty-five and
+thirty feet long, with other venomous insects." (I am quoting from Sir
+Paul Rycaut's translation, published in London in 1688.) Garcilasso
+says Manco's soldiers took only "such food as they found in the hands
+of the Indians; which the Inca did usually call his own," saying,
+"That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge
+such a proportion thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary
+and natural support"--a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt
+whether Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them
+of their "wares and merchandise." As will be seen later, we found
+in Manco's palace some metal articles of European origin which might
+very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should
+be remembered that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott,
+left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were
+largely colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to
+extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised by
+the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers
+at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says the Indians had no
+defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used "lances,
+arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts, and slings, and another weapon
+which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones
+sewn up in leather, and each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They
+throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and
+sometimes they will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same
+way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they
+will bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon,
+however, is the sling .... With it, they will hurl a huge stone with
+such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little
+less great than that of an arquebus; and I have seen a stone, thus
+hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in
+a man's hand at a distance of thirty paces."
+
+Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small
+force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the Inca. Captain
+Villadiego found it impossible to use horses, although he realized
+that cavalry was the "important arm against these Indians." Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious
+to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief reported
+to be traveling surrounded by his family "and with rich treasure,"
+he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in
+the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here, fatigued and
+exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects
+of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found themselves ambushed by
+the Inca, who with a small party, "little more than eighty Indians,"
+"attacked the Christians, who numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and
+killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three." To any
+one who has clambered over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa
+it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or
+that the Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate
+vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force of
+weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth
+century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders, and surrounded
+by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have
+been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas, who could "hurl a huge
+stone with such force that it would kill a horse," to have literally
+stoned to death Captain Villadiego's little company before they could
+have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Urubamba Canyon
+
+A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.
+------
+
+
+The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported their misfortune. The
+importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers
+that the size of the force with which Pizarro conquered Peru was less
+than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's
+company which had been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is
+further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers,
+with all their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only
+"a little more than eighty Indians." Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as
+being several thousand.
+
+Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers
+determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted such a blow on
+the prestige of Spanish arms, "but this attempt also failed," for the
+Inca had withdrawn across the rivers and mountains of Uilcapampa to
+Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers
+with the sight of the heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy,
+the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's
+enemies was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians
+of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their enemies,
+remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face,
+and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as the North American
+Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place
+among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists of central Peru. There were
+no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage
+on the bodies of Captain Villadiego's unfortunate men. Probably the
+conquistadores supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have
+done under similar circumstances.
+
+Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos,
+his brother, Gonzalo, "undertook the pursuit of the Inca and occupied
+some of his passes and bridges," but was unsuccessful in penetrating
+the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy than Captain Villadiego,
+he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue
+the young Inca or prevent his raids on travelers from Cuzco to Lima,
+Francisco Pizarro, "with the assent of the royal officers who were
+with him," established the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point
+on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless,
+according to Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite
+a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, "having taken one of
+Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her,
+and then shot her to death with arrows."
+
+Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are
+not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in 1639 his
+"Coronica Moralizada," or "pious account of the missionary activities
+of the Augustinians" in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed
+by all the Indians who lived in a region extending "for two hundred
+leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces." With customary monastic
+zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha accuses the Inca of
+compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to
+abandon their new faith, torturing those who would no longer worship
+the old Inca "idols." This story need not be taken too literally,
+although undoubtedly the escaped Indians acted as though they had
+never been baptized.
+
+Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa,
+in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen other Spanish
+fugitives, adherents of Almagro, "rascals," says Calancha, "worthy
+of Manco's favor." Obliged by the civil wars of the conquistadores
+to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome
+in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and taught
+the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and
+quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride horseback
+and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and
+occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which, as we shall see,
+was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of
+what was going on in the viceroyalty. Although "encompassed within
+craggy and lofty mountains," the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of
+all those "revolutions" which might be of benefit to him.
+
+Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in
+regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He brought the
+New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to
+alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The New Laws provided, among
+other things, that all the officers of the crown were to renounce
+their repartimientos or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory
+personal service was to be entirely abolished. Repartimientos given
+to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert
+to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave evidence that the
+Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve
+of the Pizarros. This was good news for Manco and highly pleasing
+to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the
+new viceroy, asking permission to appear before him and offer his
+services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by
+this means he might some day recover his empire, "or at least the
+best part of it." Their object in persuading the Inca to send such
+a message to the viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they
+"also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past"
+and permission to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little
+group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from the Inca and
+the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed
+to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left Uilcapampa, presented
+his letters to the viceroy, and gave him "a large relation of the
+State and Condition of the Inca, and of his true and real designs
+to doe him service." "The Vice-king joyfully received the news,
+and granted a full and ample pardon of all crimes, as desired. And
+as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect,
+truly considering that the Interest of the Inca might be advantageous
+to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer
+Gomez Perez returned both to the Inca and to his companions." The
+refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king
+and country. Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic
+accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+"The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them,
+had given directions for making a bowling-green; where playing one day
+with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this
+Perez about the measure of a Cast, which often happened between them;
+for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any
+judgment or understanding, would take the least occasion in the world
+to contend with and provoke the Inca .... Being no longer able to
+endure his rudeness, the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him
+to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat
+and passion either his own safety or the safety of his Companions,
+lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently on
+the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The
+Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their Prince, joined
+together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house,
+and with their Swords in their hands defended the door; the Indians
+set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out
+into the Marketplace, where the Indians assaulted them and shot them
+with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then
+afterwards, out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat
+them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but
+at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast their bodies
+into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air,
+which they supposed to be the highest indignity and dishonour that
+they could show to their Corps." Garcilasso concludes: "I informed
+myself very perfectly from those chiefs and nobles who were present
+and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash
+and hair-brained fool; and heard them tell this story to my mother
+and parents with tears in their eyes." There are many versions of
+the tragedy. [4] They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+
+Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality
+was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young sons, Sayri
+Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not
+yet reached his majority, became Inca in his father's stead, and with
+the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish
+neighbors or being annoyed by them, unless the reference in Montesinos
+to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555,
+is correct. By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to
+the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young
+Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the inaccessible
+wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this
+difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix Coya, an aunt of the
+Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and
+dispatched to Uiticos a messenger, of the blood royal, attended by
+Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down
+and the treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's
+regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver the
+viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was
+quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even though brought
+to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage
+and sent a messenger of their own to Cuzco to see if any foul play
+could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more
+trusted cousin, be sent to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar
+Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter of the
+unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his
+wife's language. Montesinos says he was a "great linguist." They
+started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several
+pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups of gilded silver as
+presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the
+Inca, they traveled as fast as they could to the Chuquichaca bridge,
+"the key to the valley of Uiticos." Here they were detained by the
+soldiers of the regents. A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's
+cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed,
+while the friar and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was
+welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage
+Sayri Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and
+the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of the Inca,
+with the presents which the viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first
+idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done,
+so he requested the ambassadors to depart immediately with their
+silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes
+across the Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra
+had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca
+decided to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate,
+observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but
+according to Garcilasso "made no inquiries of the devil." The omens
+were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca to
+accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly
+to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried by
+relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He
+was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to Cuzco, where
+he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome
+him. "I, myself," says Garcilasso, "went in the name of my Father. I
+found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians .... I
+kissed his hands, and delivered my Message; he commanded me to sit
+down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor,
+made of Mayz [chicha] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink;
+he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me;
+he drank, and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of
+Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why I
+did not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, 'Inca, as I am but a
+Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place me in such
+Ceremonies as these!' 'How,' replied the Inca, 'I would rather have
+seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in Town.' As I was going
+away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of
+the Indians, who are of his Alliance and Kindred, at which he was so
+much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection,
+as appeared by his Countenance."
+
+Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty,
+was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her in baptism,
+and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's
+journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned to Uiticos. His only
+daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more
+anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older,
+Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac
+------
+
+
+The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to
+have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac, and to have
+felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his
+half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa. Their first visitor,
+so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an
+interesting account of Uiticos and says he gave the Inca a pair of
+scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go
+to Cuzco. In time there came an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos
+Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the
+rough country of Uilcapampa, "a land of moderate wealth, large rivers,
+and the usual rains," whose "forested mountains," says Father Calancha,
+"are magnificent." Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were
+down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked up. The few
+Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the
+friar could not get there "unless he should be able to change himself
+into a bird." However, with that courage and pertinacity which have
+marked so many missionary enterprises, Friar Marcos finally overcame
+all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad
+to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find that a
+Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca
+was annoyed to have any one preach against his "idolatries." Titu
+Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree
+with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos built a little church in a place
+called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. "He
+planted crosses in the fields and on the mountains, these being the
+best things to frighten off devils." He "suffered many insults at
+the hands of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some
+of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for
+their vices and abominated among his converts the possession of four
+or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced
+him to send to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack,
+which was for him a most delicious banquet."
+
+Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego
+Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on the
+road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his
+presence in company with Friar Marcos. "Although the Inca was not
+too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an
+entrance because the Inca ... thought Friar Diego would not vex
+him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a
+license. They selected the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days journey from one
+Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego
+went to his new establishment and in a short time built a church,
+a house for himself, and a hospital,--all poor buildings made in a
+short time." He also started a school for children, and became very
+popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time
+than Friar Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician,
+was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as
+follows: "Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of water
+where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped
+by those idolators. This was the principal mochadero of those forested
+mountains. The word 'mochadero' [5] is the common name which the
+Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the
+only place where they practice the sacred ceremony of kissing. The
+origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very
+practice which Job abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all
+offences before God and says to Him: 'Lord, all these punishments and
+even greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the
+blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon shines
+clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward
+the sun and throw kisses to it,' an act of very grave iniquity which
+is equivalent to denying the true God."
+
+Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in
+Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine
+and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient Hebrew
+prophets. Apparently this ceremony "of the most profound resignation
+and reverence" was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos, in
+the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+Calancha goes on to say: "In this white stone of the aforesaid
+House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He
+and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the
+baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses, and many
+of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have
+given them."
+
+One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and
+counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some of their outlying
+estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular
+attack on this particular Devil, who was at the great "white rock
+over a spring of water." The two monks summoned all their converts
+to gather at Puquiura, in the church or the neighboring plaza, and
+asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn
+up this Devil who had tormented them. "An innumerable multitude" came
+together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted
+wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see the result;
+the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians';
+while, as may readily be imagined, the rest of the population came
+to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to "the
+Temple of the Sun, in the village of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos."
+
+Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of
+the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring, the white
+rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then,
+having exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile
+names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and finally
+commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and
+the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. "The poor Devil then fled
+roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble."
+
+It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus
+to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they were
+dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley,
+separated from their friends and far from the protecting hand
+of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an
+insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as soon as the
+Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was
+furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura. The chiefs wished to
+"slay the monks and tear them into small pieces," and undoubtedly
+would have done so had it not been for the regard in which Friar
+Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to
+the Indians that even the Inca himself dared not punish him for the
+attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably
+originated the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the
+Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out of
+the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should
+return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians who came
+from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to
+remain, and finally became a trusted friend and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+
+One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold,
+was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded in getting
+permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too
+successful. Both gold and silver were found among the hills and he
+showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing
+that his reports might encourage others to enter Uilcapampa, put the
+unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations
+of Friar Diego. Foreigners were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi
+to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an
+indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his
+Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth while to make
+every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years
+the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco and the major portion of
+Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians
+who lived in the province of Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather
+in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live
+where he would always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party,
+the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the meantime
+the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who
+was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade Titu Cusi to come to
+Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the
+Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against him. Titu Cusi's illness was
+very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual
+remedies. Unfortunately, all the monk's skill was unavailing and his
+royal patient died. The "remedies" were held by Titu Cusi's mother
+and her counselors to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer
+the penalty of death "for having caused the death of the Inca."
+
+The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of
+the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and now happily
+married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were
+decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty, but, thanks to the
+jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had
+not been that of a soldier. He was destined to have a brief, unhappy
+existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger
+was coming from the viceroy, seven warriors were sent to meet him on
+the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca
+bridge when he was attacked and killed.
+
+The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time
+that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow had been
+struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives
+of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers of the viceroy of
+Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the
+energetic Toledo, surrounded by his council, determined to make war
+on the unfortunate young Tupac Amaru and give a reward to the soldier
+who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that
+"many Insurrections might be raised in that Empire by this young
+Heir." "Moreover it was alledged," says Garcilasso .... "That by the
+Imprisonment of the Inca, all that Treasure might be discovered, which
+appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which
+Huayna Capac commanded to be made for himself to wear on the great
+and solemn days of their Festival"! Furthermore, the "Chain of Gold
+with the remaining Treasure belong'd to his Catholic Majesty by right
+of Conquest"! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way
+of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in case he should cross
+the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly
+been used by his father, Manco, in his marauding expeditions. The other
+company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from
+Cuzco by way of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate
+than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had
+been met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the
+days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending this
+important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the
+Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply
+in the middle and swayed so threateningly over the gorge of the
+Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river
+was too deep to be forded. There were no canoes. It would have been
+a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees
+that grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side
+of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's
+time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had never
+been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son,
+Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters. The chiefs and
+nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy
+the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying on their ability to take
+care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from
+crossing the narrow, swaying structure. General Hurtado was not taking
+any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain
+field pieces, with which the raw troops of the Inca were little
+acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from
+the river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly
+terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before. A
+few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled
+pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was
+sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road "narrow in the
+ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great
+depth." It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to
+pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at the head
+of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain
+named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight of Tupac Amaru,
+sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and
+endeavored to hurl him over the cliff. The captain's life was saved
+by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him,
+carrying his sword. Drawing it from the scabbard "with much dexterity
+and animation," the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in
+capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the Inca had
+"gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to
+the country of the Manaries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends,
+where balsas and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to
+escape." Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids of
+the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he
+put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself, he descended the
+rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived
+at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of
+their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed
+hard after, although he and his men were by this time barefooted and
+suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso
+says that Tupac Amaru, "considering that he had not People to make
+resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime,
+or disturbance he had done or raised, suffered himself to be taken;
+choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards,
+than to perish in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those
+great Rivers .... The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca,
+and on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him,
+amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went,
+so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor Prince." A
+mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with
+fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was mangled before his eyes. His
+own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His
+little boys did not long survive. So perished the last of the Incas,
+descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+1534. The Inca Manco ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+1536. Manco flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+1542. Promulgation of the "New Laws."
+
+1545. Murder of Manco and accession of his son Sayri Tupac.
+1555. Sayri Tupac goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+1560. Death of Sayri Tupac. His half brother Titu Cusi becomes Inca.
+
+1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+1568-9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in
+Chuquipalpa.
+
+1571. Titu Cusi dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. Tupac Amaru
+becomes Inca.
+
+1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de
+Loyola. Execution of Tupac Amaru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Searching for the Last Inca Capital
+
+The events described in the preceding chapter happened, for the most
+part, in Uiticos [6] and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about
+one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy,
+in what Prescott calls "the remote fastnesses of the Andes." One looks
+in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several of the
+older maps give it. In 1625 "Viticos" is marked on de Laet's map of
+Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima and three hundred
+and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by
+some later cartographers, including Mercator, until about 1740,
+when "Viticos" disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers
+had learned that there was no such place in that vicinity. Its real
+location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at
+Nuremberg in 1599 gives "Pincos" in the "Andes" mountains, a small
+range west of "Cusco." This does not seem to have been adopted by
+other cartographers; although a Palls map of 1739 gives "Picos" in
+about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth
+century who give "Viticos" supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g.,
+"Los Viticos" or "Les Viticos."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains
+------
+
+
+The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer,
+Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing Peru, does not
+contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos,
+Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally, it may seem strange that
+Uiticos could ever be written "Biticos." The Quichua language has
+no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital
+letter U exactly like a capital V. In official documents and letters
+Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard
+the word pronounced, naturally used the V sound instead of the U
+sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and
+Uilcapampa became Vilcabamba.
+
+Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way
+Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before or is likely to do
+again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865
+he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa; yet found no Uiticos. He
+believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of
+the last Incas. This view had been held by the French explorer, Count
+de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned
+when Sayri Tupac, Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's
+view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including
+Paz Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nunez and his friends in 1909, at
+the time of my visit to Choqquequirau. [7] The only dissenter was the
+learned Peruvian historian, Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the
+last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance
+of searching for Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called
+Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian
+Expedition of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would
+meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the
+Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco, mostly wealthy
+planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One
+told us that he went to Santa Ana every year and was acquainted with
+a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San
+Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity of his countrymen to exaggerate,
+however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his
+shoulders, had crossed the bridge a score of times without taking
+the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Senor Pancorbo, whose
+plantation was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague
+rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was
+likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar Marcos had
+established the first church in the "province of Uilcapampa." But
+that was "near" Uiticos and near a village called Chuquipalpa, where
+should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins
+a "white rock over a spring of water." Yet neither these friendly
+planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of
+Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting rock;
+nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+One of Senor Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who
+had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins "finer than
+Choqquequirau" at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had never been
+to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders
+and did not seem to place much confidence in his word. Too often he
+had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not "pan out." Yet
+his report resembled that of Charles Wiener, a French explorer,
+who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes,
+visited Ollantaytambo. While there he was told that there were fine
+ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called "Huaina-Picchu or
+Matcho-Picchu." He decided to go down the valley and look for these
+ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla,
+descended the Lucumayo River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and
+visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published
+a detailed map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name
+"Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m." and to another "Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m." His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to
+Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find any ruins
+of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope
+to be any more successful? Would the rumors that had reached us "pan
+out" as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since
+his day, to be sure, the Peruvian Government had actually finished
+a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard
+Anthropological Expedition, under the leadership of Dr. William
+C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting
+any ruins of importance. They were looking for savages and not
+ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was "finer than Choqquequirau"
+why had no one pointed it out to them?
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Peruvian Expedition of 1915
+------
+
+
+To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything
+finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded that "cradle
+of gold" as "the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent
+times." They assured us there was nothing half so good. They even
+assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to dig
+for buried treasure! Denials were of no avail. To a people whose
+ancestors made fortunes out of lucky "strikes," and who themselves
+have been brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining
+to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of
+tesoro--treasure, wealth, riches--is an ever-present source of
+conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced
+that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau--and that I was
+in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the
+members of the Expedition received no more than their expenses. He
+told me confidentially that Professor Foote would sell his collection
+of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to
+see any one do scientific work except as he was paid by the government
+or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found
+our work misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco
+Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+
+The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may
+be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route for those going
+to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway,
+past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica (12,000 ft.) the road
+crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the
+last point from which one can see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians,
+whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward
+the east, facing the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I
+believe that the words they use now are those of the "Ave Maria,"
+or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless,
+the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of the first
+Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit
+of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries immediately
+preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca
+himself, that divine individual who was at once the head of Church and
+State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in
+sight of his residence to perform an act of veneration. This in turn
+might have led those leaving the city to fall into the same habit at
+the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass
+this point. None of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or
+mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume,
+which betokened that they considered themselves to be Indians rather
+than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed
+their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed
+the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came at length
+to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great
+level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River by the untiring energy
+of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes
+bear many remains of narrow terraces, some of which are still in
+use. Above them are "temporales," fields of grain, resting like a
+patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could
+be cultivated. Still higher up, their heads above the clouds, are
+the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture,
+rich in contrast, majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca
+Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years
+and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under circumstances
+which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that
+they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the night in Urubamba,
+the modern capital of the province, much favored by Peruvians of
+to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate,
+and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000 feet, is too high to have charming
+surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley,
+there is everything to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. Uru is the
+Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, pampa means flat land. Urubamba
+is "flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars." Had it been named
+by people who came up from a warm region where insects abound, it would
+hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land
+where caterpillars and grubs flourished would have been struck by such
+a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau
+dwellers who were working their way down into a warm region where
+butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated
+caterpillars, Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies,
+and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised
+for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get everything.
+
+The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo,
+described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener, and Squier
+many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's
+drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated. Here, as at
+Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green
+fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them
+are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks. The village
+itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history
+is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of curious gabled buildings,
+storehouses, "prisons," or "monasteries," perched here and there
+on well-nigh inaccessible crags above the village. Below are broad
+terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still
+harvested; terraces which will stand for ages to come as monuments to
+the energy and skill of a bygone race. The "fortress" is on a little
+hill, surrounded by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so
+as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which
+cultivated the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror
+of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As
+centuries passed in which the land came under the control of the Incas,
+whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it
+is likely that this fortress became a royal garden. The six great
+ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and
+placed in line on the summit of the hill, were brought from a quarry
+several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They
+were probably intended to be a record of the magnificence of an able
+ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number
+of men to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an
+inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of the hill;
+he had to supply the men with food. The building of such a monument
+meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his
+people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source of pride. To
+his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa
+------
+
+
+A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch
+ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One
+of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a "granite palace,
+whose appearance [appareil] resembles the more beautiful parts
+of Ollantaytambo," was only a storehouse. The other was probably a
+tampu, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in
+Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under official
+orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal
+property were not understood. No one had anything to sell; no one
+had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an
+elaborate system of tax collecting. Two thirds of the produce raised
+by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It
+was a reasonable provision of the benevolent despotism of the Incas
+that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica
+should be provided with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de
+Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in
+Cuzco in 1560, says that the food of the chasquis, Inca post runners,
+was provided from official storehouses; "those who worked for the
+Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense." In
+Manco's day these buildings at Havaspampa probably sheltered the
+outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from
+Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes, one by way
+of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by
+General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and Wiener in 1875; and
+one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the
+Salcantay River to Huadquina, followed by the Count de Sartiges in
+1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands
+between Mt. Salcantay and Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the
+villages of Piri and Huadquina. This region was in 1911 undescribed
+in the geographical literature of southern Peru. We decided not to
+use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It
+led us into a fascinating country.
+
+Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of
+precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass of granite
+mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the
+surrounding highlands which are composed of schists, conglomerates, and
+limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province,
+but it was closed for centuries by the combined efforts of nature and
+man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range,
+forms rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can
+be scaled only with great effort and considerable peril. At one
+time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians,
+by crawling along the face of the cliff and sometimes swinging from
+one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way
+to any of the alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may
+have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in
+various inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow
+ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the
+cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the foundations of an
+old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric
+man had built, at the foot of the precipices, close to the river,
+a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of
+Salapunco; sala = ruins; punco = gateway. Fashioned after famous
+Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large
+ashlars and also by reason of the salients and reentrant angles which
+enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy,
+Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable him
+to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that
+the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate zone,
+to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage
+enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon. On the other hand,
+it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes occupying the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies
+coming down the valley from the direction of Ollantaytambo. They could
+easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully
+built and constructed with skill. Supplies from the plantations of
+Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path
+which antedated the present government road. Salapunco may have been
+occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however,
+have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely that
+he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to
+hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore, its
+style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic
+structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it seem all the
+more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a
+defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was built by folk who once
+occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay
+------
+
+
+When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been
+reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred to us that,
+in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as
+the Inca Manco had the force and time to build, we were to discover
+remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins
+enough to explain why such a fortress as Salapunco might possibly
+have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco and not those well-known Inca cities against the savages of
+the Amazon jungles.
+
+Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered
+a most interesting region, where we were surprised and charmed by the
+extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence
+of many Inca ruins, the beauty of the deep, narrow valleys, and the
+grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across
+the river, near Qquente, on top of a series of terraces, we saw the
+extensive ruins of Patallacta (pata = height or terrace; llacta =
+town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to
+Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's map, although he
+does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any
+reference to it in the chronicles. We spent several months here in
+1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another
+volume I hope to tell more of the antiquities of this region. At
+present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta
+disclosed no "white rock over a spring of water." None of the place
+names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings,
+their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone roof-pegs,
+bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these
+towns and villages flourished, who built them, why they were deserted,
+we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant,
+or silent, as to their history.
+
+At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate valley, we found
+another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of
+an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured some mummies. The ancient
+wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out
+the vampire bats that lived in the cave. On the opposite side of the
+river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other
+ruins first visited by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One
+of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a
+large surveying instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by
+the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In
+1915 rumors of Andean or "spectacled" bears having been seen here and
+of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led
+us to go and investigate. We found no bears, but at an elevation of
+12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering
+moss not hitherto known to science. Above them I was so fortunate as
+to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians
+first developed many varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish
+potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near
+relative of the coenolestes. It turned out to be new to science. To
+find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted
+Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen bears. [8]
+
+Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba,
+and such a canyon! The river "road" runs recklessly up and down
+rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans
+chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets against granite
+cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices
+permitted it, the land between them and the river was once terraced
+and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable
+wonderland. Emotions came thick and fast. We marveled at the exquisite
+pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips
+of arable land from the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have
+managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge
+of the dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one
+sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built a temple,
+whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot
+of the interesting ruins, unable to ford the intervening rapids. High
+up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple,
+are the ruins of Corihuayrachina (kori = "gold"; huayara = "wind";
+huayrachina = "a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place." Possibly
+this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above us on
+another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the
+jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called "La Maquina,"
+where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the
+presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of a "machine" destined
+never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to
+a sugar estate in the lower valley, and years ago left here to rust in
+the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for
+us to pitch our camp, so we pushed on over the very difficult road,
+which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part
+of the cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in
+the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic bridge
+built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds,
+tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth and pebbles
+to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who
+picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder "the machine" rested
+where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are
+considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we passed
+a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land
+of steep mountains is called a pampa. Were the dwellers on the pampas
+of Argentina--where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight
+line, except for the curvature of the earth--to see this little bit
+of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been
+joking or else grossly misusing a word which means to them illimitable
+space with not a hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in
+this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while
+to build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn
+to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing space
+in the bottom of the canyon is called a pampa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through
+a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the river Urubamba
+on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders
+which interfered with the progress of the surging stream, was a steep
+mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp,
+near the road and yet secluded. Our actions, however, aroused the
+suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the
+lands of Mandor Pampa. He was anxious to know why we did not stay at
+his hut like respectable travelers. Our gendarme, Sergeant Carrasco,
+reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned
+that we were interested in the architectural remains of the Incas, he
+said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity--in fact, some
+excellent ones on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu,
+and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to
+reach. The story of my experiences on the following day will be found
+in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins
+of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of very little importance, while
+those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the "National Geographic
+Magazine," are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on
+a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered if it
+could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo,
+a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring when he said:
+"The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos],
+which is on a very high mountain, whence the view commanded a great
+part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level
+space, with very sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well
+as the ordinary ones, being of marble, elaborately carved." Could
+it be that "Picchu" was the modern variant of "Pitcos"? To be sure,
+the white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu
+are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty about
+fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there
+was no difference between the lintels of the doors and the walls
+themselves. Furthermore, there is no "white rock over a spring of
+water" which Calancha says was "near Uiticos." There is no Pucyura
+in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not
+satisfy the geographical requirements of Uiticos. Although containing
+ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that
+last Inca capital for which we were searching. We had not yet found
+Manco's palace.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Search Continued
+
+Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the
+tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below the ruins, both
+Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in
+the flora and fauna. From the point of view of historical geography,
+Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of huilca,
+a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries
+tell us huilca is a "medicine, a purgative." An infusion made from
+the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in
+which it is also shown that from seeds of the huilca a powder is
+prepared, sometimes called cohoba. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a
+narcotic snuff "inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated
+tube." "All writers unite in declaring that it induced a kind of
+intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were
+regarded by the natives as supernatural. While under its influence
+the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication
+with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as
+prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the
+physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the
+person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched." Mr. Safford quotes
+Las Casas as saying: "It was an interesting spectacle to witness how
+they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and
+while he was engaged all remained silent .... When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with
+his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then
+he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must
+have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God;
+after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this
+they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said
+to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and
+begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them
+his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born,
+or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors,
+and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed
+with that intoxication." [9]
+
+Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place
+where huilca was first found and used in their incantations would be
+important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name of
+this river was Uilca-mayu: the "huilca river." The pampa on this river
+where the trees grew would likely receive the name Uilca pampa. If it
+became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named
+Uilcapampa after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin
+of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact that
+denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search
+of this highly prized narcotic, must have found the first trees not
+far from Machu Picchu.
+
+Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now
+pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of San Miguel,
+passed the house of Senor Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to
+write his name on the granite walls of Machu Picchu, and came to the
+sugar-cane fields of Huadquina. We had now left the temperate zone
+and entered the tropics.
+
+At Huadquina we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of
+the plantation, Senora Carmen Vargas, and her children, were spending
+the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco,
+but when summer brings fine weather they come to Huadquina to enjoy
+the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not
+only with that hospitality to passing travelers which is common
+to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance
+in our explorations. Senora Carmen's estate covers more than
+two hundred square miles. Huadquina is a splendid example of the
+ancient patriarchal system. The Indians who come from other parts of
+Peru to work on the plantation enjoy perquisites and wages unknown
+elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Senora Carmen with
+an affectionate reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to
+bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted
+in encomienda to the lords of the repartimiento or allotted territory.
+
+Huadquina once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar
+cane and established the mill. After their expulsion from the Spanish
+colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadquina was bought
+by a Peruvian. It was first described in geographical literature by
+the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when
+on his way to Choqquequirau. He says that the owner of Huadquina "is
+perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses
+on his estates all the products of the four parts of the globe. In
+the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair,
+potatoes, wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, coca, many mines of
+silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold." Truly a royal principality.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huadquina
+------
+
+
+Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was
+an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca ruins,
+he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadquina
+one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without crossing
+the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts
+in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind hosts in 1911. They
+scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty and extent of
+the Inca edifices. [10] When my photographs were developed, however,
+and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the
+principal temples, Senora Carmen and her family were struck dumb
+with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was
+possible that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every
+year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest
+of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower of no great
+interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge
+of San Miguel, had reported the presence of the ruins which he first
+visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little
+attention to his stories. We were soon to have a demonstration of
+the causes of such skepticism.
+
+Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of
+Calaucha's "Chronicle" which referred to the location of the last Inca
+capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of
+which they had never heard, they ordered the most intelligent tenants
+on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all
+was a sturdy mestizo, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little
+valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there
+were "important ruins" which had been seen by some of Senora Carmen's
+Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement that on
+a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi (yurak =
+"white"; rumi = "stone") where some very interesting ruins had been
+found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from
+Calancha's "Chronicle" was the statement that "close to Uiticos" is the
+"white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak
+Rumi." Our hosts assured us that this must be the place, since no
+one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman,
+on being closely questioned, said that he had seen the ruins once or
+twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great
+ruins at Ollantaytambo, and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi
+were "as good as those at Ollantaytambo." Here was a definite statement
+made by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting
+rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman said that
+the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of
+Indians could open it in less than a week. Our hosts, excited by the
+pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that
+even finer ruins might be found on their own property, immediately
+gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+While this was being done, Senora Carmen's son, the manager of the
+plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu, where other
+"important ruins" had been found, which could be reached in a few
+hours without cutting any new trails. Acting on his assurance that we
+should not need tent or cots, we left our camping outfit behind and
+followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We
+found Ccllumayu to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely
+wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of
+the Indian tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into
+the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in
+vain for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadquina, but
+Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched
+hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat cuys (guinea pigs), the
+chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough
+wattles which admitted plenty of fresh air and gave us comfortable
+ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles,
+constructed for the needs of short, stocky Indians, kept us from
+being overrun by inquisitive cuys, but could hardly be called as
+comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadquina.
+
+The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few
+piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts which
+probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric
+times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins, "important"
+or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was
+our first disillusionment.
+
+On our return to Huadquina, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi
+would be ready "in a day or two." In the meantime our hosts became much
+interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. They brought
+an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded
+by high walls in a secluded place back of the house was "a great
+place for spiders." We found that their statement was not exaggerated
+and immediately engaged in an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these
+Huadquina spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative
+Zooelogy, Dr. Chamberlain found among them the representatives of four
+new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a
+reward of merit, he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquina. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well
+ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead from measurements
+and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+------
+
+
+Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with
+feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the foreman
+to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were
+"better than those of Ollantaytambo." It was to be presumed that in the
+pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it
+never entered my head what I was actually to find. After several hours
+spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the
+walls I learned that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single
+little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in
+clay. The building was without a doorway, although it had several small
+windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels
+of the windows and of the small apertures leading into the subterranean
+shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side
+or on the ends, but there were four on the south side through which
+it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize,
+potatoes, or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It
+will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of
+public storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also
+at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on top of
+the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadquina valleys, probably on an
+ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa. As such it was
+interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had
+done, was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It
+seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places could
+have thought for a moment that one was "as good as the other." To be
+sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and his interest in Inca
+buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo
+are so well known and so impressive that even the most casual traveler
+is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud
+of them. The real cause of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his
+desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner
+is a common trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the
+world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on
+us. We now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding
+Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never
+elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation on the part
+of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were
+interested in visiting the remains of Inca civilization. They knew
+only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and
+their inability to report facts accurately.
+
+Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to
+Senora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani and
+proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the
+road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where the Urubamba
+is joined by the Vilcabamba River. [11] Both rivers are restricted
+here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on
+their way to the lower valley. A few rods from Chauillay was a fine
+bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded
+the old suspension bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with
+its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet
+here it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy,
+Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado and
+Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend
+Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief preliminary fire
+the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the
+bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled to accomplish that which
+had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of
+the surroundings showed that Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de
+Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge
+of Chuquichaca "was a measure of no small importance for the royal
+force." It certainly would have caused the Spaniards "great trouble"
+if they had had to rebuild it.
+
+We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba
+had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the plantation of
+Santa Ana, Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man
+in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice of
+prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca,
+we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders through a
+broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed
+groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of green sugar cane, the
+hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians
+fortunate enough to dwell in this tropical "Garden of Eden." The day
+was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees
+loaded with ripe fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me
+ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver real she dragged out
+a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her
+to permit us to take only as many as our pockets could hold; but she
+seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine
+steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town of
+Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with
+well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is one of the
+principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the
+high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was the scene of unusual
+activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond
+it, we came to the long colonnades of the celebrated sugar estate of
+Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed
+this way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He
+says that he was received here "with a thousand signs of friendship"
+("mille temoignages d'amitie"). We were received the same way. Even
+in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from
+government officials and generous hospitality from private individuals,
+our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible
+information about the little-known region into which we proposed
+to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was
+a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested, not only in the
+administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in
+the intellectual movements of the outside world. He entered with zest
+into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new
+to him, but after reading over with us our extracts from the Spanish
+chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he
+did. Santa Ana is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator;
+the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the "winter" nights are cool;
+but the heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless,
+our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at
+the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the towns and
+valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was
+not much. They all agreed that "if only Senor Lopez Torres were alive
+he could have been of great service" to us, as "he had prospected
+for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had
+once seen some Inca ruins in the forest!" Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa
+and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don
+Pedro's friends had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging,
+until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa
+Ana another friend of Don Pedro's, the teniente gobernador of the
+village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba--a crusty old fellow
+named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo, had been a
+member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched
+for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and had left their names on
+its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried
+treasure, but he was totally unable otherwise to comprehend our desire
+to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the
+contemporaries of Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma
+he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was
+the sub-prefect of the province of Convencion, lived at Quillabamba
+near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had
+received orders from his own official superior, the prefect of Cuzco,
+to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave
+particular orders to Mogrovejo to see to it that we were given every
+facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places
+of historic interest. Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin
+in the savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders
+faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa
+Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and charming
+conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma,
+taking the road on the southwest side of the Urubamba and using
+the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious
+cargoes of coca and aguardiente from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start;
+not one of those meant-to-be-early but really late-in-the-morning
+departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested,
+had long since been cleared, and was now covered with bushes and
+second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of
+land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging rocks. As a boy
+in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting
+those beautiful and fascinating mollusks, which usually prefer the
+trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of
+gathering a large number of such as could easily be secured. None of
+the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting
+period. Some weeks later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras
+and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in
+color, on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They
+were fairly "glued to their resting places"; clustered so closely in
+some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So
+far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer had
+preceded us--the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the
+Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence here of
+mines and minerals, but with the exception of an "abandoned tampu"
+at Maracnyoc ("the place which possesses a millstone"), he makes no
+mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed from the story
+of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that
+we were now entering the valley of Uiticos, it was with feel-hags of
+considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem
+strange that we should have been in any doubt. Yet before our visit
+nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos
+Romero still believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he
+took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word choqquequirau means "cradle of gold" and this lent color to the
+legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new
+capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had "retired to Uilcapampa,"
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and
+saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau was
+Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the
+requirements of Calancha that it was "two or three days' journey"
+from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+
+A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner
+of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack animals to
+travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face
+of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces the cliffs in
+a series of little tunnels. My gendarme missed this road and took
+the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of
+Captain Garcia's expedition, "the road was narrow in the ascent with
+forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth." We
+reached Paltaybamba about dusk. The owner, Senor Jose S. Pancorbo,
+was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles
+of the river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the
+best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was
+the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Senor Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we
+should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo to be
+on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the
+plantation and his friends that evening. They had heard little of
+any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had
+heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere in the montana there was
+"an Inca city." All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach;
+and none of them had ever been there. In the morning the manager gave
+us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man
+at that house should relay us to the next, and so on. These people,
+all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders,
+although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There
+are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle and dark
+green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of
+waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the road is very winding, and
+the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must
+be like in February, the rainy season, we could only surmise. About
+two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi
+"Maracnyoc," an "abandoned tampu," we came to some old stone walls,
+the ruins of a place now called Huayara or "Hoyara." I believe them to
+be the ruins of the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place
+referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's
+army were "brought back to the valley of Hoyara," where they were
+"settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+.... This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with
+an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were taken for
+the service of the city, the water being very good." The water here
+is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco Basin. On the plain
+near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation
+of Paltaybamba. "Hoyara" was abandoned after the discovery of gold
+mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish "city"
+was moved to the village now called Vilcabamba.
+
+Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of Teniente Gobernador
+Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty
+thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount of prosperity due to
+the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior,
+the pass to the rubber estates in the San Miguel Valley. Here are
+"houses of refreshment" and two shops, the only ones in the region. One
+can buy cotton cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque
+belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the
+slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of agriculture.
+
+There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed
+to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived on the little plaza
+around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He
+had just returned from Santa Ana by the way of Idma, using a much
+worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled
+him to avoid passing through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he
+was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had
+happened to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly
+reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+We offered to pay Mogrovejo a gratificacion of a sol, or Peruvian
+silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double
+that amount if the locality should prove to contain particularly
+interesting ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He
+summoned his alcaldes and other well-informed Indians to appear and be
+interviewed. They told us there were "many ruins" hereabouts! Being
+a practical man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in
+ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled
+vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of Quillabamba. So
+he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back
+of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower Vilcabamba. On
+all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places
+they were covered with forest growth, chiefly above the cloud line,
+where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on
+the more gentle slopes recent clearings gave evidence of enterprise
+on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's
+climb we reached what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures,
+on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the
+opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia speak of a
+number of forts or pucaras which had to be stormed and captured before
+Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those
+"fortresses." Its strategic position and the ease with which it could
+be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit the "fortress of Pitcos," nor the "House of the Sun"
+near the "white rock over the spring." It is called Incahuaracana,
+"the place where the Inca shoots with a sling."
+
+Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices--one of two
+rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not
+particularly well built and resemble in many respects the ruins at
+Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows,
+although each has three front doors and is lined with niches, four
+or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three
+rooms, and had several front doors. A force of two hundred Indian
+soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon
+had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated hill,
+its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes,
+its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name of the hill was
+"Rosaspata," a word of modern hybrid origin--pata being Quichua for
+"hill," while rosas is the Spanish word for "roses." Mogrovejo said
+his Indians told him that on the "Hill of Roses" there were more ruins.
+
+At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of
+Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a "wretched hamlet
+with a paltry chapel." To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large
+public school here, to which children come from villages many miles
+away. So crowded is the school that in fine weather the children
+sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls
+wear high boots. I once saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I
+doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of
+the first school in this whole region. For it was to "Puquiura" that
+Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the "mezquina capilla"
+which Raimondi scorned. If this were the "Puquiura" of Friar Marcos,
+then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with
+their famous procession of converts from "Puquiura" to the House of
+the Sun and the "white rock" which was "close to Uiticos."
+
+Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came
+immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish
+crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing quartz on a
+considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo,
+who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended masses said by his friend
+Friar Diego in a chapel which is "near my houses and on my own lands,
+in the mining district of Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of
+Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley
+------
+
+
+One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot
+thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite, hollowed
+out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a
+hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian mortar and pestle,
+heavy enough to need the services of four men to work it. The mortar
+was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected
+a few inches above the surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet
+in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from
+time immemorial by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or
+potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged
+to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the
+southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo to an
+old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the
+south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa, or Inca
+pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia
+and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single house, 166 feet
+long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since
+disappeared. There were six doorways in front, none on the ends or
+in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near
+Lucma. The walls had originally been built of rough stones laid in
+clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all
+at one end of the structure, were irregular, about two feet in width
+and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building
+which was still standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred
+Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and
+followed a path along its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing
+some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found
+myself on a pleasant pampa near the top of the mountain. The view
+from here commands "a great part of the province of Uilcapampa." It
+is remarkably extensive on all sides; to the north and south are
+snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+Furthermore, on the north side of the pampa is an extensive level
+space with a very sumptuous and majestic building "erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as
+the ordinary ones," being of white granite elaborately cut. At last
+we had found a place which seemed to meet most of the requirements
+of Ocampo's description of the "fortress of Pitcos." To be sure it
+was not of "marble," and the lintels of the doors were not "carved,"
+in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully finished,
+as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might
+easily pass for marble. If only we could find in this vicinity that
+Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was "near" Uiticos, all doubts
+would be at an end.
+
+That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of
+Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings when in
+response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring
+valley there was a great white rock over a spring of water! If his
+story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It
+behooved us to make a very careful study of what we had found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun
+
+When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of
+the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied the supreme
+power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension
+to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru. Captain Garcia
+earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the "manana habit"
+was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain
+filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's Royal Council of
+the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the
+campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this he says: "and having arrived
+at the principal fortress, Guay-napucara ["the young fortress"],
+which the Incas had fortified, we found it defended by the Prince
+Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains
+and soldiers. It is on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and
+jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the
+fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger. Thus
+we gained the province of Uilcapampa." The viceroy himself says this
+important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill and courage in
+storming the heights of Guaynapucara, "on Saint John the Baptist's day,
+in 1572."
+
+The "Hill of Roses" is indeed "a high eminence surrounded with rugged
+crags." The side of easiest approach is protected by a splendid, long
+wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active
+besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa could have furnished a contingent
+to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on
+all sides, and it would have been extremely easy for a small force
+to have defended it. It was undoubtedly "almost impregnable." This
+was the feature Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed
+compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged so as to
+form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The
+outside dimensions of the compound are about 160 feet by 145 feet. The
+builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging
+the houses, Due to the wanton destruction of many buildings by the
+natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so
+pulled down that it is impossible to get the exact dimensions of the
+buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been
+any niches.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention
+of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains of this
+building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a
+fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from Cuzco. It is 245 feet by
+43 feet. There were no windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways,
+fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms,
+besides three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built
+rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not,
+to be sure, of "marble" as Ocampo said--there is no marble in the
+province--but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels
+of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary ones, are
+also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as
+eight feet in length. The doorways are better than any other ruins in
+Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention
+of them made by Ocampo, who lived near here and had time to become
+thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very
+small portion of the edifice was still standing. Most of the rear
+doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous
+fence. Other walls had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out
+of the cultivated pampa. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it
+on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops
+and sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin
+of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide, containing doors
+on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It
+was probably a barracks for a company of soldiers.
+
+The intervening "pampa" might have been the scene of those games
+of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who
+fled from the wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca
+Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca
+whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number of iron articles of
+European origin, heavily rusted--horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of
+scissors, several bridle or saddle ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My
+first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one
+time, although the necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill
+would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In
+the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to make raids
+on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily
+have brought back with him a Spanish bridle. In the second place the
+musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have
+enjoyed whiling away their exile with melancholy twanging. In the
+third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish
+market in Cuzco, where there would have been displayed at times a
+considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally
+Rodriguez de Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he
+brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European
+artifacts has been turned up in the excavations of other important
+sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they
+were abandoned before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by
+natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was
+occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the palace of the
+last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri
+Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is astonishing how few details we have
+by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries
+are strangely silent. When he left Cuzco and sought refuge "in the
+remote fastnesses of the Andes," there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza
+de Leon, in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and
+hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;--Manco
+had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had
+"retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in the most retired
+part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes." [12]
+The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco
+may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we can learn they
+left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+
+Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos
+and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers, are fully
+described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that
+"close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa, is a House of the
+Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water." Our guide had
+told us there was such a place close to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+On the day after making the first studies of the "Hill of Roses," I
+followed the impatient Mogrovejo--whose object was not to study ruins
+but to earn dollars for finding them--and went over the hill on its
+northeast side to the Valley of Los Andenes ("the Terraces"). Here,
+sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top,
+which had a carved seat or platform on its northern side. Its west
+side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been
+walled in on one side. When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there
+was a manantial de agua ("spring of water") near by, I became greatly
+interested. On investigation, however, the" spring" turned out to
+be nothing but part of a small irrigating ditch. (Manantial means
+"spring"; it also means "running water"). But the rock was not "over
+the water." Although this was undoubtedly one of those huacas, or
+sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations
+of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important accessory to
+ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi
+------
+
+
+Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly had been the house
+of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a
+large number of very handsomely built agricultural terraces, the first
+we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in
+the valley. So scarce are andenes in this region and so noteworthy were
+these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were
+probably built under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of
+carved boulders, huacas. One had an intihuatana, or sundial nubbin,
+on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we
+followed a trickling stream through thick woods until we suddenly
+arrived at an open place called nusta Isppana. Here before us was a
+great white rock over a spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath
+the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly
+enclosing the gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a
+small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name
+of this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this
+remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every side. There was
+not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal
+place for practicing the mystic ceremonies of an ancient cult. The
+remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its
+shadow had caused this to become a place of worship. Here, without
+doubt, was "the principal mochadero of those forested mountains." It is
+still venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found
+the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests faced the
+east, greeted the rising sun, "extended their hands toward it," and
+"threw kisses to it," "a ceremony of the most profound resignation and
+reverence." We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent
+robes of office, standing on the top of the rock at the edge of
+its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the
+early morning, awaiting the moment when the Great Divinity should
+appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it
+rose they saluted it and cried: "O Sun! Thou who art in peace and
+safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health
+and safety. O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu,
+grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it
+is for this that thou hast created them."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Nusta Isppana Formerly
+Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos
+------
+
+
+It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched
+over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying a stick of
+firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine
+thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself in the water. Since
+the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect
+the sky, but only the overhanging, dark, mossy rock, the water looks
+black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to
+believe that simple-minded Indian worshipers in this secluded spot
+could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing
+"as a visible manifestation" in the water. Indians came from the most
+sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship here and to offer
+gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised
+the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, and piled firewood
+all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him
+by all the vile names they could think of, the friars commanded him
+never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple,
+scorched the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and
+causing the poor Devil to flee, "roaring in a fury." "The cruel Devil
+never more returned to the rock nor to this district." Whether the
+roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or of the flames we
+can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up
+the swamp or interfered with the arrangements of the water supply so
+that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no
+chance to appear in the water, where he had formerly been accustomed
+to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state,
+but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well preserved
+notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is
+fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height above the present
+level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are
+seats and large steps or platforms. It was customary to kill llamas at
+these holy huacas. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may
+have been used for such sacrifices. From it runs a little crack in
+the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been
+intended to carry off the blood of the victim killed on top of the
+rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which
+are quietly practiced here by the more superstitious Indian women of
+the valley, possibly in memory of the nusta or Inca princess for whom
+the shrine is named.
+
+On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four
+or five small seats which have been cut in the rock. Great care was
+exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly
+square, level, and straight. The east side of the rock projects
+over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the
+water. On the north side there are no seats. Near the water, steps
+have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven
+steps. Above them the rock has been flattened artificially and carved
+into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones,
+like those usually called intihuatana or "places to which the sun
+is tied." In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six
+others. The other three are arranged in a triangular position above
+the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast
+face of the rock, where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause
+striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Nusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock
+------
+
+
+Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of
+very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running water under
+the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained
+the swamp which adjoins the great rock on its northeastern side, we
+found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the
+water ran through the dark pool. We also found that what looked like
+a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the
+top of the back of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The
+platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the
+seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock. Since the
+pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used
+only by priests or sorcerers. It would have been a splendid place to
+practice divination. No doubt the devils "roared."
+
+All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have
+failed to disclose the presence of any other "white rock over a
+spring of water" surrounded by the ruins of a possible "House of
+the Sun." Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the following
+conclusions: First, nusta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father
+Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers
+as Chuquipalpa. Second, Uiticos, "close to" this shrine, was once
+the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and
+Lucma. This is the "Viticos" of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco,
+who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that "having reached
+Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from various
+parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca,
+established himself in the strongest place he could find, whence he
+sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those
+parts which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards,
+whom he considered as cruel enemies." Third, the "strongest place"
+of Cieza, the Guaynapucara of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by
+Ocampo as "the fortress of Pitcos," where, he says, "there was a level
+space with majestic buildings," the most noteworthy feature of which
+was that they had two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone
+lintels. Fourth, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the
+river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although
+he was disappointed in the insignificance of the "wretched little
+village." The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca,
+which has already been noted, the distance from the "House of the Sun,"
+not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura
+near the fortress, all point to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured
+permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary station
+in Uilcapampa, selected "the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from
+one convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar
+Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a
+church." There is no "Huarancalla" to-day, nor any tradition of any,
+but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000
+feet, in the temperate zone where the crops with which the Incas
+were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and
+alpacas could have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The
+valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and
+villages. Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey
+from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region
+now use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by
+Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows into the
+Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is
+the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros, which Mr. Hay and I
+crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was
+founded by Pizarro, a day's journey from this bridge. The necessity
+for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point
+made it easy for Manco's foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden
+marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque,
+which is probably the "Huarancalla" of Calancha's "Chronicles." He
+must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and
+Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac and its
+magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two
+miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable snow fields and
+glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, even though
+they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are
+completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been known even in recent
+years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding
+not only security from his Spanish enemies, but any climate that he
+desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to
+be no reason to doubt that the retired region around the modern town
+of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Vilcabamba
+
+Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos
+by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of
+the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not mention
+Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father
+Calancha says it was a very large area, "covering fourteen degrees of
+longitude," about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage
+tribes "of the far interior" who acknowledged the supremacy of the
+Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. "The Manaries and
+the Pilcosones came a hundred and two hundred leagues" to visit the
+Inca in Uiticos.
+
+The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi
+says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha says it
+was "two days' journey from Puquiura." Raimondi thought it must be
+Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however, speak of it as
+being down in the warm valleys of the montana, the present rubber
+country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on
+the maps of Peru is near the source of the Vilcabamba River, not more
+than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+
+We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750
+feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba has
+threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they
+were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually heavy thatch,
+seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the gobernador,
+Manuel Condore. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been
+most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+The gobernador said that the reason the town was deserted was that most
+of the people were now attending to their chacras, or little farms,
+and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring
+valleys. He said that only at special festival times, such as the
+annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here,
+once a year, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part
+of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was
+transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name, Condore
+said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as
+such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru. The solidity of
+the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The
+present air of desolation and absence of population is probably due
+to the decay of that industry.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Nusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building,
+is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells. Condore
+said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It
+is probably the very structure whose construction was carefully
+supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move
+the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria from Hoyara to the
+neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers,
+went to Cuzco as agent of the interested parties, to take the matter
+up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+"The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our
+Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal fifths,
+as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having
+examined the capitulations and reasons, the said Don Luis de Velasco
+[the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is
+now founded, ordering that it should have the title and name of the
+city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its
+first name. By this change of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo,
+performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my
+care, industry and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its
+principal chapel and great doors." We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and
+the whole to show considerable "industry and solicitude."
+
+The site was called "Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered
+this land found the flocks and herds." Modern Vilcabamba is on grassy
+slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes
+potatoes are still raised, although the valley itself is given up
+to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and
+sheep in abundance where the Incas must have pastured their llamas
+and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines
+begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that this was Onccoy,
+although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+We met at the gobernador's an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had
+once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we
+interviewed through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the
+region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied
+having heard of "Uiticos" or any of its variations. If we were indeed
+in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar
+with that name?
+
+Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands
+have now for so many generations been neglected by their rulers
+and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can
+purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine they can secure, through
+the constant chewing of coca leaves, that they have lost much if not
+all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated mestizos of the
+principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only
+from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but also from the blood
+of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of
+the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve the remains of the wonderful
+civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba
+was an unknown land to most of the Peruvians, even those who live in
+the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four Incas been in a
+region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources
+were sufficient to support a large population, and whose roads made
+transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes,
+it would have been occupied from the days of Captain Garcia to the
+present by Spanish-speaking mestizos, who might have been interested
+in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions
+connected with it.
+
+After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends "petered
+out," or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that
+remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura with Cuzco and
+civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably
+impassable during a large part of the year even to people accustomed
+to Andean "roads."
+
+The possibility of raising sugar cane and coca between Huadquina and
+Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower
+Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding the difficult transportation over
+the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing
+to lead any one to visit the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire
+to make it a place of residence. And until Senor Pancorbo opened
+the road to Lucma, Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine
+generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa
+between the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern
+explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the "Hill of
+Roses" in the days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into
+ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who
+once lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The
+Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any
+interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the renaissance of
+historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that
+it occurred to any one to look for Manco's capital. When Raimondi,
+the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one
+thought to tell him that on the hilltop opposite the village once
+lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were
+still there, hidden underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of "San Francisco
+de la Victoria de Vilcabamba" was in the "valley of Viticos." The
+town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which
+flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so marked on Raimondi's
+map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland
+pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin, would also
+seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been
+abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is difficult to believe that
+if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca
+times to the present we should not have found at least a few of the
+indigenous American camels here. By itself, such an occurrence would
+hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of
+traditions regarding Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there
+must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of
+consequence lived in this vicinity.
+
+We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining
+operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to at least
+a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of
+ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles, chicken pox,
+and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction
+of a large proportion of those unfortunates whose untimely deaths
+were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the
+early Spanish miners and treasure seekers. Both causes undoubtedly
+contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the
+population diminished enormously in early colonial days. If this is
+true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions
+where the conditions of existence and human intercourse were less
+severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier, are of
+the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru
+and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time of the Conquest. In
+other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent
+disappearance of bad living conditions and forced labor at the mines,
+also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and
+the more comfortable conditions of existence which have followed the
+coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the
+number of highland Indians has increased. With this increase has come
+a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural
+tendency to seek less crowded regions, even at the expense of using
+difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote
+and inaccessible a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It
+is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the
+demand for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by
+the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years when
+no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian
+shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma. The adobe houses of
+these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built
+in the nineteenth century.
+
+Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information
+prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had been privileged
+to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers
+Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that Choqquequirau, the only ruins
+reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the
+capital of the Incas who took refuge there. It also makes it seem
+more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and nusta Isppana
+should not have been known to Peruvian geographers and historians,
+or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite
+apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were called
+Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century
+shows that there may have been three places bearing that name;
+one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), another
+also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded by the Spaniards,
+namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in
+Calancha's account of the trials and tribulations of Friar Marcos
+and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with
+considerable detail of their visit to "Vilcabamba Viejo." It was
+after the monks had already founded their religious establishment
+at Puquiura that they learned of the existence of this important
+religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit
+it. For a long time he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to
+them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them
+to continue their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their
+importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the
+journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied the two
+friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them
+from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road. The Inca, however,
+did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the
+Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably along in a litter by
+servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were
+obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail soon demoralized their
+footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road,
+"Ungacacha," the trail went for some distance through water. The
+monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their
+monastic garments while passing through the water. However, the monks
+persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, "on account of its
+being the largest city in which was the University of Idolatry, where
+lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination." If
+one may judge by the name of the place, Uilcapampa, the wizards and
+sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient
+snuff made from huilca seeds. After a three days' journey over very
+rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then
+Titu Cusi was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered
+that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might not
+witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the
+Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+Nothing is said about the appearance of "Vilcabamba Viejo" and it
+is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the city,
+although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks
+and kept up their preaching and teaching. During their stay Titu Cusi,
+who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying
+them in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break
+their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation with
+his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most
+beautiful Indian women, including some individuals of the Yungas who
+were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived
+at the "University of Idolatry" in "Vilcabamba Viejo," were "Virgins of
+the Sun," who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests
+and were selected from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is
+also evident that "Vilcabamba Viejo" was so constructed that the
+monks could be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being
+able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+"abominations" which were practiced there, as they did those at the
+white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it is possible
+that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as "Vilcabamba
+Viejo," was on the slopes of the mountain now called Machu Picchu.
+
+In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins
+of Vilcabamba called "the old" by Ocampo, to distinguish it from
+the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after
+the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely as Vilcabamba by
+Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Conservidayoc
+
+When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places
+mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point
+to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told us that in 1902 Lopez
+Torres, who had traveled much in the montana looking for rubber trees,
+reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don
+Pedro's friends assured us that Conservidayoc was a terrible place
+to reach. "No one now living had been there." "It was inhabited by
+savage Indians who would not let strangers enter their villages."
+
+When we reached Paltaybamba, Senor Pancorbo's manager confirmed what
+we had heard. He said further that an individual named Saavedra lived
+at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was
+very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's house was extremely
+difficult to find. "No one had been there recently and returned
+alive." Opinions differed as to how far away it was.
+
+Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins
+near Rosaspata, Senor Pancorbo, returning from his rubber estate in
+the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by,
+took great pains to find us and see how we were progressing. When he
+learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc,
+he asked us to desist from the attempt. He said Saavedra was "a very
+powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in
+grand state, with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being
+visited by anybody." The Indians were "of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile
+to strangers." Admitting that he had heard there were Inca ruins near
+Saavedra's station, Senor Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our
+lives by going to look for them.
+
+By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar
+with the current stories regarding the habits of savage tribes who
+lived in the montana and whose services were in great demand as rubber
+gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like
+to work for Senor Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man,
+anxious to achieve many things, results which required more laborers
+than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might
+possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had escaped from the rubber
+estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Senor Pancorbo's own life would
+have been at the mercy of their poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon
+Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited
+with impunity by the explorers of the nineteenth century to become so
+savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all its aspects. We
+finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports
+regarding the presence of Inca ruins at Conservidayoc we could not
+afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least
+make an effort to reach them, meanwhile taking every precaution to
+avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage
+retainers.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River
+------
+
+
+On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the
+gobernador, Condore, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had
+summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a
+very picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly
+reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry
+was in progress. He took off his hat--but not his knitted cap--and
+endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about
+the surrounding country. It was he who said that the Inca Tupac
+Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa
+Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins in the montana near
+Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condore. Several had
+heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently, none of them,
+nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited
+their immediate vicinity. They all agreed that Saavedra's place was
+"at least four days' hard journey on foot in the montana beyond
+Pampaconas." No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru,
+although it is frequently mentioned in the documents of the sixteenth
+century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with
+Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place called
+Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere
+down in the dense forests of the montana and presented him with a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts--products of a warm region.
+
+We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map
+which covered this locality. We also had the new map of South Peru and
+North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical
+Society and gave a summary of all available information. The
+Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from
+Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's map all of the rivers which rise in
+the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac
+and flow southwest. We wondered whether the stories about ruins at
+Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those
+we had heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadquina. One of our
+informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the "Pampa
+of Ghosts." Would the ruins turn out to be "ghosts"? Would they vanish
+on the arrival of white men with cameras and steel measuring tapes?
+
+No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at
+the village of Pampaconas, "about five leagues from here," there
+were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies
+were getting low. There were no shops nearer than Lucma; no food
+was obtainable from the natives. Accordingly, notwithstanding the
+protestations of the hospitable gobernador, we decided to start
+immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor
+Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening meal and we
+were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of
+our favorite beverage. Several years ago, when traveling on muleback
+across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value
+of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant and bracer in the high Andes. At
+first astonished to see how much tea the Indian arrieros drank, I
+learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water,
+which often brings on mountain-sickness. This particular evening,
+one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most
+horrible stuff imaginable. Examination showed small, oily particles
+floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery
+that one of our arrieros had that day placed our can of kerosene on
+top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had
+dripped down into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had
+eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to
+throw away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works
+in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more one
+seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching
+our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical investigations
+to stray far up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the
+boundaries of known topography, headed for "Conservidayoc," a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said
+to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the
+gobernador told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers
+whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules could
+not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating
+the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to be extremely
+alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two gendarmes who were
+now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few
+hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our pack train until dusk. The
+gobernador said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any
+brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this
+was due in part to that love of freedom which had led them to abandon
+the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords
+could not call on them for forced labor. Consequently, before the
+arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as
+our gendarmes, the gobernador and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to
+put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen
+sturdy Indians. Their methods will be described presently.
+
+Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an
+old glaciated valley, in which one of our mules got thoroughly mired
+while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous
+bog. Fording the Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook,
+we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains
+above us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their
+discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here
+cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide. He
+does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted
+long before his day. As to the other minerals, the difficulties of
+transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will
+be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain
+of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the town of
+Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi,
+followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not leave room
+enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and
+Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude to be 73 deg. west,
+and our latitude to be 13 deg. 8' south. Yet according to the latest map
+of this region, published in the preceding year, this was the very
+position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river
+Pampas. We ought to have been swimming "the Great Speaker." Actually
+we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and
+glaciers. The mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when
+he determined the Apurimac and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther
+apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored
+region, 1500 square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been
+guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles
+from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and the site of a
+university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so
+long defy investigation and exploration shows better than anything
+else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable
+labyrinth of snow-clad peaks, unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green
+valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our maps that we were
+now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact,
+we were on the rim of the valley of the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas,
+a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead
+of being the Apurimac Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region
+which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood
+from Condore that somewhere far down in the montana below us was
+Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage
+Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that the Incas could have
+built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were
+accustomed. The "road" was now so bad that only with the greatest
+difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we
+had to dismount, as the path led down a long, steep, rocky stairway
+of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a
+lonesome little hut perched on a shoulder of the mountain. In front of
+it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as
+they saw the gobernador approaching, they stopped their work and began
+to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to
+be told that Senor Condore and his friends had not had anything but a
+cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet the emergency
+of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing cuys (guinea
+pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts
+of mountain Indians. Before long the savory odor of roast cuy, well
+basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or
+laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite of the
+celebrated dogma that "Pigs is Pigs," this form of "pork" has never
+found its way to our kitchens, even though these "pigs" live on a
+very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come
+from Guinea and are in no way related to pigs--Mr. Ellis Parker
+Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the
+same family as rabbits and Belgian hares and have long been a highly
+prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are
+of a grayish brown color, which enables them to escape observation
+in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, which one sees
+in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny,
+varying from one another in color as much as do the llamas, which
+were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years
+ago. Although Anglo-Saxon "folkways," as Professor Sumner would say,
+permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at
+short-eared rabbits, yet they were bred to be eaten.
+
+I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever
+knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in the capital
+of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had
+I not been very hungry, I might never have known how delicious a roast
+guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose
+supply of animal food is small, whose fowls are treasured for their
+eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as
+mutton, the succulent guinea pig, "most prolific of mammals," as was
+discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a
+few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for emergencies. Her
+sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little cuys.
+
+After lunch, Condore and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling
+countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome farm
+to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were
+so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home or working in
+his little chacra they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward
+to shake hands, in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was
+un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was
+informed that he had accepted pay for services which must now be
+performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A
+paternal government saw to it that they were properly fed and clothed
+and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own
+necessities or else permitted to draw on official stores. In colonial
+days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of
+the ancient system and enforced it without taking pains to see that
+it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless
+landlords, backed by local authority, forced the Indians to work
+without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or
+even pretending to carry out promises and wage agreements. The peons
+learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having
+received a considerable portion of their pay. When once they accepted
+money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided
+that they must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant
+legal punishment.
+
+Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a
+dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized that service
+was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was "busy," that his
+"crops needed attention," that his "family could not spare him," that
+"he lacked food for a journey." Condore and Mogrovejo were accustomed
+to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in "engaging" half a dozen
+carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small
+huts scattered over grassy hillsides, at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a "high, cold place." This
+is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the
+Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's day as being "an
+important town of the Incas." There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts
+of Pampaconas were newly built of stone and mud, and thatched with
+grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians,
+who enjoyed unusual freedom from official or other interference
+and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes,
+on the very edge of the dense forest. We found that there was some
+excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar,
+or possibly a cougar, had come out of the forest, attacked, killed,
+and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named
+Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had been selected
+to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to
+Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood in his veins, although
+he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied
+one of the best huts. A fire in one corner frequently filled it with
+acrid smoke. It was very small and had no windows. At one end was a
+loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from
+molestation. Piles of sheep skins were arranged for visitors to sit
+upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves
+and tables. The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel
+dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space
+with the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily
+and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with
+a whip; only to return again and again, each time to be driven out
+as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions,
+we carried on a most interesting conversation with Guzman. He had
+been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu
+Pampa. At last the mythical "Pampa of Ghosts" began to take on in
+our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind
+ourselves that another very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins
+"finer than Ollantaytambo" near Huadquina. Guzman did not seem to dread
+Conservidayoc as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever
+been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for
+the journey. Although it was August and the middle of the dry season,
+rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived
+after dark with our pack animals, but, missing the trail as he neared
+Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog and was extracted
+only with considerable difficulty.
+
+We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained
+bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the evening, after
+we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the
+rain to our comfortable little tent, only to hear various and sundry
+grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large
+sow and six fat young pigs, unable to settle down comfortably at the
+Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available
+place on the mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly
+attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain
+and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs to return
+at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman,
+with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming soup, which at
+first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni--a dish
+of which one of us was particularly fond. The white hollow cylinders
+proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As
+a matter of fact, we learned that the evening meal which Guzman's
+wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very
+cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof
+was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be lying in
+puddles of water. Everything was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still
+failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what
+we should cook for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices
+and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this
+time more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and
+potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and jaws
+of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was
+first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the ten days'
+journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our
+other carriers, spent the morning grinding chuno (frozen potatoes)
+with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or
+toasting large quantities of sweet corn in a terra-cotta olla. With
+chuno and tostado, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of coca
+leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of
+our own provisions we had so small a quantity that we were unable
+to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have
+liked them as much as the food to which they had long been accustomed.
+
+Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the
+rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc. We were told
+that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San
+Fernando, our first stop, was "seven leagues" away, far down in the
+densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the
+mountain back of Guzman's hut and followed a faint trail by a dangerous
+and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not
+improved the path. Our saddle mules were of little use. We had to
+go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could
+see but little of the deep canyon which opened below us, and into
+which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep,
+zigzag path, four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the
+clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path,
+across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally we
+came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little
+shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts; and this
+was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room
+enough in them for our six carriers. It was with great difficulty we
+found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only
+seven feet square. There was no really flat land at all.
+
+At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent,
+I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians in the
+near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail
+structure and made a great disturbance, crying out that there was a
+temblor. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it
+might have done during the stormy night which followed, they were in
+no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs
+of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes do very serious harm,
+they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight
+shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds, a gentle
+rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks
+later, near Huadquina, we happened to stop at the Colpani telegraph
+office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th--one
+at five o'clock, which had shaken the books off his table and knocked
+over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and
+south. He said the shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself
+to the "dry season" and we were more comfortable. Furthermore, camping
+out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping
+at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of the bridge of San
+Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate
+zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics. Sugar cane, peppers,
+bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and
+sweet potatoes. None of these things will grow at Pampaconas. The
+Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come
+to San Fernando to make chacras or small clearings. The three or
+four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of
+brass buttons that they disappeared during the night rather than
+take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands
+in the morning! From San Fernando, we sent one of our gendarmes back
+to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty
+pounds apiece.
+
+Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing
+on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil here seemed to be
+very rich. In the chacra we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height,
+near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of
+a mato-palo, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves
+its name, for it commands a "charming view" of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain,
+whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction;
+now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were mystified;
+for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more
+difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under branches, along
+slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock,
+over a trail which not even dogs could follow unassisted, slowly we
+made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the
+frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon before we reached another little
+clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet
+above the river, our men decided to spend the night in a tiny little
+shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had
+to dig a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train,
+we made an early start. As we followed the faint little trail across
+the gulches tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate
+several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their
+loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on primitive
+bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together
+and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in
+dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled thickets,
+through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here
+Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while, as we were now in the
+territory of los salvajes, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the
+rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be
+particularly afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our
+carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack
+us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He said we should never
+be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was
+selected to go ahead did not relish his task. Leaving his pack behind,
+he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost
+to view almost immediately. There followed an exciting half-hour while
+we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us,
+and trying to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra,
+who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury,
+"surrounded by fifty servants," and directing his myrmidons to
+checkmate our desires to visit the Inca city on the "pampa of ghosts."
+
+Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound
+of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little tighter
+in readiness for whatever might befall--when there burst out of the
+woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally clad,
+who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us
+a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible, but a glance
+at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was
+with a sigh of relief that we realized there was to be no shower of
+poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs,
+we continued along the jungle trail, through woods which gradually
+became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight
+ahead and, to our intense astonishment, the bright green of waving
+sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found
+us at a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by
+Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it was
+never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his
+fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured Indian
+wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work,
+evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said some called this place
+"Jesus Maria" because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's
+invitation to make ourselves at home, and sat down to an abundant meal
+of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (manioc). Saavedra gave us
+to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had,
+but that he would do everything to enable us to see the ruins, which
+were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the
+valley, to be reached only by a hard trail passable for barefooted
+savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a
+good part of the distance on hands and knees. The next day, while
+our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote
+collected a large number of insects, including eight new species of
+moths and butterflies.
+
+I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for
+centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar cane than
+he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees,
+sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead of being "a very powerful
+chief having many Indians under his control"--a kind of "Pooh-Bah"--he
+was merely a pioneer. In the utter wilderness, far from any neighbors,
+surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established
+his home. He was not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman,
+soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic,
+a modest Peruvian of the best type.
+
+Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate
+such pampas as he could find--one an alluvial fan near his house,
+another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was
+a thatched shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar
+mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, each capable of being turned,
+with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of
+roughly hewn timbers fastened together with wooden pins and lashed
+with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been
+unable to coax any pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he
+was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that
+of his active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of
+such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other trade
+articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing
+on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were a game. At other
+times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using
+in the process of boiling the juice and making crude sugar. He said he
+had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by
+the Incas. Four of them were of the familiar aryballus type. Another
+was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base,
+single incised, conventionalized, animal-head nubbin attached to the
+shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median
+line. Although capable of holding more than ten gallons, this huge
+pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a
+rope passing through the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said
+that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined
+with stones, with a flat stone on top--evidently ancient graves. The
+bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the graves had
+been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He
+had also found a few stone implements and two or three small bronze
+Inca axes.
+
+On the pampa, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite
+labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have taken
+the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no
+pack animals and was usually obliged to bring the cane to the mill on
+his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier,
+while the cane was growing, to construct a new mill near the cane
+field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the
+hill. He said his hardest task was to get money with which to send
+his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in
+which he could get any cash was by making chancaca, crude brown sugar,
+and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days'
+journey on foot up the mountain to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or
+seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could
+usually sell such a load for five soles, equivalent to two dollars
+and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain,
+although he smilingly admitted that it was very difficult to keep
+the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the
+river continually washed away his little rustic bridges. His chief
+regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he
+had had nothing to do, the government had decreed that all firearms
+should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he needed to
+enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large
+turkey-like bird, the pava de la montana, glossy black, its most
+striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at
+liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly domesticated. It would make an
+attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he
+had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe said it was
+without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his
+plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about taxes and
+have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten
+about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers ran toward the house
+in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a "savage"
+in the bushes near by. The "wild man" was very timid, but curiosity
+finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage
+to accept Saavedra's urgent invitation that he come out and meet
+us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad
+cold in his head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another
+to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that
+I have ever seen.
+
+He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his
+ankles. It was made of a large square of coarsely woven cotton cloth,
+with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up,
+leaving holes for the arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He
+had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large
+mouth. His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one
+shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber net. Around
+his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed
+of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together. Although I did not
+see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees,
+he used this stout loop to fasten his ankles together and thus secure
+a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and
+his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us that these
+Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra
+and his son spoke a little of their language, which sounded to our
+unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and
+gutturals. It was pieced out by signs. The long tunics worn by the
+men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they
+wear very scanty attire--nothing more than a few rags hanging over one
+shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough
+garment to wear during the cold nights, and their only covering, must
+impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run
+away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that they found it
+uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom
+in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber estate.
+
+Saavedra said that he had named his plantation Conservidayoc, because
+it was in truth "a spot where one may be preserved from harm." Such
+was the home of the potentate from whose abode "no one had been known
+to return alive."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+The Pampa of Ghosts
+
+Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail
+which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been clearing. We
+emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine
+view down the valley and particularly of a heavily wooded alluvial fan
+just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little
+oval huts of the savages of Espiritu Pampa, the "Pampa of Ghosts."
+
+On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building
+of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower. From here to
+Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about
+four feet in width and nearly a third of a mile long. It was built of
+uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief
+duty it was to watch from the top of the promontory and who used their
+spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as
+a heavy thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their
+occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle. We
+hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the
+terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not our nervousness. The
+hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs
+driven endwise into the ground and fastened together with vines. A
+small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two
+old black ollas of Inca origin.
+
+In the little chacra, cassava, coca, and sweet potatoes were growing in
+haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical milpa
+farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular
+houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if this could be the
+"Inca city" which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery. There was nothing Incaic about
+the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all
+the rest were round. The buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to
+twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down,
+but gave no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods
+which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other circular
+walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If
+the savages have extended their milpa clearings since our visit, the
+falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient
+village probably belonged to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to
+the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication
+of their having been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began
+to wonder whether the "Pampa of Ghosts" really had anything important
+in store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized
+in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been inhabited,
+off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an "Inca city."
+
+While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here,
+there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy young savage,
+armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of
+bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a bird he had shot. Soon
+afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's,
+accompanied by a cross-eyed friend, all wearing long tunics. They
+offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to
+follow their rapid pace. Half an hour's scramble through the jungle
+brought us to a pampa or natural terrace on the banks of a little
+tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found
+several old artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long,
+rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half
+feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only a foot
+high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently
+the structure had never been completed. Near by was a typical Inca
+fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards
+beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous, hidden behind a curtain of
+hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few
+feet in any direction, the savages showed us the ruins of a group of
+stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by
+itself at the south end of a little pampa, had neither doors nor
+windows. It was rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged
+with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an
+unusual dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side
+of the pampa was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided
+into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones
+laid in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo,
+the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the pampa
+was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of
+a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed fountain or
+bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of
+the houses, their general arrangement, the niches, stone roof-pegs
+and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish
+roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments we could find
+would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different
+sizes, as though some one had been experimenting. Perhaps an Inca who
+had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them
+here in the jungle, but without success.
+
+At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands,
+and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary and
+sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and
+we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were doomed to
+disappointment. During the day some one had brought to the hut eight
+tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined
+to make the night hideous with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to
+discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose
+of exorcising the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer
+up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as
+much as possible of the tangled growth near the best ruins. In this
+process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of
+the savages, they discovered, just below the "bathhouse" where we had
+stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of
+superior construction, well fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches,
+very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a
+little artificial terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery
+were found on the floor, including pieces of a large aryballus.
+
+Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the
+fact that the savages themselves had often been within five feet of
+these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic
+Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search, but all that
+any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a
+brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages carefully. They said
+they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of
+Espiritu Pampa and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the "Vilcabamba Viejo"
+of Father Calancha, that "University of Idolatry where lived the
+teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination," the place to
+which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering? Was
+there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the
+monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they handled their
+monastic robes in the water? They called it a "three days' journey
+over rough country." Another reference in Father Calancha speaks
+of Puquiura as being "two long days' journey from Vilcabamba." It
+took us five days to go from Espiritu Pampa to Pucyura, although
+Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity,
+might do it in three. It is possible to fit some other details of
+the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road
+called Ungacacha. Nevertheless it does not seem to me reasonable to
+suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the
+"University of Idolatry") who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and
+were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa
+would have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The
+difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and Egypt,
+or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa
+the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could have found the
+seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other
+parts of the province, particularly at Machu Picchu, together with a
+cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more nearly resembling those to
+which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says "Vilcabamba the Old"
+was "the largest city" in the province, a term far more applicable
+to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in
+the montana does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba
+by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his
+forces lost the "young fortress" of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless wishing
+to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the
+Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of Tupac "Vilcabamba
+the old." Ocampo's new "Vilcabamba" was not in existence when Friar
+Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this province. If Calancha wrote
+his chronicles from their notes, the term "old" would not apply to
+Espiritu Pampa, but to an older Vilcabamba than either of the places
+known to Ocampo.
+
+The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have
+required a long period to build. The unfinished building may have
+been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu
+Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez de Figueroa should meet
+him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in
+the montana, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common at
+Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that the
+ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences
+of this Inca--the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he spent his boyhood
+and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565. [13]
+
+In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru
+after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled "inland toward the
+valley of Sima-ponte ... to the country of the Manaries Indians,
+a warlike tribe and his friends, where balsas and canoes were posted
+to save him and enable him to escape." There is now no valley in this
+vicinity called Simaponte, so far as we have been able to discover. The
+Manaries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower
+Urubamba. In order to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went
+down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the "Pampa of Ghosts"
+to canoe navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently
+his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that,
+not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river, he constructed
+five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them
+himself, went down the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming,
+until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca,
+learning of his approach, had gone farther into the woods. Nothing
+daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go
+on foot and barefooted, with hardly anything to eat, most of their
+provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught
+Tupac and his friends; a tragic ending to a terrible chase, hard on
+the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas
+River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed possible that the
+Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of
+which were believed by Dr. Bowman's canoe-men to rise in the mountains
+of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we
+were able definitely to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch
+of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the
+"Sima-ponte." Whether the Comberciato is the "Momori" is hard to say.
+
+To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain
+Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and Maynard. They
+found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were
+tormented by insects and great quantities of ants--a small red ant
+found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length,
+frequently seen among the leaves on the ground. The bite of the red
+ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of
+their carriers who was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered
+intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also
+his leg and hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and
+hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind made of palm leaves a
+few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three
+Indians fished all night and caught only one fish, a perch weighing
+about four pounds.
+
+The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in
+knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to become blue
+with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood
+of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more
+than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The lower course
+of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation,
+but the valley is much narrower than the Cosireni. The width of
+the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the
+Cosireni. The climate is very trying. The nights are hot. Insect
+pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that "the forest was filled with
+annoying, though sting-less, bees which persisted in attempting to
+roost on the countenance of any human being available." On the banks
+of the Comberciato he found several families of savages. All the men
+were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful
+bows made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds
+and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found,
+including the large red howler, inert and easily located by its deep,
+roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles;
+the giant black spider monkey, very alert, and, when frightened, fairly
+flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey,
+black in color, and very intelligent in expression, frequently tamed
+by the savages, who "enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to
+eating them when food is scarce." "The flesh of monkeys is greatly
+appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire."
+
+On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides
+carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened proved to
+contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man
+finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies into a small bag,
+saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those
+seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats
+are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it harder to
+use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate
+this valley for about ten years, and at first kept their wives and
+children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker
+were sent here to determine the astronomical position of Espiritu
+Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their
+families. Perhaps it is doubtful whether they knew just what he was
+doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+All the men and older boys wore white fillets of bamboo. The married
+men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the
+characteristic lip ornament of the Campas. Some of the children wore
+no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One
+of them had a truly savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet,
+had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must
+have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows. All the
+women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One
+little girl, not more than six years old, was carrying on her back a
+child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It
+will be remembered that forest Indians nearly always use tump-lines
+so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer
+than the others and looked as though she might have had a Spanish
+ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad,
+wore a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied
+around her waist. All her children were naked. The children of the
+woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics,
+and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite, was decorated with
+bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled
+from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy as monkey
+meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by
+the highlanders, may be doubted. Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's
+preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards "rather
+than to perish of famine." His Indian allies lived perfectly well in
+a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever
+have permitted Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able
+to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of
+this valley having been an important part of the domain of the last
+Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the
+carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas. Although they did not
+have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous
+as to what use the latter might some day make of the powerful bows
+and long arrows.
+
+At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar
+for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a row along the
+side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed
+handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The result was a confection or
+"emergency ration" which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst
+of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed out of
+the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked
+with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had been falling
+above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor
+Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's fire and filled our
+tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet,
+and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly nothing
+ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas
+
+It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the
+last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which we could not
+fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important
+of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its buildings are far older than
+the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we
+may have found at Machu Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story
+of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at
+the time of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca
+towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far away
+from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were
+the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly seven hundred
+years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536
+and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about 800 A.D.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty
+generations, when, as has been told in Chapter VI, invaders came
+from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful
+civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering feats which
+we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the
+Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti VI, who was killed by
+an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos,
+whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been translated
+for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University,
+tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body to
+"Tampu-tocco." This, says the historian, was "a healthy place" where
+there was a cave in which they hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the
+finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General
+anarchy prevailed throughout the ancient empire. The good old days
+of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the
+old empire was destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In
+these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which
+followed the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire,
+Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units. Each
+district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against
+its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen in the ruins of
+small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas
+were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests,
+wise men, and chiefs of the ancient regime, built a new city at
+"Tampu-tocco." Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and
+lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to them,
+little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing
+chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent chiefs or
+"robber barons." In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi
+Truaman Quicho.
+
+The survivors of the old regime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco,
+because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or tremblings
+there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young
+king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed, they could bury him
+in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of
+Pachacuti VI.
+
+Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen
+an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed. To their
+ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth
+recording happened for centuries. During this period several of the
+kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great
+Amautas had reigned, but for one reason or another were obliged to
+forego their ambitions.
+
+One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called
+Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began to write on
+the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the
+highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping idols and animals,
+to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall
+of the Amautas, and to return to the ways of their ancestors. He
+met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were
+killed and little or no change took place. Discouraged by the failure
+of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause,
+Tupac Cauri was told by his soothsayers that the matter which most
+displeased the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade
+anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate was
+observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used
+letters. Instead, they used quipus, strings and knots. It was supposed
+that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one
+realized how near the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most
+momentous step.
+
+This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed
+to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest. We
+have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it
+aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons with
+Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste
+Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal ancestors
+and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful
+investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard. As a matter of fact,
+to students of Sumner's "Folkways," the story rings true. Some young
+fellow, brighter than the rest, developed a system of ideographs
+which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were
+beginning to adopt it. The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did
+not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets,
+heretofore handed down orally to the neophytes, might become public
+property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to
+spread. There followed some extremely unlucky event--the ambassadors
+were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a
+result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by the priests,
+determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet
+been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient; the leaves
+withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were
+lost. Had the new invention been permitted to exist a little longer,
+some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it
+would have persisted. The rulers and priests, however, found that the
+important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well
+by means of the quipus. And the "job" of those whose duty it was to
+remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is
+nothing unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the
+history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from
+making important advances.
+
+Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco
+a kind of university where boys were taught the use of quipus, the
+method of counting and the significance of the different colored
+strings, while their fathers and older brothers were trained in
+military exercises--in other words, practiced with the sling, the
+bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows and arrows. Around the
+name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called,
+is gathered the story of various intellectual movements which took
+place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and
+military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The
+ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition of their
+ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to
+make the attempt to reestablish themselves there. An earthquake, which
+ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses,
+destroyed towns, and was followed by the outbreak of a disastrous
+epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although
+in healthy Tampu-tocco there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became
+more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was
+terraced and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized,
+and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure
+arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic ruler
+of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca,
+the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown
+to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how he could secure new
+lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined
+to set out with them "toward the hill over which the sun rose," as
+we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was
+a descendant of a long line of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived
+in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the
+antiquities of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it
+was handed down to the descendants of the former rulers of Peru. In
+it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in
+reaching Cuzco and settled there. With the return of the descendants
+of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco
+married his own sister in order that he might not lose caste and that
+no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with
+his. He made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded
+as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now
+came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief, the most
+valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains
+and soldiers were brave, well disciplined, and well armed. All his
+affairs prospered greatly. "Afterward he ordered works to be executed
+at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he
+descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco." I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or
+near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south of Cuzco. I
+learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in
+the town. The most important are the ruins of Maucallacta, an Inca
+village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting
+of several crags and large rocks, the surface of one of which is
+carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma
+Urco. Beneath the rocks are some caves. I was told they had recently
+been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and
+the characteristics of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the
+story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if
+Tampu-tocco must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better
+defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would it
+have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army
+to have taken refuge there and set up an independent kingdom in the
+face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid
+in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu is not a natural citadel.
+
+The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no
+precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no natural
+defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of
+the Amautas. Furthermore, tampu means "a place of temporary abode,"
+or "a tavern," or "an improved piece of ground" or "farm far from a
+town"; tocco means "window." There is an old tavern at Maucallacta
+near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to
+justify the name of "window tavern" or "place of temporary abode"
+(or "farm far from a town") "noted for its windows." There is nothing
+of a "masonry wall with three windows" corresponding to Salcamayhua's
+description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace. The word
+"Tampu-tocco" does not occur on any map I have been able to consult,
+nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru compiled by Paz Soldan.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Machu Picchu
+
+It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of
+the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions near Cuzco
+by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy
+to Colpani the road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the
+majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling
+beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of
+the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the
+power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare
+with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more
+than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite
+rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening,
+roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and
+tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the
+mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward
+by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning
+and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all,
+there is the fascination of finding here and there under the swaying
+vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of
+a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering romance
+of the ancient builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which
+appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give
+expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty. Space forbids
+any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama,
+the rank tropical foliage, the countless terraces, the towering cliffs,
+the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor
+Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told us of ruins at
+Machu Picchu, as was related in Chapter X.
+
+The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered
+and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he
+would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb
+for such a wet day. When he found that we were willing to pay him a
+sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity,
+he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed that they
+would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco
+I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance upstream. On the
+road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This
+region has an unpleasant notoriety for being the favorite haunt of
+"vipers." The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the
+fer-de-lance, a very venomous serpent capable of making considerable
+springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two
+of our mules died from snake-bite.
+
+After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road
+and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of the river. Here
+there was a primitive "bridge" which crossed the roaring rapids at
+its narrowest part, where the stream was forced to flow between two
+great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs,
+some of which were not long enough to span the distance between the
+boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga
+and Carrasco took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using
+their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would
+immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite boulders. I
+am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled
+across, six inches at a time. Even after we reached the other side
+I could not help wondering what would happen to the "bridge" if a
+particularly heavy shower should fall in the valley above. A light
+rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the
+bridge was already threatened by the foaming rapids. It would not
+take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should
+happen during the day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact,
+it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to
+cross the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle,
+and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous slope. For
+an hour and twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the
+distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips
+of our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the
+roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way as to
+help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable
+cliff. In another place the slope was covered with slippery grass
+where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide
+said that there were lots of snakes here. The humidity was great,
+the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several
+good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected arrival,
+welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then
+they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes, called here cumara,
+a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian kumala, as has been
+pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from
+our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a few ancient
+stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and
+Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their home. They said they
+had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and
+they were usually free from undesirable visitors. They did not speak
+Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more
+ruins "a little farther along." In this country one never can tell
+whether such a report is worthy of credence. "He may have been lying"
+is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly,
+I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry to move. The heat
+was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool
+and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench, hospitably covered
+immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most
+comfortable. Furthermore, the view was simply enchanting. Tremendous
+green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba
+below. Immediately in front, on the north side of the valley, was
+a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the
+solitary peak of Huayna Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible
+precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped
+mountains rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we
+had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more difficult--a
+perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side
+of the ridge. It was their only means of egress in the wet season,
+when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was
+not surprised to learn that they went away from home only "about once
+a month."
+
+Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It
+seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon had
+been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of
+the new government road settlers began once more to occupy this
+region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on
+the slopes of Machu Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the
+sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial
+terraces, in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared
+off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of
+maize, sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree
+tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of the
+ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found,
+however, that there were neither springs nor wells near the ancient
+buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream
+to the citadel had long since disappeared beneath the forest, filled
+with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter
+of the ruins, the Indians were now enjoying the convenience of living
+near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting
+than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had a glimpse, and
+the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered
+at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy,
+I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed
+farther up the ridge and around a slight promontory. Arteaga had
+"been here once before," and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte
+and Alvarez in the hut. They sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the
+stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then
+recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large
+trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the
+untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a maze of
+beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and
+the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow, hiding in bamboo
+thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls
+of white granite ashlars most carefully cut and exquisitely fitted
+together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a
+"place far from town and conspicuous for its windows."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco
+------
+
+
+Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined
+with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended to be a Royal
+Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building
+had been constructed. The wall followed the natural curvature of the
+rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I
+have ever seen. This beautiful wall, made of carefully matched ashlars
+of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the
+work of a master artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken
+by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly
+simple and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars,
+gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing in size
+toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing
+lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars, and the gradual
+gradation of the courses, combined to produce a wonderful effect,
+softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the
+Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar, there are no ugly spaces
+between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me
+to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the eye of a
+master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the
+square. He had no instruments of precision, so he had to depend on
+his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry
+and beauty of form. His product received none of the harshness of
+mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular
+blocks are not really rectangular. The apparently straight lines of
+the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular
+temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework in the
+far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in
+bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great stairway of large
+granite blocks, walked along a pampa where the Indians had a small
+vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins
+of two of the finest structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were
+they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite;
+their walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length,
+and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the
+side toward the clearing. The principal temple was lined with
+exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the
+back wall. There were seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under
+the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long,
+probably a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though
+it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+The other temple is on the east side of the pampa. I called it the
+Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among
+Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking the citadel, is a massive
+stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too
+large to serve any useful purpose, yet most beautifully made with the
+greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of
+peculiar significance. Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there
+a similar structure conspicuous as "a masonry wall with three windows."
+
+These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the
+slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would
+have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries when it
+was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was
+essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness protected by natural
+bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable
+stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent excavations and the clearing
+made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that
+this was the chief place in Uilcapampa.
+
+It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu
+Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco and
+I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting
+ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by the Indians for
+their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick
+jungle growth--some walls were actually supporting trees ten and
+twelve inches in diameter--that it was impossible to determine just
+what would be found here. As soon as I could get hold of Mr. Tucker,
+who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the
+Urubamba with Dr. Bowman, I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I
+knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential
+for Mr. Tucker to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of
+October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte
+and Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days
+while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data from which
+Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could
+any words of mine the importance of this site and the necessity for
+further investigation.
+
+With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco
+had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their importance. No
+one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of
+the ridge. It had never been visited by any of the planters of the
+lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds
+through the canyon two thousand feet below.
+
+It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey
+from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed by travelers
+and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the
+conquistadores ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it
+surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly
+refers to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a
+Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges was
+at Huadquina in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near,
+he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the walls of one of the
+finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by
+Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately below the bridge of San
+Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have
+visited Machu Picchu long before that; because in 1875, as has been
+said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of
+there being ruins at "Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu." He tried to
+find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the
+canyon of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through
+the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which brought
+him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five
+miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the
+needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up the lower
+valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the
+banks of the river through the grand canyon to enable the much-desired
+coca and aguardiente to be shipped from Huadquina, Maranura, and Santa
+Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids
+the necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous
+snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very
+expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent repair. In
+fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days
+or weeks at a time, following some tremendous avalanche. Yet it was
+this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near
+the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where he could raise food for his
+family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this
+new road which brought Richarte, Alvarez, and their enterprising
+friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of
+occupying the ancient terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow
+for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over
+the precipices, and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It
+was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between
+Ollantaytambo and Huadquina and enabled us to learn that the Incas,
+or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses of
+the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty
+of their ancient civilization, more interesting and extensive than any
+which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+The Origin of Machu Picchu
+
+Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating
+Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and of the ancient
+towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest
+content with a discussion of its probable identity. Here was a powerful
+citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful
+of defenders could prevent a great army from taking the place by
+assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture
+as to have built a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable
+land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced in
+order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for
+comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration. They
+were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture,
+sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world has ever
+seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently
+advanced in art to realize the beauty of simplicity. What could have
+induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes,
+with all its disadvantages, as the site for their capital, unless
+they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+The thought will already have occurred to the reader that the Temple
+of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native
+writer who had "heard from a child the most ancient traditions and
+histories," including the story already quoted from Sir Clements
+Markham's translation that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, "ordered
+works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a
+masonry wall with three windows, which were emblems of the house
+of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called
+'Tampu-tocco.' " Although none of the other chroniclers gives the
+story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the
+place of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a
+place called Tampu-tocco, "an inn or country place remarkable for
+its windows." Sir Clements Markham, in his "Incas of Peru," refers
+to Tampu-tocco as "the hill with the three openings or windows."
+
+The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the
+traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu, about nine
+miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and
+caves, but careful examination shows that while there are more than
+three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The
+buildings of Machu Picchu, on the other hand, have far more windows
+than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu,
+like that of most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite
+or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+
+So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of
+anything like a "masonry wall with three windows" of such a ceremonial
+character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would
+certainly seem as though the Temple of the Three Windows, the most
+significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred
+to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the
+first meaning of tocco in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is
+"ventana" or "window," and while "window" is the only meaning given
+this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908),
+a dictionary compiled from many sources, the second meaning of tocco
+given by Holguin is "alacena," "a cupboard set in a wall." Undoubtedly
+this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a
+niche. Now the drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's
+translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression
+of niches rather than of windows. Does Tampu-tocco mean a tampu
+remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be
+any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu, on the other hand,
+there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has
+been referred to as a "Royal Mausoleum." As a matter of fact, nearly
+all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches
+were so common a feature of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir
+Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling
+Tampu-tocco "the hill with the three openings or windows." In any case
+Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However,
+in view of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that
+Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that they
+did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual
+remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco
+were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by Toledo at the
+time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended
+from those who used to live near Las Salinas, the important salt works
+near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their
+fathers and grandfathers repeat the tradition that when the first Inca,
+Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did
+not say that the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems
+to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the
+still older testimony of some Indians born before the arrival of the
+first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A
+chief, aged ninety-two, testified that Manco Ccapac came out of a cave
+called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not
+one of the witnesses stated that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu,
+although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done
+so if, as the contemporary historians believed, this was really the
+original Tampu-tocco. The chroniclers were willing enough to accept
+the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco
+Ccapac was born, and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were
+the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they
+should have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was
+their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts had been
+successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco
+to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body after the
+overthrow of the old regime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they
+know it was in the same fastnesses of the Andes to which in the days
+of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the
+cause of their reticence?
+
+Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The
+splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba made it
+an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries
+of lawlessness and confusion which succeeded the barbarian invasions
+from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent
+earthquakes and also its healthfulness, both marked characteristics
+of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the
+existence of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the
+common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location might
+have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is
+reasonable to conclude that the first name of the ruins at Machu Picchu
+was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of
+the little kingdom where during the centuries between the Amautas and
+the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions
+of the ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail
+before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great organization
+of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform
+mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools of wood, stone,
+and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes
+who knew little of the arts of peace. The defeated leaders had to
+choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce
+enemies. Furthermore, in the environs of Machu Picchu they found
+every variety of climate--valleys so low as to produce the precious
+coca, yucca, and plantain, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics;
+slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize,
+quinoa, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops,
+including both sweet and white potatoes, oca, anu, and ullucu. Here,
+within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry
+and cure the coca leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in
+the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with
+the most careful terracing was not large enough to support a very
+great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel to the
+chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged
+to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the broad, pleasant
+valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a
+people which had reached such a stage in engineering, architecture,
+and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged
+canyons. Certainly there is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature
+to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief
+need was a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great
+ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they utilized
+their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in
+between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and their enemies
+on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for
+generations. Aided by the temperate climate in which they lived,
+and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours'
+climb up or down from their towns and cities, they became a hardy,
+vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought
+its way back to the rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants
+of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital,
+the Empire of the Incas.
+
+After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco,
+what more natural than that he should have built a fine temple in
+honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas,
+and nothing would have been more reasonable than the construction
+of the Temple of the Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and
+extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from
+whom they traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led
+them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of Cuzco
+itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of
+Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco grew and the Inca
+Empire flourished.
+
+As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account
+for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry to the islands of
+Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace
+was forgotten by the common people--although undoubtedly known to the
+priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+Then came Pizarro and the bigoted conquistadores. The native chiefs
+faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient
+religion. The Spaniards coveted gold and silver. The most precious
+possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but
+the sacred Virgins of the Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome,
+were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great
+Sun God. Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who
+needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep them from
+hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices
+and secure the good effects of his smiling face. If he delayed his
+coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize would mildew
+and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his
+accustomed brightness after the harvest, the ears of corn could not be
+properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual
+behavior on the part of the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently
+their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as
+"Virgins" who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of
+priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some
+of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others escaped and
+accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the
+first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril of their lives
+urged the Inca to let them visit the "University of Idolatry," at
+"Vilcabamba Viejo," "the largest city" in the province. Machu Picchu
+admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very
+easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to have kept the monks in the vicinity
+of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single
+glimpse of its unique temples and remarkable palaces. It would have
+been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego
+to the village of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the
+Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley
+crossed the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful
+ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the friars
+might easily have been lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain
+without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca
+"university." Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little
+knowledge of the architectural character of "Vilcabamba Viejo" that
+no description of it could be given their friends, eventually to
+be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey across
+country from Puquiura might easily have taken "three days."
+
+Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents
+of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial caves which
+we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion
+of skulls belonging to men is very large. There are many so-called
+"trepanned" skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured
+in war by having their skulls crushed in, either with clubs or
+the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found
+more than twenty-five skulls without encountering some "trepanned"
+specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the
+excavations at Machu Picchu, where one hundred sixty-four skulls
+were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been "trepanned." Of
+the one hundred thirty-five skeletons whose sex could be accurately
+determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore,
+it was in the graves of the females that the finest artifacts were
+found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not
+a single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was
+found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+
+Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the
+female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast. This fits in
+with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only
+with beautiful women of the highlands, but also with those who came
+from the tribes of the Yungas, or "warm valleys." The "warm valleys"
+may be those of the rubber country, but Sir Clements Markham thought
+the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts
+discovered at Machu Picchu was a "snuffing tube" intended for use with
+the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers
+to induce a hypnotic state. This powder was made from the seeds of
+the tree which the Incas called huilca or uilca, which, as has been
+pointed out in Chapter XI, grows near these ruins. This seems to me
+to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with
+Calancha's "Vilcabamba."
+
+It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the
+requirements of "the largest city, in which was the University of
+Idolatry." Until some one can find the ruins of another important place
+within three days' journey of Pucyura which was an important religious
+center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am
+inclined to believe that this was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Calancha,
+just as Espiritu Pampa was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Ocampo.
+
+In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting to be by Titu
+Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos,
+he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from Cuzco went first "to
+Vilcabamba, the head of all that province."
+
+In the "Anales del Peru" Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro,
+thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried
+to please the Inca by sending him a present of a very fine pony and
+a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger,
+the Inca killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this,
+he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite wife,
+and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that "when she
+should be dead they would put her remains in a basket and let it float
+down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it
+to her husband, the Inca." She must have believed that at that time
+Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu
+Pampa is not.
+
+We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos,
+where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his house. Surrounded
+by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which
+the Spaniards were obliged to use in passing from Lima to Cuzco, he
+could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been
+so conveniently located for robbing the Spanish caravans nor for
+supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu
+Picchu was at one time occupied by the Incas and partly built by them
+on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably
+of the so-called Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent
+buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of
+Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore, they
+are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old
+province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which would naturally
+be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the "head of the province." Espiritu
+Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a place which was so important
+as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as
+"the largest city."
+
+It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of
+Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest refuge for
+those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in
+the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants Manco probably
+built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older
+ones. Here they lived out their days, secure in the knowledge that
+no Indians would ever breathe to the conquistadores the secret of
+their sacred refuge.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu
+Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence was so well
+kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the
+theories of its identity with "Tampu-tocco" and "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles
+Wiener heard about it.
+
+Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents
+of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate that
+the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of
+this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza de Leon
+and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information
+about all the holy places of the Incas, give the names of many places
+which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may
+finally recognize the temples of Machu Picchu. On the other hand,
+it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or
+other chroniclers had seen this citadel, they would have described
+its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it
+seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have the ruins of
+Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also
+the ruins of a sacred city of the last Incas. Surely this granite
+citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of
+its striking beauty and the indescribable charm of its surroundings,
+appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800
+A.D. as the safest place of refuge for the last remnants of the
+old regime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the
+capital of a new kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family
+which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire,
+it seems to have been again sought out in time of trouble, when in
+1534 another foreign invader arrived--this time from Europe--with a
+burning desire to extinguish all vestiges of the ancient religion. In
+its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the
+Sun, priestesses of the most humane cult of aboriginal America. Here,
+concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and
+nature, these consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no
+known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls
+and artifacts to be described in another volume. Whoever they were,
+whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure--that few romances can ever surpass that of the
+granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu Picchu,
+the crown of Inca Land.
+
+
+
+
+
+Glossary
+
+Anu: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way
+as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes the bar-hold
+is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually
+found in the gateway of a compound or group of Inca houses.
+
+Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are
+chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered
+hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2
+inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles
+to its slope and flush with its surface. To it the purlins of the roof
+could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the
+lintel of a gateway to a compound. If the "bar-holds" were intended
+to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders
+may have been for a vertical bar.
+
+Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The alcaldes are
+his Indian aids.
+
+Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often
+applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+Manana: To-morrow, or by and by. The "manana habit" is Spanish-American
+procrastination.
+
+Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The
+milpa system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire,
+destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+Montana: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to
+the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys and the
+Amazon Basin.
+
+Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians
+to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into a gable
+wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used
+in connection with "eye-bonders," the roof-pegs served as points to
+which the roof could be tied down.
+
+Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little
+less than half a gold dollar.
+
+Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the
+walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside so as
+to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often
+found alternating with niches and placed on a level with the lintels
+of the niches.
+
+Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so
+depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village
+or hamlet.
+
+Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state,
+used for making chuno, after drying, freezing, and pressing out the
+bitter juices.
+
+Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+Viejo: Old.
+
+
+
+Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the
+National Geographic Society
+
+Thomas Barbour:
+
+Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. Proceedings of
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, LXV, 505-507, September,
+1913. 1 pl.
+
+(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian
+Expedition of 1914-1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+609-620, 1921.
+
+Hiram Bingham:
+
+The Ruins of Choqquequirau. American Anthropologist, XII, 505-525,
+October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi,
+405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8 deg..
+
+Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLIV, 20-26, January, 1912.
+
+The Ascent of Coropuna. Harper's Magazine, CXXIV, 489-502, March,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. Proceedings of American Antiquarian
+Society, XXII, N.S., 135-196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. American
+Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 297-305, April, 1912. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+A Search for the Last Inca Capital. Harper's Magazine, CXXV, 696-705,
+October, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Discovery of Machu Picchu. Ibid., CXXVI, 709-719, April,
+1913. Illus.
+
+In the Wonderland of Peru. National Geographic Magazine, XXIV, 387-573,
+April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in
+1911. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211, 1-2, July, 1913.
+
+The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. American Anthropologist, XVI,
+No. 2, 185-199. April-June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. Harper's Magazine, CXXIX, 452-463,
+August, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Pampaconas River. The Geographical Journal, XLIV, 211-214, August,
+1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+The Story of Machu Picchu. National Geographic Magazine, XXVII,
+172-217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. American Anthropologist, XVII, 257-271,
+April-June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. Proceedings of Nineteenth
+International Congress of Americanists, Washington, D.C., pp. 253-260,
+December, 1915.
+
+Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. National Geographic
+Magazine, XXIX, 431-473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. The Builder, II,
+No. 12, 361-366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. American Journal
+of Science, XXXIV, 12-16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+Isaiah Bowman:
+
+The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. American Journal of
+Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 306-325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca
+Race. Ibid., XXXIV, No. 204, 497-509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Canon of the Urubamba. Bulletin of American Geographical Society,
+XLIV, 881-897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the
+Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336 pp., plates,
+maps, plans.
+
+Lawrence Bruner:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera
+(Acridiidae--Short Horned Locusts). Proceedings of U.S. National
+Museum, XLIV, 177-187, 1913.
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to
+the Acridiidae). Ibid., XLV, 585-586, 1913.
+
+A. N. Caudell:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of
+Acridiidae). Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV, 347-357, 1913.
+
+Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. Bulletin of
+Museum of Comparative Zooelogy at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177-299,
+1916. 25 pl.
+
+Frank M. Chapman:
+
+The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of
+Peru. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+
+O. F. Cook:
+
+Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. Journal of Washington Academy of
+Sciences, VI, No. 4, 86-90, 1916.
+
+Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. Ibid., VI, No. 10, 284-293,
+1916. Illus.
+
+Staircase Farms of the Ancients. National Geographic Magazine, XXIX,
+474-534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. Smithsonian Report for 1918,
+487-491. 4 pl.
+
+Domestication of Animals in Peru. Journal of Heredity, x, 176-181,
+April, 1919. Illus.
+
+(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+Polar Bear Cacti. Journal of Heredity, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113-120,
+March, 1917. Illus.
+
+William H. Dall:
+
+Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XXXVIII, 177-182, 1911. Illus.
+
+Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale
+Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 627-649, 1913.
+
+George F. Eaton:
+
+Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of
+Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 325-333, April,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. Ibid., XXXVI, No. 211, 3-14,
+July, 1913. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 218,
+141-154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
+Picchu. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, v, 3-96, May,
+1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Yale Medical Journal,
+XVIII, 325-335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+Alexander W. Evans:
+
+Hepaticae: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts
+and Sciences, XVIII, 291-345, April, 1914.
+
+Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. Memoirs, American
+Anthropological Assoc., III, No. 2, 59-148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga
+Indians. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, XXV, 1-92, April,
+1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+Harry W. Foote:
+
+(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze
+Axes. American Journal of Science, XXXIV, 128-132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+The Gravels at Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211,
+15-29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+The La Paz Gorge. Ibid., XXXVI, 141-150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLV, 561-575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. American
+Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 213, 187-213, September, 1913. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. Ibid., XXXVII,
+No. 218, 125-140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 220,
+289-298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. Ibid., XLI, No. 241,
+1-100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+Osgood Hardy:
+
+Cuzco and Apurimac. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, XLVI,
+No. 7, 500-512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. American Anthropologist, XXI,
+1-27, January-March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+Sir Clements Markham:
+
+Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, Geographical Journal, XXXVIII, No. 6,
+590-591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+C. H. Mathewson:
+
+A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from
+Machu Picchu. American Journal of Science, XL, No. 240, 525-602,
+December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+P. R. Myers:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Addendum to the
+Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLVII, 361-362, 1914.
+
+S. A. Rohwer:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Hymenoptera, Superfamilies
+Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV,
+439-454, 1913.
+
+Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
+Reptiles. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 541-547, 1913.
+
+Oldfield Thomas:
+
+Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian
+Expedition of 1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+217-249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+H. L. Viereck:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of
+1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLIV, 469-470, 1913.
+
+R. S. Williams:
+
+Peruvian Mosses. Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club, XLIII, 323-334,
+June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua
+words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as they are
+written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt
+is made by a Spanish writer, he is always likely to put a silent
+"h" at the beginning of such words as huilca which is pronounced
+"weel-ka." In the middle of a word "h" is always sounded. Machu
+Picchu is pronounced "Mah'-chew Pick'-chew." Uiticos is pronounced
+"Weet'-ee-kos." Uilcapampa is pronounced "Weel'-ka-pahm-pah." Cuzco is
+"Koos'-koh."
+
+[2] A league, usually about 3 1/3 miles, is really the distance an
+average mule can walk in an hour.
+
+[3] Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth
+century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower of
+that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having
+contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark or quinine
+and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into
+Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the botanical name
+of the genus cinchona. Montesinos was well educated and appears to
+have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled
+extensively in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas
+was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the
+leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless, one
+finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham,
+foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology, was inclined
+to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of
+pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for the Hakluyt Society
+by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+
+[4] Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game
+of chess between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees,
+who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the tone and
+language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego
+Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him. A totally different
+account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is
+that in a volume purporting to have been dictated to Friar Marcos by
+Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation:
+
+"After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in
+the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much good fellowship,
+playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a
+boy [ten years old]. Without having any suspicion, although an Indian
+woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the
+Inca, my Father was playing with them as usual. In this game, just as
+my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded,
+strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed, and they were
+seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they
+left him for dead. I, being a little boy, and seeing my Father treated
+in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned
+furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill
+me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes. They looked
+for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father
+had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate, in high spirits, saying,
+'Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.' But at
+this moment the captain Rimachi Yupanqui arrived with some Antis,
+and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get
+very far along a difficult road, they were caught and pulled from
+their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were
+burnt. Notwithstanding his wounds my Father lived for three days."
+
+Another version is given by Montesinos in his Anales. It is more like
+Titu Cusi's.
+
+[5] A Spanish derivative from the Quichua mucha, "a kiss." Muchani
+means "to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands."
+
+[6] Uiticos is probably derived from Uiticuni, meaning "to withdraw
+to a distance."
+
+[7] Described in "Across South America."
+
+[8] On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species
+of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: "Of all the novelties,
+by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial .... Members of the
+family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador." Mr. Heller's
+discovery greatly extends the recent range of the kangaroo family.
+
+[9] Mr. Safford says in his article on the "Identity of Cohoba"
+(Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Sept. 19, 1916):
+"The most remarkable fact connected with Piptadenia peregrina, or
+'tree-tobacco' is that ... the source of its intoxicating properties
+still remains unknown." One of the bifurcated tubes."in the first
+stages of manufacture," was found at Machu Picchu.
+
+[10] See the illustrations in Chapters XVII and XVIII.
+
+[11] Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical
+with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river and the old
+Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by
+using the correct, official spelling for the river and town, viz.,
+Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place
+referred to in the contemporary histories of the Inca Manco.
+
+[12] In those days the term "Andes" appears to have been very limited
+in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of Cuzco where
+lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its
+culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+
+[13] Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not
+of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #10772 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10772)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+By
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+1922
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+"Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the
+Ranges--Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for
+you. Go!"
+
+Kipling: "The Explorer"
+------
+
+
+
+
+This Volume
+
+is affectionately dedicated
+
+to
+
+the Muse who inspired it
+
+the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into
+the interior of Peru and also many explorations into the labyrinth of
+early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my
+travels covered only a part of southern Peru, they took me into every
+variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude
+at which men have constructed houses or erected tents in the Western
+Hemisphere--from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to
+cross bleak Andean passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low
+temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into
+the dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as
+exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of violent
+contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of
+Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys have more plant life
+than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from
+glaciers to tree ferns within a few hours. So also in the labyrinth
+of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas--no historians
+go more rapidly from fact to fancy, from accurate observation to
+grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give
+conflicting statements with greater frequency. The story of the Incas
+is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+It was the mystery and romance of some of the wonderful pictures of
+a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively
+unknown region between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, sometimes called
+"the Cradle of the Incas." Although my photographs cannot compete with
+the imaginative pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that
+some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther
+into the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of
+identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+Some of my story has already been told in Harper's and the National
+Geographic, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission
+to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been
+published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course
+of preparation. My own observations are based partly on a study
+of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly
+on the maps and notes made by my companions, and partly on a study
+of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven
+thousand negatives. Another source of information was the opportunity
+of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great
+advantages of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same
+problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay;
+in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote, Dr. William
+G. Erving, Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius;
+in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr. Luther
+T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald,
+Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy, and Joseph Little;
+and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller,
+E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck,
+Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my
+comrades in enterprises which were not always free from discomfort or
+danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In
+the following pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork;
+at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps
+in another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to
+cover more particularly Machu Picchu [1] and its vicinity, they will
+eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for
+offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult to secure; to
+Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal
+and enthusiastic support; to President Taft of the United States and
+President Leguia of Peru for official help of a most important nature;
+to Messrs. W. R. Grace & Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and
+Mr. L. S. Blaisdell, of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and
+untiring coöperation; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque,
+and their sons, and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University,
+for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and
+Miss Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but
+by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible the
+writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+October 1, 1922
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I.		Crossing the Desert	1
+II.		Climbing Coropuna 23
+III.	To Parinacochas 50
+IV.		Flamingo Lake 74
+V.		Titicaca  95
+VI.		The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders 110
+VII.	The Valley of the Huatanay 133
+VIII.	The Oldest City in South America 157
+IX.		The Last Four Incas 170
+X.		Searching for the Last Inca Capital 198
+XI.		The Search Continued 217
+XII.	The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun 241
+XIII.	Vilcabamba 255
+XIV.	Conservidayoc 266
+XV.		The Pampa of Ghosts 292
+XVI.	The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas 306
+XVII.	Machu Picchu 314
+XVIII.	The Origin of Machu Picchu 326
+
+		Glossary  341
+		Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+		and the National Geographic Society    345
+		Index	 353
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+"Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges"
+Frontispiece
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru 1
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest 12
+Mt. Coropuna from the South 24
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Camp on the Summit 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local Rug-weaving
+Industry 60
+	Photograph by C. Watkins
+Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta    66
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara 78
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli 90
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba 90
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno 98
+A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati 98
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa 114
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani 114
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya 120
+Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya 120
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche 128
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912 132
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta 136
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall 140
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca 140
+Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada 150
+Map of Peru and View of Cuzco 158
+	From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578
+Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco 162
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos 170
+The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in
+Uilcapampa 176
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac 186
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains 198
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915 202
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa 206
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay 210
+The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu 214
+Huadquiña 220
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña 225
+	Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley 238
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata 242
+	Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata 242
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi 246
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana 248
+	Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana 250
+Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock 250
+	Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+Ñusta Isppana 256
+Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery 288
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa 288
+Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa 294
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu 306
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu 312
+The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu 312
+Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu 320
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-tocco 320
+Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu 324
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu 324
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu 328
+The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land 338
+
+
+Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs
+by the author.
+
+
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru.
+------
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Crossing the Desert
+
+A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most
+interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled "Peru. Travel
+and Exploration in the Land of the Incas." In that volume is a
+marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In the foreground is a
+delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face
+of a precipitous cliff and hangs in mid-air at great height above the
+swirling waters of the "great speaker." In the distance, towering above
+a mass of stupendous mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The
+desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that
+bridge decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire
+of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities to
+visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of "Across
+South America" will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau, an
+interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand
+feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac. There was some
+doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that
+the ruins represented the residence of the Inca Manco and his sons,
+who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru
+in the Andes between the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the
+clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing glimpses
+of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region,
+"behind the Ranges," which might contain great possibilities. Our
+guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in
+books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For months afterwards
+the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and
+beyond. In the words of Kipling's "Explorer":
+
+
+"... a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes
+On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated--so:
+'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges--
+Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!' "
+
+
+To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's
+"Titicaca and Koati," which had just appeared. In one of the
+interesting footnotes was this startling remark: "It is much to be
+desired that the elevation of the most prominent peaks of the western
+or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely ... that
+Coropuna, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa,
+is the culminating point of the continent. It exceeds 23,000 feet
+in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in
+the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763 feet (6940 meters) above
+sea level." His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil
+engineers of the Southern Railways of Peru, using a section of the
+railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to
+describe. Although I had been studying South American history and
+geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have
+heard of Coropuna. On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one
+of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found
+"Coropuna--6,949 m."--9 meters higher than Aconcagua!--one hundred
+miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the
+Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed very near
+Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands "behind
+the Ranges" which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence was
+intriguing. The desire to go and find that "something hidden" was now
+reënforced by the temptation to go and see whether Coropuna really was
+the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an
+expedition whose object was a geographical reconnaissance of Peru along
+the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba
+to tidewater on the Pacific. We achieved more than we expected.
+
+Our success was due in large part to our "unit-food-boxes," a device
+containing a balanced ration which Professor Harry W. Foote had
+cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to
+facilitate the provisioning of small field parties by packing in a
+single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions
+for a given period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction,
+not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had the
+responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words
+in regard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome.
+
+The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men
+for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men
+should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary their
+diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which
+in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn, eggs, mutton,
+and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned
+corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed oats, milk, cheese,
+coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams,
+pickles, and dried fruits and vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried
+fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient
+variety was procured without destroying the balanced character of
+the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large
+amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned fruits,
+however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food,
+we found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap,
+two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth bags, to be
+used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly
+appreciated article of food in our boxes was the rolled oats, a dish
+which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily
+prepared at high elevations, where rice cannot be properly boiled. It
+was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing
+the right amount of sugar. At the beginning of the field season the
+allowance--one third of a pound per day per man--seemed excessive, and
+I was criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the
+field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be supplemented.
+
+Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer
+to "rough it," and to "trust to luck" for his food. I had found on
+my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South
+America, that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular
+and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While "roughing it"
+is far more enticing to the inexperienced and indiscreet explorer,
+I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing,
+months in advance, a comprehensive bill of fare sufficiently varied,
+wholesome, and well-balanced, is "the better part of valor," The truth
+is that providing an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly
+to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble
+and expense for one's transportation department, and some of the
+younger men may feel that their reputations as explorers are likely
+to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and
+pickles are frequently found on their menu! Nevertheless, experience
+has shown that the results of "trusting to luck" and "living as the
+natives do" means not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but
+also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for
+the drudgery of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always
+easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery;
+and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome food.
+
+
+
+
+
+We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against
+Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian "winter"
+reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to
+try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms. On the other
+hand, the "summer months," beginning with November, are cloudy
+and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties of climbing a
+new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for
+exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Amazon
+Basin, the lands "behind the Ranges." Although the montaña, or jungle
+country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the
+other months of the year; so we decided to go first to the Urubamba
+Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos,
+the capital of the last Incas, and of the finding of Machu Picchu will
+be found in later chapters. In September I returned to Arequipa and
+started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate
+transportation facilities for crossing the desert.
+
+Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of
+the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its
+large mules. Unfortunately, a "mule trust" had recently been
+formed--needless to say, by an American--and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing,
+the Tejada brothers appeared, two arrieros, or muleteers, who seemed
+willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand soles
+(five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train
+of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever we chose,
+we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues
+[2] a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument
+and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy arrieros that they were not going to be everlastingly
+ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules,
+knew the great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us
+and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the
+imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch. The argument
+that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my
+promise that after the first week the cargo would be so much less that
+at least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas,
+realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get sore
+backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of
+safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker,
+a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing,
+whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper equipment,
+was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent
+of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the mountain was
+due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss
+guides, and had originally intended to ask two other members of the
+Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making
+a geological and topographical cross section along the 73d meridian
+through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest
+passes in the Andes (17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to
+such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna
+before the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy
+season it did not seem wise to wait for their coöperation. Accordingly,
+I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English
+naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of the Harvard Observatory. It
+was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti
+(19,120 ft.), should accompany us to the top, while Mr. Watkins,
+who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take
+charge of the Base Camp.
+
+The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in
+the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of rather more
+than average height and considerably more than average courage, who
+knew the country. As a member of the mounted gendarmerie, Gamarra had
+been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months
+previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous revolutionists stormed
+the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood
+his ground and, when they attempted to force their way past him, shot
+the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made
+him a corporal and, realizing that his life was no longer safe in that
+particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of
+his race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt
+that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered by the
+prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert,
+was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage could not be
+called in question even though his habits might lead him to become
+troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did not know we were planning
+to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the
+trials that were before him on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have
+begged off--but I am anticipating.
+
+On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left
+Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage of the
+journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty
+miles. The arrieros sent the cargo along too. In addition to the
+food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers,
+thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes, duffle bags, and
+a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from
+Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would reach Vitor about the
+same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of arrieros
+on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near
+the primitive little railway station.
+
+We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring pampa and
+studying the médanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in
+the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical
+jungles of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that
+it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert,
+broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers, coming
+from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for
+purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru, is in one of the
+largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog,
+the Peruvian coastal towns are almost never subjected to rain. The
+causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from
+the east, laden with the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the
+steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of
+the Andes and forced to deposit this moisture in the montaña. By
+the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no
+rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come from the warm
+Pacific Ocean strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current,
+which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they
+reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To be sure, there
+are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes
+of the coast range that the hillsides are clothed with flowers, but
+this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the
+great stretches of desert pampa in the midst of which we now were. Like
+the other pampas of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the
+sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These médanos interested us greatly.
+
+The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle
+breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward the
+ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a
+regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving the heavier
+particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat
+increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up from the ocean to
+fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air
+that rise from the overheated pampas. During the early afternoon this
+wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It
+is now strong enough to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It
+sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits
+them in pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains
+stationary at night while the lighter particles are rolled downhill,
+but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of
+the following afternoon. The result is the beautiful crescent-shaped
+médano.
+
+
+
+
+
+About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot--far superior to any
+that we had been able to secure near Cuzco--trotted briskly into the
+dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was
+nearly seven o'clock before we started off in the moonlight for the
+oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail
+winding down into a dark canyon we caught a glimpse of something
+white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest;
+Coropuna! Shortly before nine o'clock we reached a little corral,
+where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with
+a clean, stone-paved floor, where we set up our cots, only to be
+awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to
+avoid the terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest
+------
+
+
+Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day,
+but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or ten hours'
+steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack
+animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most caravans travel, so far
+as possible, by night. Our first desert, the pampa of Sihuas, was
+reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see
+what was to be seen. We got up about half-past four and were off
+before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in
+Arequipa or because they thought he looked like a good horseman,
+or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given
+Mr. Hinckley a very spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew,
+her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was done,
+and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal
+Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on his dangerous mule we
+rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over
+paths flanked by willows and fig trees. The chief industry of Vitor is
+the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The
+wine is aged in huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the
+ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line,
+awaiting sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
+who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean crocks.
+
+The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which
+the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out of
+foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is
+the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards; on the other
+side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the
+oasis there is an abundance of water. Much of it runs to waste. The
+wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land
+could easily be put under cultivation. The chief difficulties are
+the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer
+world, the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over
+the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be
+extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now unoccupied.
+
+A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim
+of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of Coropuna, glistening
+in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was
+a short one, for in less than three minutes we had to descend another
+canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the pampa of Sihuas. There
+was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the
+distance was Coropuna, and I had just begun to study the problem of
+possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's
+mule trotted briskly across the trail directly in front of me, kicked
+up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer,
+camera, plates, and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a
+stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance
+before he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep
+the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little "Mummery"
+tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid to
+the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the
+vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in Mr. Hinckley's
+leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain
+climbing. With Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa
+that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have
+the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached the glaciers. To
+be sure, there was the corporal--but would he go? Indians do not like
+snow mountains. Packing up the tent again, we resumed our course over
+the desert.
+
+The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a
+huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We
+should have been compelled to camp in the open with the arrieros had
+not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his
+vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes and sweet
+native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert
+of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps the widest, hottest,
+and most barren in this region. Our arrieros were unwilling to cross
+it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water
+and water. The next day we enjoyed the hospitality of our kindly host
+until after supper.
+
+So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to
+rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against the sun
+and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the
+larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating ditches. On the
+roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried
+mud. It is not necessary to plaster the sides of the houses, for it
+is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing to look
+out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the
+valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after hour, across
+the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and
+at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of a tumbled mass of enormous
+sand dunes--the result of hundreds of médanos blown across the pampa
+of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us
+three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert to a
+point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles
+across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks and sand. The
+bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes
+River, too deep to be forded even in the dry season. A very large
+part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and
+consists of a wild jungle, difficult of access in the dry season and
+impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast
+between the gigantic hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was
+very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape
+was the long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger
+and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would
+be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley and have some
+breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado),
+a huge volcanic boulder covered with rude pictographs. Further
+search in the vicinity revealed about one hundred of these boulders,
+each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of
+houses near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been
+past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection
+of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars, birds, men,
+and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the
+interest and excitement of investigating the "rocas jeroglificos,"
+as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no
+food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few pictures
+we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary
+bridge. It was built to last only during the dry season. To construct
+a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We
+spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant little village where it was almost
+impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley
+to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of Castilla, called
+by its present inhabitants "Majes," although on Raimondi's map that
+name is applied only to the river and the neighboring desert. In 1865,
+at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now
+it seems more healthy. The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed
+by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian
+ancestry. Many of them appeared to be unusually businesslike. The
+proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes,
+the name of which he pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a
+long time. "W" is unknown in Spanish and the letters "a," "l," and "k"
+are never found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of
+"Valluck-ofair'," accenting strongly the last syllable, we could not
+imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we
+could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately the well-advertised
+name of a widely known shoe.
+
+At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa,
+alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar cane, from
+which aguardiente, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that
+the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far
+back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so much wine in the
+community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives,
+who were not only hospitable but energetic--far more so, in fact,
+than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold
+and the difficulty of making a living have reacted upon the Indians,
+often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The
+residences of the wine growers are sometimes very misleading. A typical
+country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long,
+low, flat roof and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it
+an unattractive appearance; yet to one's intense surprise the inside
+may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and
+a phonograph.
+
+Our conscientious and hard-working arrieros rose at two o'clock the
+next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead
+of them, from an elevation of 1000 feet above sea level to 10,000
+feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could
+be obtained. We had now left the region of tropical products and come
+back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought us
+past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic
+"treasure seeker" of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000 inhabitants and
+is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which
+we had selected several months before as the rendezvous for the attack
+on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals
+of the temperate zone are easily raised. The town is surrounded by
+gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence
+of intensive cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches
+of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by
+Señor Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told us to set up our
+cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from
+the local officials, including the provincial physician, Dr. Pastór,
+and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro
+Coello. The last two were keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna.  They
+told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the
+mountain could be seen, and offered to take us up there. We accepted,
+thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to
+join in the climb, for we needed another man on the rope. Professor
+Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes
+whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away. It seemed
+clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the
+mass (koro = "cut off at the top"; puna = "a cold, snowy height"),
+was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern
+peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped dome we could just make out a
+northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to
+be higher than the western peak which we decided to climb. No one
+knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be
+had. The wildest opinions were expressed as to the best routes and
+methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he
+knew how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him "guide"
+for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring was now well
+advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that
+there had been a heavy snowstorm on the mountain a few days before. If
+summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time,
+and we proceeded to arrange the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+Our instruments for determining altitude consisted of a special
+mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of
+Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures as one might
+expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the
+Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
+of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green;
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was
+still doing good service; and one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our
+most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials
+should get broken. Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks,
+the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct,
+with special care, two large "Watkins" aneroids capable of recording
+altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed to
+be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know
+anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter had miscarried. It
+was not until we opened our specially ordered "mountain grub" boxes
+here in Chuquibamba that we found, alongside of the pemmican and
+self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by
+Grace Brothers, the two precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm
+clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety,
+we felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether
+there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed the
+top of America.
+
+For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was
+due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey along the 73d
+meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a
+signal at or near the top which Hendriksen could use as a station in
+order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must
+be confessed, was to enjoy the satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel,
+of conquering a "virgin peak."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Climbing Coropuna
+
+The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than
+the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October 10th
+before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in
+sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it with care. The
+plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood
+out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is really a range about twenty
+miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one
+end to the other. So deep did the fresh snow lie that it was generally
+impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could
+see that of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably
+the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern, end of
+the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its
+smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged to a later volcanic period
+than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of
+all. To reach it did not appear to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes
+ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls,
+appeared to culminate in a saddle at the base of the great snowy
+dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken,
+if steep, path to the top. If we could once reach the snow line,
+it looked as though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes,
+we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the South
+------
+
+
+Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more
+than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep quebradas, and very rough aa lava. Directed by our "guide,"
+we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the
+lava flows and slowly ascending the gentle slope of the plateau. As
+it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting
+for them to get their wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short
+rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a
+steep-walled canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front
+of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of
+going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued as to how much he
+knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any
+huts whatever in the canyon. "Abandonado; despoblado; desierto." "A
+waste; a solitude; a wilderness." So he described it. Had he been
+there? "No, Señor." Luckily we had been able to make out from the rim
+of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no
+question that we ought to get to the snow line as soon as possible, we
+decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a "guide,"
+and make such way as we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the
+canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from
+mountain sickness. The arrieros began to complain loudly, but did
+what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears;
+the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing for soroche. As
+soon as the timid arrieros reached a point where they could see
+down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture,
+cheered up a bit, and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the
+"guide." Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us
+with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay in advance and
+offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents
+and took advantage of the sheltering stone wall of her corral for
+our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly
+evident that we were harmless, the door of one of the huts opened
+and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance
+before our arrival had been the easily discernible presence in our
+midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had
+selected this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a
+guilty conscience and at the sight of a gendarme decided that he had
+better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of
+a recruiting party, since it is quite likely that he had not served
+his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife
+discovered that we were not looking for her man, she allowed his
+curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a
+few llamas. They also made crude pottery, firing it with straw and
+llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from chuño,
+frozen bitter potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000
+feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family,
+a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to
+persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help to carry
+the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they
+declined absolutely and positively. I think one of the men might have
+gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering
+she broke out in a torrent of violent denunciation, telling him the
+mountain would "eat him up" and that unless he wanted to go to heaven
+before his time he had better let well enough alone and stay where he
+was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna "the devil" talks "more freely" than
+usual. "For some secret reason known to God, it is said that devils
+walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are
+much terrified. I have also heard that these devils have appeared to
+Christians in the form of Indians." Perhaps the voluble housewife was
+herself one of the famous Coropuna devils. She certainly talked "more
+freely" than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna "devils"
+were now appearing to Indians "in the form of" Christians! Anyhow the
+Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful, warm
+paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of
+brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those faithful denizens
+of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy
+themselves in this charming spot on their upward flight. Like most
+primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an
+abject terror of the forbidding summits and the snowstorms that seem
+to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate
+the demons who dwell on the mountain tops by inventing charming
+stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in
+the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca, the great explorer Raimondi,
+in 1865, found the natives "exiled from the civilized world, still
+preserving their primitive customs... carrying idols to the slopes
+of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a
+sacrifice." Apparently the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts
+of all those who live near it.
+
+The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten
+times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity, that we
+added offers of the precious coca leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired
+"fire-water," the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually
+coveted by Peruvian highlanders, had no effect in the face of the
+terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness
+was one of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages
+of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the
+realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood all these
+matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language of
+our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not
+only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian gentlemen
+always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and
+improper. I have known one of the most energetic and efficient business
+men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to
+dislike being obliged to carry a rolled and unmounted photograph,
+little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a cargador, an
+Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do
+his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to climb with
+heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several
+thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument with the Indians
+was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made
+more and more generous. All was in vain. We finally came to realize
+that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would
+have to be borne on our own shoulders. That evening the top of the
+truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp,
+was bathed in a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air,
+however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the gendarme's mule became homesick and disappeared with
+Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders
+to follow us as soon as possible.
+
+As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to
+persuade the Tejadas to take their pack mules up as far as the snow,
+a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone
+as far as and farther than mules had any business to go. Soon after
+reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that
+there was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on
+the lower slopes of the mountains. The arrieros denied the accuracy
+of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed
+to go as far as there was a good path, and no farther. There was no
+question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as
+high up as possible before we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It
+may be imagined that the arrieros packed very slowly and grudgingly,
+although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving
+behind our saddles, ordinary supplies, and everything not considered
+absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it
+best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as not to hear
+the arrieros' constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard
+climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the
+edge of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied
+equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse,
+black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced to
+unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a
+violent and acrimonious dispute as to whether the letter of the
+contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone "as far as they
+could reasonably be expected to go." The truth was, the Tejadas
+were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure
+it would take revenge on them by destroying their mules, who would
+"certainly die the following day of soroche." We offered a bonus of
+thirty soles--fifteen dollars--if they would go on for another hour,
+and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep
+little rise the arrieros stopped again. This time they succeeded in
+unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and
+boulders to stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The
+only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement "in writing" that in case any mule or mules died as
+a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line, I
+should pay in gold two hundred soles for each and every mule that
+died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty soles if they
+would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document,
+having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello, seated on a lava rock
+amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed
+and sealed. In order that there might be no dispute as to the time,
+my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until
+noon. The mules were reloaded and again the ascent began. Presently the
+mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with
+huge lava boulders and scoriaceous sand. We expected more trouble every
+minute. However, the arrieros, having made an advantageous bargain,
+did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the
+snow line just fifteen minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas
+lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return
+in ten days, and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the
+side of the mountain.
+
+We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents,
+the "Mummery," a very light and diminutive wall tent about four feet
+high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of
+fairly heavy material, with floor sewed in; and an improved pyramidal
+tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after
+one used on Mt. McKinley by Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two
+openings--a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being
+closed by an adjustable cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance
+through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any
+desired extent with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor,
+measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent
+upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the ground, or
+snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without
+difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily ventilated and yet
+giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the
+wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent with us on the
+climb. We determined to carry the "Mummery" to the top of the mountain
+to use while taking observations.
+
+The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised
+and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites and no
+soroche. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small
+diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water for
+cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in
+pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal pulse is 70. After
+I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to
+120. After I had been seated awhile it dropped down to 100. Gradually
+our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of
+malaise and general disability. There was a splendid sunset, but we
+were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had
+some headache. A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened
+to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what
+moment we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters,
+we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair warning
+of what might happen higher up.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We
+all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe
+heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially prepared
+for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever
+tasted it before. We decided that it is not very palatable on first
+acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend
+long periods of time in the Arctic, where even seal's blubber is a
+delicacy "as good as cow's cream," I presume we could have done just
+as well without it.
+
+It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and
+supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of a week's
+duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures
+due to the necessity of the explorers' being obliged to return to
+food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of
+a new peak. One remembers the frequent disappointments that came
+to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in
+Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile and Argentina, due to high winds,
+the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by
+soroche. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to
+try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that no
+unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the
+mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds in a single
+day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other
+chores, they started off, packing loads of about twenty-five pounds
+each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily
+slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops
+seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult at a
+high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for
+those suffering from soroche as it is for a sailor to appreciate the
+sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of
+observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the
+cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be weighed,
+so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following
+day. We had two small kerosene stoves with Primus burners. Our grub,
+ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican
+in 8 1/4-pound tins, Kola chocolate in half-pound tins, seeded raisins
+in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6 1/2-pound
+tins, jam, sticks of dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few
+of Silver's self-heating "messtins" containing Irish stew, beef à la
+mode, et al. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found
+his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did not
+relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm
+clothes which we had provided for him and learned that he would get
+a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided
+to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported
+that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the first part
+of the climb and that a cache had been established about 2000 feet
+above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs
+for the morrow and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness
+with which we were to carry them.
+
+Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I
+still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican pudding
+with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to
+eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better, one reason being
+that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The
+weather continued fine. Watkins was due to arrive from Arequipa in
+a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further
+risk of encountering an early summer snowstorm. The next morning,
+after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs,
+we left camp about nine o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain
+Club snow-creepers, or crampons, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen
+helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be
+remembered by visitors to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides
+who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been
+maimed for life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great
+altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs
+of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy underdrawers.
+
+Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I
+had woolen puttees and "Arctic" overshoes. Tucker improvised what
+he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and
+pieces of a rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing
+ahead of us, we decided to depend on crampons rather than on the
+heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it
+was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We found that,
+loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty
+steps at a time. On the more level snow fields we took twenty-five
+or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint
+it seemed as though they would be the last steps we should ever
+take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with
+mountain-sickness, we would stop and lean on our ice axes until able
+to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a
+glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very wide, and nearly
+all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although
+there was an occasional fall no great strain was put on the rope. Then
+came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part
+our day was simply an unending succession of stints--twenty-five steps
+and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five
+steps and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along
+until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow stopped all
+progress. At an altitude of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was
+pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that
+the two big aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the
+temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood
+at 22° F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9°
+F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in the
+northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us
+considerably. We feared the expected November storms might be ahead of
+time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to
+the ventilating device at the top of the tent, we managed to breathe
+fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally
+observed that one of the symptoms of acute soroche is a very annoying,
+racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied
+by nausoa. We had not experienced this at 17,000 feet, but now it
+began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing
+days and nights, particularly nights, until we got back to the Indians'
+huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another
+by coughing.
+
+The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a
+miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing for
+it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with
+the same steady drudgery--now a little harder than the day before. We
+broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude
+of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field within a mile of the saddle
+between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked
+possible to reach the summit in one more day's climb from here. The
+aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch
+the tent, the others went back to the cache to bring up some of the
+supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy
+as those which Tucker and Coello had first brought up, we had not
+passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared
+again I was so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like
+pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were
+within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before
+turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow and make
+a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the
+morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer registered
+7° F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away
+four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent they are obliged to sleep so
+close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown
+sleeping-bag, blankets, and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We
+did, however, suffer from soroche. Violent whooping cough assailed
+us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by
+counting my pulse occasionally, only to find that it persistently
+refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't
+know where it went on the actual climb. So far as I could determine,
+it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet
+tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was found to be
+frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an
+hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough for practical purposes
+when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the
+tea-pot! Never did men keep their tempers better under more aggravating
+circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my
+clumsy accident, although poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the
+down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder
+(but somewhat drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated
+a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more
+frozen snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and
+Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker
+tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of our outfit and
+provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things
+as were absolutely necessary. They included the Mummery tent with
+pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins
+aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks,
+six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer,
+a Stanley pocket level, an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope,
+three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale
+flag. In order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried
+four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle soup,
+a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes
+of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about twenty pounds each.
+
+To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine
+and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon the snow
+had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now
+everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five o'clock. It was
+still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut
+off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls. To reach it we must
+first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently
+unbroken slope extended to the top. Our progress was distressingly
+slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came
+a painful surprise. To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the
+peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now
+it actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From
+the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly seemed
+to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly
+facing the possibility that our painful labors might be in vain and
+that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to
+doubt whether we should have strength enough for both. Loss of sleep,
+soroche, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. We should have
+had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for
+our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly. As it was, not more than
+a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest
+part. Tucker was first on the rope, I was second, Coello third, and
+Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high
+altitude was sapping all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump
+of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the
+system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires. A single
+cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course,
+one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did help to tide over
+difficult places.
+
+We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and
+climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be the top,
+obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then
+Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were too much out of breath
+to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we
+painfully came to the edge of what looked like the summit we saw the
+cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope
+three hundred feet higher than where we were standing. It may seem
+strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to
+find that we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however,
+that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to give to the consideration
+of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts
+had sunk within us at the thought that possibly, after all, we might
+find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another
+three hundred feet, which would undoubtedly take us above the highest
+point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of
+two possible evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us
+was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on
+our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at last, at
+half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the
+20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point of Coropuna. As
+we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having
+successfully engineered the first ascent of this great mountain,
+stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly
+motioned me to go ahead in order that the director of the Expedition
+might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In
+order to appreciate how great a sacrifice he was willing to make,
+it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition
+was due chiefly to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire
+to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated
+his kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far
+as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+
+The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow field, almost flat,
+having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and
+south and 175 feet east and west. If it once were, as we suppose, a
+volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and
+ice. There were no rocks to be seen on the rim--only the hard crust of
+the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in
+the extreme. We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted
+with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on
+top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have frequently
+spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest,
+twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada, a reddish desert, rose
+snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the
+range of Coropuna itself; several of the lesser peaks being only a
+few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined
+we could see the faint blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the
+difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction coming
+from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had
+led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak in the Pacific,
+Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing
+the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be appreciative of the views
+which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I
+could not take the least interest or pleasure in the view from the
+top of Coropuna, nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction
+in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt
+greatly depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his
+bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging
+the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my surprise and
+dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above
+sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a thousand feet higher,
+22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of
+22,775 feet, and considerably below Bandelier's "23,000 feet." This
+was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would
+at least show a margin over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763
+feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We
+took what comfort we could from the fact that the aneroids, which
+had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so
+obviously untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove
+to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now
+be reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we
+were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the wooden
+box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow,
+leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level, and took a
+squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So
+each of us in turn lay down in the snow and took a squint. It was
+all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and
+a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight. At any
+rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for
+any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After arriving at
+this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent,
+set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer, arranged the boiling
+point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and
+notebooks proceeded to take as many observations as possible in the
+next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that
+at the same hour readings were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp
+and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The
+barometer was suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the
+tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now
+stood at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the
+barometer was exactly +32° F. At the same time, inside the tent we
+got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water
+boils at sea level at a temperature of 212° F. Here it boiled at 174°
+F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been
+heated for the hypsometer. We were thirsty enough to have drunk five
+times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions
+except a few raisins, some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent
+as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left it
+on top, first having placed in it one of the Appalachian Mountain
+Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag,
+a contemporary map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the
+ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole,
+which we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could
+be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief
+Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make his survey,
+it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and
+buried it in the snow.
+
+We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp
+two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part of the way down
+to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and
+we got up too much speed for comfort, so we finally had to be content
+with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little
+wind. Mountain climbers have more to fear from excessively high winds
+than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred
+to interfere with the best progress we were physically capable of
+making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many
+supplies with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute
+mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does
+get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful. No one in
+the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet or
+pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of
+mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities, apparently
+not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could
+have stood it. It is difficult to believe that with strength enough
+to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The
+violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated again
+in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little
+nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower altitude as
+fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our
+supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes later, without
+having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked
+up. Although many things had been abandoned, our loads seemed heavier
+than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but
+Gamarra was the only one actually to fall in, and he was easily pulled
+out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two
+animated specks far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing
+somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he
+could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks, although we
+did not see it at the time. The "specks" turned out to be Watkins
+and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was safe without ropes or
+crampons, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached
+at half-past twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning
+was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had
+carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while he had given
+me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course,
+does not include the weight of our ice-creepers, axes, or rope.
+
+The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was
+almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even to lift one's
+hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully
+swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed best to make every effort
+to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp,
+got the loads ready without waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets
+on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately
+our malaise left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths
+as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than
+the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without getting
+out of breath; the aggravating "whooping cough" left us; and our
+appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered from the effects
+of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly
+had allowed myself to eat a considerable amount of snow. As a result
+my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit
+tasted like broken glass. Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling
+to keep his snow-glasses always in place and thought to relieve his
+eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial
+snow-blindness. The rest of us were spared any inflammation of the
+eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling
+arrieros, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our
+adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas gave us
+hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the
+loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and
+found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15° 31' South, and the longitude
+to be 72° 42' 40'' West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be
+21,703 feet above sea level. The result of comparing the readings of
+our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous
+readings taken at Arequipa gave practically the same figures. There
+was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna
+proves to be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate,
+and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in
+North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach the top,
+we all agreed we would never do it again!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+To Parinacochas
+
+After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set
+out for Parinacochas, the "Flamingo Lake" of the Incas. The late Sir
+Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of
+"The Conquest of Peru," had called attention to this unexplored lake
+in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
+named a bathymetric survey of Parinacochas as one of the principal
+desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge
+from the published maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than
+Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough
+search of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding
+its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it was that it
+had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in
+Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted General San Martin in the
+Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs
+in London in 1828. During the campaigns against the Spanish forces
+in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the
+interior. On one of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of
+Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is "brackish." This
+statement of General Miller's and the suggestion of Sir Clements
+Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important
+contribution to geographical knowledge was all that we were able to
+learn. Our arrieros, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas,
+but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to
+get there. Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the
+capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman and
+Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the
+Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a new supply of
+food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance
+of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out of the Chuquibamba Valley
+by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over
+the gently sloping, semi-arid desert in a northerly direction, around
+the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night
+on the Pampa of Chumpillo, our arrieros used dried moss and dung for
+fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were
+llamas pasturing on the plains. Near our tent were some Inca ruins,
+probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains
+of a temple described by Cieza de Leon (1519-1560), whose remarkable
+accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the
+Pizarros are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most
+important temples in the Land of the Incas was one "much venerated and
+frequented by them, named Coropuna." "It is on a very lofty mountain
+which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings
+of Peru visited this temple making presents and offerings .... It
+is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts
+offered to this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and
+precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol,
+and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But as there
+are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is
+it known where these are hidden. This temple possessed many flocks,
+farms, and service of Indians." No one lives here now, but there are
+many flocks and llamas, and not far away we saw ancient storehouses
+and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were
+kept awake by the bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields
+of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from
+the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance of peat
+and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of
+its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the lower spurs of Coropuna
+into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand,
+the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada. It is for the most part between
+15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest
+by the canyon of the Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp
+and passed a more agreeable night. The following morning we climbed
+out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern
+slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail turned abruptly to the left,
+away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day,
+less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks, like El
+Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been
+known in the memory of man to give forth great showers of cinders
+covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great
+truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering of the
+ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast
+accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this vicinity goes
+far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous
+amount of erosion that has taken place in the adjacent canyons and
+the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by
+the mighty streams of the glacial period all point to this conclusion.
+
+My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle
+enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way. In her
+case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to
+her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I took some notes,
+she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and
+kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring or lashing with a stout
+quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I
+was particularly anxious to get a picture of our pack train jogging
+steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. Since
+my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, run a couple of
+hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the
+picture before they reached me. We were now at an elevation of 16,000
+feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it
+was relatively as easy to run here as anywhere, so accustomed had my
+lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such
+a strenuous feat at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it
+would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run
+two hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and
+pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches of tough
+grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered
+with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we saw a number of vicuñas,
+the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get
+near enough for a photograph. They were extremely timid and scampered
+away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought
+us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent canyon,
+the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon
+were covered with innumerable terraces--thousands of them. It seemed
+at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been
+either terraced or allotted to some compact little village. One could
+count more than a score of towns, including Cotahuasi itself, its long
+main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into
+the canyon our road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces
+and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several
+weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley bottoms showed
+any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent
+to which terracing had been carried on the side of the Cotahuasi
+Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it
+was evident from the extraordinary irrigation system that agriculture
+here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the
+great mountains in the interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation
+canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired
+than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that there is no
+part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops
+where nature made it hard for them to be planted. In other countries,
+to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve
+to bring water long distances to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We
+also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper
+chemical formula, the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils
+with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great
+regions where nature has provided fertile fields and made it easy to
+raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or
+prehistoric times, does one find farmers spending incredible amounts
+of labor in actually creating arable fields, besides bringing the
+water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that
+is what was done by the ancient highlanders of Peru. As they spread
+over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great
+an elevation as to be suitable for only the hardiest of root crops,
+like the white potato and the oca, they were driven to use narrow
+valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the
+precious maize and many of the other temperate and tropical plants
+which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were
+constantly confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the
+valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear
+it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently so very
+steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The
+farmer might wake up any morning to find that a heavy rain during
+the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted
+fields. Consequently there was developed, through the centuries,
+a series of stone-faced andenes, terraces or platforms.
+
+Examination of the ancient andenes discloses the fact that they were
+not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a
+carefully constructed stone wall. The space back of the walls was
+first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; then followed
+smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the
+subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and to a depth of eighteen
+inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The
+result was the best possible field for intensive cultivation. It
+seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains
+should have been taken for such relatively small results. The need
+must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few
+feet wide, although hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow
+the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred
+yards wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and
+alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place
+where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized of all
+Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many
+landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak plateaus of the
+surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep,
+and alpacas.
+
+We were cordially welcomed by Señor Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and
+invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the locality, and,
+as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central
+government, was none too popular with some of the people of his
+province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi
+have ever been to Lima;--probably not a single member of the Lima
+government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not
+expect to find much sympathy between the two. The difficulties of
+traveling in Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With
+our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the
+government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect. By nature a
+kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence,
+Señor Viscarra showed himself most courteous and hospitable to us in
+every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They
+brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt and Elihu Root, and made a
+large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the
+flag did have only thirty-six stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid
+banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend
+us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a barber-shop. The
+chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we
+accepted with pleasure. When the barber arrived, closely guarded by a
+gendarme armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict
+from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his crime,
+but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of
+clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag, I wished I was in
+a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The
+sub-prefect, however, had been so kind and was so apologetic as to
+the inconveniences of the "barber-shop" that there was nothing for it
+but to go bravely forward. Although it was unpleasant to have one's
+hair trimmed by an uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not
+help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a
+pair of shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the
+period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his fees
+with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed
+with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away by the gendarme.
+
+We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and
+Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary difficulties
+in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now
+past the worst of it. Their supplies were exhausted, so those which we
+had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned
+to assist Mr. Hendriksen and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south
+to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him
+as escort Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the
+machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was Gamarra
+who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the
+time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some months previous to
+our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For
+Gamarra's sake they left the house at three o'clock in the morning
+and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his
+important monograph, "The Andes of Southern Peru," Dr. Bowman writes:
+"At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened
+the gates noiselessly and our small cavalcade hurried through the
+pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle
+across his saddle, and directly behind him rode the sub-prefect and
+myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the
+end of the street when a door opened suddenly and a shower of sparks
+flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his
+mule and turned into a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse
+back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed
+me against the wall and whispered, 'For God's sake, who is it?' Then
+suddenly he shouted. 'Stop blowing! Stop blowing!' "
+
+The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor
+who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's work by
+pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand
+an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals, on which he had
+been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor
+and his ancient goose should have been able to cause such terrific
+excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own
+Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was fond of referring to this picturesque
+apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose
+that Startled the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to
+His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local rug-weaving
+industry.
+------
+
+
+The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and
+carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers make the warp
+and woof of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray,
+or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are cut
+so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm,
+gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has no pile. Probably the
+industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It
+seems to be restricted to this remote region. The rug makers are a
+small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their
+hand looms from house to house, as required. It is the custom for the
+person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish
+the weaver with board, lodging, coca, tobacco and wine, and watch the
+rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug
+weavers are very clever in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy
+of Señor Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven
+especially for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host,
+and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he knew the road to
+Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring
+stream on a treacherous-looking bridge, the central pier of which
+was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic
+boulder in midstream. The main arch of the bridge consisted of two
+long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down
+by earth and stones. There was no rail on either side, but our mules
+had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On
+the northern side of the valley we rode through a compact little town
+called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds
+of very fine artificial terraces, at present used for crops of maize
+and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall,
+an altogether surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid
+region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as
+well as the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection
+between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky
+zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture. Wherever the
+sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced
+terraces and irrigation had transformed them long ago into arable
+fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very
+fine series of beautiful terraces. On a shelf near the top of the
+canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by
+shepherds whose flocks grazed on the lofty plateau beyond, and near
+a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our
+camp was at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were
+turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed
+occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one of these
+we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the
+glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna, now growing fainter
+and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500
+feet we struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and
+sand--hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came to
+a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was
+intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged along beside my
+mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my
+experiences on Coropuna I suffered no discomfort, nor any symptoms
+of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five
+hundred yards. In the afternoon we began to descend from the plateau
+toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha,
+where ichu grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain
+and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and
+alpacas. Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian
+herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly
+because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the upper
+courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe
+them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the softest in
+the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding
+that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool was highly desired,
+many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the "alpaca"
+of commerce, a material used for coat linings, umbrellas, and thin,
+warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard
+surface, and generally dyed black. It usually contains no real alpaca
+wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real alpaca wool which comes into
+the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than
+the sheep's wool, it is strong, small of fiber, very soft, pliable and
+elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and
+comfort. Many of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the
+highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as "vicuña," "camel's hair," etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by
+the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of the camels of the
+New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of
+uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas are extremely variegated. The
+llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for
+wearing apparel, although heavy blankets made from it are in use by
+the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to
+the presence of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our
+horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage--short, tender grass and plenty of water--frequents the most
+remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only when the
+fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds,
+and is extremely shy of strangers, although not nearly as timid as its
+distant cousin the vicuña. I shall never forget the first time I ever
+saw some alpacas. They looked for all the world like the "woolly-dogs"
+of our toys shops--woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and
+woolly along the legs right down to the invisible wheels! There was
+something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They
+look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop like cows.
+
+The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing,
+but in a different way. His expression is haughty and supercilious
+in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is
+due to circumstances over which he really had no control. Pride of
+race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high
+and his neck so stiffly erect that he can be corralled, with others
+of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire
+group. Yet he can be bought for ten dollars.
+
+On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs,
+both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly children,
+more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind
+rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our notice. About five o'clock
+in the afternoon, on a dry pampa, we found the ruins of one of the
+largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder
+of the days when benevolent despots ruled the Andes and, like the
+Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is
+not occupied, yet near by are populous valleys.
+
+As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the
+edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep canyons
+so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned
+as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail. It overhangs the
+mud-colored Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of
+a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the
+sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair, but those
+near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes,
+and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered with cacti, thorn
+bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the
+town itself were half a dozen specimens of the Australian eucalyptus,
+that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one
+encounters not only in the heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia
+and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta
+------
+
+
+Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them
+have open verandas on the second floor--a sure indication that the
+climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried
+adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched huts of the
+majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and
+the great number of terraces in and around town, one may conclude
+that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of
+the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most Peruvian towns. The cities
+of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta,
+we wound around the base of the projecting ridge, on the sides of
+which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the
+valley of Huancahuanca, a large arid canyon. The guide said that we
+were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles away, across two canyons,
+was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great
+natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand feet
+above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and
+under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers at
+the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to
+enable them to cultivate a larger part of the pampa on which they
+lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of
+being carried out and has probably long since been completed. Our
+reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that
+our military escort, Corporal Gamarra, had gone back to Arequipa
+with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent arrieros, the Tejada brothers,
+declared they preferred to travel without any "brass buttons,"
+so we had not asked the sub-prefect of Cotahuasi to send one of
+his small handful of gendarmes along with us. Probably this was a
+mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood
+matter, such as prospecting for mines or representing one of the
+great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods,
+one cannot help arousing the natural suspicions of a people to whom
+traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific
+exploration for its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the
+explorers arrive accompanied by a gendarme it is perfectly evident
+that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial
+backing of the government. It is surmised that the explorers are
+well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely
+one of the ordinary experiences of life. South American governments
+almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are
+led to expect that all measures connected with research, whether it be
+scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government
+and paid for out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is
+not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had
+had such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize,
+how often an ever-present gendarme, provided through the courtesy of
+President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us
+a cordial welcome.
+
+Now, however, when without a gendarme we entered the smart little
+town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the
+objects of extreme suspicion and distrust. Yet we could not help
+admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and
+general air of prosperity and enterprise. The gobernador of the town
+lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and
+colonnade were probably two hundred years old. He had heard nothing
+of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take
+some hostile action. Fortunately, our arrieros, respectable men of high
+grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions
+temporarily. We were not placed under arrest, although I am sure
+his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors,
+who found it far easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives
+from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well
+known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that Lampa is famous
+for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep,
+alpacas, and vicuñas in this vicinity to make ponchos and blankets
+of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in
+Arequipa. These are marketed, as so often happens in the outlying
+parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who
+come hundreds of miles, bringing the manufactured articles of the
+outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded
+towns. The great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold
+generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an
+opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general enjoyment--like a
+large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin
+of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate as our own fair-grounds,
+with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the
+purposes of the fair. Had we been bound for Parinacochas at the proper
+season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why
+anybody should want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other
+fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension
+or understanding of these village worthies. So, to our "selectmen,"
+are the idiosyncrasies of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our
+deserted fair-grounds.
+
+The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town--probably
+because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the mules
+devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive
+in town than in the country. It was just as well for us that this
+was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would
+have persuaded the gobernador to arrest us. As it was, however, he was
+pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment
+of an Indian woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard
+and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around
+her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree. So she covered her
+eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at
+our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian women are invariably extremely
+shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape
+observation and notice. The ladies of the gobernador's own family,
+however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no
+objection to being photographed, but were moved to unseemly and
+unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we
+had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due to the
+enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might
+expect that citizens who kept their town so clean and neat and were
+engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would
+have a comfortable road in the direction toward which they usually
+would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences
+of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides of the valley
+or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa
+and whose products have made its people well fed and energetic. The
+town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so
+few, if any, evidences of the ancient régime when there are so many
+a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot
+believe that the Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural
+opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land
+and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing unnecessary
+in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand,
+it may have been occupied until late Inca times by one of the coast
+tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca
+divides two very different regions. To come in a few hours, from
+thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give
+us cause for thought and speculation. It is well known that in the
+early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before
+the Spanish Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes
+who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as different as possible in design
+and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is
+absolutely distinct. Relative abundance of flat lands never led them
+to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had
+done. Perhaps on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the
+coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and
+surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of
+Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower slopes separated
+from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near
+the top of the mountain. Our road ran near the towns of Pararca
+and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of
+thatched huts surrounded by hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on
+the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed
+fields of barley and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On
+every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in
+agriculture, utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared
+for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We
+noticed hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under
+cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+Our arrieros avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the
+roadside near the Finca Rodadero. After all, when one has a comfortable
+tent, good food, and skillful arrieros it is far pleasanter to spend
+the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation of 12,000
+or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an
+Indian town.
+
+The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town
+of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe houses
+placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the
+best arable land available for agriculture. It is in a shallow,
+well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country
+had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi. The desert and its
+steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of
+gently sloping hills, covered with terraces, where the cereals of the
+temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain
+fields, we climbed up to a shallow depression in the low range at the
+head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland
+basin more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was
+a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most of the
+lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light
+salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color? Nothing but
+flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes--Parinacochas at last!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Flamingo Lake
+
+The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and
+12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest of
+Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount
+of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams. In past
+geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not
+far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas has no visible
+outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we
+came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed from the lake. On the other
+hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake,
+generally occurring in swampy hillocks--built up perhaps by mineral
+deposits--three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There
+are very old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that
+in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at present,
+although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had
+been much more than a foot above its present level. Nevertheless a
+rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+When making preparations in New Haven for the "bathymetric survey of
+Lake Parinacochas," suggested by Sir Clements Markham, we found it
+impossible to discover any indication in geographical literature as
+to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand
+feet. We decided to take a chance on its not being more than ten
+hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured
+a thousand feet of stout fish line, known to anglers as "24 thread,"
+wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we
+were at Chuquibamba Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting
+one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot
+intervals in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able
+more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker
+and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for fodder,
+and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles
+on muleback, for the sounding operations. The "Acme" proved easy
+to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its
+lightness enabled it to be floated at the edge of the lake even in
+very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late
+afternoon when the high winds raised a vicious little "sea." Rowing
+out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before
+been navigated by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake
+Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought
+no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding slow work,
+and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation that I rowed
+out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel
+firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard. The reel gave a turn
+or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was
+the reel stuck? No, the apparatus was in perfect running order. Then
+what was the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains
+that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best strong
+24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient
+insertion of one hundred and sixty-six "fathom-markers"! The bottom of
+the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After
+three or four days of strenuous rowing up and down the eighteen
+miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen
+miles of its width, I never succeeded in wetting Watkins's first
+marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of
+water anywhere. Possibly if we had come in the rainy season we might
+at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November,
+1911), the lake had a maximum depth of 4 1/2 feet. The satisfaction of
+making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so
+shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story of
+the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near
+one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor was reported
+by the natives to be "bottomless." He ordered one of the ship's heavy
+boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt
+lake, at great expenditure of strength and labor. The story told me
+in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow,
+they found this "fathomless" body of water to be not more than fifteen
+feet deep.
+
+Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I
+was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat, for it
+enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which
+use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite feeding ground;
+pink flamingoes, white gulls, small "divers," large black ducks,
+sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large geese. On the banks
+were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the
+natives should have named this body of water "Parinacochas" (Parina =
+"flamingo," cochas = "lake"). The flamingoes are here in incredible
+multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said,
+actually make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately
+they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid. After
+two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me
+approach within twenty yards before finally taking wing. The coloring,
+in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The
+head is white, the beak black, the neck white shading into salmon-pink;
+the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail
+salmon-pink. The wings are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and
+the under-parts are black. As they stand or wade in the water their
+general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the
+water, however, the black under-parts of the wings become strikingly
+conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful
+contrast in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep
+his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the ropelike
+neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure
+that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless, I thought the heavy
+body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform
+speed, the difference being caught up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara
+------
+
+
+The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman
+nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in a most
+incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind
+from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse croaking, "What is it,"
+"What is it," seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the
+sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes
+were very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse
+"What-is-it's." Apparently they failed to find out the answer in time
+to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all
+sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads tucked under
+their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was
+quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In the afternoon, as winds
+and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left
+the water. The great extent of shallow water in Parinacochas offers
+them a splendid, wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all
+came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were
+thousands and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests,
+either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank
+Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or
+terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean lake 11,500
+feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several
+hundred. There were quantities of small black divers in the deeper
+parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were
+very quick and keen, true individualists operating alone and showing
+astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large
+black ducks were much more fearless than the flamingoes and were
+willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over
+the water at a tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their
+efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about
+as common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few
+tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest, possibly
+belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near
+our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers, who in this country
+look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great
+amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle, calmly eating
+the succulent water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head
+and neck well under the surface.
+
+While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes,
+Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the first
+accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point
+to point he often stirred up little ground owls, who gazed at him with
+solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to
+regard his activities with suspicion and dislike. Part of my work was
+to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on
+the well-rounded hills so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as
+rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations
+would disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived
+in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods set
+up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being
+preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle feeding on flat
+lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin are bare of trees, and offer some pasturage. In some places they
+are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by
+the degenerate descendants of sheep brought into the country during
+Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in
+color, although there were many black ones. We were told that the
+sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the
+shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame their shyness,
+and a group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought
+their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to gaze
+stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house,
+actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake, and busied
+themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering
+a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women wore dresses of heavy
+material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of
+hats they had small variegated shawls, made on hand looms, folded
+so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck
+and shoulders from sun and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with
+a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a
+hammock or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These
+sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated with
+attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys
+wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats and long trousers
+much too large for them.
+
+At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of
+Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be
+remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than it is at
+present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In
+the days of its greater altitude, and consequently wider snow fields,
+the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much
+larger body of water. Although we were here at the beginning of summer,
+the wind that came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our
+minimum thermometer registered 22° F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the
+borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most shallow
+bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the
+water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten inches below the surface,
+was 61° F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By
+noon the temperature of the water half a mile from shore was 67.5°
+F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring
+up the shallow water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature
+of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining
+brightly almost directly overhead, it went down to 65° by 2:30 P.M.
+
+The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our
+camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although in
+each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water,
+taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and analyzed
+by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He
+found that it contained small quantities of silica, iron phosphate,
+magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium
+nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate, sodium sulphate, and a
+considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains
+more carbonate and potassium than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical "salt"
+waters, that of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position,
+containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let
+their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there was excellent
+alfalfa forage. The arrieros engaged at their own expense a pack
+train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the
+custom hereabouts to enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of
+rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The
+Indians who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy
+fellows, dressed in "store clothes" and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty,
+but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to haul them
+near the loads.
+
+Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, "the house of the
+Inca," at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi visited it
+in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies
+one of the houses. The other buildings are used only during the third
+week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted
+plaza were many low stone rectangles partly covered with adobe and
+ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long,
+thatched buildings of adobe and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A
+few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient
+stonemasons. Some loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled
+the attempts of modern builders.
+
+In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully
+laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well named; there had
+been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple--lakes were once
+objects of worship--or rest-house, constructed in order to enable the
+chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains
+of the Incas. We found the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably
+potatoes and other root crops were once raised here in fairly large
+quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The
+hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches in which
+are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one
+time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe, but these walls had
+been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of
+whatever objects of value they might have contained. We found nine or
+ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls
+seemed to have been trepanned.
+
+On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet
+wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones. No effort
+had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no
+evidence of its having been used in recent times. It runs from the
+lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley,
+where there are many terraces and cultivated fields; it is not far from
+Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up and piled on each side to
+save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The
+llama dislikes to step over any obstacle, even a very low wall. The
+grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to
+proceed in the desired direction.
+
+In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and
+small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for temporary
+protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come
+up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation (12,000 feet). The
+shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough,
+scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures varied from 8 to 25
+feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent
+occupation. The smaller walls may have been the foundation of small
+circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to
+keep alpacas and llamas from straying at night and to guard against
+wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age
+of these remains. It is possible that they represent a settlement
+of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and
+size of the walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may
+have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the
+hills west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca,
+which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center of one
+of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its
+very delicate pottery.
+
+Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. Near us the traces
+of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals,
+substantiating my belief that this curious roadway was intended to keep
+the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south
+shores of the lake there were more signs of occupation than on the
+north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of
+the Incas as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of
+one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations of
+the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly
+precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very primitive dwellings
+had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could
+easily be defended. We found among the ruins a few crude potsherds
+and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the
+little hill village to give any indication of Inca origin. Probably
+it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about
+it. If there were traditions concerning it they were well concealed
+by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly
+terraced and cultivated. The tutu potato would grow here, a hardy
+variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable
+for making potato flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its
+bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the
+Peruvians, such as the oca, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the añu,
+a kind of nasturtium, and the ullucu (ullucus tuberosus).
+
+On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good
+repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the time of our
+visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts
+built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs, inhabited by drovers
+and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than
+elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer the sweet water grasses of the
+lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+Viscachas were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They
+are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the "chinchilla" of
+commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared
+from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees them, although
+they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa,
+a region rarely visited by any one on account of treacherous bogs and
+deep tams. Writers sometimes call viscachas "rabbit-squirrels." They
+have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do
+look like a cross between a rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon
+an unusually large herd of wild vicuñas. It included more than one
+hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the
+remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount of hunting that is done
+here. Vicuñas have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for
+their skins. Their silky fleece is even finer than alpaca. The more
+fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts,
+as soft as eider down and of a golden brown color.
+
+After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the
+arrieros to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured
+"Arequipa," and started south. We soon came to the rim of the
+Maraicasa Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the
+south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley is
+well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although
+few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were smooth and
+well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We
+passed through it and, after dark, reached Sondor, a tiny hamlet
+inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the
+darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the owners of a well-thatched hut,
+and told them how "important" we were. They were unwilling to give
+us any shelter, so we were forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky
+and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs,
+dogs, and cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark
+we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and
+wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime, when they
+can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also
+many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion. We had now
+left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into the desert. At
+length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes
+were gladdened at sight of the rich green oasis, a striking contrast
+to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding
+road we passed many fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the
+steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement
+by a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the
+Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers were
+unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a
+tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety. After an
+exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals
+and men were glad enough to leave the high, arid desert and enter
+the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa,
+its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus. The air, pungent with the
+smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of
+"La Victoria." Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates at the
+camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall
+long remember. After two months in the coastal desert it seemed like
+home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain
+had had in bringing his machinery across the plateau from the nearest
+port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on
+muleback each of the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was
+equivalent to the price of a first-class pack mule. As a matter of
+fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs
+are not built to survive the strain of carrying pieces of machinery
+weighing five hundred pounds over a desert plateau up to an altitude of
+4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of
+the canyon, but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep
+trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered,
+piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the obstacles
+with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man
+who designed the machinery ever traveled with a pack train, climbing
+up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am
+sure that he would have made his castings much smaller.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba
+------
+
+
+It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior
+of South America fail to realize that no single piece should be any
+heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on one side. One
+hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even
+a large, strong mule will last only a few days on such trails as
+are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of
+his cargo is over three hundred pounds. When a single piece weighs
+more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the
+animal. Then the load rocks, and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides
+causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a
+matter of expediency it is better to have the individual units weigh
+about seventy-five pounds. Such a weight is easier for the arrieros to
+handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day
+long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as usually happens
+in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair
+load for a man or a llama, two are right for a burro, and three for
+an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at
+"La Victoria," but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant shade
+trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse
+gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were surprised to find
+near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little
+circular or oval huts averaging eight feet in diameter. There was
+no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen
+in the vicinity, yet here had once been a village. It seemed to
+belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of
+the Parinacochas Basin. The road was one of the worst we encountered
+anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among
+huge piles of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered
+with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides men
+and animals.
+
+Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga,
+where we pitched our camps among the most extensive ruins that
+I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one
+hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely together. It gave
+one a strange sensation to find such a very large metropolis in what
+is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was
+strikingly reminiscent of some of the large groups of ruins in our
+own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were
+no terraces in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a
+large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and
+sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses had seats,
+or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained
+two or three small cells, possibly storerooms, with neither doors
+nor windows. We found a number of burial cists--some square, others
+rounded--lined with small cobblestones. In one house, at the foot of
+"cellar stairs" we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance
+to it was covered with a single stone lintel. In examining this
+tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a boba,
+a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth,
+long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled skin. At one
+place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its
+top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely
+carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The dishes must
+have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar,
+probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone war club; and a
+broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding
+corn. Two stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with
+a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled
+sinkers used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times
+larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie down
+roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of
+the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever decoration they once
+had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for
+archeological investigation. Unfortunately, we had heard nothing of
+it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to
+give it. After the first night camp in the midst of the dead city we
+made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it
+was, as a matter of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor
+T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece. We
+wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched
+houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud. Near it we
+encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking
+into town to sell and were willing to dispose of cheaply. The Tejadas
+could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain,
+although the circumstances were suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold
+sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only
+to discover on reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from
+thieves. We were able to clear our arrieros of any complicity in the
+theft. Nevertheless, the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay
+anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We
+spent one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Señor Benavides,
+the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route to
+Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before,
+spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+About three o'clock in the morning--after we had been jogging steadily
+along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of the night, the
+only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight
+an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly visible in the starlight--the
+eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since
+set. Could this be the approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at
+least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding
+the day; "the dawn comes up like thunder." Surely the moon could
+not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly
+brightening eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white
+light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy as
+a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor,
+neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us. It was the morning
+star. For sheer beauty, "divine, enchanting ravishment," Venus that day
+surpassed anything I have ever seen. In the words of the great Eastern
+poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, "the
+morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Titicaca
+
+Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air,
+bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling atmosphere
+dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau,
+surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani (20,000 ft.), El
+Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only
+one nightmare--earthquakes. About twice in a century the spirits of
+the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But
+they shake the bed! And Arequipa rests on their bed. The possibility
+of a "terremoto" is always present in the subconscious mind of the
+Arequipeño.
+
+One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable
+Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently and we heard
+a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To
+the members of the club, however, it meant only one thing--an
+earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded
+with hysterical people, crying, shouting, and running toward the great
+open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on
+their knees in gratitude at having escaped from falling walls, others
+prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls
+had fallen! In the business district a great column of black smoke
+was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs
+that the noise and the trembling had not been due to an earthquake,
+but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline,
+kerosene, dynamite and giant powder!
+
+In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are
+so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that there were
+no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the
+roaring furnace by dipping water from one of the azequias, or canals,
+that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense
+masses of smoke and flame. In any American city such a blaze would
+certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building
+to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter amazement
+the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even
+warm. Such is the result of building houses with massive walls of
+stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently
+no harm was done by sparks. So, without a fire department, this
+really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day
+the newspapers talked about the "dire necessity" of securing fire
+engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine
+could have done. Nothing could have saved the warehouse itself once
+the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have
+suffered more had they been deluged with streams of water. The facts
+are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of course
+that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody
+thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+
+
+A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief
+port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts a soldier's
+monument and a new theater, really a "movie palace." There is a good
+harbor, although dredging is necessary to provide for steamers like
+the Inca. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine--or, rather,
+a lacustrine--railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of totoras,
+giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers
+learned to dry the totoras, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten
+the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the
+sides as a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or balsa. Of
+course the balsas eventually become water-logged and spend a large
+part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so,
+they are not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use
+them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one should
+go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+The balsas are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of
+locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast is an
+A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied
+together and fastened, one to each side of the craft, slightly forward
+of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region--lumber has
+to be brought from Puget Sound, 6000 miles away--so nearly all the
+masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three
+times. To the apex of the "A" is attached a forked stick, over which
+run the halyards. The rectangular "sail" is nothing more nor less
+than a large mat made of rushes. A short forestay fastened to the
+sides of the "A" about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from
+falling when the sail is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of
+a backstay. The balsas cannot beat to windward, but behave very well
+in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the
+boatmen must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard,
+for the water in the lake is cold, 55° F., and none of them know how
+to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during
+the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and near the shore.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati
+------
+
+
+When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very
+small balsa not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting
+the weight of one man. On the other hand, large balsas constructed
+for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the
+lake are capable of carrying a dozen people and their luggage. Once
+I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake
+on a bulrush raft. To give greater security two balsas are sometimes
+fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Señor
+Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic balsas were used in
+bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This
+theory is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much
+higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor
+Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography, have
+not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for
+Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with the ocean.
+
+Nevertheless, Señor Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a
+salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the Andes rose. The
+fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms
+does not bother him. Señor Posnansky pins his faith to a small dried
+seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget
+that dried specimens of marine life, including starfish, are frequently
+offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who
+may be found in almost every market-place. Probably Señor Posnansky's
+seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly enterprising
+trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse
+has actually found its resting-place in La Paz, this does not alter the
+fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine
+fauna in Lake Titicaca. On the other hand, it has two or three kinds
+of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in
+the Rimac River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the
+Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted
+the desirable fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas
+used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners, and that
+"they have records in their quipus of the fish having been brought
+from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues." The
+actual transference of water jars containing the fish would have
+offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea
+happened to appeal to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong
+as Señor Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic
+inland sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually
+surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated with
+respectful skepticism.
+
+Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia,
+is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique among
+prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved
+monolithic images. Although they have suffered from weathering and
+from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed
+human figures. The richly decorated girdles and long tunics are
+carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of
+the designs are undoubtedly symbolic of the rank, achievements,
+or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is
+nothing hieroglyphic. The images are stiff and show no appreciation
+of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never
+had an opportunity to study the human body. In Andean villages, even
+little children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples
+who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia are
+always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to
+seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel, they have
+developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which
+is in striking contrast to people who live on the warm sands of the
+South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human
+body as a motif. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are
+clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was
+observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the taboo against
+"nakedness" was too much for him.
+
+Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to
+Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with
+artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca
+structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves, out of which,
+say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves
+are not large enough for a man to stand upright, but to a people
+who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires
+no stretch of the imagination to believe that those bright disks
+came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated
+with dwellers on the western shore of the lake who would often see
+the sun or moon rise over this island. On an ancient road that runs
+across the island my native guide pointed out the "footprints of the
+sun and moon"--two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant
+resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and
+fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives, in his "Islands
+of Titicaca and Koati," of the degradation and surly character of these
+Indians was not apparent at the time of my short visit in 1915. It is
+quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as
+he did for several months, digging up their ancient places of worship,
+disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting,
+in their minds, the proper balance between wet weather and dry,
+I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish
+treatment such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind
+of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several
+months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The brilliant
+sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air,
+causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come torrential rains. I
+shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the
+steamer encountered a rain squall. The resulting deluge actually
+came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash
+away the soil which the farmers have painfully gathered for field or
+garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the difference
+in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the
+winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely penetrating. Fuel
+is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes,
+and none for artificial heat.
+
+Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some
+barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The principal
+crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried,
+becomes the insipid chuño, chief reliance of the poorer families. The
+Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast
+has long since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern
+fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in
+shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from one to
+three inches. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of
+maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double
+its size and productiveness.
+
+Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the
+elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause acute
+hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the
+Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently appears to be sullen
+and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for
+being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted. Those fortunate Polynesians
+are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim,
+trees from which delicious food can always be obtained, and cocoanuts
+from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not
+develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably
+good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration of the
+large, reëntrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one
+within the other. Small ornamental niches are used to break the space
+between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle
+containing them. Also unusual are the niches between the doorways,
+made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first
+glance as though this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal
+cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is
+a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the step-shaped
+design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one
+finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly for ornamental or
+ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man;
+others are in miniature. Frequently the steps were cut into the sacred
+boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca
+architect, accustomed to the stairway motif, to have conceived these
+curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them,
+even if he had never seen any representation of a Papal cross, or a
+cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested
+a striking resemblance which the sedilia-like niches bear to Arabic
+or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the
+Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped arch is distinctly Oriental
+in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of
+a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a slight
+depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is
+open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and the wonderful
+snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than
+17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks of surpassing beauty
+culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the
+sun and moon, who came to the sacred islands for some of their most
+elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries,
+rising over the majestic snow mountains, their glories reflected in the
+shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such
+occasions the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may
+imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the colors
+of "rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning," their ceremonial
+formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated walls of
+the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had
+special stations in front of the large, step-topped niches. One may
+be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able
+to manufacture exquisite textiles, and who loved to decorate their
+garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no
+opportunity for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great
+annual pageant is still staged every August. Although at present
+connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous
+image of the "Virgin of Copacabana," this vivid spectacle, the
+most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the
+dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested and corresponds to
+our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front
+of a large, bizarre church. During the first ten days in August
+there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and
+near. Everything dear to the heart of the Aymara Indian is offered
+for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders,
+usually women, sit in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone
+pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive
+umbrellas, consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo
+frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped corn;
+in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear
+of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated high-laced
+boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row
+are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another is devoted to such
+trinkets as one might expect to find in a "needle-and-thread" shop at
+home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers with scores of bamboo flutes
+varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with
+piles of freshly made native felts, warranted to last for at least a
+year; and vendors of aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us
+from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among
+Inca ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive
+pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although the modern
+Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to
+adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not only easier to secure,
+but produce more striking results.
+
+As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly
+exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of the plaza,
+bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain--locks, keys,
+spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other "wooden nutmegs."
+
+At the tables of the "money-changers," just outside of the
+sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk
+business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or the
+unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and
+appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know all the tricks
+of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence
+of various Aymara secret societies, whose members, wearing repulsive
+masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be
+invented by primitive imaginations. Each society has its own uniform,
+made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf,
+gaudy textiles, magnificent epaulets bearing large golden stars on a
+background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored glass;
+tinted "ostrich" plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen
+inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy ribbons, beruffled
+bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange
+costumes are actually reminiscent of the sixteenth century. The wearers
+are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums,
+and rattles, or other noise-makers. The result is an indescribable
+hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor
+and unmusical noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is
+bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels,
+their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number of
+tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings
+resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many wore colored
+goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo
+flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned in the din of big bass
+drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a
+placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in the most tawdry manner with gewgaws
+from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on
+a rustic syrinx or Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of
+bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes
+disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary barriers
+are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their
+doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of pleasure-seekers,
+well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are
+ready to run helter-skelter in every direction should the bull take
+it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There
+are no picadors, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no
+banderilleros, with barbed darts; no heroic matador, ready with shining
+blade to give a mad and weary bull the coup de grace. Here all is fun
+and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or
+drunken Aymaras, who prod him with sticks and shake bright ponchos
+in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty
+scattering of some spectators, amid shrieks of delight from everybody
+else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is
+no chance of a bull being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of
+our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage
+was let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the
+crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that he could
+not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He
+galloped madly after any individual who crossed the plaza. Five or
+six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done,
+and every one had an uproariously good time.
+
+Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and
+pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is not
+pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired
+in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles, blowing mightily with
+puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders
+
+In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills
+of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of alpacas thrive on
+the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here
+wool-buyers come to bid for the clip. The high prices which alpaca
+fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned
+in southern Peru for their weight and texture, are made here on hand
+looms. Notwithstanding the altitude--nearly as great as the top of
+Pike's Peak--the stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous,
+and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas
+are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally attached to
+their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I
+attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance to secure the skin and skeleton
+of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known
+and spoke the Quichua language fluently. He offered a good price and
+obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and bones
+of one of their "camels" for shipment; but they never did. Apparently
+they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and none happened to die
+at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters,
+as horses often do. On the other hand I have never seen a llama kick
+or bite at his owner.
+
+The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South
+America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards in all parts of
+Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it
+to walk easily on slopes too rough or steep for even a nimble-footed,
+mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet,
+due to its ability to sneeze or spit for a considerable distance
+a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's
+Circus came to town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose
+supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size--they are
+only three feet high at the shoulder
+
+tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt
+that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight and the
+result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing
+their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces. Curiously enough,
+in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have
+never seen a llama so attack a single human being. On the other hand,
+when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicuña which was
+perfectly willing to sneeze straight at any stranger who came within
+twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing more annoying than
+scientific curiosity. The vicuña is the smallest American "camel,"
+yet its long, slender neck, small head, long legs, and small body,
+from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an
+ostrich than a camel.
+
+In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which
+have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects of respect and
+veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the
+tree line, but the presence of these trees at Santa Rosa would seem
+to show that the use of the words "tree line" is a misnomer in the
+Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception
+of the coastal deserts, was once well covered with forests. When man
+first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields,
+and glaciers was covered with forest growth. Although many districts
+are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient
+to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample fertility of
+soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts
+of forests which I found growing alongside of glaciers at very high
+elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha,
+has been accurately determined by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet
+above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls
+and precipices, so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests
+are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation
+with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces
+in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong to many
+different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have
+this striking peculiarity--when cut down they sprout readily from
+the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable
+evidence of the fact that the primeval forests of Peru were long ago
+cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a
+picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes hanging
+each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite
+otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells, "out of tune with
+themselves," or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The
+resulting clangor and din is unforgettable. I presume the Chinese would
+say it was intended to drive away the devils--and surely such noise
+must be "thoroughly uncongenial even to the most irreclaimable devil,"
+as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells
+in the United States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended
+to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing
+inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once in a while
+one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in
+Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament is being administered
+to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this
+part of the world seems to be to make the greatest possible amount
+of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by
+firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices which again
+remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental
+fondness for making a noise which is found in all healthy children.
+
+On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with
+Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely of
+chicha, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was
+remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of laughter
+and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation,
+and sociability. On week days, most of them, even the smaller boys,
+are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool
+brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes finds the mountain
+Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with chicha,
+and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so
+these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani
+------
+
+
+To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry
+native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the plaza, did not
+enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward,
+very much interested in my endeavors. Some of the Indian alcaldes,
+local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials
+for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful and, armed with
+their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the
+shy, retiring women of the market-place to stand in a frightened,
+disgruntled, barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed
+in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy
+woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were reversible
+"pancake" hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with
+coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather side with tinsel and
+velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung
+down on both sides. It is said that the first Inca ordered the dresses
+of each village to be different, so that his officials might know
+to which tribe an Indian belonged. It was only with great difficulty
+and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the gobernador
+or mayor, and the alcaldes that a dozen very reluctant females
+were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their
+faces was very eloquent. Some were highly indignant, others looked
+foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not
+knowing what evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence
+of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that
+was the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact,
+some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken that
+they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they
+seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were large felt
+hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky
+wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen ponchos, decorated with
+bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and
+ankle, a convenient style for herdsmen who have to walk in the long,
+dewy grasses of the plateau. These "high-water" pantaloons do not
+look badly when worn with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since
+this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots,
+which did not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced
+a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far
+less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require less attention
+and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also
+be securely bolted to the rafters. On this wind-swept plateau we
+frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes
+passed over the house and weights resting on the roof. Sometimes to
+the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of
+animals--probably to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes
+do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed
+very efficacious.
+
+On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level
+that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular raindrop
+will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic
+Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad station of Araranca
+flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the
+sources of the Urubamba River, an important affluent of the Ucayali
+and also of the Amazon, but I never have heard it referred to as
+"the source of the Amazon" except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain
+Blank, whose moving picture entertainment bore the alluring title,
+"From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon." As most of his pictures
+of wild animals "in the jungle" looked as though they were taken in
+the zoölogical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly hacienda at Santa Ana, less
+than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure
+him for giving this particular little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on
+its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of as the Vilcanota,
+a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks
+of the cordillera in this vicinity. The lower portion was called by
+the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an
+interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide the
+Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca
+Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by the owners of
+grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the
+valley and up the neighboring slopes to the cliffs of the Cordillera
+Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall
+are the ruins of ancient houses, possibly once occupied by an Inca
+garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of
+careful masonry. It seems to me likely that it was a hastily thrown-up
+fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any
+permanent affair like the Roman wall of North Britain or the Great Wall
+of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between
+the peoples of the Titicaca Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco
+valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,
+[3] one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui,
+Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800
+A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and east, laying
+waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian
+migrations which appear to have continued for some time. During
+these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with
+so much care and difficulty during the preceding twenty centuries,
+was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike,
+ruler of a people whose great achievements had been agricultural
+rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests;
+they told him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow
+a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the
+strategic points and make preparations for defense. The invaders
+may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred
+on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual exhaustion of forested
+areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great
+pampas. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up
+into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were "fleeing from a race of giants"--possibly Patagonians
+or Araucanians--who had expelled them from their own lands. On their
+journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious
+that a great readjustment of the aborigines was in progress. The
+governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not
+able to summon enough strength to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled
+the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the
+approach of the enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true,
+this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago,
+by the chiefs who were told to "fortify the strategic points."
+
+Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway from the Titicaca
+Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the
+key to the situation. It is probable that Pachacuti VI drew up his
+army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings,
+the weapon most familiar to the highland shepherds. The invaders,
+however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more
+difficult to see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried
+over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that
+only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded, they fled to
+"Tampu-tocco," a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they
+hid the precious body of their ruler. Most writers believe this to
+be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved
+rock. There is no place in Peru to-day which still bears the name
+of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which
+do exist, and whose modern names are not found in the early Spanish
+writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to
+Peru, as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Potato-field at La Raya
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya
+------
+
+
+Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas,
+numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of herdsmen. The
+Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the
+manufacture of textiles--shawls, girdles, ponchos, and blankets--on
+hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending
+flocks or walking along the road they are always winding or spinning
+yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The
+younger children, used as shepherds as soon as they reach the
+age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch
+their charges. Some of them were accompanied by long-haired suncca
+shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to
+barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the sunccas, as well
+as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them
+showed any desire to make the acquaintance of "Checkers," my faithful
+Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that
+"Checkers" could understand English. They had never seen a dog that
+could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited
+a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet, a record
+altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato
+field on the high slopes near here, it is the custom of the Indians to
+mark it off into squares, by "furrows" about fifteen feet apart. The
+Quichuas commence their task soon after daybreak. Due to the absence
+of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold
+before dawn, their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock,
+at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more
+of Indians who were engaged in "ploughing" a potato field. Although
+he was dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and
+intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any
+except the implements of their ancestors. The process of "ploughing"
+this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries,
+probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The men, working in unison
+and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or "foot plough,"
+to the handle of which footholds were lashed, would, at a signal, leap
+forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing
+each pair of men was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the
+clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to
+secure greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as
+usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls over
+their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was
+lightened by the joyous contact of community activity. Every one worked
+with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to
+keep up with the procession. Those who fell behind were subjected to
+good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though
+it appears to require a strong directing hand. The "boss" was right
+there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for
+individual effort. Private property was not understood. Everything
+belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the priests,
+the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we
+should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything was done in
+common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the
+crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas to go forth in huge
+family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village
+gossip and choral singing, interspersed at regular intervals with
+rest periods, in which quantities of chicha quenched the thirst and
+cheered the mind.
+
+Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a
+score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of sheaves of wheat or
+barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the
+other in a parallel line, engaged in ploughing synchronously small
+portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit
+Lima and sometimes go to Paris and New York, where they purchase
+for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are
+still cultivated in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the
+conquistadores, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive
+pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant,
+almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima, is cañihua,
+a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit
+in April. The threshing floor for cañihua is a large blanket laid
+on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail
+applied, the blanket serving to prevent the small grayish seeds from
+escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European origin and has
+probably not changed for centuries.
+
+We noticed also quinoa and even barley growing at an elevation of
+14,000 feet. Quinoa is another species of pigweed. It often attains
+a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The
+white-seeded variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared
+with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article,
+both for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being
+cooked and "do not appear so slimy as oatmeal." Other varieties of
+quinoa are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water
+being frequently changed. The growing quinoa presents an attractive
+appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation,
+both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers of old
+terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them
+growing high up on the mountain side in what are called temporales,
+where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or
+cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some kind of a crop
+in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani,
+we saw fields where habas beans had been gathered and the dried stalks
+piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the pampa where oca grows,
+we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by
+were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary use of night
+watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the roadside were different
+in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin
+or even of Santa Rosa, which is not far away. They were typical
+Quichuas--peaceful agriculturists--usually spinning wool on the
+little hand spindles which have been used in the Andes from time
+immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with
+coarse grass.
+
+The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray
+hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men in certain
+localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or
+lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem to be more enduring
+than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved
+teeth was everywhere noteworthy except on sugar plantations, where
+there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled
+from cakes or mixed with parched corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same
+as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be limited to
+face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the
+other hand, a large proportion of the Indians are pock-marked and
+show the effects of living in a country which is "free from medical
+tyranny." There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether
+this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack of
+fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander
+has made the best use he could of the llama, he was never able to
+develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for
+loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently, for
+the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As
+a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr. Ferris that while
+his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back
+muscles stronger, and the calves of his legs larger and more powerful
+than those of almost any other race.
+
+The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian
+joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony with
+each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by
+the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times. In any event,
+this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to
+undergraduates at the beginning of the college year. As a matter of
+fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In
+testing the hand grip of the Quichuas by a dynamometer our surgeons
+found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the
+Quichua and the maximum grip was weak in both sexes, the average
+for the man being only about half of that found among American white
+adults of sedentary habits.
+
+Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North
+and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and
+South America are perhaps due to their environmental history during
+the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American
+Museum of Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological
+fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions of
+Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at
+very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to that with which
+they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the
+inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions of southern Peru, living in
+towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the
+sea, have physical peculiarities closely resembling those living at
+sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says
+the Labrador Eskimo and the Quichua constitute the two "best-known
+short-stature races on the American continent."
+
+So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one
+quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which have children
+the average number is three or four. Large families are not common,
+although we generally learned that the living children in a family
+usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant
+mortality is very great. The proper feeding of children is not
+understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In
+fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are those of the
+throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded
+of all local diseases. It is really terrifying. Due to the rarity
+of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually
+fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so at 11,000 feet. Patients are
+frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common,
+its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living conditions practiced
+among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is
+not tightly closed and protected against any possible intrusion of
+fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the
+natives to use huts of thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight
+hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of
+course, there are no "boards of health," nor are the people bothered by
+being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water supplies
+are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid
+drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat quantities of soup.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche
+------
+
+
+In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and
+the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and lowland maize
+fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native "druggists"
+were present. Their stock usually consisted of "medicines," whose
+efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds
+of simples and curiosities, cure-alls, and specifics. Fully half
+were reported to me as being "useful against fresh air" or the evil
+effects of drafts. The "medicines" included such minerals as iron
+ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the
+leaves of plants domesticated hundreds of years ago by the Incas or
+gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and
+such animals as starfish brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them
+were really useful herbs, while others have only a psychopathic effect
+on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored
+woolen bag. The bags, differing in design and color, woven on miniature
+hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts
+turned over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the
+remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described by
+Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row
+of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet high! Closer
+inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of
+a great temple. The wall is pierced with large doors and the spaces
+between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at
+the bottom. There are small holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The
+base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The
+ashlars are beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly
+squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive,
+but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence that the builders
+did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time
+plastered with clay, a very significant fact. The builders wanted the
+wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay
+wall rested on the ground, floods and erosion might have succeeded
+in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built
+foundation of solid masonry. Even so, the great wall does not stand
+absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also
+seems to be less weathered on the west side. Probably the prevailing
+or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty
+feet high--a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture. It also
+is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now
+standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were to be seen,
+but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double
+row of these columns to support the stringers and tiebeams of the
+roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column
+and the other end was embedded in the main wall. The holes where the
+tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also
+unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall, decorated with
+large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of
+adobe, while the upper third is of rough, uncut stones. It looks very
+odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several
+cases the plastered walls are still standing, in fairly good condition,
+particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the
+temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly disintegrating,
+as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so
+long in a rainy region without any roof or protecting cover. It is
+incredible that for at least five hundred years a wall of sun-dried
+clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels,
+made of hard-wood timbers and partially embedded in the wall, are all
+gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out
+whether the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If
+so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to
+resist weathering. The factors which have caused this extraordinary
+adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for
+so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy rains of each summer
+season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship
+of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive
+folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity of the place,
+the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry
+of the neighboring village is still the manufacture of pottery. No
+better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to
+have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so much perhaps
+out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend
+off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well known that the best pottery
+of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are
+well aware of the uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck
+seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are
+taken. Might it not have been possible that the people who were most
+concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple to insure
+success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple
+is a small modern church with two towers. The churchyard appears to be
+a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use
+the church to pray for success in their baking, just as the ancient
+potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are
+composed partly of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It
+occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the clay
+beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The
+temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering to the god
+of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send
+the lava flow might be appeased. It may be that the Inca Viracocha,
+an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and
+was responsible for building the temple. If so, it would be natural
+for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped
+his memory.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912
+------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Valley of the Huatanay
+
+The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the
+Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land located under
+climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the
+ancient Peruvians. Containing an area estimated at less than 160 square
+miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has
+ever seen. It is still intensively cultivated, the home of a large
+percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself
+sometimes meanders through the valley in a natural manner, but at
+other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls
+constructed by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields
+from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold is
+unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season,
+in June and July, and frost may occur any night in the year above
+13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither
+warm nor cold.
+
+This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to
+soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor of
+the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may
+occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on their way to and
+from town. Although mules are essentially the most reliable saddle
+animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses,
+which are larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better
+gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated saddle,
+over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable
+stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood decorated with silver
+bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered
+necessary and is usually decorated with a broad, embossed panel,
+from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The
+bridle is usually made of carefully braided leather, decorated with
+silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or
+blinder, to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade,
+which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely, is more
+useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the
+basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs near Oropesa
+divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura,
+or "the narrows," is the natural gateway between the Oropesa Basin and
+the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre
+Basin the most interesting are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which
+leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca (Rumi =
+"stone"; ccolca = "granary"). It is commonly supposed that this was
+an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those
+of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred to as a "fortaleza." The
+major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay,
+while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully cut andesite
+ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some
+great chieftain built the rough wall in the days when the highlands
+were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one
+of the Incas, no longer needing any fortifications between the Huatanay
+Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built
+a fine gateway. The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except
+for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the
+ancient masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting
+the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention of the
+stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In
+one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu I noticed similar
+bosses. The name "Stone-granary" was probably originally applied to
+a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient
+terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca, on the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called
+Piquillacta. A large number of its houses have extraordinarily high
+walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south,
+was obviously built to protect it from enemies approaching from the
+Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the slopes are so steep as
+to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava
+rock, with which the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and
+thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich
+enough to attract the attention of agriculturists, who come here from
+neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the
+city are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat
+and barley are the principal crops.
+
+As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient
+Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called Rumiccolca is
+figured in Squier's "Peru" as "Piquillacta." On the other hand,
+the ruins of the large city, "covering thickly an area nearly a
+square mile," are called by Squier "the great Inca town of Muyna,"
+a name also applied to the little lake which lies in the bottom of
+the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw
+Mt. Piquillacta first, then the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the
+ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous,
+harmless, natural phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by
+those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta
+------
+
+
+Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who
+has a country place in the neighborhood and is very familiar with this
+region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From
+him I learned that the city ruins are called Piquillacta, the name
+which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward
+of the ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near
+Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently,
+it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction to
+give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the
+lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. Piqui means "flea";
+llacta means "town, city, country, district, or territory." Was this
+"The Territory of the Fleas" or was it "Flea Town"? And what was its
+name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it
+was considered unlucky?
+
+Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have
+here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca, long since
+abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out
+in regular fashion, the streets crossing each other at right angles,
+the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town
+of Ollantaytambo. Not a soul lives here. It is true that across the
+Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating
+in Mt. Ausangate, the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta
+is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly
+settled valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important
+Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely
+populated valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city
+in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius of
+twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is on the increase. It
+is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the
+railroad. Yet it is "abandonado--desierto--despoblado"! Undoubtedly
+here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its
+being abandoned appears to be the absence of running water. Although
+Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles
+wide, rising to a point of 2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota
+rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated,
+extinct volcano surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites,
+and basalts.
+
+How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built
+on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams? Has the
+climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the
+surrounding region is still the populous part of southern Peru? It is
+inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied
+on a plateau four hundred feet above the nearest water unless there
+was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing
+every drop up the hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there
+were no places near here better provided with water than this site,
+one could understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to
+depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running
+streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling problem
+I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are
+usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+Squier says that this "fortress" was "the southern limit of the
+dominions of the first Inca." "The fortress reaches from the mountain,
+on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly
+called 'El Aqueducto,' perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an
+aqueduct--but the name is evidently misapplied." Yet he admits that the
+cross-section of the wall, diminishing as it does "by graduations or
+steps on both sides," "might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification" if it occupied
+"a different position." He noticed that "the top of the wall is
+throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches
+the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately in thickness"
+as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the "fortress"
+idea that he rejected not only local tradition as expressed in the
+native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own
+eyes. It seems to me that there is little doubt that instead of the
+ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the
+remains of an ancient azequia, or aqueduct, built by some powerful
+chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which
+rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water power
+for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such
+an azequia. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet,
+could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road,
+on this aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would
+have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes
+of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their upper limit
+corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an azequia would
+have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside
+which looks as though an azequia had once passed that way. In the
+valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old azequias. There
+has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills,
+and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been out of order for
+several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have
+disappeared in places. I regret very much that circumstances over
+which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the
+possibilities of such a theory. It remains for some fortunate future
+investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta,
+how they secured their water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca
+------
+
+
+Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at
+Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its chiefs and people
+cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community
+they were a separate political entity from the people of Cuzco;
+that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became
+sufficiently powerful to conquer the people of the Lucre Basin, and
+removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of
+his domain, a system of colonization well known in the history of the
+Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta
+departed, no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the
+site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe that
+at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses,
+unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have been considered not
+desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed
+city had there been plenty of water available. In any case, the ruins
+of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon,
+a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above the
+village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses
+of characteristic Inca construction, containing many symmetrically
+arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses
+are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon was probably the residence
+of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant
+view of the village and of the hills to the south, which to-day
+are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a
+nicely constructed fountain of cut stone. Some of the terraces are
+extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly
+together. Access from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made
+each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces
+are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi. No one lives at
+Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the
+neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists to live
+at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom,
+than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow valley and occupy the
+old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here
+rather than in the open plain.
+
+While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive
+potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President of the
+University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above
+Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence of a fortification
+near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable
+and happy by the generous hospitality of Dr. Aguilar, whose finca
+is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of
+the valley.
+
+From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening
+in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern town of San
+Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just
+beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score or more of gable-roofed
+houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings
+have doors, windows, and niches in walls of small stones laid in clay,
+the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name
+of these ruins we were told that it was Saylla, although that is
+the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay,
+in the Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water
+supply at present. It is not far from a stream called the Kkaira
+and could easily have been supplied with water by an azequia less
+than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It
+looks very much like the case of a village originally placed on the
+hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later
+abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages of living near
+the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had
+established peace over the highlands. There may be another explanation.
+
+It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco
+Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage on unterraced
+slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides
+are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous
+feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material from its
+slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the
+village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory noticed that the streams
+traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by
+"transporting gravel from the head of the fan to its lower margin,"
+and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed
+in between the Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as
+fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old
+Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned when the rule
+of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand,
+it seems more likely that the people who built Saylla were farmers
+and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation,
+due to increased erosion, they abandoned this site for one nearer the
+arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural
+residents of these ancient houses saw their beautiful fields at the
+bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous
+quantities of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol
+after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of
+fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of
+San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students of agriculture
+will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading
+gravel banks probably drove the folk out of Saylla.
+
+The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking
+peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point, is
+connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals
+and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay Valley is
+much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to
+Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little peaks are frequently
+snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in
+the Huatanay Valley.
+
+The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no
+native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia. Firewood is
+scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only trees in
+sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of
+eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has been thought of and written
+of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence
+of trees on the neighboring hills is due entirely to the hand of man,
+the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who
+cleared the forests before the days of intensive terrace agriculture,
+and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of
+Cuzco do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm
+and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for cooking
+purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought
+into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we
+saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged and many of
+the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding
+and the failure to improve the original stock by the introduction of
+new and superior strains.
+
+When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the
+hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat land near the
+Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed
+a concentration of population very unusual in the Andes. Most of the
+important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in
+the immediate vicinity of Cuzco itself or on the "pampas" north of the
+city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato
+cultivation could be carried out are nearly all in this quadrant. In
+the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads
+directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a picturesque ruin which bears
+the native name of Pucará.
+
+Pucará is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance
+at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification to
+realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of
+irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage was taken of small
+cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We
+noticed openings or drains which had been cut in the wall by the
+original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on
+the terraced floor of the enclosed area, which is several feet above
+that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in
+many of the old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient
+folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucará is occupied by llama herdsmen and
+drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral. Probably
+Pucará was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who
+raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas and alpacas on the
+neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucará, is
+a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut stone. Near by
+are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall
+containing four large, ceremonial niches, level with the ground and
+about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de
+Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family
+of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among
+these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the "hot springs" near Tambo
+Machai, "called so from the manner in which the water boils up." The
+next huaca, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself,
+"a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he
+went to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the
+Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children."
+
+The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the
+ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly assume
+a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word macchini means
+"to wash" or "to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher." It may be
+that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils devoted to
+royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is
+the place where, according to Molina, all the youths of Cuzco who had
+been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st
+day of the month to bathe and change their clothes. Afterwards they
+returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. "Each relation
+that offered a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to
+him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the Sun
+and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors."
+
+Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca,
+a small stream which finally joins the Huatanay near the town of San
+Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the
+Cachimayo, famous as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have
+caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named
+the place Las Salinas, or "the Salt Pits," on account of the salt
+pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had
+filled the Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which
+took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro and
+Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of
+Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory. Near the salt
+pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches,
+called Rumihuasi, or "Stone House." The presence of salt in many of
+the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance
+to our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in
+districts where the only water available was so saline as to spoil
+it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, "an ancient
+water-body whose surface," says Professor Gregory, "lay well above
+the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo." This lake is
+believed to have reached its maximum expansion in early Pleistocene
+times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, habas beans,
+and quinoa, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively
+cultivated. It has been named "Lake Morkill" in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq.,
+without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian
+explorations as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill
+fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine
+materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons grazed
+on its banks. "Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly
+all of the glacial epoch." Its drainage was finally accomplished
+by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and
+developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of
+Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by
+the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which may be found
+potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the
+Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost third of Cuzco from
+the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for
+gardens and food crops. Here the hospitable Canadian missionaries have
+their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco quebrada,
+an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote
+and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight of several
+bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel
+banks of the little gulch. Further examination showed that recent
+erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished
+stones more or less carefully fitted together, which at first sight
+appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that
+side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and flush with its surface
+the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that
+the wall antedated the gravel deposits. Fifty feet farther up the
+quebrada another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On
+top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging in
+the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the
+field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that the wall was
+about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on
+both sides with roughly cut stone and filled in with rubble, a type
+of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older
+buildings in the western part of the city of Cuzco.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada
+------
+
+
+Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man,
+was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by a compact
+water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand,
+yet a few days later, while endeavoring to solve the puzzle,
+I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the
+gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to the compact, perpendicular
+gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like
+one of the small rocks which are freely interspersed throughout the
+gravels here. Closer examination showed it to be the end of a human
+femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank,
+which rose almost perpendicularly for seventy or eighty feet above
+it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be
+true that here, in the heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried
+under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it
+until I could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the
+naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the Ayahuaycco
+quebrada. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of
+a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and
+broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although the
+gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery,
+ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel Central,
+where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline,
+packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought to New Haven. Here
+they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in
+the Peabody Museum. In the meantime Dr. Bowman had become convinced
+that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised
+to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a careful
+examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments
+which were excavated by us on July 11th failed to reveal this
+particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon being questioned, said that he had
+dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation
+of July 11th and had added these to the original lot. Presumably
+this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were
+packed. It did not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his
+interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care
+if we had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that
+the age of the vertebrate remains might be "provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years," until further studies could be made of
+the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article on the buried
+wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that "the wall is pre-Inca,
+that its relations to alluvial deposits which cover it indicate its
+erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed,
+and that it represents the earliest type of architecture at present
+known in the Cuzco basin."
+
+Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight
+of them were fragments of human bones representing at least three
+individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone
+of a dog, and three were "bovine remains." The human remains agreed
+"in all essential respects" with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama
+and dog might all have belonged to Inca, or even more recent times,
+but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three
+fragments were from bones which "are among the least characteristic
+parts of the skeleton." That which was of greatest interest was the
+fragment of a first rib, resembling the first rib of the extinct
+bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently
+characteristic of bisons and not seen in the domestic cattle of the
+United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied "that
+the material examined suggests the possibility that some species
+of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance
+with conservative methods to differentiate bison from domestic cattle
+solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small
+number of individuals." Although staunchly supporting his theory of
+the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on their
+geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the
+fact that the bovine remains were not sharply differentiated from the
+bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that "the bluff
+in which the bones were found may be faced by younger gravel and that
+the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods
+of partial valley filling, ... although it still seems very unlikely."
+
+Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely
+separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation, however,
+has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable
+to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary character of the
+skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could
+be drawn from the characters of the human skeletal parts, and the
+suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels
+which contained the bones might be of a later origin than he thought,
+we determined to make further and more complete investigations in
+1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all
+skepticism. I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study
+of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if
+it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the same
+skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he
+was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions. Accordingly, I
+believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent
+testimony would give great weight to those conclusions should he
+find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay
+Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague, Professor Gregory, to make the
+necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay
+Valley was prepared under the direction of Chief Topographer Albert
+H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru,
+was invited to accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern
+Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the
+Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took the bones
+in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had
+been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald dug a tunnel eleven
+feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into
+the solid mass of gravel. He expected to have to use timbering, but
+so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. No bones
+or artifacts were found--nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture
+and containing no unmistakable evidences of stratification. Apparently
+the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact
+gravel mass.
+
+In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the
+conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been repeatedly
+buried and reëxcavated many times during the past few centuries. He
+found evidence indicating periodic destruction and rebuilding of some
+gravel terraces, "even within the past one hundred years." Accordingly
+there was no longer any necessity to ascribe great antiquity to the
+bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco quebrada. Although
+the "Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent
+and thickness in late Pleistocene times," more recent deposits have,
+however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. "Surface
+wash from the bordering slopes, controlled in amount and character by
+climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since
+glacial times, and has greatly increased since human occupation
+began." "Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of
+years as the age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels."
+
+But how about the "bison"? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton
+examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals offered for sale
+in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the "bison"
+was a Peruvian domestic ox. "Under the life-conditions prevailing in
+this part of the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased
+action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed
+in bison." Such was the sad end of the "bison" and the "Cuzco man,"
+who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and
+now believe to have been two hundred years old, perhaps. The word
+Ayahuaycco in Quichua means "the valley of dead bodies" or "dead
+man's gulch." There is a story that it was used as a burial place
+for plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Oldest City in South America
+
+Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since
+Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably since my own
+first impressions of it were published in "Across South America." To
+be sure, there are still the evidences of antiquity to be seen on
+every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences
+of advancement. Telephones, electric lights, street cars, and the
+"movies" have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern
+traveler finds fault with some of the conditions he encounters he
+must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient
+Cuzco are not yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever
+been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is
+steadily progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was
+completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nuñez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old
+cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade of the
+citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is
+crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of the food-stuffs
+and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently
+thronged with Indians, buying and selling, arguing and jabbering,
+it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source
+of entertainment to one who is fond of the picturesque and interested
+in strange manners and customs.
+
+The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of
+congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats; in
+another those who sell coca. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly
+all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their
+light seems to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are
+operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and
+patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those who specialize in
+everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the arriero:
+richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye
+from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry his coca or
+other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide
+lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond hitch than
+to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey,
+and candles to be burned before his patron saint as he starts for some
+distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Map of Peru and view of Cuzco
+
+From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578.
+------
+
+
+In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the
+streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure anthropometric
+measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up
+a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His subjects were the unwilling
+victims of friendly gendarmes who went out into the streets with
+orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most
+of the Indians showed no resentment and were in the end pleased and
+surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin
+as compensation for loss of time.
+
+One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's
+subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but this was
+not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than
+from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo, and Maras. This
+may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place,
+the gendarmes may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant
+villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk
+were presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their
+business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation which the
+gendarmes could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably
+true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than those
+of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two
+or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore, the attention
+of the gendarmes might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly
+caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city
+fashions do not prevail, than to those who through long residence
+in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of
+the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day a large
+proportion of the individuals whom one sees in the streets appears
+to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are
+visitors from outlying villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most
+densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua
+ancestry. The Spanish conquistadores did not bring European women
+with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed
+of such an extraordinary mixture of peoples from Europe and northern
+Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians,
+Berbers, and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy
+toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for
+centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with results which
+are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once
+200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods of transportation
+it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559,
+there were, according to Montesinos, only 20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street
+cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed Cuzceños
+past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The
+driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous application of his
+brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of
+quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged in bringing small sacks of
+potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built
+of stones taken from ancient Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which
+left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a
+bill-board advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the
+2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote
+Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos with broad fringes,
+brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled
+tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume whose design shows no trace
+of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors
+was a barefooted Cuzco urchin clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap,
+coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses
+built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls which
+themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons
+centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone wires intercept
+one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now
+part of the University of Cuzco. It is built of reddish basalt from
+the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor
+Gregory says that this Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity
+of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately
+carved stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical
+architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense
+diorite which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers
+far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions gives
+to the Jesuit Church an atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of
+the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit
+teachers long before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with
+concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the
+shouts of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is
+teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, "Mens sana in corpore sano."
+
+Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the
+political capital of the most important department in southern Peru,
+it had in 1911 only one hospital--a semi-public, non-sectarian
+organization on the west of the city, next door to the largest
+cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and
+so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and the more
+prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the
+patients have to look at. The building has large courtyards and open
+colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to
+take advantage of open-air treatment. At the time of Surgeon Erving's
+visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows
+were small and practically always closed and shuttered, so that the
+atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly
+imagine a stronger contrast than exists between such wards and those
+to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum
+of sunlight and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to
+sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was
+no resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the
+hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to
+the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects of sunlight
+and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality
+and a very poor local reputation; yet it is the only hospital in the
+Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was
+no provision for caring for the sick except in their own homes. In
+the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs
+may be obtained, but in the great majority of towns and villages
+no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke,
+of the University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco
+------
+
+
+On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the
+interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived Carlos Inca,
+a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded
+in maintaining a precarious existence in the wilds of the Cordillera
+Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata
+is still preserved one of the most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to
+be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine
+palace, or whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty
+to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a
+merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once a banker, an exporter
+of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of
+every description, including pencils and sugar mills, lumber and hats,
+candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture
+as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas. Furthermore, he
+has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his
+large business to assist our expeditions. He has frequently brought
+us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters
+of introduction, so that our paths were made easy. He has provided us
+with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy
+muleteers, seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases
+of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal,
+just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying clients. As
+a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation
+for the many favors he showed us. So important a factor was he in
+the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully
+remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It
+is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making more exertion
+than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to
+reach the famous "fortress" is by following the course of the little
+Tullumayu, "Feeble Stream," the easternmost of the three canalized
+streams which divide Cuzco into four parts. On its banks one first
+passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the
+remains of an old mill. The stone flume and the adjoining ruins
+are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas,
+but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not
+understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is hardly likely
+that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally,
+careful examination of the flume discloses the presence of lead cement,
+a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive
+megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in
+"Across South America." Here the ancient builders constructed three
+great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile
+across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest terrace of the
+"fortress" is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten
+tons and some weigh more than twenty tons, yet all are fitted together
+with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each
+time it invariably overwhelms and astounds. To a superstitious Indian
+who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been
+built by gods.
+
+About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial
+hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be composed
+entirely of gray-blue rock chips--chips from the great limestone blocks
+quarried here for the "fortress" and later conveyed with the utmost
+pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless
+thousands of quarrymen. Even in modern times, with steam drills,
+explosives, steel tools, and light railways, these hills would
+be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these
+mechanical devices were known to the ancient stonemasons and that
+these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all
+carried from the quarries by hand, it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of
+human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization. That
+thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural
+pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract the blocks
+from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them
+several miles over rough country, and bond them together in such an
+intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability
+to organize and arrange the affairs of a very large population. Such
+a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for
+warfare. Their building operations required infinite pains, endless
+time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called
+forth, even by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing
+to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily
+agriculturists. They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying
+on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It
+seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance with
+their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose
+that a people to whom stone-faced terraces meant so much in the way
+of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of
+Cyclopean character, like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity
+who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more
+likely object for the gigantic labor involved in the construction
+of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally
+strong defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop
+back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in an
+infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of
+individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out
+of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been caused by the
+supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient
+Peruvians were religious rather than warlike, more inclined to worship
+the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire
+to please, at whatever cost, the god that fructified the crops which
+grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors,
+warriors themselves and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting
+race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military
+use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value of its salients
+and reëntrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had
+been only recently acquired by their crusading ancestors. The height
+and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest
+service to the soldiers of that day. They saw that it was virtually
+impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact,
+in the wars of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry
+into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians,
+who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery, did
+not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the
+fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with. So natural did it
+seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress
+that it has seldom been thought of in any other way. The fact that
+the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders
+coming up the valley, or even over the gentle slopes from the west,
+or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been
+used as part of the main highway of the central Andes, never seems
+to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a
+fortress. It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where
+the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season to
+celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for
+the sun's return from his "farthest north." In any case I believe
+that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably
+intended for religious rather than military purposes. It is more
+likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+
+It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north
+of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account of the
+last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+The Last Four Incas
+
+Readers of Prescott's charming classic, "The Conquest of Peru,"
+will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca who
+had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels
+of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the throne of the
+Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young
+prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna Capac, named for the
+first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected
+as the most acceptable figurehead. He was a young man of ability
+and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate
+ceremonies, the barbaric splendor of which only made the farce the
+more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might
+have been foreseen, he chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as
+possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful
+Quichuas. There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized
+by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as "the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world." When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved
+by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance of regaining
+the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to
+Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river Urubamba, Manco made a
+determined stand, but Ollantaytambo was too easily reached by Pizarro's
+mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their
+utmost endeavors by the presence of the magnificent stone edifices,
+fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors,
+found it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and
+made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the fastnesses
+of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position
+practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods,
+was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents, or crossing
+the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than
+the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous for Hannibal and
+Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes
+of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible to follow the Inca Manco
+over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than
+the summit of Mont Blanc. In no part of the Peruvian Andes are there
+so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle
+of Mt. Veronica (elevation 19,342 ft.). Not far away is another
+magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the
+sea. Near Salcantay is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.),
+while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197
+ft.). On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and
+little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some hardy
+prospector or inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached
+only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by
+violent storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part
+of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season the
+difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed
+mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without assistance from
+man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+The conquistador, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account
+of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a "great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts ... and many loads of
+rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy." The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of
+the ruler of a country traveling without rich "treasure." It is
+extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or
+silver. Except for ornament there was little use to which he could
+have put the precious metals and they would have served only to
+arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His people had never been paid
+in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it
+as was needed to raise their own crops and make their own clothing
+was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the
+custom and usage of centuries made them faithful followers of their
+great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him
+beautiful textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken
+for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy the benefits of a delightful climate,
+and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white
+and sweet, and the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions
+easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth
+against the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His
+raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him, with
+a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses,
+cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive rafts,
+and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway
+of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business led them over this
+route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by
+making them realize that in these raids they were taking sweet revenge
+on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting
+to note that Cieza de Leon justifies Manco in his attitude, for the
+Spaniards had indeed "seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave
+his native land, and to live in banishment."
+
+Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using
+it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies, led
+many of the Orejones of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were
+called Orejones, "big ears," by the Spaniards because the lobes of
+their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold
+earrings which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's
+retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in the
+year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess
+and one of the conquistadores. As a small child Garcilasso heard
+of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and
+spent the rest of his life in Spain. After forty years in Europe
+he wrote, partly from memory, his "Royal Commentaries," an account
+of the country of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom
+he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child,
+he speaks apologetically. He says: "In the time of Manco Inca,
+several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but
+still they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let
+them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the
+Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the countrey
+.... The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel;
+and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents of twenty-five and
+thirty feet long, with other venomous insects." (I am quoting from Sir
+Paul Rycaut's translation, published in London in 1688.) Garcilasso
+says Manco's soldiers took only "such food as they found in the hands
+of the Indians; which the Inca did usually call his own," saying,
+"That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge
+such a proportion thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary
+and natural support"--a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt
+whether Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them
+of their "wares and merchandise." As will be seen later, we found
+in Manco's palace some metal articles of European origin which might
+very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should
+be remembered that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott,
+left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were
+largely colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to
+extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised by
+the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers
+at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says the Indians had no
+defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used "lances,
+arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts, and slings, and another weapon
+which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones
+sewn up in leather, and each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They
+throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and
+sometimes they will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same
+way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they
+will bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon,
+however, is the sling .... With it, they will hurl a huge stone with
+such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little
+less great than that of an arquebus; and I have seen a stone, thus
+hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in
+a man's hand at a distance of thirty paces."
+
+Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small
+force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the Inca. Captain
+Villadiego found it impossible to use horses, although he realized
+that cavalry was the "important arm against these Indians." Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious
+to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief reported
+to be traveling surrounded by his family "and with rich treasure,"
+he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in
+the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here, fatigued and
+exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects
+of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found themselves ambushed by
+the Inca, who with a small party, "little more than eighty Indians,"
+"attacked the Christians, who numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and
+killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three." To any
+one who has clambered over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa
+it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or
+that the Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate
+vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force of
+weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth
+century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders, and surrounded
+by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have
+been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas, who could "hurl a huge
+stone with such force that it would kill a horse," to have literally
+stoned to death Captain Villadiego's little company before they could
+have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Urubamba Canyon
+
+A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.
+------
+
+
+The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported their misfortune. The
+importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers
+that the size of the force with which Pizarro conquered Peru was less
+than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's
+company which had been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is
+further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers,
+with all their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only
+"a little more than eighty Indians." Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as
+being several thousand.
+
+Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers
+determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted such a blow on
+the prestige of Spanish arms, "but this attempt also failed," for the
+Inca had withdrawn across the rivers and mountains of Uilcapampa to
+Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers
+with the sight of the heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy,
+the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's
+enemies was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians
+of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their enemies,
+remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face,
+and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as the North American
+Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place
+among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists of central Peru. There were
+no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage
+on the bodies of Captain Villadiego's unfortunate men. Probably the
+conquistadores supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have
+done under similar circumstances.
+
+Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos,
+his brother, Gonzalo, "undertook the pursuit of the Inca and occupied
+some of his passes and bridges," but was unsuccessful in penetrating
+the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy than Captain Villadiego,
+he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue
+the young Inca or prevent his raids on travelers from Cuzco to Lima,
+Francisco Pizarro, "with the assent of the royal officers who were
+with him," established the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point
+on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless,
+according to Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite
+a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, "having taken one of
+Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her,
+and then shot her to death with arrows."
+
+Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are
+not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in 1639 his
+"Coronica Moralizada," or "pious account of the missionary activities
+of the Augustinians" in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed
+by all the Indians who lived in a region extending "for two hundred
+leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces." With customary monastic
+zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha accuses the Inca of
+compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to
+abandon their new faith, torturing those who would no longer worship
+the old Inca "idols." This story need not be taken too literally,
+although undoubtedly the escaped Indians acted as though they had
+never been baptized.
+
+Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa,
+in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen other Spanish
+fugitives, adherents of Almagro, "rascals," says Calancha, "worthy
+of Manco's favor." Obliged by the civil wars of the conquistadores
+to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome
+in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and taught
+the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and
+quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride horseback
+and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and
+occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which, as we shall see,
+was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of
+what was going on in the viceroyalty. Although "encompassed within
+craggy and lofty mountains," the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of
+all those "revolutions" which might be of benefit to him.
+
+Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in
+regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He brought the
+New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to
+alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The New Laws provided, among
+other things, that all the officers of the crown were to renounce
+their repartimientos or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory
+personal service was to be entirely abolished. Repartimientos given
+to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert
+to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave evidence that the
+Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve
+of the Pizarros. This was good news for Manco and highly pleasing
+to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the
+new viceroy, asking permission to appear before him and offer his
+services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by
+this means he might some day recover his empire, "or at least the
+best part of it." Their object in persuading the Inca to send such
+a message to the viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they
+"also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past"
+and permission to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little
+group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from the Inca and
+the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed
+to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left Uilcapampa, presented
+his letters to the viceroy, and gave him "a large relation of the
+State and Condition of the Inca, and of his true and real designs
+to doe him service." "The Vice-king joyfully received the news,
+and granted a full and ample pardon of all crimes, as desired. And
+as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect,
+truly considering that the Interest of the Inca might be advantageous
+to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer
+Gomez Perez returned both to the Inca and to his companions." The
+refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king
+and country. Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic
+accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+"The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them,
+had given directions for making a bowling-green; where playing one day
+with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this
+Perez about the measure of a Cast, which often happened between them;
+for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any
+judgment or understanding, would take the least occasion in the world
+to contend with and provoke the Inca .... Being no longer able to
+endure his rudeness, the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him
+to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat
+and passion either his own safety or the safety of his Companions,
+lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently on
+the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The
+Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their Prince, joined
+together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house,
+and with their Swords in their hands defended the door; the Indians
+set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out
+into the Marketplace, where the Indians assaulted them and shot them
+with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then
+afterwards, out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat
+them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but
+at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast their bodies
+into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air,
+which they supposed to be the highest indignity and dishonour that
+they could show to their Corps." Garcilasso concludes: "I informed
+myself very perfectly from those chiefs and nobles who were present
+and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash
+and hair-brained fool; and heard them tell this story to my mother
+and parents with tears in their eyes." There are many versions of
+the tragedy. [4] They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+
+Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality
+was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young sons, Sayri
+Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not
+yet reached his majority, became Inca in his father's stead, and with
+the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish
+neighbors or being annoyed by them, unless the reference in Montesinos
+to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555,
+is correct. By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to
+the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young
+Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the inaccessible
+wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this
+difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix Coya, an aunt of the
+Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and
+dispatched to Uiticos a messenger, of the blood royal, attended by
+Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down
+and the treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's
+regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver the
+viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was
+quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even though brought
+to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage
+and sent a messenger of their own to Cuzco to see if any foul play
+could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more
+trusted cousin, be sent to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar
+Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter of the
+unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his
+wife's language. Montesinos says he was a "great linguist." They
+started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several
+pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups of gilded silver as
+presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the
+Inca, they traveled as fast as they could to the Chuquichaca bridge,
+"the key to the valley of Uiticos." Here they were detained by the
+soldiers of the regents. A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's
+cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed,
+while the friar and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was
+welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage
+Sayri Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and
+the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of the Inca,
+with the presents which the viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first
+idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done,
+so he requested the ambassadors to depart immediately with their
+silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes
+across the Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra
+had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca
+decided to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate,
+observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but
+according to Garcilasso "made no inquiries of the devil." The omens
+were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca to
+accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly
+to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried by
+relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He
+was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to Cuzco, where
+he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome
+him. "I, myself," says Garcilasso, "went in the name of my Father. I
+found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians .... I
+kissed his hands, and delivered my Message; he commanded me to sit
+down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor,
+made of Mayz [chicha] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink;
+he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me;
+he drank, and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of
+Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why I
+did not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, 'Inca, as I am but a
+Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place me in such
+Ceremonies as these!' 'How,' replied the Inca, 'I would rather have
+seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in Town.' As I was going
+away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of
+the Indians, who are of his Alliance and Kindred, at which he was so
+much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection,
+as appeared by his Countenance."
+
+Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty,
+was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her in baptism,
+and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's
+journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned to Uiticos. His only
+daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more
+anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older,
+Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac
+------
+
+
+The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to
+have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac, and to have
+felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his
+half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa. Their first visitor,
+so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an
+interesting account of Uiticos and says he gave the Inca a pair of
+scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go
+to Cuzco. In time there came an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos
+Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the
+rough country of Uilcapampa, "a land of moderate wealth, large rivers,
+and the usual rains," whose "forested mountains," says Father Calancha,
+"are magnificent." Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were
+down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked up. The few
+Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the
+friar could not get there "unless he should be able to change himself
+into a bird." However, with that courage and pertinacity which have
+marked so many missionary enterprises, Friar Marcos finally overcame
+all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad
+to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find that a
+Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca
+was annoyed to have any one preach against his "idolatries." Titu
+Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree
+with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos built a little church in a place
+called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. "He
+planted crosses in the fields and on the mountains, these being the
+best things to frighten off devils." He "suffered many insults at
+the hands of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some
+of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for
+their vices and abominated among his converts the possession of four
+or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced
+him to send to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack,
+which was for him a most delicious banquet."
+
+Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego
+Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on the
+road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his
+presence in company with Friar Marcos. "Although the Inca was not
+too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an
+entrance because the Inca ... thought Friar Diego would not vex
+him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a
+license. They selected the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days journey from one
+Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego
+went to his new establishment and in a short time built a church,
+a house for himself, and a hospital,--all poor buildings made in a
+short time." He also started a school for children, and became very
+popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time
+than Friar Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician,
+was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as
+follows: "Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of water
+where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped
+by those idolators. This was the principal mochadero of those forested
+mountains. The word 'mochadero' [5] is the common name which the
+Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the
+only place where they practice the sacred ceremony of kissing. The
+origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very
+practice which Job abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all
+offences before God and says to Him: 'Lord, all these punishments and
+even greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the
+blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon shines
+clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward
+the sun and throw kisses to it,' an act of very grave iniquity which
+is equivalent to denying the true God."
+
+Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in
+Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine
+and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient Hebrew
+prophets. Apparently this ceremony "of the most profound resignation
+and reverence" was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos, in
+the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+Calancha goes on to say: "In this white stone of the aforesaid
+House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He
+and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the
+baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses, and many
+of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have
+given them."
+
+One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and
+counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some of their outlying
+estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular
+attack on this particular Devil, who was at the great "white rock
+over a spring of water." The two monks summoned all their converts
+to gather at Puquiura, in the church or the neighboring plaza, and
+asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn
+up this Devil who had tormented them. "An innumerable multitude" came
+together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted
+wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see the result;
+the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians';
+while, as may readily be imagined, the rest of the population came
+to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to "the
+Temple of the Sun, in the village of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos."
+
+Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of
+the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring, the white
+rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then,
+having exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile
+names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and finally
+commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and
+the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. "The poor Devil then fled
+roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble."
+
+It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus
+to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they were
+dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley,
+separated from their friends and far from the protecting hand
+of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an
+insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as soon as the
+Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was
+furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura. The chiefs wished to
+"slay the monks and tear them into small pieces," and undoubtedly
+would have done so had it not been for the regard in which Friar
+Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to
+the Indians that even the Inca himself dared not punish him for the
+attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably
+originated the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the
+Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out of
+the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should
+return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians who came
+from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to
+remain, and finally became a trusted friend and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+
+One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold,
+was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded in getting
+permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too
+successful. Both gold and silver were found among the hills and he
+showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing
+that his reports might encourage others to enter Uilcapampa, put the
+unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations
+of Friar Diego. Foreigners were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi
+to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an
+indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his
+Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth while to make
+every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years
+the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco and the major portion of
+Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians
+who lived in the province of Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather
+in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live
+where he would always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party,
+the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the meantime
+the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who
+was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade Titu Cusi to come to
+Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the
+Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against him. Titu Cusi's illness was
+very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual
+remedies. Unfortunately, all the monk's skill was unavailing and his
+royal patient died. The "remedies" were held by Titu Cusi's mother
+and her counselors to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer
+the penalty of death "for having caused the death of the Inca."
+
+The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of
+the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and now happily
+married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were
+decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty, but, thanks to the
+jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had
+not been that of a soldier. He was destined to have a brief, unhappy
+existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger
+was coming from the viceroy, seven warriors were sent to meet him on
+the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca
+bridge when he was attacked and killed.
+
+The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time
+that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow had been
+struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives
+of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers of the viceroy of
+Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the
+energetic Toledo, surrounded by his council, determined to make war
+on the unfortunate young Tupac Amaru and give a reward to the soldier
+who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that
+"many Insurrections might be raised in that Empire by this young
+Heir." "Moreover it was alledged," says Garcilasso .... "That by the
+Imprisonment of the Inca, all that Treasure might be discovered, which
+appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which
+Huayna Capac commanded to be made for himself to wear on the great
+and solemn days of their Festival"! Furthermore, the "Chain of Gold
+with the remaining Treasure belong'd to his Catholic Majesty by right
+of Conquest"! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way
+of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in case he should cross
+the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly
+been used by his father, Manco, in his marauding expeditions. The other
+company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from
+Cuzco by way of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate
+than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had
+been met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the
+days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending this
+important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the
+Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply
+in the middle and swayed so threateningly over the gorge of the
+Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river
+was too deep to be forded. There were no canoes. It would have been
+a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees
+that grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side
+of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's
+time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had never
+been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son,
+Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters. The chiefs and
+nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy
+the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying on their ability to take
+care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from
+crossing the narrow, swaying structure. General Hurtado was not taking
+any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain
+field pieces, with which the raw troops of the Inca were little
+acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from
+the river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly
+terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before. A
+few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled
+pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was
+sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road "narrow in the
+ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great
+depth." It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to
+pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at the head
+of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain
+named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight of Tupac Amaru,
+sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and
+endeavored to hurl him over the cliff. The captain's life was saved
+by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him,
+carrying his sword. Drawing it from the scabbard "with much dexterity
+and animation," the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in
+capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the Inca had
+"gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to
+the country of the Mañaries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends,
+where balsas and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to
+escape." Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids of
+the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he
+put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself, he descended the
+rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived
+at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of
+their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed
+hard after, although he and his men were by this time barefooted and
+suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso
+says that Tupac Amaru, "considering that he had not People to make
+resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime,
+or disturbance he had done or raised, suffered himself to be taken;
+choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards,
+than to perish in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those
+great Rivers .... The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca,
+and on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him,
+amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went,
+so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor Prince." A
+mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with
+fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was mangled before his eyes. His
+own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His
+little boys did not long survive. So perished the last of the Incas,
+descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+1534. The Inca Manco ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+1536. Manco flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+1542. Promulgation of the "New Laws."
+
+1545. Murder of Manco and accession of his son Sayri Tupac.
+1555. Sayri Tupac goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+1560. Death of Sayri Tupac. His half brother Titu Cusi becomes Inca.
+
+1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+1568-9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in
+Chuquipalpa.
+
+1571. Titu Cusi dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. Tupac Amaru
+becomes Inca.
+
+1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de
+Loyola. Execution of Tupac Amaru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Searching for the Last Inca Capital
+
+The events described in the preceding chapter happened, for the most
+part, in Uiticos [6] and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about
+one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy,
+in what Prescott calls "the remote fastnesses of the Andes." One looks
+in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several of the
+older maps give it. In 1625 "Viticos" is marked on de Laet's map of
+Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima and three hundred
+and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by
+some later cartographers, including Mercator, until about 1740,
+when "Viticos" disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers
+had learned that there was no such place in that vicinity. Its real
+location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at
+Nuremberg in 1599 gives "Pincos" in the "Andes" mountains, a small
+range west of "Cusco." This does not seem to have been adopted by
+other cartographers; although a Palls map of 1739 gives "Picos" in
+about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth
+century who give "Viticos" supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g.,
+"Los Viticos" or "Les Viticos."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains
+------
+
+
+The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer,
+Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing Peru, does not
+contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos,
+Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally, it may seem strange that
+Uiticos could ever be written "Biticos." The Quichua language has
+no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital
+letter U exactly like a capital V. In official documents and letters
+Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard
+the word pronounced, naturally used the V sound instead of the U
+sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and
+Uilcapampa became Vilcabamba.
+
+Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way
+Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before or is likely to do
+again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865
+he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa; yet found no Uiticos. He
+believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of
+the last Incas. This view had been held by the French explorer, Count
+de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned
+when Sayri Tupac, Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's
+view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including
+Paz Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nuñez and his friends in 1909, at
+the time of my visit to Choqquequirau. [7] The only dissenter was the
+learned Peruvian historian, Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the
+last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance
+of searching for Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called
+Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian
+Expedition of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would
+meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the
+Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco, mostly wealthy
+planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One
+told us that he went to Santa Ana every year and was acquainted with
+a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San
+Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity of his countrymen to exaggerate,
+however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his
+shoulders, had crossed the bridge a score of times without taking
+the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Señor Pancorbo, whose
+plantation was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague
+rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was
+likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar Marcos had
+established the first church in the "province of Uilcapampa." But
+that was "near" Uiticos and near a village called Chuquipalpa, where
+should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins
+a "white rock over a spring of water." Yet neither these friendly
+planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of
+Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting rock;
+nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+One of Señor Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who
+had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins "finer than
+Choqquequirau" at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had never been
+to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders
+and did not seem to place much confidence in his word. Too often he
+had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not "pan out." Yet
+his report resembled that of Charles Wiener, a French explorer,
+who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes,
+visited Ollantaytambo. While there he was told that there were fine
+ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called "Huaina-Picchu or
+Matcho-Picchu." He decided to go down the valley and look for these
+ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla,
+descended the Lucumayo River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and
+visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published
+a detailed map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name
+"Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m." and to another "Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m." His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to
+Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find any ruins
+of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope
+to be any more successful? Would the rumors that had reached us "pan
+out" as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since
+his day, to be sure, the Peruvian Government had actually finished
+a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard
+Anthropological Expedition, under the leadership of Dr. William
+C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting
+any ruins of importance. They were looking for savages and not
+ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was "finer than Choqquequirau"
+why had no one pointed it out to them?
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Peruvian Expedition of 1915
+------
+
+
+To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything
+finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded that "cradle
+of gold" as "the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent
+times." They assured us there was nothing half so good. They even
+assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to dig
+for buried treasure! Denials were of no avail. To a people whose
+ancestors made fortunes out of lucky "strikes," and who themselves
+have been brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining
+to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of
+tesoro--treasure, wealth, riches--is an ever-present source of
+conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced
+that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau--and that I was
+in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the
+members of the Expedition received no more than their expenses. He
+told me confidentially that Professor Foote would sell his collection
+of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to
+see any one do scientific work except as he was paid by the government
+or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found
+our work misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco
+Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+
+The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may
+be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route for those going
+to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway,
+past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica (12,000 ft.) the road
+crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the
+last point from which one can see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians,
+whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward
+the east, facing the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I
+believe that the words they use now are those of the "Ave Maria,"
+or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless,
+the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of the first
+Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit
+of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries immediately
+preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca
+himself, that divine individual who was at once the head of Church and
+State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in
+sight of his residence to perform an act of veneration. This in turn
+might have led those leaving the city to fall into the same habit at
+the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass
+this point. None of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or
+mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume,
+which betokened that they considered themselves to be Indians rather
+than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed
+their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed
+the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came at length
+to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great
+level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River by the untiring energy
+of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes
+bear many remains of narrow terraces, some of which are still in
+use. Above them are "temporales," fields of grain, resting like a
+patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could
+be cultivated. Still higher up, their heads above the clouds, are
+the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture,
+rich in contrast, majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca
+Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years
+and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under circumstances
+which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that
+they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the night in Urubamba,
+the modern capital of the province, much favored by Peruvians of
+to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate,
+and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000 feet, is too high to have charming
+surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley,
+there is everything to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. Uru is the
+Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, pampa means flat land. Urubamba
+is "flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars." Had it been named
+by people who came up from a warm region where insects abound, it would
+hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land
+where caterpillars and grubs flourished would have been struck by such
+a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau
+dwellers who were working their way down into a warm region where
+butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated
+caterpillars, Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies,
+and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised
+for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get everything.
+
+The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo,
+described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener, and Squier
+many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's
+drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated. Here, as at
+Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green
+fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them
+are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks. The village
+itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history
+is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of curious gabled buildings,
+storehouses, "prisons," or "monasteries," perched here and there
+on well-nigh inaccessible crags above the village. Below are broad
+terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still
+harvested; terraces which will stand for ages to come as monuments to
+the energy and skill of a bygone race. The "fortress" is on a little
+hill, surrounded by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so
+as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which
+cultivated the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror
+of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As
+centuries passed in which the land came under the control of the Incas,
+whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it
+is likely that this fortress became a royal garden. The six great
+ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and
+placed in line on the summit of the hill, were brought from a quarry
+several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They
+were probably intended to be a record of the magnificence of an able
+ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number
+of men to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an
+inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of the hill;
+he had to supply the men with food. The building of such a monument
+meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his
+people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source of pride. To
+his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa
+------
+
+
+A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch
+ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One
+of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a "granite palace,
+whose appearance [appareil] resembles the more beautiful parts
+of Ollantaytambo," was only a storehouse. The other was probably a
+tampu, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in
+Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under official
+orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal
+property were not understood. No one had anything to sell; no one
+had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an
+elaborate system of tax collecting. Two thirds of the produce raised
+by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It
+was a reasonable provision of the benevolent despotism of the Incas
+that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica
+should be provided with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de
+Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in
+Cuzco in 1560, says that the food of the chasquis, Inca post runners,
+was provided from official storehouses; "those who worked for the
+Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense." In
+Manco's day these buildings at Havaspampa probably sheltered the
+outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from
+Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes, one by way
+of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by
+General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and Wiener in 1875; and
+one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the
+Salcantay River to Huadquiña, followed by the Count de Sartiges in
+1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands
+between Mt. Salcantay and Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the
+villages of Piri and Huadquiña. This region was in 1911 undescribed
+in the geographical literature of southern Peru. We decided not to
+use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It
+led us into a fascinating country.
+
+Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of
+precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass of granite
+mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the
+surrounding highlands which are composed of schists, conglomerates, and
+limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province,
+but it was closed for centuries by the combined efforts of nature and
+man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range,
+forms rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can
+be scaled only with great effort and considerable peril. At one
+time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians,
+by crawling along the face of the cliff and sometimes swinging from
+one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way
+to any of the alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may
+have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in
+various inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow
+ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the
+cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the foundations of an
+old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric
+man had built, at the foot of the precipices, close to the river,
+a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of
+Salapunco; sala = ruins; punco = gateway. Fashioned after famous
+Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large
+ashlars and also by reason of the salients and reëntrant angles which
+enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy,
+Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable him
+to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that
+the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate zone,
+to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage
+enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon. On the other hand,
+it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes occupying the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies
+coming down the valley from the direction of Ollantaytambo. They could
+easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully
+built and constructed with skill. Supplies from the plantations of
+Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path
+which antedated the present government road. Salapunco may have been
+occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however,
+have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely that
+he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to
+hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore, its
+style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic
+structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it seem all the
+more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a
+defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was built by folk who once
+occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay
+------
+
+
+When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been
+reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred to us that,
+in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as
+the Inca Manco had the force and time to build, we were to discover
+remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins
+enough to explain why such a fortress as Salapunco might possibly
+have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco and not those well-known Inca cities against the savages of
+the Amazon jungles.
+
+Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered
+a most interesting region, where we were surprised and charmed by the
+extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence
+of many Inca ruins, the beauty of the deep, narrow valleys, and the
+grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across
+the river, near Qquente, on top of a series of terraces, we saw the
+extensive ruins of Patallacta (pata = height or terrace; llacta =
+town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to
+Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's map, although he
+does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any
+reference to it in the chronicles. We spent several months here in
+1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another
+volume I hope to tell more of the antiquities of this region. At
+present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta
+disclosed no "white rock over a spring of water." None of the place
+names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings,
+their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone roof-pegs,
+bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these
+towns and villages flourished, who built them, why they were deserted,
+we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant,
+or silent, as to their history.
+
+At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate valley, we found
+another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of
+an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured some mummies. The ancient
+wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out
+the vampire bats that lived in the cave. On the opposite side of the
+river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other
+ruins first visited by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One
+of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a
+large surveying instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by
+the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In
+1915 rumors of Andean or "spectacled" bears having been seen here and
+of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led
+us to go and investigate. We found no bears, but at an elevation of
+12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering
+moss not hitherto known to science. Above them I was so fortunate as
+to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians
+first developed many varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish
+potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near
+relative of the coenolestes. It turned out to be new to science. To
+find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted
+Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen bears. [8]
+
+Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba,
+and such a canyon! The river "road" runs recklessly up and down
+rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans
+chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets against granite
+cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices
+permitted it, the land between them and the river was once terraced
+and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable
+wonderland. Emotions came thick and fast. We marveled at the exquisite
+pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips
+of arable land from the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have
+managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge
+of the dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one
+sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built a temple,
+whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot
+of the interesting ruins, unable to ford the intervening rapids. High
+up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple,
+are the ruins of Corihuayrachina (kori = "gold"; huayara = "wind";
+huayrachina = "a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place." Possibly
+this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above us on
+another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the
+jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called "La Maquina,"
+where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the
+presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of a "machine" destined
+never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to
+a sugar estate in the lower valley, and years ago left here to rust in
+the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for
+us to pitch our camp, so we pushed on over the very difficult road,
+which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part
+of the cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in
+the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic bridge
+built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds,
+tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth and pebbles
+to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who
+picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder "the machine" rested
+where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are
+considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we passed
+a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land
+of steep mountains is called a pampa. Were the dwellers on the pampas
+of Argentina--where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight
+line, except for the curvature of the earth--to see this little bit
+of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been
+joking or else grossly misusing a word which means to them illimitable
+space with not a hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in
+this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while
+to build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn
+to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing space
+in the bottom of the canyon is called a pampa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through
+a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the river Urubamba
+on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders
+which interfered with the progress of the surging stream, was a steep
+mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp,
+near the road and yet secluded. Our actions, however, aroused the
+suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the
+lands of Mandor Pampa. He was anxious to know why we did not stay at
+his hut like respectable travelers. Our gendarme, Sergeant Carrasco,
+reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned
+that we were interested in the architectural remains of the Incas, he
+said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity--in fact, some
+excellent ones on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu,
+and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to
+reach. The story of my experiences on the following day will be found
+in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins
+of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of very little importance, while
+those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the "National Geographic
+Magazine," are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on
+a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered if it
+could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo,
+a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring when he said:
+"The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos],
+which is on a very high mountain, whence the view commanded a great
+part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level
+space, with very sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well
+as the ordinary ones, being of marble, elaborately carved." Could
+it be that "Picchu" was the modern variant of "Pitcos"? To be sure,
+the white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu
+are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty about
+fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there
+was no difference between the lintels of the doors and the walls
+themselves. Furthermore, there is no "white rock over a spring of
+water" which Calancha says was "near Uiticos." There is no Pucyura
+in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not
+satisfy the geographical requirements of Uiticos. Although containing
+ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that
+last Inca capital for which we were searching. We had not yet found
+Manco's palace.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Search Continued
+
+Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the
+tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below the ruins, both
+Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in
+the flora and fauna. From the point of view of historical geography,
+Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of huilca,
+a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries
+tell us huilca is a "medicine, a purgative." An infusion made from
+the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in
+which it is also shown that from seeds of the huilca a powder is
+prepared, sometimes called cohoba. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a
+narcotic snuff "inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated
+tube." "All writers unite in declaring that it induced a kind of
+intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were
+regarded by the natives as supernatural. While under its influence
+the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication
+with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as
+prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the
+physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the
+person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched." Mr. Safford quotes
+Las Casas as saying: "It was an interesting spectacle to witness how
+they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and
+while he was engaged all remained silent .... When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with
+his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then
+he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must
+have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God;
+after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this
+they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said
+to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and
+begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them
+his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born,
+or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors,
+and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed
+with that intoxication." [9]
+
+Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place
+where huilca was first found and used in their incantations would be
+important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name of
+this river was Uilca-mayu: the "huilca river." The pampa on this river
+where the trees grew would likely receive the name Uilca pampa. If it
+became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named
+Uilcapampa after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin
+of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact that
+denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search
+of this highly prized narcotic, must have found the first trees not
+far from Machu Picchu.
+
+Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now
+pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of San Miguel,
+passed the house of Señor Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to
+write his name on the granite walls of Machu Picchu, and came to the
+sugar-cane fields of Huadquiña. We had now left the temperate zone
+and entered the tropics.
+
+At Huadquiña we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of
+the plantation, Señora Carmen Vargas, and her children, were spending
+the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco,
+but when summer brings fine weather they come to Huadquiña to enjoy
+the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not
+only with that hospitality to passing travelers which is common
+to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance
+in our explorations. Señora Carmen's estate covers more than
+two hundred square miles. Huadquiña is a splendid example of the
+ancient patriarchal system. The Indians who come from other parts of
+Peru to work on the plantation enjoy perquisites and wages unknown
+elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Señora Carmen with
+an affectionate reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to
+bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted
+in encomienda to the lords of the repartimiento or allotted territory.
+
+Huadquiña once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar
+cane and established the mill. After their expulsion from the Spanish
+colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadquiña was bought
+by a Peruvian. It was first described in geographical literature by
+the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when
+on his way to Choqquequirau. He says that the owner of Huadquiña "is
+perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses
+on his estates all the products of the four parts of the globe. In
+the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair,
+potatoes, wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, coca, many mines of
+silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold." Truly a royal principality.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huadquiña
+------
+
+
+Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was
+an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca ruins,
+he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadquiña
+one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without crossing
+the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts
+in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind hosts in 1911. They
+scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty and extent of
+the Inca edifices. [10] When my photographs were developed, however,
+and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the
+principal temples, Señora Carmen and her family were struck dumb
+with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was
+possible that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every
+year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest
+of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower of no great
+interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge
+of San Miguel, had reported the presence of the ruins which he first
+visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little
+attention to his stories. We were soon to have a demonstration of
+the causes of such skepticism.
+
+Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of
+Calaucha's "Chronicle" which referred to the location of the last Inca
+capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of
+which they had never heard, they ordered the most intelligent tenants
+on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all
+was a sturdy mestizo, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little
+valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there
+were "important ruins" which had been seen by some of Señora Carmen's
+Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement that on
+a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi (yurak =
+"white"; rumi = "stone") where some very interesting ruins had been
+found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from
+Calancha's "Chronicle" was the statement that "close to Uiticos" is the
+"white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak
+Rumi." Our hosts assured us that this must be the place, since no
+one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman,
+on being closely questioned, said that he had seen the ruins once or
+twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great
+ruins at Ollantaytambo, and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi
+were "as good as those at Ollantaytambo." Here was a definite statement
+made by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting
+rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman said that
+the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of
+Indians could open it in less than a week. Our hosts, excited by the
+pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that
+even finer ruins might be found on their own property, immediately
+gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+While this was being done, Señora Carmen's son, the manager of the
+plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu, where other
+"important ruins" had been found, which could be reached in a few
+hours without cutting any new trails. Acting on his assurance that we
+should not need tent or cots, we left our camping outfit behind and
+followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We
+found Ccllumayu to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely
+wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of
+the Indian tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into
+the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in
+vain for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadquiña, but
+Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched
+hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat cuys (guinea pigs), the
+chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough
+wattles which admitted plenty of fresh air and gave us comfortable
+ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles,
+constructed for the needs of short, stocky Indians, kept us from
+being overrun by inquisitive cuys, but could hardly be called as
+comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadquiña.
+
+The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few
+piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts which
+probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric
+times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins, "important"
+or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was
+our first disillusionment.
+
+On our return to Huadquiña, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi
+would be ready "in a day or two." In the meantime our hosts became much
+interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. They brought
+an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded
+by high walls in a secluded place back of the house was "a great
+place for spiders." We found that their statement was not exaggerated
+and immediately engaged in an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these
+Huadquiña spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative
+Zoölogy, Dr. Chamberlain found among them the representatives of four
+new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a
+reward of merit, he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquiña. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well
+ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead from measurements
+and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+------
+
+
+Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with
+feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the foreman
+to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were
+"better than those of Ollantaytambo." It was to be presumed that in the
+pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it
+never entered my head what I was actually to find. After several hours
+spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the
+walls I learned that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single
+little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in
+clay. The building was without a doorway, although it had several small
+windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels
+of the windows and of the small apertures leading into the subterranean
+shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side
+or on the ends, but there were four on the south side through which
+it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize,
+potatoes, or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It
+will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of
+public storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also
+at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on top of
+the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadquiña valleys, probably on an
+ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa. As such it was
+interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had
+done, was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It
+seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places could
+have thought for a moment that one was "as good as the other." To be
+sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and his interest in Inca
+buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo
+are so well known and so impressive that even the most casual traveler
+is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud
+of them. The real cause of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his
+desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner
+is a common trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the
+world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on
+us. We now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding
+Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never
+elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation on the part
+of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were
+interested in visiting the remains of Inca civilization. They knew
+only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and
+their inability to report facts accurately.
+
+Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to
+Señora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani and
+proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the
+road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where the Urubamba
+is joined by the Vilcabamba River. [11] Both rivers are restricted
+here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on
+their way to the lower valley. A few rods from Chauillay was a fine
+bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded
+the old suspension bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with
+its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet
+here it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy,
+Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado and
+Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend
+Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief preliminary fire
+the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the
+bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled to accomplish that which
+had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of
+the surroundings showed that Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de
+Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge
+of Chuquichaca "was a measure of no small importance for the royal
+force." It certainly would have caused the Spaniards "great trouble"
+if they had had to rebuild it.
+
+We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba
+had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the plantation of
+Santa Ana, Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man
+in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice of
+prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca,
+we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders through a
+broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed
+groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of green sugar cane, the
+hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians
+fortunate enough to dwell in this tropical "Garden of Eden." The day
+was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees
+loaded with ripe fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me
+ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver real she dragged out
+a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her
+to permit us to take only as many as our pockets could hold; but she
+seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine
+steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town of
+Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with
+well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is one of the
+principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the
+high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was the scene of unusual
+activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond
+it, we came to the long colonnades of the celebrated sugar estate of
+Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed
+this way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He
+says that he was received here "with a thousand signs of friendship"
+("mille témoignages d'amitié"). We were received the same way. Even
+in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from
+government officials and generous hospitality from private individuals,
+our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible
+information about the little-known region into which we proposed
+to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was
+a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested, not only in the
+administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in
+the intellectual movements of the outside world. He entered with zest
+into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new
+to him, but after reading over with us our extracts from the Spanish
+chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he
+did. Santa Ana is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator;
+the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the "winter" nights are cool;
+but the heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless,
+our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at
+the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the towns and
+valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was
+not much. They all agreed that "if only Señor Lopez Torres were alive
+he could have been of great service" to us, as "he had prospected
+for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had
+once seen some Inca ruins in the forest!" Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa
+and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don
+Pedro's friends had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging,
+until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa
+Ana another friend of Don Pedro's, the teniente gobernador of the
+village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba--a crusty old fellow
+named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo, had been a
+member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched
+for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and had left their names on
+its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried
+treasure, but he was totally unable otherwise to comprehend our desire
+to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the
+contemporaries of Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma
+he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was
+the sub-prefect of the province of Convención, lived at Quillabamba
+near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had
+received orders from his own official superior, the prefect of Cuzco,
+to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave
+particular orders to Mogrovejo to see to it that we were given every
+facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places
+of historic interest. Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin
+in the savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders
+faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa
+Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and charming
+conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma,
+taking the road on the southwest side of the Urubamba and using
+the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious
+cargoes of coca and aguardiente from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start;
+not one of those meant-to-be-early but really late-in-the-morning
+departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested,
+had long since been cleared, and was now covered with bushes and
+second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of
+land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging rocks. As a boy
+in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting
+those beautiful and fascinating mollusks, which usually prefer the
+trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of
+gathering a large number of such as could easily be secured. None of
+the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting
+period. Some weeks later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras
+and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in
+color, on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They
+were fairly "glued to their resting places"; clustered so closely in
+some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So
+far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer had
+preceded us--the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the
+Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence here of
+mines and minerals, but with the exception of an "abandoned tampu"
+at Maracnyoc ("the place which possesses a millstone"), he makes no
+mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed from the story
+of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that
+we were now entering the valley of Uiticos, it was with feel-hags of
+considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem
+strange that we should have been in any doubt. Yet before our visit
+nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos
+Romero still believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he
+took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word choqquequirau means "cradle of gold" and this lent color to the
+legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new
+capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had "retired to Uilcapampa,"
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and
+saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau was
+Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the
+requirements of Calancha that it was "two or three days' journey"
+from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+
+A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner
+of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack animals to
+travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face
+of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces the cliffs in
+a series of little tunnels. My gendarme missed this road and took
+the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of
+Captain Garcia's expedition, "the road was narrow in the ascent with
+forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth." We
+reached Paltaybamba about dusk. The owner, Señor José S. Pancorbo,
+was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles
+of the river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the
+best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was
+the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Señor Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we
+should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo to be
+on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the
+plantation and his friends that evening. They had heard little of
+any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had
+heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere in the montaña there was
+"an Inca city." All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach;
+and none of them had ever been there. In the morning the manager gave
+us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man
+at that house should relay us to the next, and so on. These people,
+all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders,
+although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There
+are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle and dark
+green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of
+waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the road is very winding, and
+the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must
+be like in February, the rainy season, we could only surmise. About
+two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi
+"Maracnyoc," an "abandoned tampu," we came to some old stone walls,
+the ruins of a place now called Huayara or "Hoyara." I believe them to
+be the ruins of the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place
+referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's
+army were "brought back to the valley of Hoyara," where they were
+"settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+.... This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with
+an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were taken for
+the service of the city, the water being very good." The water here
+is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco Basin. On the plain
+near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation
+of Paltaybamba. "Hoyara" was abandoned after the discovery of gold
+mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish "city"
+was moved to the village now called Vilcabamba.
+
+Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of Teniente Gobernador
+Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty
+thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount of prosperity due to
+the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior,
+the pass to the rubber estates in the San Miguel Valley. Here are
+"houses of refreshment" and two shops, the only ones in the region. One
+can buy cotton cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque
+belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the
+slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of agriculture.
+
+There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed
+to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived on the little plaza
+around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He
+had just returned from Santa Ana by the way of Idma, using a much
+worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled
+him to avoid passing through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he
+was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had
+happened to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly
+reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+We offered to pay Mogrovejo a gratificación of a sol, or Peruvian
+silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double
+that amount if the locality should prove to contain particularly
+interesting ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He
+summoned his alcaldes and other well-informed Indians to appear and be
+interviewed. They told us there were "many ruins" hereabouts! Being
+a practical man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in
+ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled
+vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of Quillabamba. So
+he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back
+of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower Vilcabamba. On
+all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places
+they were covered with forest growth, chiefly above the cloud line,
+where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on
+the more gentle slopes recent clearings gave evidence of enterprise
+on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's
+climb we reached what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures,
+on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the
+opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia speak of a
+number of forts or pucarás which had to be stormed and captured before
+Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those
+"fortresses." Its strategic position and the ease with which it could
+be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit the "fortress of Pitcos," nor the "House of the Sun"
+near the "white rock over the spring." It is called Incahuaracana,
+"the place where the Inca shoots with a sling."
+
+Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices--one of two
+rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not
+particularly well built and resemble in many respects the ruins at
+Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows,
+although each has three front doors and is lined with niches, four
+or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three
+rooms, and had several front doors. A force of two hundred Indian
+soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon
+had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated hill,
+its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes,
+its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name of the hill was
+"Rosaspata," a word of modern hybrid origin--pata being Quichua for
+"hill," while rosas is the Spanish word for "roses." Mogrovejo said
+his Indians told him that on the "Hill of Roses" there were more ruins.
+
+At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of
+Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a "wretched hamlet
+with a paltry chapel." To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large
+public school here, to which children come from villages many miles
+away. So crowded is the school that in fine weather the children
+sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls
+wear high boots. I once saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I
+doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of
+the first school in this whole region. For it was to "Puquiura" that
+Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the "mezquina capilla"
+which Raimondi scorned. If this were the "Puquiura" of Friar Marcos,
+then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with
+their famous procession of converts from "Puquiura" to the House of
+the Sun and the "white rock" which was "close to Uiticos."
+
+Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came
+immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish
+crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing quartz on a
+considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo,
+who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended masses said by his friend
+Friar Diego in a chapel which is "near my houses and on my own lands,
+in the mining district of Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of
+Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley
+------
+
+
+One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot
+thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite, hollowed
+out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a
+hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian mortar and pestle,
+heavy enough to need the services of four men to work it. The mortar
+was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected
+a few inches above the surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet
+in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from
+time immemorial by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or
+potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged
+to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the
+southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo to an
+old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the
+south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa, or Inca
+pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia
+and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single house, 166 feet
+long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since
+disappeared. There were six doorways in front, none on the ends or
+in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near
+Lucma. The walls had originally been built of rough stones laid in
+clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all
+at one end of the structure, were irregular, about two feet in width
+and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building
+which was still standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred
+Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and
+followed a path along its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing
+some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found
+myself on a pleasant pampa near the top of the mountain. The view
+from here commands "a great part of the province of Uilcapampa." It
+is remarkably extensive on all sides; to the north and south are
+snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+Furthermore, on the north side of the pampa is an extensive level
+space with a very sumptuous and majestic building "erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as
+the ordinary ones," being of white granite elaborately cut. At last
+we had found a place which seemed to meet most of the requirements
+of Ocampo's description of the "fortress of Pitcos." To be sure it
+was not of "marble," and the lintels of the doors were not "carved,"
+in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully finished,
+as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might
+easily pass for marble. If only we could find in this vicinity that
+Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was "near" Uiticos, all doubts
+would be at an end.
+
+That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of
+Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings when in
+response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring
+valley there was a great white rock over a spring of water! If his
+story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It
+behooved us to make a very careful study of what we had found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun
+
+When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of
+the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied the supreme
+power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension
+to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru. Captain Garcia
+earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the "mañana habit"
+was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain
+filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's Royal Council of
+the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the
+campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this he says: "and having arrived
+at the principal fortress, Guay-napucará ["the young fortress"],
+which the Incas had fortified, we found it defended by the Prince
+Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains
+and soldiers. It is on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and
+jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the
+fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger. Thus
+we gained the province of Uilcapampa." The viceroy himself says this
+important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill and courage in
+storming the heights of Guaynapucará, "on Saint John the Baptist's day,
+in 1572."
+
+The "Hill of Roses" is indeed "a high eminence surrounded with rugged
+crags." The side of easiest approach is protected by a splendid, long
+wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active
+besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa could have furnished a contingent
+to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on
+all sides, and it would have been extremely easy for a small force
+to have defended it. It was undoubtedly "almost impregnable." This
+was the feature Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed
+compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged so as to
+form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The
+outside dimensions of the compound are about 160 feet by 145 feet. The
+builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging
+the houses, Due to the wanton destruction of many buildings by the
+natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so
+pulled down that it is impossible to get the exact dimensions of the
+buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been
+any niches.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention
+of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains of this
+building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a
+fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from Cuzco. It is 245 feet by
+43 feet. There were no windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways,
+fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms,
+besides three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built
+rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not,
+to be sure, of "marble" as Ocampo said--there is no marble in the
+province--but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels
+of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary ones, are
+also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as
+eight feet in length. The doorways are better than any other ruins in
+Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention
+of them made by Ocampo, who lived near here and had time to become
+thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very
+small portion of the edifice was still standing. Most of the rear
+doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous
+fence. Other walls had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out
+of the cultivated pampa. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it
+on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops
+and sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin
+of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide, containing doors
+on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It
+was probably a barracks for a company of soldiers.
+
+The intervening "pampa" might have been the scene of those games
+of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who
+fled from the wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca
+Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca
+whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number of iron articles of
+European origin, heavily rusted--horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of
+scissors, several bridle or saddle ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My
+first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one
+time, although the necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill
+would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In
+the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to make raids
+on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily
+have brought back with him a Spanish bridle. In the second place the
+musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have
+enjoyed whiling away their exile with melancholy twanging. In the
+third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish
+market in Cuzco, where there would have been displayed at times a
+considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally
+Rodriguez de Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he
+brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European
+artifacts has been turned up in the excavations of other important
+sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they
+were abandoned before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by
+natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was
+occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the palace of the
+last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri
+Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is astonishing how few details we have
+by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries
+are strangely silent. When he left Cuzco and sought refuge "in the
+remote fastnesses of the Andes," there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza
+de Leon, in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and
+hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;--Manco
+had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had
+"retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in the most retired
+part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes." [12]
+The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco
+may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we can learn they
+left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+
+Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos
+and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers, are fully
+described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that
+"close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa, is a House of the
+Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water." Our guide had
+told us there was such a place close to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+On the day after making the first studies of the "Hill of Roses," I
+followed the impatient Mogrovejo--whose object was not to study ruins
+but to earn dollars for finding them--and went over the hill on its
+northeast side to the Valley of Los Andenes ("the Terraces"). Here,
+sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top,
+which had a carved seat or platform on its northern side. Its west
+side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been
+walled in on one side. When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there
+was a manantial de agua ("spring of water") near by, I became greatly
+interested. On investigation, however, the" spring" turned out to
+be nothing but part of a small irrigating ditch. (Manantial means
+"spring"; it also means "running water"). But the rock was not "over
+the water." Although this was undoubtedly one of those huacas, or
+sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations
+of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important accessory to
+ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi
+------
+
+
+Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly had been the house
+of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a
+large number of very handsomely built agricultural terraces, the first
+we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in
+the valley. So scarce are andenes in this region and so noteworthy were
+these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were
+probably built under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of
+carved boulders, huacas. One had an intihuatana, or sundial nubbin,
+on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we
+followed a trickling stream through thick woods until we suddenly
+arrived at an open place called ñusta Isppana. Here before us was a
+great white rock over a spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath
+the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly
+enclosing the gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a
+small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name
+of this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this
+remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every side. There was
+not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal
+place for practicing the mystic ceremonies of an ancient cult. The
+remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its
+shadow had caused this to become a place of worship. Here, without
+doubt, was "the principal mochadero of those forested mountains." It is
+still venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found
+the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests faced the
+east, greeted the rising sun, "extended their hands toward it," and
+"threw kisses to it," "a ceremony of the most profound resignation and
+reverence." We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent
+robes of office, standing on the top of the rock at the edge of
+its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the
+early morning, awaiting the moment when the Great Divinity should
+appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it
+rose they saluted it and cried: "O Sun! Thou who art in peace and
+safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health
+and safety. O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu,
+grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it
+is for this that thou hast created them."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Ñusta Isppana Formerly
+Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos
+------
+
+
+It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched
+over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying a stick of
+firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine
+thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself in the water. Since
+the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect
+the sky, but only the overhanging, dark, mossy rock, the water looks
+black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to
+believe that simple-minded Indian worshipers in this secluded spot
+could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing
+"as a visible manifestation" in the water. Indians came from the most
+sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship here and to offer
+gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised
+the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, and piled firewood
+all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him
+by all the vile names they could think of, the friars commanded him
+never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple,
+scorched the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and
+causing the poor Devil to flee, "roaring in a fury." "The cruel Devil
+never more returned to the rock nor to this district." Whether the
+roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or of the flames we
+can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up
+the swamp or interfered with the arrangements of the water supply so
+that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no
+chance to appear in the water, where he had formerly been accustomed
+to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state,
+but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well preserved
+notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is
+fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height above the present
+level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are
+seats and large steps or platforms. It was customary to kill llamas at
+these holy huacas. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may
+have been used for such sacrifices. From it runs a little crack in
+the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been
+intended to carry off the blood of the victim killed on top of the
+rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which
+are quietly practiced here by the more superstitious Indian women of
+the valley, possibly in memory of the ñusta or Inca princess for whom
+the shrine is named.
+
+On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four
+or five small seats which have been cut in the rock. Great care was
+exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly
+square, level, and straight. The east side of the rock projects
+over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the
+water. On the north side there are no seats. Near the water, steps
+have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven
+steps. Above them the rock has been flattened artificially and carved
+into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones,
+like those usually called intihuatana or "places to which the sun
+is tied." In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six
+others. The other three are arranged in a triangular position above
+the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast
+face of the rock, where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause
+striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock
+------
+
+
+Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of
+very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running water under
+the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained
+the swamp which adjoins the great rock on its northeastern side, we
+found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the
+water ran through the dark pool. We also found that what looked like
+a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the
+top of the back of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The
+platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the
+seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock. Since the
+pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used
+only by priests or sorcerers. It would have been a splendid place to
+practice divination. No doubt the devils "roared."
+
+All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have
+failed to disclose the presence of any other "white rock over a
+spring of water" surrounded by the ruins of a possible "House of
+the Sun." Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the following
+conclusions: First, ñusta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father
+Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers
+as Chuquipalpa. Second, Uiticos, "close to" this shrine, was once
+the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and
+Lucma. This is the "Viticos" of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco,
+who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that "having reached
+Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from various
+parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca,
+established himself in the strongest place he could find, whence he
+sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those
+parts which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards,
+whom he considered as cruel enemies." Third, the "strongest place"
+of Cieza, the Guaynapucará of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by
+Ocampo as "the fortress of Pitcos," where, he says, "there was a level
+space with majestic buildings," the most noteworthy feature of which
+was that they had two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone
+lintels. Fourth, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the
+river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although
+he was disappointed in the insignificance of the "wretched little
+village." The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca,
+which has already been noted, the distance from the "House of the Sun,"
+not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura
+near the fortress, all point to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured
+permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary station
+in Uilcapampa, selected "the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from
+one convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar
+Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a
+church." There is no "Huarancalla" to-day, nor any tradition of any,
+but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000
+feet, in the temperate zone where the crops with which the Incas
+were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and
+alpacas could have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The
+valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and
+villages. Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey
+from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region
+now use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by
+Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows into the
+Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is
+the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros, which Mr. Hay and I
+crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was
+founded by Pizarro, a day's journey from this bridge. The necessity
+for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point
+made it easy for Manco's foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden
+marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque,
+which is probably the "Huarancalla" of Calancha's "Chronicles." He
+must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and
+Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac and its
+magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two
+miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable snow fields and
+glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, even though
+they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are
+completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been known even in recent
+years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding
+not only security from his Spanish enemies, but any climate that he
+desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to
+be no reason to doubt that the retired region around the modern town
+of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Vilcabamba
+
+Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos
+by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of
+the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not mention
+Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father
+Calancha says it was a very large area, "covering fourteen degrees of
+longitude," about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage
+tribes "of the far interior" who acknowledged the supremacy of the
+Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. "The Mañaries and
+the Pilcosones came a hundred and two hundred leagues" to visit the
+Inca in Uiticos.
+
+The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi
+says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha says it
+was "two days' journey from Puquiura." Raimondi thought it must be
+Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however, speak of it as
+being down in the warm valleys of the montaña, the present rubber
+country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on
+the maps of Peru is near the source of the Vilcabamba River, not more
+than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+
+We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750
+feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba has
+threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they
+were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually heavy thatch,
+seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the gobernador,
+Manuel Condoré. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been
+most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+The gobernador said that the reason the town was deserted was that most
+of the people were now attending to their chacras, or little farms,
+and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring
+valleys. He said that only at special festival times, such as the
+annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here,
+once a year, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part
+of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was
+transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name, Condoré
+said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as
+such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru. The solidity of
+the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The
+present air of desolation and absence of population is probably due
+to the decay of that industry.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ñusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building,
+is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells. Condoré
+said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It
+is probably the very structure whose construction was carefully
+supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move
+the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria from Hoyara to the
+neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers,
+went to Cuzco as agent of the interested parties, to take the matter
+up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+"The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our
+Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal fifths,
+as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having
+examined the capitulations and reasons, the said Don Luis de Velasco
+[the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is
+now founded, ordering that it should have the title and name of the
+city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its
+first name. By this change of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo,
+performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my
+care, industry and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its
+principal chapel and great doors." We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and
+the whole to show considerable "industry and solicitude."
+
+The site was called "Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered
+this land found the flocks and herds." Modern Vilcabamba is on grassy
+slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes
+potatoes are still raised, although the valley itself is given up
+to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and
+sheep in abundance where the Incas must have pastured their llamas
+and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines
+begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that this was Onccoy,
+although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+We met at the gobernador's an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had
+once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we
+interviewed through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the
+region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied
+having heard of "Uiticos" or any of its variations. If we were indeed
+in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar
+with that name?
+
+Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands
+have now for so many generations been neglected by their rulers
+and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can
+purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine they can secure, through
+the constant chewing of coca leaves, that they have lost much if not
+all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated mestizos of the
+principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only
+from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but also from the blood
+of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of
+the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve the remains of the wonderful
+civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba
+was an unknown land to most of the Peruvians, even those who live in
+the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four Incas been in a
+region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources
+were sufficient to support a large population, and whose roads made
+transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes,
+it would have been occupied from the days of Captain Garcia to the
+present by Spanish-speaking mestizos, who might have been interested
+in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions
+connected with it.
+
+After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends "petered
+out," or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that
+remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura with Cuzco and
+civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably
+impassable during a large part of the year even to people accustomed
+to Andean "roads."
+
+The possibility of raising sugar cane and coca between Huadquiña and
+Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower
+Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding the difficult transportation over
+the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing
+to lead any one to visit the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire
+to make it a place of residence. And until Señor Pancorbo opened
+the road to Lucma, Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine
+generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa
+between the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern
+explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the "Hill of
+Roses" in the days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into
+ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who
+once lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The
+Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any
+interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the renaissance of
+historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that
+it occurred to any one to look for Manco's capital. When Raimondi,
+the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one
+thought to tell him that on the hilltop opposite the village once
+lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were
+still there, hidden underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of "San Francisco
+de la Victoria de Vilcabamba" was in the "valley of Viticos." The
+town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which
+flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so marked on Raimondi's
+map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland
+pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin, would also
+seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been
+abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is difficult to believe that
+if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca
+times to the present we should not have found at least a few of the
+indigenous American camels here. By itself, such an occurrence would
+hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of
+traditions regarding Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there
+must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of
+consequence lived in this vicinity.
+
+We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining
+operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to at least
+a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of
+ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles, chicken pox,
+and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction
+of a large proportion of those unfortunates whose untimely deaths
+were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the
+early Spanish miners and treasure seekers. Both causes undoubtedly
+contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the
+population diminished enormously in early colonial days. If this is
+true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions
+where the conditions of existence and human intercourse were less
+severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier, are of
+the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru
+and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time of the Conquest. In
+other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent
+disappearance of bad living conditions and forced labor at the mines,
+also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and
+the more comfortable conditions of existence which have followed the
+coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the
+number of highland Indians has increased. With this increase has come
+a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural
+tendency to seek less crowded regions, even at the expense of using
+difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote
+and inaccessible a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It
+is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the
+demand for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by
+the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years when
+no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian
+shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma. The adobe houses of
+these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built
+in the nineteenth century.
+
+Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information
+prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had been privileged
+to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers
+Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that Choqquequirau, the only ruins
+reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the
+capital of the Incas who took refuge there. It also makes it seem
+more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and ñusta Isppana
+should not have been known to Peruvian geographers and historians,
+or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite
+apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were called
+Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century
+shows that there may have been three places bearing that name;
+one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), another
+also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded by the Spaniards,
+namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in
+Calancha's account of the trials and tribulations of Friar Marcos
+and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with
+considerable detail of their visit to "Vilcabamba Viejo." It was
+after the monks had already founded their religious establishment
+at Puquiura that they learned of the existence of this important
+religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit
+it. For a long time he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to
+them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them
+to continue their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their
+importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the
+journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied the two
+friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them
+from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road. The Inca, however,
+did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the
+Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably along in a litter by
+servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were
+obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail soon demoralized their
+footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road,
+"Ungacacha," the trail went for some distance through water. The
+monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their
+monastic garments while passing through the water. However, the monks
+persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, "on account of its
+being the largest city in which was the University of Idolatry, where
+lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination." If
+one may judge by the name of the place, Uilcapampa, the wizards and
+sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient
+snuff made from huilca seeds. After a three days' journey over very
+rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then
+Titu Cusi was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered
+that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might not
+witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the
+Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+Nothing is said about the appearance of "Vilcabamba Viejo" and it
+is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the city,
+although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks
+and kept up their preaching and teaching. During their stay Titu Cusi,
+who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying
+them in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break
+their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation with
+his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most
+beautiful Indian women, including some individuals of the Yungas who
+were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived
+at the "University of Idolatry" in "Vilcabamba Viejo," were "Virgins of
+the Sun," who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests
+and were selected from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is
+also evident that "Vilcabamba Viejo" was so constructed that the
+monks could be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being
+able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+"abominations" which were practiced there, as they did those at the
+white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it is possible
+that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as "Vilcabamba
+Viejo," was on the slopes of the mountain now called Machu Picchu.
+
+In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins
+of Vilcabamba called "the old" by Ocampo, to distinguish it from
+the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after
+the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely as Vilcabamba by
+Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Conservidayoc
+
+When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places
+mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point
+to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told us that in 1902 Lopez
+Torres, who had traveled much in the montaña looking for rubber trees,
+reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don
+Pedro's friends assured us that Conservidayoc was a terrible place
+to reach. "No one now living had been there." "It was inhabited by
+savage Indians who would not let strangers enter their villages."
+
+When we reached Paltaybamba, Señor Pancorbo's manager confirmed what
+we had heard. He said further that an individual named Saavedra lived
+at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was
+very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's house was extremely
+difficult to find. "No one had been there recently and returned
+alive." Opinions differed as to how far away it was.
+
+Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins
+near Rosaspata, Señor Pancorbo, returning from his rubber estate in
+the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by,
+took great pains to find us and see how we were progressing. When he
+learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc,
+he asked us to desist from the attempt. He said Saavedra was "a very
+powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in
+grand state, with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being
+visited by anybody." The Indians were "of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile
+to strangers." Admitting that he had heard there were Inca ruins near
+Saavedra's station, Señor Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our
+lives by going to look for them.
+
+By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar
+with the current stories regarding the habits of savage tribes who
+lived in the montaña and whose services were in great demand as rubber
+gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like
+to work for Señor Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man,
+anxious to achieve many things, results which required more laborers
+than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might
+possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had escaped from the rubber
+estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Señor Pancorbo's own life would
+have been at the mercy of their poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon
+Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited
+with impunity by the explorers of the nineteenth century to become so
+savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all its aspects. We
+finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports
+regarding the presence of Inca ruins at Conservidayoc we could not
+afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least
+make an effort to reach them, meanwhile taking every precaution to
+avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage
+retainers.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River
+------
+
+
+On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the
+gobernador, Condoré, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had
+summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a
+very picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly
+reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry
+was in progress. He took off his hat--but not his knitted cap--and
+endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about
+the surrounding country. It was he who said that the Inca Tupac
+Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa
+Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins in the montaña near
+Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condoré. Several had
+heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently, none of them,
+nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited
+their immediate vicinity. They all agreed that Saavedra's place was
+"at least four days' hard journey on foot in the montaña beyond
+Pampaconas." No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru,
+although it is frequently mentioned in the documents of the sixteenth
+century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with
+Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place called
+Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere
+down in the dense forests of the montaña and presented him with a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts--products of a warm region.
+
+We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map
+which covered this locality. We also had the new map of South Peru and
+North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical
+Society and gave a summary of all available information. The
+Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from
+Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's map all of the rivers which rise in
+the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac
+and flow southwest. We wondered whether the stories about ruins at
+Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those
+we had heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadquiña. One of our
+informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the "Pampa
+of Ghosts." Would the ruins turn out to be "ghosts"? Would they vanish
+on the arrival of white men with cameras and steel measuring tapes?
+
+No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at
+the village of Pampaconas, "about five leagues from here," there
+were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies
+were getting low. There were no shops nearer than Lucma; no food
+was obtainable from the natives. Accordingly, notwithstanding the
+protestations of the hospitable gobernador, we decided to start
+immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor
+Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening meal and we
+were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of
+our favorite beverage. Several years ago, when traveling on muleback
+across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value
+of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant and bracer in the high Andes. At
+first astonished to see how much tea the Indian arrieros drank, I
+learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water,
+which often brings on mountain-sickness. This particular evening,
+one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most
+horrible stuff imaginable. Examination showed small, oily particles
+floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery
+that one of our arrieros had that day placed our can of kerosene on
+top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had
+dripped down into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had
+eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to
+throw away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works
+in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more one
+seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching
+our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical investigations
+to stray far up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the
+boundaries of known topography, headed for "Conservidayoc," a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said
+to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the
+gobernador told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers
+whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules could
+not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating
+the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to be extremely
+alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two gendarmes who were
+now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few
+hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our pack train until dusk. The
+gobernador said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any
+brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this
+was due in part to that love of freedom which had led them to abandon
+the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords
+could not call on them for forced labor. Consequently, before the
+arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as
+our gendarmes, the gobernador and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to
+put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen
+sturdy Indians. Their methods will be described presently.
+
+Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an
+old glaciated valley, in which one of our mules got thoroughly mired
+while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous
+bog. Fording the Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook,
+we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains
+above us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their
+discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here
+cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide. He
+does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted
+long before his day. As to the other minerals, the difficulties of
+transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will
+be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain
+of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the town of
+Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi,
+followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not leave room
+enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and
+Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude to be 73° west,
+and our latitude to be 13° 8' south. Yet according to the latest map
+of this region, published in the preceding year, this was the very
+position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river
+Pampas. We ought to have been swimming "the Great Speaker." Actually
+we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and
+glaciers. The mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when
+he determined the Apurimac and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther
+apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored
+region, 1500 square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been
+guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles
+from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and the site of a
+university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so
+long defy investigation and exploration shows better than anything
+else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable
+labyrinth of snow-clad peaks, unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green
+valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our maps that we were
+now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact,
+we were on the rim of the valley of the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas,
+a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead
+of being the Apurimac Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region
+which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood
+from Condoré that somewhere far down in the montaña below us was
+Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage
+Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that the Incas could have
+built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were
+accustomed. The "road" was now so bad that only with the greatest
+difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we
+had to dismount, as the path led down a long, steep, rocky stairway
+of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a
+lonesome little hut perched on a shoulder of the mountain. In front of
+it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as
+they saw the gobernador approaching, they stopped their work and began
+to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to
+be told that Señor Condoré and his friends had not had anything but a
+cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet the emergency
+of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing cuys (guinea
+pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts
+of mountain Indians. Before long the savory odor of roast cuy, well
+basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or
+laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite of the
+celebrated dogma that "Pigs is Pigs," this form of "pork" has never
+found its way to our kitchens, even though these "pigs" live on a
+very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come
+from Guinea and are in no way related to pigs--Mr. Ellis Parker
+Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the
+same family as rabbits and Belgian hares and have long been a highly
+prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are
+of a grayish brown color, which enables them to escape observation
+in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, which one sees
+in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny,
+varying from one another in color as much as do the llamas, which
+were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years
+ago. Although Anglo-Saxon "folkways," as Professor Sumner would say,
+permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at
+short-eared rabbits, yet they were bred to be eaten.
+
+I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever
+knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in the capital
+of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had
+I not been very hungry, I might never have known how delicious a roast
+guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose
+supply of animal food is small, whose fowls are treasured for their
+eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as
+mutton, the succulent guinea pig, "most prolific of mammals," as was
+discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a
+few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for emergencies. Her
+sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little cuys.
+
+After lunch, Condoré and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling
+countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome farm
+to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were
+so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home or working in
+his little chacra they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward
+to shake hands, in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was
+un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was
+informed that he had accepted pay for services which must now be
+performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A
+paternal government saw to it that they were properly fed and clothed
+and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own
+necessities or else permitted to draw on official stores. In colonial
+days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of
+the ancient system and enforced it without taking pains to see that
+it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless
+landlords, backed by local authority, forced the Indians to work
+without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or
+even pretending to carry out promises and wage agreements. The peons
+learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having
+received a considerable portion of their pay. When once they accepted
+money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided
+that they must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant
+legal punishment.
+
+Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a
+dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized that service
+was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was "busy," that his
+"crops needed attention," that his "family could not spare him," that
+"he lacked food for a journey." Condoré and Mogrovejo were accustomed
+to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in "engaging" half a dozen
+carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small
+huts scattered over grassy hillsides, at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a "high, cold place." This
+is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the
+Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's day as being "an
+important town of the Incas." There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts
+of Pampaconas were newly built of stone and mud, and thatched with
+grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians,
+who enjoyed unusual freedom from official or other interference
+and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes,
+on the very edge of the dense forest. We found that there was some
+excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar,
+or possibly a cougar, had come out of the forest, attacked, killed,
+and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named
+Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had been selected
+to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to
+Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood in his veins, although
+he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied
+one of the best huts. A fire in one corner frequently filled it with
+acrid smoke. It was very small and had no windows. At one end was a
+loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from
+molestation. Piles of sheep skins were arranged for visitors to sit
+upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves
+and tables. The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel
+dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space
+with the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily
+and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with
+a whip; only to return again and again, each time to be driven out
+as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions,
+we carried on a most interesting conversation with Guzman. He had
+been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu
+Pampa. At last the mythical "Pampa of Ghosts" began to take on in
+our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind
+ourselves that another very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins
+"finer than Ollantaytambo" near Huadquiña. Guzman did not seem to dread
+Conservidayoc as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever
+been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for
+the journey. Although it was August and the middle of the dry season,
+rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived
+after dark with our pack animals, but, missing the trail as he neared
+Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog and was extracted
+only with considerable difficulty.
+
+We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained
+bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the evening, after
+we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the
+rain to our comfortable little tent, only to hear various and sundry
+grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large
+sow and six fat young pigs, unable to settle down comfortably at the
+Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available
+place on the mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly
+attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain
+and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs to return
+at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman,
+with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming soup, which at
+first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni--a dish
+of which one of us was particularly fond. The white hollow cylinders
+proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As
+a matter of fact, we learned that the evening meal which Guzman's
+wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very
+cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof
+was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be lying in
+puddles of water. Everything was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still
+failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what
+we should cook for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices
+and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this
+time more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and
+potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and jaws
+of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was
+first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the ten days'
+journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our
+other carriers, spent the morning grinding chuño (frozen potatoes)
+with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or
+toasting large quantities of sweet corn in a terra-cotta olla. With
+chuño and tostado, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of coca
+leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of
+our own provisions we had so small a quantity that we were unable
+to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have
+liked them as much as the food to which they had long been accustomed.
+
+Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the
+rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc. We were told
+that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San
+Fernando, our first stop, was "seven leagues" away, far down in the
+densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the
+mountain back of Guzman's hut and followed a faint trail by a dangerous
+and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not
+improved the path. Our saddle mules were of little use. We had to
+go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could
+see but little of the deep canyon which opened below us, and into
+which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep,
+zigzag path, four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the
+clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path,
+across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally we
+came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little
+shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts; and this
+was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room
+enough in them for our six carriers. It was with great difficulty we
+found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only
+seven feet square. There was no really flat land at all.
+
+At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent,
+I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians in the
+near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail
+structure and made a great disturbance, crying out that there was a
+temblor. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it
+might have done during the stormy night which followed, they were in
+no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs
+of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes do very serious harm,
+they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight
+shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds, a gentle
+rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks
+later, near Huadquiña, we happened to stop at the Colpani telegraph
+office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th--one
+at five o'clock, which had shaken the books off his table and knocked
+over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and
+south. He said the shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself
+to the "dry season" and we were more comfortable. Furthermore, camping
+out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping
+at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of the bridge of San
+Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate
+zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics. Sugar cane, peppers,
+bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and
+sweet potatoes. None of these things will grow at Pampaconas. The
+Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come
+to San Fernando to make chacras or small clearings. The three or
+four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of
+brass buttons that they disappeared during the night rather than
+take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands
+in the morning! From San Fernando, we sent one of our gendarmes back
+to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty
+pounds apiece.
+
+Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing
+on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil here seemed to be
+very rich. In the chacra we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height,
+near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of
+a mato-palo, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves
+its name, for it commands a "charming view" of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain,
+whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction;
+now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were mystified;
+for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more
+difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under branches, along
+slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock,
+over a trail which not even dogs could follow unassisted, slowly we
+made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the
+frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon before we reached another little
+clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet
+above the river, our men decided to spend the night in a tiny little
+shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had
+to dig a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train,
+we made an early start. As we followed the faint little trail across
+the gulches tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate
+several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their
+loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on primitive
+bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together
+and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in
+dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled thickets,
+through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here
+Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while, as we were now in the
+territory of los salvajes, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the
+rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be
+particularly afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our
+carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack
+us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He said we should never
+be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was
+selected to go ahead did not relish his task. Leaving his pack behind,
+he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost
+to view almost immediately. There followed an exciting half-hour while
+we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us,
+and trying to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra,
+who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury,
+"surrounded by fifty servants," and directing his myrmidons to
+checkmate our desires to visit the Inca city on the "pampa of ghosts."
+
+Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound
+of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little tighter
+in readiness for whatever might befall--when there burst out of the
+woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally clad,
+who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us
+a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible, but a glance
+at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was
+with a sigh of relief that we realized there was to be no shower of
+poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs,
+we continued along the jungle trail, through woods which gradually
+became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight
+ahead and, to our intense astonishment, the bright green of waving
+sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found
+us at a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by
+Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it was
+never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his
+fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured Indian
+wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work,
+evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said some called this place
+"Jesús Maria" because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's
+invitation to make ourselves at home, and sat down to an abundant meal
+of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (manioc). Saavedra gave us
+to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had,
+but that he would do everything to enable us to see the ruins, which
+were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the
+valley, to be reached only by a hard trail passable for barefooted
+savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a
+good part of the distance on hands and knees. The next day, while
+our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote
+collected a large number of insects, including eight new species of
+moths and butterflies.
+
+I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for
+centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar cane than
+he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees,
+sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead of being "a very powerful
+chief having many Indians under his control"--a kind of "Pooh-Bah"--he
+was merely a pioneer. In the utter wilderness, far from any neighbors,
+surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established
+his home. He was not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman,
+soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic,
+a modest Peruvian of the best type.
+
+Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate
+such pampas as he could find--one an alluvial fan near his house,
+another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was
+a thatched shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar
+mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, each capable of being turned,
+with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of
+roughly hewn timbers fastened together with wooden pins and lashed
+with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been
+unable to coax any pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he
+was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that
+of his active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of
+such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other trade
+articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing
+on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were a game. At other
+times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using
+in the process of boiling the juice and making crude sugar. He said he
+had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by
+the Incas. Four of them were of the familiar aryballus type. Another
+was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base,
+single incised, conventionalized, animal-head nubbin attached to the
+shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median
+line. Although capable of holding more than ten gallons, this huge
+pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a
+rope passing through the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said
+that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined
+with stones, with a flat stone on top--evidently ancient graves. The
+bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the graves had
+been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He
+had also found a few stone implements and two or three small bronze
+Inca axes.
+
+On the pampa, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite
+labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have taken
+the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no
+pack animals and was usually obliged to bring the cane to the mill on
+his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier,
+while the cane was growing, to construct a new mill near the cane
+field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the
+hill. He said his hardest task was to get money with which to send
+his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in
+which he could get any cash was by making chancaca, crude brown sugar,
+and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days'
+journey on foot up the mountain to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or
+seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could
+usually sell such a load for five soles, equivalent to two dollars
+and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain,
+although he smilingly admitted that it was very difficult to keep
+the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the
+river continually washed away his little rustic bridges. His chief
+regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he
+had had nothing to do, the government had decreed that all firearms
+should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he needed to
+enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large
+turkey-like bird, the pava de la montaña, glossy black, its most
+striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at
+liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly domesticated. It would make an
+attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he
+had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe said it was
+without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his
+plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about taxes and
+have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten
+about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers ran toward the house
+in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a "savage"
+in the bushes near by. The "wild man" was very timid, but curiosity
+finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage
+to accept Saavedra's urgent invitation that he come out and meet
+us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad
+cold in his head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another
+to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that
+I have ever seen.
+
+He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his
+ankles. It was made of a large square of coarsely woven cotton cloth,
+with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up,
+leaving holes for the arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He
+had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large
+mouth. His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one
+shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber net. Around
+his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed
+of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together. Although I did not
+see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees,
+he used this stout loop to fasten his ankles together and thus secure
+a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and
+his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us that these
+Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra
+and his son spoke a little of their language, which sounded to our
+unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and
+gutturals. It was pieced out by signs. The long tunics worn by the
+men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they
+wear very scanty attire--nothing more than a few rags hanging over one
+shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough
+garment to wear during the cold nights, and their only covering, must
+impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run
+away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that they found it
+uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom
+in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber estate.
+
+Saavedra said that he had named his plantation Conservidayoc, because
+it was in truth "a spot where one may be preserved from harm." Such
+was the home of the potentate from whose abode "no one had been known
+to return alive."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+The Pampa of Ghosts
+
+Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail
+which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been clearing. We
+emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine
+view down the valley and particularly of a heavily wooded alluvial fan
+just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little
+oval huts of the savages of Espiritu Pampa, the "Pampa of Ghosts."
+
+On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building
+of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower. From here to
+Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about
+four feet in width and nearly a third of a mile long. It was built of
+uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief
+duty it was to watch from the top of the promontory and who used their
+spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as
+a heavy thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their
+occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle. We
+hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the
+terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not our nervousness. The
+hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs
+driven endwise into the ground and fastened together with vines. A
+small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two
+old black ollas of Inca origin.
+
+In the little chacra, cassava, coca, and sweet potatoes were growing in
+haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical milpa
+farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular
+houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if this could be the
+"Inca city" which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery. There was nothing Incaic about
+the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all
+the rest were round. The buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to
+twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down,
+but gave no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods
+which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other circular
+walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If
+the savages have extended their milpa clearings since our visit, the
+falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient
+village probably belonged to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to
+the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication
+of their having been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began
+to wonder whether the "Pampa of Ghosts" really had anything important
+in store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized
+in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been inhabited,
+off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an "Inca city."
+
+While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here,
+there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy young savage,
+armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of
+bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a bird he had shot. Soon
+afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's,
+accompanied by a cross-eyed friend, all wearing long tunics. They
+offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to
+follow their rapid pace. Half an hour's scramble through the jungle
+brought us to a pampa or natural terrace on the banks of a little
+tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found
+several old artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long,
+rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half
+feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only a foot
+high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently
+the structure had never been completed. Near by was a typical Inca
+fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards
+beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous, hidden behind a curtain of
+hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few
+feet in any direction, the savages showed us the ruins of a group of
+stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by
+itself at the south end of a little pampa, had neither doors nor
+windows. It was rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged
+with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an
+unusual dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side
+of the pampa was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided
+into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones
+laid in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo,
+the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the pampa
+was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of
+a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed fountain or
+bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of
+the houses, their general arrangement, the niches, stone roof-pegs
+and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish
+roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments we could find
+would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different
+sizes, as though some one had been experimenting. Perhaps an Inca who
+had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them
+here in the jungle, but without success.
+
+At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands,
+and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary and
+sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and
+we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were doomed to
+disappointment. During the day some one had brought to the hut eight
+tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined
+to make the night hideous with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to
+discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose
+of exorcising the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer
+up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as
+much as possible of the tangled growth near the best ruins. In this
+process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of
+the savages, they discovered, just below the "bathhouse" where we had
+stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of
+superior construction, well fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches,
+very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a
+little artificial terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery
+were found on the floor, including pieces of a large aryballus.
+
+Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the
+fact that the savages themselves had often been within five feet of
+these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic
+Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search, but all that
+any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a
+brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages carefully. They said
+they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of
+Espiritu Pampa and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the "Vilcabamba Viejo"
+of Father Calancha, that "University of Idolatry where lived the
+teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination," the place to
+which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering? Was
+there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the
+monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they handled their
+monastic robes in the water? They called it a "three days' journey
+over rough country." Another reference in Father Calancha speaks
+of Puquiura as being "two long days' journey from Vilcabamba." It
+took us five days to go from Espiritu Pampa to Pucyura, although
+Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity,
+might do it in three. It is possible to fit some other details of
+the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road
+called Ungacacha. Nevertheless it does not seem to me reasonable to
+suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the
+"University of Idolatry") who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and
+were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa
+would have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The
+difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and Egypt,
+or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa
+the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could have found the
+seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other
+parts of the province, particularly at Machu Picchu, together with a
+cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more nearly resembling those to
+which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says "Vilcabamba the Old"
+was "the largest city" in the province, a term far more applicable
+to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in
+the montaña does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba
+by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his
+forces lost the "young fortress" of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless wishing
+to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the
+Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of Tupac "Vilcabamba
+the old." Ocampo's new "Vilcabamba" was not in existence when Friar
+Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this province. If Calancha wrote
+his chronicles from their notes, the term "old" would not apply to
+Espiritu Pampa, but to an older Vilcabamba than either of the places
+known to Ocampo.
+
+The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have
+required a long period to build. The unfinished building may have
+been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu
+Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez de Figueroa should meet
+him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in
+the montaña, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common at
+Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that the
+ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences
+of this Inca--the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he spent his boyhood
+and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565. [13]
+
+In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru
+after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled "inland toward the
+valley of Sima-ponte ... to the country of the Mañaries Indians,
+a warlike tribe and his friends, where balsas and canoes were posted
+to save him and enable him to escape." There is now no valley in this
+vicinity called Simaponte, so far as we have been able to discover. The
+Mañaries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower
+Urubamba. In order to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went
+down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the "Pampa of Ghosts"
+to canoe navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently
+his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that,
+not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river, he constructed
+five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them
+himself, went down the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming,
+until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca,
+learning of his approach, had gone farther into the woods. Nothing
+daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go
+on foot and barefooted, with hardly anything to eat, most of their
+provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught
+Tupac and his friends; a tragic ending to a terrible chase, hard on
+the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas
+River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed possible that the
+Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of
+which were believed by Dr. Bowman's canoe-men to rise in the mountains
+of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we
+were able definitely to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch
+of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the
+"Sima-ponte." Whether the Comberciato is the "Momori" is hard to say.
+
+To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain
+Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and Maynard. They
+found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were
+tormented by insects and great quantities of ants--a small red ant
+found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length,
+frequently seen among the leaves on the ground. The bite of the red
+ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of
+their carriers who was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered
+intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also
+his leg and hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and
+hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind made of palm leaves a
+few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three
+Indians fished all night and caught only one fish, a perch weighing
+about four pounds.
+
+The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in
+knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to become blue
+with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood
+of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more
+than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The lower course
+of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation,
+but the valley is much narrower than the Cosireni. The width of
+the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the
+Cosireni. The climate is very trying. The nights are hot. Insect
+pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that "the forest was filled with
+annoying, though sting-less, bees which persisted in attempting to
+roost on the countenance of any human being available." On the banks
+of the Comberciato he found several families of savages. All the men
+were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful
+bows made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds
+and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found,
+including the large red howler, inert and easily located by its deep,
+roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles;
+the giant black spider monkey, very alert, and, when frightened, fairly
+flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey,
+black in color, and very intelligent in expression, frequently tamed
+by the savages, who "enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to
+eating them when food is scarce." "The flesh of monkeys is greatly
+appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire."
+
+On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides
+carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened proved to
+contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man
+finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies into a small bag,
+saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those
+seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats
+are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it harder to
+use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate
+this valley for about ten years, and at first kept their wives and
+children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker
+were sent here to determine the astronomical position of Espiritu
+Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their
+families. Perhaps it is doubtful whether they knew just what he was
+doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+All the men and older boys wore white fillets of bamboo. The married
+men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the
+characteristic lip ornament of the Campas. Some of the children wore
+no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One
+of them had a truly savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet,
+had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must
+have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows. All the
+women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One
+little girl, not more than six years old, was carrying on her back a
+child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It
+will be remembered that forest Indians nearly always use tump-lines
+so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer
+than the others and looked as though she might have had a Spanish
+ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad,
+wore a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied
+around her waist. All her children were naked. The children of the
+woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics,
+and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite, was decorated with
+bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled
+from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy as monkey
+meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by
+the highlanders, may be doubted. Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's
+preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards "rather
+than to perish of famine." His Indian allies lived perfectly well in
+a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever
+have permitted Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able
+to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of
+this valley having been an important part of the domain of the last
+Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the
+carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas. Although they did not
+have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous
+as to what use the latter might some day make of the powerful bows
+and long arrows.
+
+At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar
+for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a row along the
+side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed
+handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The result was a confection or
+"emergency ration" which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst
+of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed out of
+the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked
+with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had been falling
+above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor
+Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's fire and filled our
+tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet,
+and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly nothing
+ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas
+
+It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the
+last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which we could not
+fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important
+of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its buildings are far older than
+the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we
+may have found at Machu Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story
+of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at
+the time of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca
+towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far away
+from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were
+the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly seven hundred
+years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536
+and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about 800 A.D.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty
+generations, when, as has been told in Chapter VI, invaders came
+from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful
+civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering feats which
+we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the
+Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti VI, who was killed by
+an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos,
+whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been translated
+for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University,
+tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body to
+"Tampu-tocco." This, says the historian, was "a healthy place" where
+there was a cave in which they hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the
+finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General
+anarchy prevailed throughout the ancient empire. The good old days
+of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the
+old empire was destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In
+these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which
+followed the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire,
+Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units. Each
+district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against
+its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen in the ruins of
+small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas
+were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests,
+wise men, and chiefs of the ancient régime, built a new city at
+"Tampu-tocco." Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and
+lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to them,
+little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing
+chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent chiefs or
+"robber barons." In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi
+Truaman Quicho.
+
+The survivors of the old régime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco,
+because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or tremblings
+there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young
+king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed, they could bury him
+in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of
+Pachacuti VI.
+
+Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen
+an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed. To their
+ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth
+recording happened for centuries. During this period several of the
+kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great
+Amautas had reigned, but for one reason or another were obliged to
+forego their ambitions.
+
+One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called
+Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began to write on
+the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the
+highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping idols and animals,
+to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall
+of the Amautas, and to return to the ways of their ancestors. He
+met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were
+killed and little or no change took place. Discouraged by the failure
+of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause,
+Tupac Cauri was told by his soothsayers that the matter which most
+displeased the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade
+anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate was
+observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used
+letters. Instead, they used quipus, strings and knots. It was supposed
+that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one
+realized how near the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most
+momentous step.
+
+This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed
+to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest. We
+have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it
+aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons with
+Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste
+Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal ancestors
+and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful
+investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard. As a matter of fact,
+to students of Sumner's "Folkways," the story rings true. Some young
+fellow, brighter than the rest, developed a system of ideographs
+which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were
+beginning to adopt it. The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did
+not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets,
+heretofore handed down orally to the neophytes, might become public
+property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to
+spread. There followed some extremely unlucky event--the ambassadors
+were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a
+result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by the priests,
+determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet
+been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient; the leaves
+withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were
+lost. Had the new invention been permitted to exist a little longer,
+some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it
+would have persisted. The rulers and priests, however, found that the
+important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well
+by means of the quipus. And the "job" of those whose duty it was to
+remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is
+nothing unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the
+history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from
+making important advances.
+
+Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco
+a kind of university where boys were taught the use of quipus, the
+method of counting and the significance of the different colored
+strings, while their fathers and older brothers were trained in
+military exercises--in other words, practiced with the sling, the
+bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows and arrows. Around the
+name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called,
+is gathered the story of various intellectual movements which took
+place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and
+military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The
+ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition of their
+ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to
+make the attempt to reestablish themselves there. An earthquake, which
+ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses,
+destroyed towns, and was followed by the outbreak of a disastrous
+epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although
+in healthy Tampu-tocco there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became
+more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was
+terraced and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized,
+and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure
+arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic ruler
+of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca,
+the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown
+to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how he could secure new
+lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined
+to set out with them "toward the hill over which the sun rose," as
+we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was
+a descendant of a long line of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived
+in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the
+antiquities of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it
+was handed down to the descendants of the former rulers of Peru. In
+it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in
+reaching Cuzco and settled there. With the return of the descendants
+of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco
+married his own sister in order that he might not lose caste and that
+no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with
+his. He made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded
+as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now
+came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief, the most
+valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains
+and soldiers were brave, well disciplined, and well armed. All his
+affairs prospered greatly. "Afterward he ordered works to be executed
+at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he
+descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco." I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or
+near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south of Cuzco. I
+learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in
+the town. The most important are the ruins of Maucallacta, an Inca
+village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting
+of several crags and large rocks, the surface of one of which is
+carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma
+Urco. Beneath the rocks are some caves. I was told they had recently
+been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and
+the characteristics of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the
+story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if
+Tampu-tocco must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better
+defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would it
+have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army
+to have taken refuge there and set up an independent kingdom in the
+face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid
+in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu is not a natural citadel.
+
+The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no
+precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no natural
+defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of
+the Amautas. Furthermore, tampu means "a place of temporary abode,"
+or "a tavern," or "an improved piece of ground" or "farm far from a
+town"; tocco means "window." There is an old tavern at Maucallacta
+near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to
+justify the name of "window tavern" or "place of temporary abode"
+(or "farm far from a town") "noted for its windows." There is nothing
+of a "masonry wall with three windows" corresponding to Salcamayhua's
+description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace. The word
+"Tampu-tocco" does not occur on any map I have been able to consult,
+nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru compiled by Paz Soldan.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Machu Picchu
+
+It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of
+the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions near Cuzco
+by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy
+to Colpani the road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the
+majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling
+beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of
+the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the
+power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare
+with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more
+than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite
+rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening,
+roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and
+tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the
+mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward
+by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning
+and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all,
+there is the fascination of finding here and there under the swaying
+vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of
+a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering romance
+of the ancient builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which
+appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give
+expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty. Space forbids
+any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama,
+the rank tropical foliage, the countless terraces, the towering cliffs,
+the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor
+Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told us of ruins at
+Machu Picchu, as was related in Chapter X.
+
+The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered
+and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he
+would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb
+for such a wet day. When he found that we were willing to pay him a
+sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity,
+he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed that they
+would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco
+I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance upstream. On the
+road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This
+region has an unpleasant notoriety for being the favorite haunt of
+"vipers." The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the
+fer-de-lance, a very venomous serpent capable of making considerable
+springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two
+of our mules died from snake-bite.
+
+After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road
+and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of the river. Here
+there was a primitive "bridge" which crossed the roaring rapids at
+its narrowest part, where the stream was forced to flow between two
+great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs,
+some of which were not long enough to span the distance between the
+boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga
+and Carrasco took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using
+their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would
+immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite boulders. I
+am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled
+across, six inches at a time. Even after we reached the other side
+I could not help wondering what would happen to the "bridge" if a
+particularly heavy shower should fall in the valley above. A light
+rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the
+bridge was already threatened by the foaming rapids. It would not
+take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should
+happen during the day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact,
+it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to
+cross the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle,
+and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous slope. For
+an hour and twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the
+distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips
+of our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the
+roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way as to
+help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable
+cliff. In another place the slope was covered with slippery grass
+where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide
+said that there were lots of snakes here. The humidity was great,
+the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several
+good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected arrival,
+welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then
+they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes, called here cumara,
+a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian kumala, as has been
+pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from
+our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a few ancient
+stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and
+Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their home. They said they
+had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and
+they were usually free from undesirable visitors. They did not speak
+Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more
+ruins "a little farther along." In this country one never can tell
+whether such a report is worthy of credence. "He may have been lying"
+is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly,
+I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry to move. The heat
+was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool
+and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench, hospitably covered
+immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most
+comfortable. Furthermore, the view was simply enchanting. Tremendous
+green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba
+below. Immediately in front, on the north side of the valley, was
+a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the
+solitary peak of Huayna Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible
+precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped
+mountains rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we
+had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more difficult--a
+perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side
+of the ridge. It was their only means of egress in the wet season,
+when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was
+not surprised to learn that they went away from home only "about once
+a month."
+
+Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It
+seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon had
+been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of
+the new government road settlers began once more to occupy this
+region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on
+the slopes of Machu Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the
+sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial
+terraces, in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared
+off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of
+maize, sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree
+tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of the
+ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found,
+however, that there were neither springs nor wells near the ancient
+buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream
+to the citadel had long since disappeared beneath the forest, filled
+with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter
+of the ruins, the Indians were now enjoying the convenience of living
+near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting
+than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had a glimpse, and
+the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered
+at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy,
+I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed
+farther up the ridge and around a slight promontory. Arteaga had
+"been here once before," and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte
+and Alvarez in the hut. They sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the
+stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then
+recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large
+trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the
+untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a maze of
+beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and
+the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow, hiding in bamboo
+thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls
+of white granite ashlars most carefully cut and exquisitely fitted
+together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a
+"place far from town and conspicuous for its windows."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco
+------
+
+
+Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined
+with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended to be a Royal
+Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building
+had been constructed. The wall followed the natural curvature of the
+rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I
+have ever seen. This beautiful wall, made of carefully matched ashlars
+of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the
+work of a master artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken
+by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly
+simple and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars,
+gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing in size
+toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing
+lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars, and the gradual
+gradation of the courses, combined to produce a wonderful effect,
+softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the
+Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar, there are no ugly spaces
+between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me
+to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the eye of a
+master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the
+square. He had no instruments of precision, so he had to depend on
+his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry
+and beauty of form. His product received none of the harshness of
+mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular
+blocks are not really rectangular. The apparently straight lines of
+the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular
+temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework in the
+far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in
+bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great stairway of large
+granite blocks, walked along a pampa where the Indians had a small
+vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins
+of two of the finest structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were
+they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite;
+their walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length,
+and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the
+side toward the clearing. The principal temple was lined with
+exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the
+back wall. There were seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under
+the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long,
+probably a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though
+it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+The other temple is on the east side of the pampa. I called it the
+Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among
+Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking the citadel, is a massive
+stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too
+large to serve any useful purpose, yet most beautifully made with the
+greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of
+peculiar significance. Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there
+a similar structure conspicuous as "a masonry wall with three windows."
+
+These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the
+slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would
+have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries when it
+was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was
+essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness protected by natural
+bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable
+stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent excavations and the clearing
+made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that
+this was the chief place in Uilcapampa.
+
+It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu
+Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco and
+I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting
+ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by the Indians for
+their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick
+jungle growth--some walls were actually supporting trees ten and
+twelve inches in diameter--that it was impossible to determine just
+what would be found here. As soon as I could get hold of Mr. Tucker,
+who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the
+Urubamba with Dr. Bowman, I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I
+knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential
+for Mr. Tucker to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of
+October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte
+and Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days
+while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data from which
+Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could
+any words of mine the importance of this site and the necessity for
+further investigation.
+
+With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco
+had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their importance. No
+one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of
+the ridge. It had never been visited by any of the planters of the
+lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds
+through the canyon two thousand feet below.
+
+It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey
+from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed by travelers
+and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the
+conquistadores ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it
+surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly
+refers to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a
+Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges was
+at Huadquiña in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near,
+he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the walls of one of the
+finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by
+Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately below the bridge of San
+Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have
+visited Machu Picchu long before that; because in 1875, as has been
+said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of
+there being ruins at "Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu." He tried to
+find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the
+canyon of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through
+the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which brought
+him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five
+miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the
+needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up the lower
+valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the
+banks of the river through the grand canyon to enable the much-desired
+coca and aguardiente to be shipped from Huadquiña, Maranura, and Santa
+Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids
+the necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous
+snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very
+expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent repair. In
+fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days
+or weeks at a time, following some tremendous avalanche. Yet it was
+this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near
+the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where he could raise food for his
+family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this
+new road which brought Richarte, Alvarez, and their enterprising
+friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of
+occupying the ancient terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow
+for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over
+the precipices, and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It
+was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between
+Ollantaytambo and Huadquiña and enabled us to learn that the Incas,
+or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses of
+the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty
+of their ancient civilization, more interesting and extensive than any
+which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+The Origin of Machu Picchu
+
+Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating
+Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and of the ancient
+towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest
+content with a discussion of its probable identity. Here was a powerful
+citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful
+of defenders could prevent a great army from taking the place by
+assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture
+as to have built a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable
+land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced in
+order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for
+comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration. They
+were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture,
+sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world has ever
+seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently
+advanced in art to realize the beauty of simplicity. What could have
+induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes,
+with all its disadvantages, as the site for their capital, unless
+they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+The thought will already have occurred to the reader that the Temple
+of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native
+writer who had "heard from a child the most ancient traditions and
+histories," including the story already quoted from Sir Clements
+Markham's translation that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, "ordered
+works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a
+masonry wall with three windows, which were emblems of the house
+of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called
+'Tampu-tocco.' " Although none of the other chroniclers gives the
+story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the
+place of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a
+place called Tampu-tocco, "an inn or country place remarkable for
+its windows." Sir Clements Markham, in his "Incas of Peru," refers
+to Tampu-tocco as "the hill with the three openings or windows."
+
+The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the
+traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu, about nine
+miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and
+caves, but careful examination shows that while there are more than
+three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The
+buildings of Machu Picchu, on the other hand, have far more windows
+than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu,
+like that of most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite
+or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+
+So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of
+anything like a "masonry wall with three windows" of such a ceremonial
+character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would
+certainly seem as though the Temple of the Three Windows, the most
+significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred
+to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the
+first meaning of tocco in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is
+"ventana" or "window," and while "window" is the only meaning given
+this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908),
+a dictionary compiled from many sources, the second meaning of tocco
+given by Holguin is "alacena," "a cupboard set in a wall." Undoubtedly
+this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a
+niche. Now the drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's
+translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression
+of niches rather than of windows. Does Tampu-tocco mean a tampu
+remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be
+any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu, on the other hand,
+there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has
+been referred to as a "Royal Mausoleum." As a matter of fact, nearly
+all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches
+were so common a feature of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir
+Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling
+Tampu-tocco "the hill with the three openings or windows." In any case
+Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However,
+in view of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that
+Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that they
+did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual
+remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco
+were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by Toledo at the
+time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended
+from those who used to live near Las Salinas, the important salt works
+near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their
+fathers and grandfathers repeat the tradition that when the first Inca,
+Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did
+not say that the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems
+to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the
+still older testimony of some Indians born before the arrival of the
+first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A
+chief, aged ninety-two, testified that Manco Ccapac came out of a cave
+called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not
+one of the witnesses stated that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu,
+although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done
+so if, as the contemporary historians believed, this was really the
+original Tampu-tocco. The chroniclers were willing enough to accept
+the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco
+Ccapac was born, and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were
+the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they
+should have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was
+their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts had been
+successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco
+to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body after the
+overthrow of the old régime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they
+know it was in the same fastnesses of the Andes to which in the days
+of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the
+cause of their reticence?
+
+Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The
+splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba made it
+an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries
+of lawlessness and confusion which succeeded the barbarian invasions
+from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent
+earthquakes and also its healthfulness, both marked characteristics
+of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the
+existence of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the
+common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location might
+have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is
+reasonable to conclude that the first name of the ruins at Machu Picchu
+was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of
+the little kingdom where during the centuries between the Amautas and
+the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions
+of the ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail
+before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great organization
+of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform
+mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools of wood, stone,
+and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes
+who knew little of the arts of peace. The defeated leaders had to
+choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce
+enemies. Furthermore, in the environs of Machu Picchu they found
+every variety of climate--valleys so low as to produce the precious
+coca, yucca, and plantain, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics;
+slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize,
+quinoa, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops,
+including both sweet and white potatoes, oca, añu, and ullucu. Here,
+within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry
+and cure the coca leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in
+the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with
+the most careful terracing was not large enough to support a very
+great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel to the
+chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged
+to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the broad, pleasant
+valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a
+people which had reached such a stage in engineering, architecture,
+and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged
+canyons. Certainly there is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature
+to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief
+need was a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great
+ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they utilized
+their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in
+between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and their enemies
+on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for
+generations. Aided by the temperate climate in which they lived,
+and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours'
+climb up or down from their towns and cities, they became a hardy,
+vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought
+its way back to the rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants
+of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital,
+the Empire of the Incas.
+
+After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco,
+what more natural than that he should have built a fine temple in
+honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas,
+and nothing would have been more reasonable than the construction
+of the Temple of the Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and
+extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from
+whom they traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led
+them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of Cuzco
+itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of
+Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco grew and the Inca
+Empire flourished.
+
+As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account
+for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry to the islands of
+Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace
+was forgotten by the common people--although undoubtedly known to the
+priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+Then came Pizarro and the bigoted conquistadores. The native chiefs
+faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient
+religion. The Spaniards coveted gold and silver. The most precious
+possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but
+the sacred Virgins of the Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome,
+were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great
+Sun God. Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who
+needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep them from
+hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices
+and secure the good effects of his smiling face. If he delayed his
+coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize would mildew
+and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his
+accustomed brightness after the harvest, the ears of corn could not be
+properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual
+behavior on the part of the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently
+their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as
+"Virgins" who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of
+priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some
+of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others escaped and
+accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the
+first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril of their lives
+urged the Inca to let them visit the "University of Idolatry," at
+"Vilcabamba Viejo," "the largest city" in the province. Machu Picchu
+admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very
+easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to have kept the monks in the vicinity
+of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single
+glimpse of its unique temples and remarkable palaces. It would have
+been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego
+to the village of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the
+Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley
+crossed the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful
+ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the friars
+might easily have been lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain
+without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca
+"university." Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little
+knowledge of the architectural character of "Vilcabamba Viejo" that
+no description of it could be given their friends, eventually to
+be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey across
+country from Puquiura might easily have taken "three days."
+
+Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents
+of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial caves which
+we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion
+of skulls belonging to men is very large. There are many so-called
+"trepanned" skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured
+in war by having their skulls crushed in, either with clubs or
+the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found
+more than twenty-five skulls without encountering some "trepanned"
+specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the
+excavations at Machu Picchu, where one hundred sixty-four skulls
+were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been "trepanned." Of
+the one hundred thirty-five skeletons whose sex could be accurately
+determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore,
+it was in the graves of the females that the finest artifacts were
+found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not
+a single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was
+found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+
+Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the
+female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast. This fits in
+with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only
+with beautiful women of the highlands, but also with those who came
+from the tribes of the Yungas, or "warm valleys." The "warm valleys"
+may be those of the rubber country, but Sir Clements Markham thought
+the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts
+discovered at Machu Picchu was a "snuffing tube" intended for use with
+the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers
+to induce a hypnotic state. This powder was made from the seeds of
+the tree which the Incas called huilca or uilca, which, as has been
+pointed out in Chapter XI, grows near these ruins. This seems to me
+to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with
+Calancha's "Vilcabamba."
+
+It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the
+requirements of "the largest city, in which was the University of
+Idolatry." Until some one can find the ruins of another important place
+within three days' journey of Pucyura which was an important religious
+center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am
+inclined to believe that this was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Calancha,
+just as Espiritu Pampa was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Ocampo.
+
+In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting to be by Titu
+Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos,
+he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from Cuzco went first "to
+Vilcabamba, the head of all that province."
+
+In the "Anales del Peru" Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro,
+thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried
+to please the Inca by sending him a present of a very fine pony and
+a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger,
+the Inca killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this,
+he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite wife,
+and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that "when she
+should be dead they would put her remains in a basket and let it float
+down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it
+to her husband, the Inca." She must have believed that at that time
+Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu
+Pampa is not.
+
+We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos,
+where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his house. Surrounded
+by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which
+the Spaniards were obliged to use in passing from Lima to Cuzco, he
+could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been
+so conveniently located for robbing the Spanish caravans nor for
+supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu
+Picchu was at one time occupied by the Incas and partly built by them
+on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably
+of the so-called Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent
+buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of
+Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore, they
+are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old
+province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which would naturally
+be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the "head of the province." Espiritu
+Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a place which was so important
+as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as
+"the largest city."
+
+It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of
+Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest refuge for
+those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in
+the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants Manco probably
+built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older
+ones. Here they lived out their days, secure in the knowledge that
+no Indians would ever breathe to the conquistadores the secret of
+their sacred refuge.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu
+Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence was so well
+kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the
+theories of its identity with "Tampu-tocco" and "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles
+Wiener heard about it.
+
+Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents
+of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate that
+the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of
+this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza de Leon
+and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information
+about all the holy places of the Incas, give the names of many places
+which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may
+finally recognize the temples of Machu Picchu. On the other hand,
+it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or
+other chroniclers had seen this citadel, they would have described
+its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it
+seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have the ruins of
+Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also
+the ruins of a sacred city of the last Incas. Surely this granite
+citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of
+its striking beauty and the indescribable charm of its surroundings,
+appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800
+A.D. as the safest place of refuge for the last remnants of the
+old régime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the
+capital of a new kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family
+which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire,
+it seems to have been again sought out in time of trouble, when in
+1534 another foreign invader arrived--this time from Europe--with a
+burning desire to extinguish all vestiges of the ancient religion. In
+its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the
+Sun, priestesses of the most humane cult of aboriginal America. Here,
+concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and
+nature, these consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no
+known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls
+and artifacts to be described in another volume. Whoever they were,
+whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure--that few romances can ever surpass that of the
+granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu Picchu,
+the crown of Inca Land.
+
+
+
+
+
+Glossary
+
+Añu: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way
+as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes the bar-hold
+is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually
+found in the gateway of a compound or group of Inca houses.
+
+Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are
+chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered
+hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2
+inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles
+to its slope and flush with its surface. To it the purlins of the roof
+could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the
+lintel of a gateway to a compound. If the "bar-holds" were intended
+to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders
+may have been for a vertical bar.
+
+Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The alcaldes are
+his Indian aids.
+
+Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often
+applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+Mañana: To-morrow, or by and by. The "mañana habit" is Spanish-American
+procrastination.
+
+Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The
+milpa system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire,
+destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+Montaña: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to
+the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys and the
+Amazon Basin.
+
+Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians
+to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into a gable
+wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used
+in connection with "eye-bonders," the roof-pegs served as points to
+which the roof could be tied down.
+
+Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little
+less than half a gold dollar.
+
+Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the
+walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside so as
+to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often
+found alternating with niches and placed on a level with the lintels
+of the niches.
+
+Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so
+depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village
+or hamlet.
+
+Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state,
+used for making chuño, after drying, freezing, and pressing out the
+bitter juices.
+
+Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+Viejo: Old.
+
+
+
+Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the
+National Geographic Society
+
+Thomas Barbour:
+
+Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. Proceedings of
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, LXV, 505-507, September,
+1913. 1 pl.
+
+(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian
+Expedition of 1914-1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+609-620, 1921.
+
+Hiram Bingham:
+
+The Ruins of Choqquequirau. American Anthropologist, XII, 505-525,
+October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi,
+405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8°.
+
+Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLIV, 20-26, January, 1912.
+
+The Ascent of Coropuna. Harper's Magazine, CXXIV, 489-502, March,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. Proceedings of American Antiquarian
+Society, XXII, N.S., 135-196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. American
+Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 297-305, April, 1912. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+A Search for the Last Inca Capital. Harper's Magazine, CXXV, 696-705,
+October, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Discovery of Machu Picchu. Ibid., CXXVI, 709-719, April,
+1913. Illus.
+
+In the Wonderland of Peru. National Geographic Magazine, XXIV, 387-573,
+April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in
+1911. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211, 1-2, July, 1913.
+
+The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. American Anthropologist, XVI,
+No. 2, 185-199. April-June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. Harper's Magazine, CXXIX, 452-463,
+August, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Pampaconas River. The Geographical Journal, XLIV, 211-214, August,
+1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+The Story of Machu Picchu. National Geographic Magazine, XXVII,
+172-217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. American Anthropologist, XVII, 257-271,
+April-June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. Proceedings of Nineteenth
+International Congress of Americanists, Washington, D.C., pp. 253-260,
+December, 1915.
+
+Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. National Geographic
+Magazine, XXIX, 431-473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. The Builder, II,
+No. 12, 361-366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. American Journal
+of Science, XXXIV, 12-16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+Isaiah Bowman:
+
+The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. American Journal of
+Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 306-325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca
+Race. Ibid., XXXIV, No. 204, 497-509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Cañon of the Urubamba. Bulletin of American Geographical Society,
+XLIV, 881-897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the
+Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336 pp., plates,
+maps, plans.
+
+Lawrence Bruner:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera
+(Acridiidae--Short Horned Locusts). Proceedings of U.S. National
+Museum, XLIV, 177-187, 1913.
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to
+the Acridiidae). Ibid., XLV, 585-586, 1913.
+
+A. N. Caudell:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of
+Acridiidae). Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV, 347-357, 1913.
+
+Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. Bulletin of
+Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177-299,
+1916. 25 pl.
+
+Frank M. Chapman:
+
+The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of
+Peru. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+
+O. F. Cook:
+
+Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. Journal of Washington Academy of
+Sciences, VI, No. 4, 86-90, 1916.
+
+Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. Ibid., VI, No. 10, 284-293,
+1916. Illus.
+
+Staircase Farms of the Ancients. National Geographic Magazine, XXIX,
+474-534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. Smithsonian Report for 1918,
+487-491. 4 pl.
+
+Domestication of Animals in Peru. Journal of Heredity, x, 176-181,
+April, 1919. Illus.
+
+(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+Polar Bear Cacti. Journal of Heredity, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113-120,
+March, 1917. Illus.
+
+William H. Dall:
+
+Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XXXVIII, 177-182, 1911. Illus.
+
+Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale
+Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 627-649, 1913.
+
+George F. Eaton:
+
+Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of
+Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 325-333, April,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. Ibid., XXXVI, No. 211, 3-14,
+July, 1913. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 218,
+141-154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
+Picchu. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, v, 3-96, May,
+1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Yale Medical Journal,
+XVIII, 325-335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+Alexander W. Evans:
+
+Hepaticæ: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts
+and Sciences, XVIII, 291-345, April, 1914.
+
+Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. Memoirs, American
+Anthropological Assoc., III, No. 2, 59-148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga
+Indians. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, XXV, 1-92, April,
+1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+Harry W. Foote:
+
+(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze
+Axes. American Journal of Science, XXXIV, 128-132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+The Gravels at Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211,
+15-29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+The La Paz Gorge. Ibid., XXXVI, 141-150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLV, 561-575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. American
+Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 213, 187-213, September, 1913. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. Ibid., XXXVII,
+No. 218, 125-140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 220,
+289-298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. Ibid., XLI, No. 241,
+1-100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+Osgood Hardy:
+
+Cuzco and Apurimac. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, XLVI,
+No. 7, 500-512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. American Anthropologist, XXI,
+1-27, January-March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+Sir Clements Markham:
+
+Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, Geographical Journal, XXXVIII, No. 6,
+590-591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+C. H. Mathewson:
+
+A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from
+Machu Picchu. American Journal of Science, XL, No. 240, 525-602,
+December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+P. R. Myers:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Addendum to the
+Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLVII, 361-362, 1914.
+
+S. A. Rohwer:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Hymenoptera, Superfamilies
+Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV,
+439-454, 1913.
+
+Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
+Reptiles. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 541-547, 1913.
+
+Oldfield Thomas:
+
+Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian
+Expedition of 1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+217-249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+H. L. Viereck:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of
+1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLIV, 469-470, 1913.
+
+R. S. Williams:
+
+Peruvian Mosses. Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club, XLIII, 323-334,
+June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua
+words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as they are
+written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt
+is made by a Spanish writer, he is always likely to put a silent
+"h" at the beginning of such words as huilca which is pronounced
+"weel-ka." In the middle of a word "h" is always sounded. Machu
+Picchu is pronounced "Mah'-chew Pick'-chew." Uiticos is pronounced
+"Weet'-ee-kos." Uilcapampa is pronounced "Weel'-ka-pahm-pah." Cuzco is
+"Koos'-koh."
+
+[2] A league, usually about 3 1/3 miles, is really the distance an
+average mule can walk in an hour.
+
+[3] Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth
+century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower of
+that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having
+contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark or quinine
+and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into
+Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the botanical name
+of the genus cinchona. Montesinos was well educated and appears to
+have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled
+extensively in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas
+was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the
+leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless, one
+finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham,
+foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology, was inclined
+to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of
+pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for the Hakluyt Society
+by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+
+[4] Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game
+of chess between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees,
+who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the tone and
+language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego
+Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him. A totally different
+account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is
+that in a volume purporting to have been dictated to Friar Marcos by
+Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation:
+
+"After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in
+the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much good fellowship,
+playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a
+boy [ten years old]. Without having any suspicion, although an Indian
+woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the
+Inca, my Father was playing with them as usual. In this game, just as
+my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded,
+strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed, and they were
+seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they
+left him for dead. I, being a little boy, and seeing my Father treated
+in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned
+furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill
+me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes. They looked
+for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father
+had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate, in high spirits, saying,
+'Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.' But at
+this moment the captain Rimachi Yupanqui arrived with some Antis,
+and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get
+very far along a difficult road, they were caught and pulled from
+their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were
+burnt. Notwithstanding his wounds my Father lived for three days."
+
+Another version is given by Montesinos in his Anales. It is more like
+Titu Cusi's.
+
+[5] A Spanish derivative from the Quichua mucha, "a kiss." Muchani
+means "to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands."
+
+[6] Uiticos is probably derived from Uiticuni, meaning "to withdraw
+to a distance."
+
+[7] Described in "Across South America."
+
+[8] On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species
+of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: "Of all the novelties,
+by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial .... Members of the
+family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador." Mr. Heller's
+discovery greatly extends the recent range of the kangaroo family.
+
+[9] Mr. Safford says in his article on the "Identity of Cohoba"
+(Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Sept. 19, 1916):
+"The most remarkable fact connected with Piptadenia peregrina, or
+'tree-tobacco' is that ... the source of its intoxicating properties
+still remains unknown." One of the bifurcated tubes."in the first
+stages of manufacture," was found at Machu Picchu.
+
+[10] See the illustrations in Chapters XVII and XVIII.
+
+[11] Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical
+with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river and the old
+Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by
+using the correct, official spelling for the river and town, viz.,
+Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place
+referred to in the contemporary histories of the Inca Manco.
+
+[12] In those days the term "Andes" appears to have been very limited
+in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of Cuzco where
+lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its
+culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+
+[13] Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not
+of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
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+
+<!DOCTYPE html
+PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
+
+<!-- This HTML file has been automatically generated from an XML source, using XSLT. If you find any mistakes, please edit the XML source. --><html lang="en-us">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
+
+<title>Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru</title>
+<link href="style/gutenberg.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
+<link href="style/arctic.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
+<link href="style/print.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print">
+<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/">
+<meta name="author" content="Hiram Bingham (1875&#8211;1956)">
+<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Hiram Bingham (1875&#8211;1956)">
+<meta name="DC.Title" content="Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru">
+<meta name="DC.Date" content="1 January 2004">
+<meta name="DC.Language" content="en-us">
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: July 10, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<a id="d0e68"></a><p id="d0e69"></p>
+<div id="d0e70" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p000.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e71">&#8220;Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8212;Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you.
+Go!&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e73">Kipling: &#8220;<i>The Explorer</i>&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><p><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e78"></a></span>
+
+</p>
+<h1 class="docTitle">Inca Land</h1>
+<h1 class="docTitle">Explorations in the Highlands of Peru</h1>
+<h2 class="byline">By
+<br>
+<span class="docAuthor">Hiram Bingham</span>
+<br>
+Director of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society, <br>Member of the American Alpine Club, <br>Professor of Latin-American History in Yale University; <br>author of &#8220;Across South America,&#8221; etc.
+</h2>
+<h2 class="docImprint">With Illustrations
+<br id="d0e106">
+Boston and New York
+<br id="d0e108">
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+<br id="d0e110">
+The Riverside Press Cambridge
+<br id="d0e112">
+1922
+</h2>
+
+<a id="d0e132"></a><p id="d0e133">This Volume
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e135">is affectionately dedicated
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e137">to
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e139">the Muse who inspired it
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e141">the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e143"></a>Page vii</span></p><a id="d0e144"></a><h1>Preface</h1>
+<p id="d0e147">The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into the interior of Peru and also many explorations into
+the labyrinth of early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my travels covered only a part of southern
+Peru, they took me into every variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude at which men have constructed
+houses or erected tents in the Western Hemisphere&#8212;from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to cross bleak Andean
+passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into the
+dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of
+violent contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys
+have more plant life than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from glaciers to tree ferns within a few
+hours. So also in the labyrinth of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas&#8212;no historians go more rapidly from fact
+to fancy, from accurate observation to grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give conflicting statements
+with greater frequency. The story of the Incas is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e149">It was the mystery and romance of some of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e151"></a>Page viii</span>wonderful pictures of a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively unknown region between the Apurimac
+and the Urubamba, sometimes called &#8220;the Cradle of the Incas.&#8221; Although my photographs cannot compete with the imaginative
+pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther into
+the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e153">Some of my story has already been told in <i>Harper's</i> and the <i>National Geographic</i>, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale
+University and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course of preparation. My own observations are
+based partly on a study of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly on the maps and notes made by my
+companions, and partly on a study of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven thousand negatives.
+Another source of information was the opportunity of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great advantages
+of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e161">My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay; in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote,
+Dr. William G. Erving,<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e163"></a>Page ix</span> Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius; in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr.
+Luther T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald, Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy,
+and Joseph Little; and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller, E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence
+F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck, Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my comrades in enterprises
+which were not always free from discomfort or danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In the following
+pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork; at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps in
+another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to cover more particularly Machu Picchu<a id="d0e165src" href="#d0e165" class="noteref">1</a> and its vicinity, they will eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e171">Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult
+to secure; to Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal and enthusiastic support; to President
+Taft of the United States and President Leguia of Peru for <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e173"></a>Page x</span>official help of a most important nature; to Messrs. W. R. Grace &amp; Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and Mr. L. S. Blaisdell,
+of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and untiring co&ouml;peration; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque, and their sons,
+and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University, for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and Miss
+Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible
+the writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+<i>October</i> 1, 1922
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e178"></a>Page xi</span>
+
+</p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e165" href="#d0e165src" class="noteref">1</a> Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as
+they are written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt is made by a Spanish writer, he is always
+likely to put a silent &#8220;h&#8221; at the beginning of such words as <i>huilca</i> which is pronounced &#8220;weel-ka.&#8221; In the middle of a word &#8220;h&#8221; is always sounded. Machu Picchu is pronounced &#8220;Mah'-chew Pick'-chew.&#8221;
+Uiticos is pronounced &#8220;Weet'-ee-kos.&#8221; Uilcapampa is pronounced &#8220;Weel'-ka-pahm-pah.&#8221; Cuzco is &#8220;Koos'-koh.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e180"></a><h1>Contents</h1>
+<ul id="d0e183">
+<li id="d0e184">I.	<a id="d0e186" href="#d0e554">Crossing the Desert</a>	1
+</li>
+<li id="d0e189">II.	<a id="d0e191" href="#d0e761">Climbing Coropuna</a> 23
+</li>
+<li id="d0e194">III.	<a id="d0e196" href="#d0e1006">To Parinacochas</a> 50
+</li>
+<li id="d0e199">IV.	<a id="d0e201" href="#d0e1207">Flamingo Lake</a> 74
+</li>
+<li id="d0e204">V.	<a id="d0e206" href="#d0e1381">Titicaca</a>  95
+</li>
+<li id="d0e209">VI.	<a id="d0e211" href="#d0e1538">The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders</a> 110
+</li>
+<li id="d0e214">VII.	<a id="d0e216" href="#d0e1769">The Valley of the Huatanay</a> 133
+</li>
+<li id="d0e219">VIII.	<a id="d0e221" href="#d0e1988">The Oldest City in South America</a> 157
+</li>
+<li id="d0e224">IX.	<a id="d0e226" href="#d0e2088">The Last Four Incas</a> 170
+</li>
+<li id="d0e229">X.	<a id="d0e231" href="#d0e2362">Searching for the Last Inca Capital</a> 198
+</li>
+<li id="d0e234">XI.	<a id="d0e236" href="#d0e2558">The Search Continued</a> 217
+</li>
+<li id="d0e239">XII.	<a id="d0e241" href="#d0e2831">The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun</a> 241
+</li>
+<li id="d0e244">XIII.	<a id="d0e246" href="#d0e2979">Vilcabamba</a> 255
+</li>
+<li id="d0e249">XIV.	<a id="d0e251" href="#d0e3081">Conservidayoc</a> 266
+</li>
+<li id="d0e254">XV.	<a id="d0e256" href="#d0e3359">The Pampa of Ghosts</a> 292
+</li>
+<li id="d0e259">XVI.	<a id="d0e261" href="#d0e3495">The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas</a> 306
+</li>
+<li id="d0e264">XVII.	<a id="d0e266" href="#d0e3571">Machu Picchu</a> 314
+</li>
+<li id="d0e269">XVIII.	<a id="d0e271" href="#d0e3683">The Origin of Machu Picchu</a> 326<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e274"></a>Page xii</span></li>
+<li id="d0e275">	<a id="d0e277" href="#d0e3835">Glossary</a>  341
+</li>
+<li id="d0e280">	<a id="d0e282" href="#d0e3908">Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society</a>    345
+</li>
+<li id="d0e285">	Index    353</li>
+</ul><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e290"></a>Page xiii</span><a id="d0e291"></a><h1>Illustrations</h1>
+<ul id="d0e294">
+<li id="d0e295"><a id="d0e296" href="#d0e70">&#8220;Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8221;</a> <i>Frontispiece</i></li>
+<li id="d0e301"><a id="d0e302" href="#d0e548">Sketch Map of Southern Peru</a> 1
+</li>
+<li id="d0e305"><a id="d0e306" href="#d0e674">Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest</a> 12
+</li>
+<li id="d0e309"><a id="d0e310" href="#d0e769">Mt. Coropuna from the South</a> 24
+</li>
+<li id="d0e313"><a id="d0e314" href="#d0e873">The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet</a> 32
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e317"><a id="d0e318" href="#d0e878">Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna</a> 32
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e321"><a id="d0e322" href="#d0e964">One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna</a> 42
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e325"><a id="d0e326" href="#d0e959">The Camp on the Summit</a> 42
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e329"><a id="d0e330" href="#d0e1085">The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker, Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local
+Rug-weaving Industry</a> 60
+Photograph by C. Watkins
+</li>
+<li id="d0e333"><a id="d0e334" href="#d0e1129">Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta</a>    66
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e337"><a id="d0e338" href="#d0e1240">Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara</a> 78
+</li>
+<li id="d0e341"><a id="d0e342" href="#d0e1339">Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli</a> 90
+</li>
+<li id="d0e345"><a id="d0e346" href="#d0e1344">The Main Street of Chuquibamba</a> 90
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e349"><a id="d0e350" href="#d0e1433">A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno</a> 98<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e353"></a>Page xiv</span></li>
+<li id="d0e354"><a id="d0e355" href="#d0e1438">A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati</a> 98
+</li>
+<li id="d0e358"><a id="d0e359" href="#d0e1573">Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa</a> 114
+</li>
+<li id="d0e362"><a id="d0e363" href="#d0e1578">Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani</a> 114
+</li>
+<li id="d0e366"><a id="d0e367" href="#d0e1635">Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya</a> 120
+</li>
+<li id="d0e370"><a id="d0e371" href="#d0e1640">Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya</a> 120
+</li>
+<li id="d0e374"><a id="d0e375" href="#d0e1735">The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche</a> 128
+</li>
+<li id="d0e378"><a id="d0e379" href="#d0e1764">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912</a> 132
+</li>
+<li id="d0e382"><a id="d0e383" href="#d0e1800">Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta</a> 136
+</li>
+<li id="d0e386"><a id="d0e387" href="#d0e1849">Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall</a> 140
+</li>
+<li id="d0e390"><a id="d0e391" href="#d0e1854">Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca</a> 140
+</li>
+<li id="d0e394"><a id="d0e395" href="#d0e1948">Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada</a> 150
+</li>
+<li id="d0e398"><a id="d0e399" href="#d0e2009">Map of Peru and View of Cuzco</a> 158
+From the &#8220;Speculum Orbis Terrarum,&#8221; Antwerp, 1578
+</li>
+<li id="d0e402"><a id="d0e403" href="#d0e2056">Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco</a> 162
+</li>
+<li id="d0e406"><a id="d0e407" href="#d0e2096">Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos</a> 170
+</li>
+<li id="d0e410"><a id="d0e411" href="#d0e2136">The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa</a> 176
+</li>
+<li id="d0e414"><a id="d0e415" href="#d0e2223">Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac</a> 186
+</li>
+<li id="d0e418"><a id="d0e419" href="#d0e2377">Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains</a> 198
+</li>
+<li id="d0e422"><a id="d0e423" href="#d0e2403">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915</a> 202
+</li>
+<li id="d0e426"><a id="d0e427" href="#d0e2449">Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa</a> 206
+</li>
+<li id="d0e430"><a id="d0e431" href="#d0e2483">Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay</a> 210
+</li>
+<li id="d0e434"><a id="d0e435" href="#d0e2544">The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu</a> 214
+</li>
+<li id="d0e438"><a id="d0e439" href="#d0e2623">Huadqui&ntilde;a</a> 220<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e442"></a>Page xv</span></li>
+<li id="d0e443"><a id="d0e444" href="#d0e2670">Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadqui&ntilde;a</a> 225
+Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e447"><a id="d0e448" href="#d0e2803">Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley</a> 238
+</li>
+<li id="d0e451"><a id="d0e452" href="#d0e2846">Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata</a> 242
+Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+</li>
+<li id="d0e455"><a id="d0e456" href="#d0e2851">Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata</a> 242
+</li>
+<li id="d0e459"><a id="d0e460" href="#d0e2897">Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi</a> 246
+</li>
+<li id="d0e463"><a id="d0e464" href="#d0e2922">Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 248
+Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e467"><a id="d0e468" href="#d0e2943">Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 250
+</li>
+<li id="d0e471"><a id="d0e472" href="#d0e2948">Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock</a> 250
+Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+</li>
+<li id="d0e475"><a id="d0e476" href="#d0e3007">&Ntilde;usta Isppana</a> 256
+</li>
+<li id="d0e479"><a id="d0e480" href="#d0e3105">Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins</a> 268
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e483"><a id="d0e484" href="#d0e3110">One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River</a> 268
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e487"><a id="d0e488" href="#d0e3327">Saavedra and his Inca Pottery</a> 288
+</li>
+<li id="d0e491"><a id="d0e492" href="#d0e3332">Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa</a> 288
+</li>
+<li id="d0e495"><a id="d0e496" href="#d0e3389">Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa</a> 294
+Photograph by H. W. Foote
+</li>
+<li id="d0e499"><a id="d0e500" href="#d0e3469">Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa</a> 302
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e503"><a id="d0e504" href="#d0e3474">Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa</a> 302
+Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+</li>
+<li id="d0e507"><a id="d0e508" href="#d0e3501">Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</a> 306
+</li>
+<li id="d0e511"><a id="d0e512" href="#d0e3549">The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu</a> 312<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e515"></a>Page xvi</span></li>
+<li id="d0e516"><a id="d0e517" href="#d0e3554">The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu</a> 312
+</li>
+<li id="d0e520"><a id="d0e521" href="#d0e3620">Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu</a> 320
+</li>
+<li id="d0e524"><a id="d0e525" href="#d0e3625">Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-tocco</a> 320
+</li>
+<li id="d0e528"><a id="d0e529" href="#d0e3663">Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu</a> 324
+</li>
+<li id="d0e532"><a id="d0e533" href="#d0e3668">Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu</a> 324
+</li>
+<li id="d0e536"><a id="d0e537" href="#d0e3700">The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu</a> 328
+</li>
+<li id="d0e540"><a id="d0e541" href="#d0e3821">The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land</a> 338
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p id="d0e544">Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs by the author.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e547"></p>
+<div id="d0e548" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p001.jpg" alt="Sketch Map of Southern Peru."></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Sketch Map of Southern Peru.</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e552"></a>Page 1</span></p><a id="d0e554"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter I</h2>
+<h1>Crossing the Desert</h1>
+<p id="d0e557">A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled
+&#8220;Peru. Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas.&#8221; In that volume is a marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In
+the foreground is a delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face of a precipitous cliff and hangs in
+mid-air at great height above the swirling waters of the &#8220;great speaker.&#8221; In the distance, towering above a mass of stupendous
+mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that bridge
+decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e559">As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities
+to visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of &#8220;Across South America&#8221; will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau,
+an interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e561"></a>Page 2</span>There was some doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that the ruins represented the residence of
+the Inca Manco and his sons, who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru in the Andes between the
+Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e563">While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing
+glimpses of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region, &#8220;behind the Ranges,&#8221; which might contain great possibilities.
+Our guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For
+months afterwards the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and beyond. In the words of Kipling's &#8220;Explorer&#8221;:
+
+</p>
+<p class="poetry"><br id="d0e566">&#8220;&#8230; a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes <br id="d0e568">On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated&#8212;so: <br id="d0e570">&#8216;Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges&#8212;<br id="d0e572">Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+</p>
+<p id="d0e574">To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's &#8220;Titicaca and Koati,&#8221; which had just appeared. In one
+of the interesting footnotes was this startling remark: &#8220;It is much to be desired that the elevation of the most prominent
+peaks of the western or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely &#8230; that <i>Coropuna</i>, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa, is the culminating point of the continent. It <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e579"></a>Page 3</span>exceeds 23,000 feet in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763
+feet (6940 meters) above sea level.&#8221; His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil engineers of the Southern Railways
+of Peru, using a section of the railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to describe. Although I had
+been studying South American history and geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have heard of Coropuna.
+On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found &#8220;Coropuna&#8212;6,949
+m.&#8221;&#8212;9 <i>meters higher than Aconcagua!</i>&#8212;one hundred miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e584">Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed
+very near Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands &#8220;behind the Ranges&#8221; which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence
+was intriguing. The desire to go and find that &#8220;something hidden&#8221; was now re&euml;nforced by the temptation to go and see whether
+Coropuna really was the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an expedition whose object was a geographical
+reconnaissance of Peru along the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba to tidewater on the Pacific.
+We achieved more than we expected.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e586">Our success was due in large part to our &#8220;unit-food-boxes,&#8221; a device containing a balanced ration <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e588"></a>Page 4</span>which Professor Harry W. Foote had cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to facilitate the provisioning
+of small field parties by packing in a single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions for a given
+period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction, not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had
+the responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words in regard to this feature of our equipment may not
+be unwelcome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e590">The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary
+their diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn,
+eggs, mutton, and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed
+oats, milk, cheese, coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams, pickles, and dried fruits and
+vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient variety was
+procured without destroying the balanced character of the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned
+fruits, however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food, we <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e592"></a>Page 5</span>found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap, two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth
+bags, to be used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly appreciated article of food in our boxes was
+the rolled oats, a dish which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily prepared at high elevations, where
+rice cannot be properly boiled. It was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing the right amount of
+sugar. At the beginning of the field season the allowance&#8212;one third of a pound per day per man&#8212;seemed excessive, and I was
+criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be
+supplemented.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e594">Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer to &#8220;rough it,&#8221; and to &#8220;trust to luck&#8221; for his food.
+I had found on my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South America, that the result of being obliged
+to subsist on irregular and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While &#8220;roughing it&#8221; is far more enticing to the inexperienced
+and indiscreet explorer, I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing, months in advance, a comprehensive
+bill of fare sufficiently varied, wholesome, and well-balanced, is &#8220;the better part of valor,&#8221; The truth is that providing
+an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble and expense
+for one's transportation department, and some of the younger men may feel that their reputations as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e596"></a>Page 6</span>explorers are likely to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and pickles are frequently found on
+their menu! Nevertheless, experience has shown that the results of &#8220;trusting to luck&#8221; and &#8220;living as the natives do&#8221; means
+not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for the drudgery
+of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery; and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome
+food.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e598">We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian
+&#8220;winter&#8221; reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms.
+On the other hand, the &#8220;summer months,&#8221; beginning with November, are cloudy and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties
+of climbing a new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes
+in the upper Amazon Basin, the lands &#8220;behind the Ranges.&#8221; Although the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, or jungle country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the other months of the year; so we decided to
+go first to the Urubamba Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos, the capital of the last Incas,
+and of the finding of Machu Picchu will be found in later chapters. In September <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e603"></a>Page 7</span>I returned to Arequipa and started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate transportation facilities
+for crossing the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e605">Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its large
+mules. Unfortunately, a &#8220;mule trust&#8221; had recently been formed&#8212;needless to say, by an American&#8212;and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing, the Tejada brothers appeared, two <i>arrieros</i>, or muleteers, who seemed willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand <i>soles</i> (five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever
+we chose, we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues<a id="d0e613src" href="#d0e613" class="noteref">1</a> a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy <i>arrieros</i> that they were not going to be everlastingly ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules, knew the
+great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch.
+The argument that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my promise that after the first week the cargo
+would be so much less that at <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e619"></a>Page 3</span>least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas, realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get
+sore backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e621">Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker, a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing, whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper
+equipment, was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the
+mountain was due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss guides, and had originally intended to ask
+two other members of the Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making a geological and topographical
+cross section along the 73d meridian through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest passes in the Andes
+(17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna before
+the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy season it did not seem wise to wait for their co&ouml;peration.
+Accordingly, I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of
+the Harvard Observatory. It was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti (19,120 ft.), should accompany
+us to the top, while Mr. Watkins, who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take charge of the Base Camp.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e623"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e624"></a>Page 9</span>The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of
+rather more than average height and considerably more than average courage, who knew the country. As a member of the mounted
+<i>gendarmerie</i>, Gamarra had been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous
+revolutionists stormed the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood his ground and, when they attempted
+to force their way past him, shot the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made him a corporal and,
+realizing that his life was no longer safe in that particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of his
+race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered
+by the prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert, was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage
+could not be called in question even though his habits might lead him to become troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did
+not know we were planning to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the trials that were before him
+on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have begged off&#8212;but I am anticipating.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e629">On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage
+of the journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty miles. The <i>arrieros</i> sent the cargo along too. In addition <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e634"></a>Page 10</span>to the food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers, thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes,
+duffle bags, and a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would
+reach Vitor about the same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of <i>arrieros</i> on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near the primitive little railway station.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e639">We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring <i>pampa</i> and studying the <i>m&eacute;danos</i>, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical jungles
+of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert, broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers,
+coming from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru,
+is in one of the largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog, the Peruvian coastal towns are almost
+never subjected to rain. The causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from the east, laden with the
+moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of the Andes and forced
+to deposit this moisture in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>. By the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come
+from the warm Pacific Ocean <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e650"></a>Page 11</span>strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current, which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To
+be sure, there are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes of the coast range that the hillsides are
+clothed with flowers, but this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the great stretches of desert
+<i>pampa</i> in the midst of which we now were. Like the other <i>pampas</i> of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These <i>m&eacute;danos</i> interested us greatly.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e661">The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward
+the ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving
+the heavier particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up
+from the ocean to fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air that rise from the overheated <i>pampas</i>. During the early afternoon this wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It is now strong enough
+to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits them in
+pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains stationary at night while the lighter particles are <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e666"></a>Page 12</span>rolled downhill, but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of the following afternoon. The result is
+the beautiful crescent-shaped <i>m&eacute;dano</i>.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e671">About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot&#8212;far superior to any that we had been able to secure near Cuzco&#8212;trotted briskly
+into the dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was nearly seven o'clock before we started off
+in the moonlight for the oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail winding down into a dark canyon
+we caught a glimpse of something white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest; Coropuna! Shortly before
+nine o'clock we reached a little corral, where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with a clean, stone-paved
+floor, where we set up our cots, only to be awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to avoid the
+terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e673"></p>
+<div id="d0e674" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p012.jpg" alt="Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e678">Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day, but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or
+ten hours' steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most
+caravans travel, so far as possible, by night. Our first desert, the <i>pampa</i> of Sihuas, was reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see what was to be seen. We got up about half-past
+four and were off before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in Arequipa or because they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e683"></a>Page 13</span>thought he looked like a good horseman, or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given Mr. Hinckley a very
+spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew, her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and a large
+mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory, was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was
+done, and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on
+his dangerous mule we rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over paths flanked by willows and fig
+trees. The chief industry of Vitor is the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The wine is aged in
+huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line, awaiting
+sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean
+crocks.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e685">The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out
+of foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards;
+on the other side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the oasis there is an abundance of water. Much
+of it runs to waste. The wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land could easily be put under cultivation.
+The chief difficulties are the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer world, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e687"></a>Page 14</span>the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now
+unoccupied.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e689">A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of
+Coropuna, glistening in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was a short one, for in less than
+three minutes we had to descend another canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the <i>pampa</i> of Sihuas. There was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the distance was Coropuna, and I had just
+begun to study the problem of possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's mule trotted briskly across
+the trail directly in front of me, kicked up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer, camera, plates,
+and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance before
+he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little &#8220;Mummery&#8221; tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid
+to the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in
+Mr. Hinckley's leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain climbing. With <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e694"></a>Page 15</span>Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached
+the glaciers. To be sure, there was the corporal&#8212;but would he go? Indians do not like snow mountains. Packing up the tent
+again, we resumed our course over the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e696">The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon.
+We should have been compelled to camp in the open with the <i>arrieros</i> had not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes
+and sweet native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps
+the widest, hottest, and most barren in this region. Our <i>arrieros</i> were unwilling to cross it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water and water. The next day we enjoyed
+the hospitality of our kindly host until after supper.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e704">So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against
+the sun and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating
+ditches. On the roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried mud. It is not necessary to plaster the
+sides of the houses, for it is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e706"></a>Page 16</span>to look out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e708">That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after
+hour, across the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of
+a tumbled mass of enormous sand dunes&#8212;the result of hundreds of <i>m&eacute;danos</i> blown across the <i>pampa</i> of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert
+to a point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks
+and sand. The bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes River, too deep to be forded even in the
+dry season. A very large part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and consists of a wild jungle, difficult
+of access in the dry season and impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast between the gigantic
+hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape was the
+long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e716">At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley
+and have some breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado), a huge volcanic boulder covered with
+rude pictographs. Further search in the vicinity <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e718"></a>Page 17</span>revealed about one hundred of these boulders, each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of houses
+near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars,
+birds, men, and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the interest and excitement of investigating
+the <i>&#8220;rocas jeroglificos,&#8221;</i> as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few
+pictures we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary bridge. It was built to last only during the
+dry season. To construct a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant
+little village where it was almost impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e723">The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of
+Castilla, called by its present inhabitants &#8220;Majes,&#8221; although on Raimondi's map that name is applied only to the river and
+the neighboring desert. In 1865, at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now it seems more healthy.
+The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e725">The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian ancestry. Many of them appeared to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e727"></a>Page 18</span>be unusually businesslike. The proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes, the name of which he
+pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a long time. &#8220;W&#8221; is unknown in Spanish and the letters &#8220;a,&#8221; &#8220;l,&#8221; and &#8220;k&#8221; are never
+found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of &#8220;Valluck-ofair&#8242;,&#8221; accenting strongly the last syllable, we could
+not imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately
+the well-advertised name of a widely known shoe.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e729">At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa, alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar
+cane, from which <i>aguardiente</i>, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so
+much wine in the community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives, who were not only hospitable but energetic&#8212;far
+more so, in fact, than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold and the difficulty of making a living
+have reacted upon the Indians, often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The residences of the wine growers
+are sometimes very misleading. A typical country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long, low, flat roof
+and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it an unattractive appearance; yet to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e734"></a>Page 19</span>one's intense surprise the inside may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and a phonograph.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e736">Our conscientious and hard-working <i>arrieros</i> rose at two o'clock the next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead of them, from an elevation of
+1000 feet above sea level to 10,000 feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could be obtained. We
+had now left the region of tropical products and come back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought
+us past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic &#8220;treasure seeker&#8221; of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000
+inhabitants and is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which we had selected several months before
+as the rendezvous for the attack on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals of the temperate zone
+are easily raised. The town is surrounded by gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence of intensive
+cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e741">The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by Se&ntilde;or Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told
+us to set up our cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from the local officials, including the
+provincial physician, Dr. Past&oacute;r, and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro Coello. The last two were
+keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e743"></a>Page 20</span> They told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the mountain could be seen, and offered to take us
+up there. We accepted, thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to join in the climb, for we needed
+another man on the rope. Professor Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e745">From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away.
+It seemed clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the mass (<i>koro</i> = &#8220;cut off at the top&#8221;; <i>puna</i> = &#8220;a cold, snowy height&#8221;), was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped
+dome we could just make out a northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to be higher than the western
+peak which we decided to climb. No one knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be had. The wildest
+opinions were expressed as to the best routes and methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he knew
+how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him &#8220;guide&#8221; for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring
+was now well advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that there had been a heavy snowstorm on the
+mountain a few days before. If summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time, and we proceeded to arrange
+the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e753">Our instruments for determining altitude consisted <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e755"></a>Page 21</span>of a special mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures
+as one might expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie
+Institution of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green; a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the
+Harvard Observatory, which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was still doing good service; and
+one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials should get broken.
+Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks, the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct, with
+special care, two large &#8220;Watkins&#8221; aneroids capable of recording altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed
+to be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter
+had miscarried. It was not until we opened our specially ordered &#8220;mountain grub&#8221; boxes here in Chuquibamba that we found,
+alongside of the pemmican and self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by Grace Brothers, the two
+precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety, we
+felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed
+the top of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e757"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e758"></a>Page 22</span>For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey
+along the 73d meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a signal at or near the top which Hendriksen
+could use as a station in order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must be confessed, was to enjoy the
+satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel, of conquering a &#8220;virgin peak.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e760"></a>Page 23</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e613" href="#d0e613src" class="noteref">1</a> A league, usually about 3&#8531; miles, is really the distance an average mule can walk in an hour.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e761"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter II</h2>
+<h1>Climbing Coropuna</h1>
+<p id="d0e764">The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October
+10th before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it
+with care. The plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is
+really a range about twenty miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one end to the other. So deep
+did the fresh snow lie that it was generally impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could see that
+of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern,
+end of the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged
+to a later volcanic period than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of all. To reach it did not appear
+to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls, appeared to culminate
+in a saddle at the base of the great snowy dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken, if steep, path
+to the top. If we could once reach the snow line, it looked as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e766"></a>Page 24</span>though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes, we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e768"></p>
+<div id="d0e769" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p024.jpg" alt="Mt. Coropuna from the South"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Coropuna from the South</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e773">Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep <i>quebradas</i>, and very rough <i>aa</i> lava. Directed by our &#8220;guide,&#8221; we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the lava flows and slowly ascending
+the gentle slope of the plateau. As it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting for them to get their
+wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a steep-walled
+canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued
+as to how much he knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any huts whatever in the canyon. <i>&#8220;Abandonado; despoblado; desierto.&#8221;</i> &#8220;A waste; a solitude; a wilderness.&#8221; So he described it. Had he been there? &#8220;No, Se&ntilde;or.&#8221; Luckily we had been able to make
+out from the rim of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no question that we ought to get to the
+snow line as soon as possible, we decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a &#8220;guide,&#8221; and make such way as
+we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from mountain
+sickness. The <i>arrieros</i> began to complain loudly, but <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e787"></a>Page 25</span>did what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears; the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing
+for <i>soroche</i>. As soon as the timid <i>arrieros</i> reached a point where they could see down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture, cheered up a bit,
+and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the &#8220;guide.&#8221; Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e795">Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay
+in advance and offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents and took advantage of the sheltering stone
+wall of her corral for our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly evident that we were harmless,
+the door of one of the huts opened and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance before our arrival
+had been the easily discernible presence in our midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had selected
+this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a guilty conscience and at the sight of a <i>gendarme</i> decided that he had better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of a recruiting party, since it is quite
+likely that he had not served his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife discovered that we were not
+looking for her man, she allowed his curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a few llamas. They also
+made crude pottery, firing it with straw and llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from <i>chu&ntilde;o</i>, frozen bitter <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e803"></a>Page 26</span>potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000 feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family, a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e805">Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help
+to carry the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they declined absolutely and positively. I think
+one of the men might have gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering she broke out in a torrent of
+violent denunciation, telling him the mountain would &#8220;eat him up&#8221; and that unless he wanted to go to heaven before his time
+he had better let well enough alone and stay where he was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna &#8220;the devil&#8221; talks &#8220;more freely&#8221; than usual. &#8220;For some secret reason known to God, it is said
+that devils walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are much terrified. I have also heard that
+these devils have appeared to Christians in the form of Indians.&#8221; Perhaps the voluble housewife was herself one of the famous
+Coropuna devils. She certainly talked &#8220;more freely&#8221; than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna &#8220;devils&#8221; were now
+appearing to Indians &#8220;in the form of&#8221; Christians! Anyhow the Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful,
+warm paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those
+faithful <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e807"></a>Page 27</span>denizens of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy themselves in this charming spot on their upward
+flight. Like most primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an abject terror of the forbidding summits
+and the snowstorms that seem to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate the demons who dwell on the mountain
+tops by inventing charming stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca,
+the great explorer Raimondi, in 1865, found the natives &#8220;exiled from the civilized world, still preserving their primitive
+customs&#8230; carrying idols to the slopes of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a sacrifice.&#8221; Apparently
+the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts of all those who live near it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e809">The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity,
+that we added offers of the precious <i>coca</i> leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired &#8220;fire-water,&#8221; the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually coveted by Peruvian
+highlanders, had no effect in the face of the terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness was one
+of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood
+all these matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e814"></a>Page 28</span>of our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian
+gentlemen always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and improper. I have known one of the most energetic
+and efficient business men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to dislike being obliged to carry
+a rolled and unmounted photograph, little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a <i>cargador</i>, an Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e819">As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to
+climb with heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument
+with the Indians was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made more and more generous. All was in vain.
+We finally came to realize that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would have to be borne on our own
+shoulders. That evening the top of the truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp, was bathed in
+a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air, however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the <i>gendarme's</i> mule became homesick and disappeared with Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders to follow
+us as soon as possible.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e824">As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to persuade the Tejadas to take their pack <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e826"></a>Page 29</span>mules up as far as the snow, a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone as far as and farther
+than mules had any business to go. Soon after reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that there
+was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on the lower slopes of the mountains. The <i>arrieros</i> denied the accuracy of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed to go as far as there was a good path,
+and no farther. There was no question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as high up as possible before
+we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It may be imagined that the <i>arrieros</i> packed very slowly and grudgingly, although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving behind our saddles,
+ordinary supplies, and everything not considered absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e834">We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as
+not to hear the <i>arrieros'</i> constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the edge
+of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse, black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced
+to unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a violent and acrimonious dispute as to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e839"></a>Page 30</span>whether the letter of the contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone &#8220;as far as they could reasonably be expected
+to go.&#8221; The truth was, the Tejadas were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure it would take revenge
+on them by destroying their mules, who would &#8220;certainly die the following day of <i>soroche.</i>&#8221; We offered a bonus of thirty <i>soles</i>&#8212;fifteen dollars&#8212;if they would go on for another hour, and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e847">The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep little rise the <i>arrieros</i> stopped again. This time they succeeded in unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and boulders to
+stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement &#8220;in writing&#8221; that in case any mule or mules died as a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line,
+I should pay in gold two hundred <i>soles</i> for each and every mule that died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty <i>soles</i> if they would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document, having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello,
+seated on a lava rock amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed and sealed. In order that there
+might be no dispute as to the time, my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until noon. The mules were
+reloaded and again the ascent <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e858"></a>Page 31</span>began. Presently the mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with huge lava boulders and scoriaceous
+sand. We expected more trouble every minute. However, the <i>arrieros</i>, having made an advantageous bargain, did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the snow line just fifteen
+minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return in ten days,
+and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the side of the mountain.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e863">We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents, the &#8220;Mummery,&#8221; a very light and diminutive wall tent
+about four feet high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of fairly heavy material, with floor sewed
+in; and an improved pyramidal tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after one used on Mt. McKinley by
+Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two openings&#8212;a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being closed by an adjustable
+cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any desired extent
+with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor, measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the
+ground, or snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily
+ventilated and yet <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e865"></a>Page 32</span>giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent
+with us on the climb. We determined to carry the &#8220;Mummery&#8221; to the top of the mountain to use while taking observations.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e867">The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites
+and no <i>soroche</i>. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water
+for cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal
+pulse is 70. After I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to 120. After I had been seated awhile
+it dropped down to 100. Gradually our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of malaise and general disability.
+There was a splendid sunset, but we were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had some headache.
+A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what moment
+we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters, we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair
+warning of what might happen higher up.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e872"></p>
+<div id="d0e873" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p032-1.jpg" alt="The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e877"></p>
+<div id="d0e878" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p032-2.jpg" alt="Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e882">For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e884"></a>Page 33</span>prepared for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever tasted it before. We decided that it is not very
+palatable on first acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend long periods of time in the Arctic,
+where even seal's blubber is a delicacy &#8220;as good as cow's cream,&#8221; I presume we could have done just as well without it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e886">It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of
+a week's duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures due to the necessity of the explorers' being
+obliged to return to food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of a new peak. One remembers the frequent
+disappointments that came to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile
+and Argentina, due to high winds, the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by <i>soroche</i>. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that
+no unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e891">Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds
+in a single day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other chores, they started off, packing loads of
+about twenty-five pounds each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e893"></a>Page 34</span>slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult
+at a high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for those suffering from <i>soroche</i> as it is for a sailor to appreciate the sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e898">During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be
+weighed, so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following day. We had two small kerosene stoves with
+Primus burners. Our grub, ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican in 8&frac14;-pound tins, Kola chocolate
+in half-pound tins, seeded raisins in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6&frac12;-pound tins, jam, sticks of
+dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few of Silver's self-heating &#8220;messtins&#8221; containing Irish stew, beef &agrave; la mode,
+<i>et al</i>. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did
+not relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm clothes which we had provided for him and learned that
+he would get a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e903">Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the
+first part of the climb and that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e905"></a>Page 35</span>a cache had been established about 2000 feet above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs for the morrow
+and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness with which we were to carry them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e907">Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican
+pudding with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better,
+one reason being that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The weather continued fine. Watkins was due
+to arrive from Arequipa in a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further risk of encountering an early
+summer snowstorm. The next morning, after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs, we left camp about nine
+o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain Club snow-creepers, or <i>crampons</i>, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be remembered by visitors
+to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been maimed for
+life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy
+underdrawers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e912">Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I had woolen puttees and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e914"></a>Page 36</span>&#8220;Arctic&#8221; overshoes. Tucker improvised what he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and pieces of a
+rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing ahead of us, we decided to depend on <i>crampons</i> rather than on the heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e919">The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We
+found that, loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty steps at a time. On the more level snow
+fields we took twenty-five or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint it seemed as though they would
+be the last steps we should ever take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with mountain-sickness, we
+would stop and lean on our ice axes until able to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e921">It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very
+wide, and nearly all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although there was an occasional fall no great
+strain was put on the rope. Then came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part our day was simply an
+unending succession of stints&#8212;twenty-five steps and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five steps
+and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow
+stopped all progress. At an altitude <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e923"></a>Page 37</span>of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that the two big
+aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood at
+22&deg; F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9&deg; F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in
+the northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us considerably. We feared the expected November storms
+might be ahead of time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to the ventilating device at the top of
+the tent, we managed to breathe fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally observed that one of the
+symptoms of acute <i>soroche</i> is a very annoying, racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied by nausoa. We had not experienced
+this at 17,000 feet, but now it began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing days and nights, particularly
+nights, until we got back to the Indians' huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another by coughing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e928">The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing
+for it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with the same steady drudgery&#8212;now a little harder than
+the day before. We broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field
+within a mile of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e930"></a>Page 38</span>saddle between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked possible to reach the summit in one more day's
+climb from here. The aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch the tent, the others went back to
+the cache to bring up some of the supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy as those which Tucker
+and Coello had first brought up, we had not passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared again I was
+so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e932">We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow
+and make a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer
+registered 7&deg; F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent
+they are obliged to sleep so close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown sleeping-bag, blankets,
+and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We did, however, suffer from <i>soroche</i>. Violent whooping cough assailed us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by counting my pulse occasionally,
+only to find that it persistently refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't know where it went
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e937"></a>Page 39</span>on the actual climb. So far as I could determine, it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e939">On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was
+found to be frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough
+for practical purposes when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the tea-pot! Never did men keep their
+tempers better under more aggravating circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my clumsy accident, although
+poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder (but somewhat
+drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more frozen
+snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of
+our outfit and provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things as were absolutely necessary. They included
+the Mummery tent with pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of
+Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks, six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer, a Stanley pocket level,
+an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope, three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale flag. In <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e941"></a>Page 40</span>order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle
+soup, a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about
+twenty pounds each.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e943">To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon
+the snow had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five
+o'clock. It was still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls.
+To reach it we must first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently unbroken slope extended to the top.
+Our progress was distressingly slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came a painful surprise.
+To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now it
+actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly
+seemed to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly facing the possibility that our painful labors
+might be in vain and that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to doubt whether we should have strength
+enough for both. Loss of sleep, <i>soroche</i>, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e948">The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e950"></a>Page 41</span>We should have had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly.
+As it was, not more than a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest part. Tucker was first on the
+rope, I was second, Coello third, and Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high altitude was sapping
+all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires.
+A single cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course, one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did
+help to tide over difficult places.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e952">We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be
+the top, obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were
+too much out of breath to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we painfully came to the edge of
+what looked like the summit we saw the cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope three hundred feet
+higher than where we were standing. It may seem strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to find that
+we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however, that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e954"></a>Page 42</span>give to the consideration of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts had sunk within us at the thought
+that possibly, after all, we might find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another three hundred feet,
+which would undoubtedly take us above the highest point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of two possible
+evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e956">With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at
+last, at half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the 20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point
+of Coropuna. As we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having successfully engineered the first ascent
+of this great mountain, stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly motioned me to go ahead in order
+that the director of the Expedition might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In order to appreciate
+how great a sacrifice he was willing to make, it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition was due chiefly
+to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated his
+kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e958"></p>
+<div id="d0e959" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p042-1.jpg" alt="The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e963"></p>
+<div id="d0e964" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p042-2.jpg" alt="One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna</p>
+</div><p>
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e968">The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e970"></a>Page 43</span>field, almost flat, having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and south and 175 feet east and west. If it
+once were, as we suppose, a volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and ice. There were no rocks
+to be seen on the rim&#8212;only the hard crust of the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in the extreme.
+We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have
+frequently spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest, twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada,
+a reddish desert, rose snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the range of Coropuna itself; several
+of the lesser peaks being only a few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined we could see the faint
+blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e972">My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction
+coming from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak
+in the Pacific, Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be
+appreciative of the views which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I could not take the least interest
+or pleasure in the view from the top of Coropuna, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e974"></a>Page 44</span>nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt greatly
+depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e976">After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my
+surprise and dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a
+thousand feet higher, 22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of 22,775 feet, and considerably below
+Bandelier's &#8220;23,000 feet.&#8221; This was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would at least show a margin
+over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763 feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We took what comfort
+we could from the fact that the aneroids, which had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so obviously
+untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now be
+reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the
+wooden box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow, leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level,
+and took a squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So each of us in turn lay down in the snow and
+took a squint. It was all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e978"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e979"></a>Page 45</span>We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight.
+At any rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After
+arriving at this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent, set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer,
+arranged the boiling point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and notebooks proceeded to take as many
+observations as possible in the next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that at the same hour readings
+were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The barometer was
+suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now stood
+at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the barometer was exactly +32&deg; F. At the same time, inside the tent
+we got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water boils at sea level at a temperature of 212&deg; F. Here
+it boiled at 174&deg; F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been heated for the hypsometer. We were
+thirsty enough to have drunk five times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions except a few raisins,
+some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e981">After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left
+it on top, first having placed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e983"></a>Page 46</span>in it one of the Appalachian Mountain Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag, a contemporary
+map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole, which
+we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make
+his survey, it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and buried it in the snow.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e985">We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part
+of the way down to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and we got up too much speed for comfort,
+so we finally had to be content with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little wind. Mountain climbers
+have more to fear from excessively high winds than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred to interfere
+with the best progress we were physically capable of making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many supplies
+with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful.
+No one in the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e987"></a>Page 47</span>or pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities,
+apparently not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could have stood it. It is difficult to believe
+that with strength enough to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e989">That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated
+again in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower
+altitude as fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes
+later, without having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked up. Although many things had been abandoned,
+our loads seemed heavier than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but Gamarra was the only one actually
+to fall in, and he was easily pulled out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two animated specks
+far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks,
+although we did not see it at the time. The &#8220;specks&#8221; turned out to be Watkins and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was
+safe without ropes or <i>crampons</i>, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached at half-past <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e994"></a>Page 48</span>twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while
+he had given me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course, does not include the weight of our ice-creepers,
+axes, or rope.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e996">The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even
+to lift one's hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed
+best to make every effort to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp, got the loads ready without
+waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately our malaise
+left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without
+getting out of breath; the aggravating &#8220;whooping cough&#8221; left us; and our appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered
+from the effects of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly had allowed myself to eat a considerable
+amount of snow. As a result my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit tasted like broken glass.
+Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling to keep his snow-glasses always <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e998"></a>Page 49</span>in place and thought to relieve his eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial snow-blindness. The
+rest of us were spared any inflammation of the eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling <i>arrieros</i>, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas
+gave us hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1003">In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15&deg; 31&#8242; South, and
+the longitude to be 72&deg; 42&#8242; 40&#8243; West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be 21,703 feet above sea level. The result
+of comparing the readings of our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous readings taken at Arequipa
+gave practically the same figures. There was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna proves to
+be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate, and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach
+the top, we all agreed we would never do it again!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1005"></a>Page 52</span></p><a id="d0e1006"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter III</h2>
+<h1>To Parinacochas</h1>
+<p id="d0e1009">After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set out for Parinacochas, the &#8220;Flamingo Lake&#8221; of the Incas. The
+late Sir Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of &#8220;The Conquest of Peru,&#8221; had called attention
+to this unexplored lake in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had named a bathymetric survey of
+Parinacochas as one of the principal desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge from the published
+maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough search
+of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it
+was that it had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted
+General San Martin in the Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs in London in 1828. During the
+campaigns against the Spanish forces in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the interior. On one
+of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is &#8220;brackish.&#8221; This
+statement of General Miller's and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1011"></a>Page 51</span>the suggestion of Sir Clements Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important contribution to geographical
+knowledge was all that we were able to learn. Our <i>arrieros</i>, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas, but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to get there.
+Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1016">First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman
+and Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a
+new supply of food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out
+of the Chuquibamba Valley by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over the gently sloping, semi-arid
+desert in a northerly direction, around the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night on the Pampa
+of Chumpillo, our <i>arrieros</i> used dried moss and dung for fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were llamas pasturing on the plains.
+Near our tent were some Inca ruins, probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains of a temple described
+by Cieza de Leon (1519&#8211;1560), whose remarkable accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the Pizarros
+are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most important temples in the Land of the Incas was one &#8220;much venerated
+and frequented by them, named <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1021"></a>Page 52</span>Coropuna.&#8221; &#8220;It is on a very lofty mountain which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings of Peru visited
+this temple making presents and offerings &#8230;. It is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts offered to
+this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol, and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But
+as there are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is it known where these are hidden. This temple
+possessed many flocks, farms, and service of Indians.&#8221; No one lives here now, but there are many flocks and llamas, and not
+far away we saw ancient storehouses and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were kept awake by the
+bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1023">The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance
+of peat and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the
+lower spurs of Coropuna into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand, the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada.
+It is for the most part between 15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest by the canyon of the
+Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp and passed a more agreeable night. The following <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1025"></a>Page 53</span>morning we climbed out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail
+turned abruptly to the left, away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1027">We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day, less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks,
+like El Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been known in the memory of man to give forth great showers
+of cinders covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering
+of the ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this
+vicinity goes far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous amount of erosion that has taken place in
+the adjacent canyons and the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by the mighty streams of the glacial
+period all point to this conclusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1029">My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way.
+In her case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I
+took some notes, she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring
+or lashing with a stout quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I was particularly anxious to get
+a picture of our pack train jogging steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1031"></a>Page 54</span>Since my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, <i>run</i> a couple of hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the picture before they reached me. We were now
+at an elevation of 16,000 feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it was relatively as easy to run
+here as anywhere, so accustomed had my lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such a strenuous feat
+at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run two
+hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1036">We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches
+of tough grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we
+saw a number of vicu&ntilde;as, the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get near enough for a photograph.
+They were extremely timid and scampered away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1038">Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent
+canyon, the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon were covered with innumerable terraces&#8212;thousands
+of them. It seemed at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been either terraced or allotted to some
+compact little village. One could count more than a score of towns, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1040"></a>Page 55</span>including Cotahuasi itself, its long main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into the canyon our
+road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley
+bottoms showed any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent to which terracing had been carried on
+the side of the Cotahuasi Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it was evident from the extraordinary
+irrigation system that agriculture here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the great mountains in the
+interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1042">No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that
+there is no part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops where nature made it hard for them to be
+planted. In other countries, to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve to bring water long distances
+to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper chemical formula,
+the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great regions where nature has provided fertile fields and
+made <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1044"></a>Page 56</span>it easy to raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or prehistoric times, does one find farmers
+spending incredible amounts of labor in actually creating arable fields, <i>besides</i> bringing the water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that is what was done by the ancient highlanders
+of Peru. As they spread over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great an elevation as to be suitable
+for only the hardiest of root crops, like the white potato and the <i>oca</i>, they were driven to use narrow valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the precious maize and
+many of the other temperate and tropical plants which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were constantly
+confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently
+so very steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The farmer might wake up any morning to find that a
+heavy rain during the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted fields. Consequently there was developed,
+through the centuries, a series of stone-faced <i>andenes</i>, terraces or platforms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1055">Examination of the ancient <i>andenes</i> discloses the fact that they were not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a carefully constructed
+stone wall. The space back of the walls was first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1060"></a>Page 57</span>then followed smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and
+to a depth of eighteen inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The result was the best possible field for
+intensive cultivation. It seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains should have been taken for such
+relatively small results. The need must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few feet wide, although
+hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred yards
+wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1062">Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized
+of all Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak
+plateaus of the surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep, and alpacas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1064">We were cordially welcomed by Se&ntilde;or Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the
+locality, and, as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central government, was none too popular with some
+of the people of his province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi have ever been to Lima;&#8212;probably
+not a single member of the Lima government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not expect to find much sympathy
+between the two. The difficulties of traveling in <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1066"></a>Page 58</span>Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect.
+By nature a kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence, Se&ntilde;or Viscarra showed himself most courteous
+and hospitable to us in every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt
+and Elihu Root, and made a large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the flag did have only thirty-six
+stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1068">One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a
+barber-shop. The chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we accepted with pleasure. When the barber
+arrived, closely guarded by a <i>gendarme</i> armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his
+crime, but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag,
+I wished I was in a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The sub-prefect, however, had been so kind
+and was so apologetic as to the inconveniences of the &#8220;barber-shop&#8221; that there was nothing for it but to go bravely forward.
+Although it was unpleasant to have one's hair trimmed by an <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1073"></a>Page 59</span>uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a pair of
+shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his
+fees with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away
+by the <i>gendarme</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1078">We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary
+difficulties in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now past the worst of it. Their supplies were
+exhausted, so those which we had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned to assist Mr. Hendriksen
+and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him as escort
+Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was
+Gamarra who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some
+months previous to our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For Gamarra's sake they left the house at
+three o'clock in the morning and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his important monograph, &#8220;The
+Andes of Southern Peru,&#8221; Dr. Bowman writes: &#8220;At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened the gates noiselessly
+and our small cavalcade hurried <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1080"></a>Page 60</span>through the pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle across his saddle, and directly behind him
+rode the sub-prefect and myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the end of the street when a door
+opened suddenly and a shower of sparks flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his mule and turned into
+a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed me against
+the wall and whispered, &#8216;For God's sake, who is it?&#8217; Then suddenly he shouted. &#8216;Stop blowing! Stop blowing!&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1082">The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's
+work by pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals,
+on which he had been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor and his ancient goose should have been able
+to cause such terrific excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was
+fond of referring to this picturesque apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose that Startled
+the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1084"></p>
+<div id="d0e1085" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p060.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e1086">The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker, Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local
+rug-weaving industry.
+</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1089">The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers
+make the warp and woof <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1091"></a>Page 61</span>of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray, or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are
+cut so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm, gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has
+no pile. Probably the industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It seems to be restricted to this remote
+region. The rug makers are a small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their hand looms from house to
+house, as required. It is the custom for the person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish the weaver
+with board, lodging, <i>coca</i>, tobacco and wine, and watch the rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug weavers are very clever
+in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy of Se&ntilde;or Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven especially
+for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1096">Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host, and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he
+knew the road to Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring stream on a treacherous-looking bridge,
+the central pier of which was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic boulder in midstream. The main
+arch of the bridge consisted of two long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down by earth and stones.
+There was no rail on either side, but our mules had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On the northern
+side of the valley we rode <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1098"></a>Page 62</span>through a compact little town called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds of very fine artificial
+terraces, at present used for crops of maize and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall, an altogether
+surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as well as
+the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1100">Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture.
+Wherever the sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced terraces and irrigation had transformed them
+long ago into arable fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very fine series of beautiful terraces.
+On a shelf near the top of the canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by shepherds whose flocks grazed
+on the lofty plateau beyond, and near a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our camp was at an elevation
+of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1102">The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one
+of these we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna,
+now growing fainter and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500 feet we <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1104"></a>Page 63</span>struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and sand&#8212;hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came
+to a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged
+along beside my mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my experiences on Coropuna I suffered no
+discomfort, nor any symptoms of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five hundred yards. In the afternoon
+we began to descend from the plateau toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha, where <i>ichu</i> grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and alpacas.
+Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1109">Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the
+upper courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the
+softest in the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool
+was highly desired, many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the &#8220;alpaca&#8221; of commerce, a material used for coat
+linings, umbrellas, and thin, warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard surface, and generally dyed
+black. It usually contains no real alpaca wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1111"></a>Page 64</span>alpaca wool which comes into the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than the sheep's wool, it is strong,
+small of fiber, very soft, pliable and elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and comfort. Many
+of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as &#8220;vicu&ntilde;a,&#8221; &#8220;camel's hair,&#8221; etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1113">The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of
+the camels of the New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas
+are extremely variegated. The llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for wearing apparel, although
+heavy blankets made from it are in use by the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to the presence
+of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage&#8212;short, tender grass and plenty of water&#8212;frequents the most remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only
+when the fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds, and is extremely shy of strangers, although
+not nearly as timid as its distant cousin the vicu&ntilde;a. I shall never forget the first time I ever saw some alpacas. They looked
+for all the world like the &#8220;woolly-dogs&#8221; of our toys shops&#8212;woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and woolly along the
+legs right down to the invisible wheels! There <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1115"></a>Page 65</span>was something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop
+like cows.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1117">The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing, but in a different way. His expression is haughty
+and supercilious in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is due to circumstances over which he really
+had no control. Pride of race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high and his neck so stiffly erect that
+he can be corralled, with others of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire group. Yet he can be
+bought for ten dollars.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1119">On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs, both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly
+children, more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our
+notice. About five o'clock in the afternoon, on a dry <i>pampa</i>, we found the ruins of one of the largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder of the days when benevolent
+despots ruled the Andes and, like the Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is not occupied, yet
+near by are populous valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1124">As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep
+canyons so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail.
+It overhangs the mud-colored <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1126"></a>Page 66</span>Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair,
+but those near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes, and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered
+with cacti, thorn bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the town itself were half a dozen specimens
+of the Australian eucalyptus, that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one encounters not only in the
+heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1128"></p>
+<div id="d0e1129" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p066.jpg" alt="Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1133">Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them have open verandas on the second floor&#8212;a sure indication
+that the climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched
+huts of the majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and the great number of terraces in and around town,
+one may conclude that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most
+Peruvian towns. The cities of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta, we wound around the base of the
+projecting ridge, on the sides of which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the valley of Huancahuanca,
+a large arid canyon. The guide said that we were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1135"></a>Page 67</span>away, across two canyons, was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1137">Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand
+feet above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers
+at the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to enable them to cultivate a larger part of the <i>pampa</i> on which they lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of being carried out and has probably long
+since been completed. Our reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that our military escort, Corporal Gamarra,
+had gone back to Arequipa with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent <i>arrieros</i>, the Tejada brothers, declared they preferred to travel without any &#8220;brass buttons,&#8221; so we had not asked the sub-prefect
+of Cotahuasi to send one of his small handful of <i>gendarmes</i> along with us. Probably this was a mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood matter, such as prospecting
+for mines or representing one of the great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods, one cannot help arousing
+the natural suspicions of a people to whom traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific exploration for
+its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the explorers arrive accompanied by a <i>gendarme</i> it is perfectly evident that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial backing of the government. It is
+surmised that the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1151"></a>Page 68</span>explorers are well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely one of the ordinary experiences of life.
+South American governments almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are led to expect that all measures
+connected with research, whether it be scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government and paid for
+out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had had
+such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize, how often an ever-present <i>gendarme</i>, provided through the courtesy of President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us a cordial welcome.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1156">Now, however, when without a <i>gendarme</i> we entered the smart little town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the objects of extreme suspicion
+and distrust. Yet we could not help admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and general air of prosperity
+and enterprise. The <i>gobernador</i> of the town lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and colonnade were probably two hundred years
+old. He had heard nothing of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take some hostile action. Fortunately,
+our <i>arrieros</i>, respectable men of high grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions temporarily. We were not placed
+under arrest, although I am sure his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors, who found it far <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1167"></a>Page 69</span>easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1169">The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that
+Lampa is famous for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep, alpacas, and vicu&ntilde;as in this vicinity
+to make ponchos and blankets of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in Arequipa. These are marketed,
+as so often happens in the outlying parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who come hundreds of miles,
+bringing the manufactured articles of the outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded towns. The
+great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general
+enjoyment&#8212;like a large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate
+as our own fair-grounds, with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the purposes of the fair. Had we
+been bound for Parinacochas at the proper season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why anybody should
+want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension or understanding
+of these village worthies. So, to our &#8220;selectmen,&#8221; are the idiosyncrasies <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1171"></a>Page 70</span>of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our deserted fair-grounds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1173">The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town&#8212;probably because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the
+mules devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive in town than in the country. It was just as well
+for us that this was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would have persuaded the <i>gobernador</i> to arrest us. As it was, however, he was pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment of an Indian
+woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree.
+So she covered her eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian
+women are invariably extremely shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape observation and notice.
+The ladies of the <i>gobernador's</i> own family, however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no objection to being photographed, but were moved
+to unseemly and unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1181">After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due
+to the enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might expect that citizens who kept their town so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1183"></a>Page 71</span>clean and neat and were engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would have a comfortable road in the
+direction toward which they usually would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1185">As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides
+of the valley or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa and whose products have made its people well
+fed and energetic. The town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so few, if any, evidences of the
+ancient r&eacute;gime when there are so many a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot believe that the
+Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing
+unnecessary in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand, it may have been occupied until late Inca
+times by one of the coast tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca divides two very different
+regions. To come in a few hours, from thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give us cause for thought
+and speculation. It is well known that in the early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before the Spanish
+Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1187"></a>Page 72</span>different as possible in design and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is absolutely distinct. Relative
+abundance of flat lands never led them to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had done. Perhaps
+on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1189">Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower
+slopes separated from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near the top of the mountain. Our road ran
+near the towns of Pararca and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of thatched huts surrounded by
+hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed fields of barley
+and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in agriculture,
+utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We noticed
+hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1191">Our <i>arrieros</i> avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the roadside near the <i>Finca Rodadero</i>. After all, when one has a comfortable tent, good food, and skillful <i>arrieros</i> it is far pleasanter to spend the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1202"></a>Page 73</span>of 12,000 or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an Indian town.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1204">The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe
+houses placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the best arable land available for agriculture. It is in
+a shallow, well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi.
+The desert and its steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of gently sloping hills, covered with
+terraces, where the cereals of the temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain fields, we climbed
+up to a shallow depression in the low range at the head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland basin
+more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most
+of the lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color?
+Nothing but flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes&#8212;Parinacochas at last!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1206"></a>Page 74</span></p><a id="d0e1207"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter IV</h2>
+<h1>Flamingo Lake</h1>
+<p id="d0e1210">The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and 12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest
+of Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams.
+In past geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas
+has no visible outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed
+from the lake. On the other hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake, generally occurring in
+swampy hillocks&#8212;built up perhaps by mineral deposits&#8212;three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There are very
+old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at
+present, although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had been much more than a foot above its present level.
+Nevertheless a rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1212">When making preparations in New Haven for the &#8220;bathymetric survey of Lake Parinacochas,&#8221; suggested by Sir Clements Markham,
+we found it impossible to discover any indication in geographical <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1214"></a>Page 75</span>literature as to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand feet. We decided to take a chance on its
+not being more than ten hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured a thousand feet of stout fish
+line, known to anglers as &#8220;24 thread,&#8221; wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we were at Chuquibamba
+Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot intervals
+in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1216">Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for
+fodder, and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles on muleback, for the sounding operations. The
+&#8220;Acme&#8221; proved easy to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its lightness enabled it to be floated at
+the edge of the lake even in very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late afternoon when the high
+winds raised a vicious little &#8220;sea.&#8221; Rowing out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before been navigated
+by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding
+slow work, and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1218">It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1220"></a>Page 76</span>that I rowed out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard.
+The reel gave a turn or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was the reel stuck? No, the apparatus
+was in perfect running order. Then what <i>was</i> the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best
+strong 24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient insertion of one hundred and sixty-six &#8220;fathom-markers&#8221;!
+The bottom of the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After three or four days of strenuous rowing up
+and down the eighteen miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen miles of its width, I never succeeded
+in wetting Watkins's first marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of water anywhere. Possibly
+if we had come in the rainy season we might at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November, 1911), the
+lake had a maximum depth of 4&frac12; feet. The satisfaction of making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1225">Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story
+of the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor
+was reported by the natives to be &#8220;bottomless.&#8221; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1227"></a>Page 77</span>He ordered one of the ship's heavy boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt lake, at great expenditure
+of strength and labor. The story told me in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow, they found
+this &#8220;fathomless&#8221; body of water to be not more than fifteen feet deep.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1229">Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat,
+for it enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite
+feeding ground; pink flamingoes, white gulls, small &#8220;divers,&#8221; large black ducks, sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large
+geese. On the banks were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the natives should have named this body of
+water &#8220;Parinacochas&#8221; (<i>Parina</i> = &#8220;flamingo,&#8221; <i>cochas</i> = &#8220;lake&#8221;). The flamingoes are here in incredible multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said, actually
+make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid.
+After two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me approach within twenty yards before finally taking
+wing. The coloring, in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The head is white, the beak black, the
+neck white shading into salmon-pink; the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail salmon-pink. The wings
+are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and the under-parts are black. As they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1237"></a>Page 78</span>stand or wade in the water their general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the water, however, the
+black under-parts of the wings become strikingly conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful contrast
+in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the
+ropelike neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless,
+I thought the heavy body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform speed, the difference being caught
+up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1239"></p>
+<div id="d0e1240" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p078.jpg" alt="Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1244">The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in
+a most incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse
+croaking, <i>&#8220;What is it,&#8221; &#8220;What is it,&#8221;</i> seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes were
+very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse &#8220;What-is-it's.&#8221; Apparently they failed to find out the answer in
+time to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads
+tucked under their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In
+the afternoon, as winds and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left the water. The great extent of shallow
+water in Parinacochas offers them a splendid, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1249"></a>Page 79</span>wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were thousands
+and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests, either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1251">Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean
+lake 11,500 feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several hundred. There were quantities of small black
+divers in the deeper parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were very quick and keen, true individualists
+operating alone and showing astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large black ducks were much more
+fearless than the flamingoes and were willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over the water at a
+tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about as
+common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest,
+possibly belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers,
+who in this country look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1253">Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle,
+calmly eating the succulent <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1255"></a>Page 80</span>water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head and neck well under the surface.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1257">While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes, Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the
+first accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point to point he often stirred up little ground owls,
+who gazed at him with solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to regard his activities with suspicion
+and dislike. Part of my work was to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on the well-rounded hills
+so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations would
+disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods
+set up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle
+feeding on flat lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas Basin are bare of trees, and offer some
+pasturage. In some places they are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by the degenerate descendants
+of sheep brought into the country during Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in color, although
+there were many black ones. We were told that the sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1259">On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame
+their shyness, and a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1261"></a>Page 81</span>group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to
+gaze stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house, actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake,
+and busied themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women
+wore dresses of heavy material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of hats they had small variegated
+shawls, made on hand looms, folded so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck and shoulders from sun
+and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a hammock
+or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated
+with attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats
+and long trousers much too large for them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1263">At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than
+it is at present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In the days of its greater altitude, and consequently
+wider snow fields, the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much larger body of water. Although we were
+here at the beginning of summer, the wind that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1265"></a>Page 82</span>came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our minimum thermometer registered 22&deg; F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most
+shallow bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten
+inches below the surface, was 61&deg; F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By noon the temperature of the
+water half a mile from shore was 67.5&deg; F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring up the shallow
+water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining brightly
+almost directly overhead, it went down to 65&deg; by 2:30 P.M.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1267">The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although
+in each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water, taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and
+analyzed by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He found that it contained small quantities of silica,
+iron phosphate, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate,
+sodium sulphate, and a considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains more carbonate and potassium
+than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical &#8220;salt&#8221; waters, that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1269"></a>Page 83</span>of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position, containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1271">When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there
+was excellent alfalfa forage. The <i>arrieros</i> engaged at their own expense a pack train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the custom hereabouts to
+enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The Indians
+who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy fellows, dressed in &#8220;store clothes&#8221; and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty, but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to
+haul them near the loads.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1276">Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, &#8220;the house of the Inca,&#8221; at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi
+visited it in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies one of the houses. The other buildings are used
+only during the third week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted plaza were many low stone rectangles
+partly covered with adobe and ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long, thatched buildings of adobe
+and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient stonemasons. Some
+loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled the attempts of modern builders.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1278"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1279"></a>Page 84</span>In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well
+named; there had been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple&#8212;lakes were once objects of worship&#8212;or rest-house,
+constructed in order to enable the chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains of the Incas. We found
+the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably potatoes and
+other root crops were once raised here in fairly large quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches
+in which are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe,
+but these walls had been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of whatever objects of value they
+might have contained. We found nine or ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls seemed to have
+been trepanned.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1281">On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones.
+No effort had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no evidence of its having been used in recent times.
+It runs from the lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley, where there are many terraces and cultivated
+fields; it is not far from Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1283"></a>Page 85</span>and piled on each side to save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The llama dislikes to step over
+any obstacle, even a very low wall. The grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to proceed in the
+desired direction.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1285">In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for
+temporary protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation
+(12,000 feet). The shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough, scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures
+varied from 8 to 25 feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent occupation. The smaller walls may
+have been the foundation of small circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to keep alpacas and llamas
+from straying at night and to guard against wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age of these remains.
+It is possible that they represent a settlement of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and size of the
+walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the hills
+west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca, which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center
+of one of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its very delicate pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1287">Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1289"></a>Page 86</span>Near us the traces of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals, substantiating my belief that this
+curious roadway was intended to keep the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south shores of the lake
+there were more signs of occupation than on the north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of the Incas
+as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations
+of the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very
+primitive dwellings had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could easily be defended. We found among
+the ruins a few crude potsherds and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the little hill village to
+give any indication of Inca origin. Probably it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about it. If there
+were traditions concerning it they were well concealed by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1291">The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly terraced and cultivated. The <i>tutu</i> potato would grow here, a hardy variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable for making potato
+flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the Peruvians,
+such as the <i>oca</i>, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1299"></a>Page 87</span><i>a&ntilde;u</i>, a kind of nasturtium, and the <i>ullucu</i> (<i>ullucus tuberosus</i>).
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1309">On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the
+time of our visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs,
+inhabited by drovers and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer
+the sweet water grasses of the lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1311"><i>Viscachas</i> were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the &#8220;chinchilla&#8221;
+of commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees
+them, although they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa, a region rarely visited by any one on account
+of treacherous bogs and deep tams. Writers sometimes call <i>viscachas</i> &#8220;rabbit-squirrels.&#8221; They have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do look like a cross between a
+rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1318">Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon an unusually large herd of wild vicu&ntilde;as. It included more
+than one hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount
+of hunting that is done here. Vicu&ntilde;as have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for their skins. Their silky fleece
+is even finer than <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1320"></a>Page 88</span>alpaca. The more fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts, as soft as eider down and of a golden brown
+color.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1322">After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the <i>arrieros</i> to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured &#8220;Arequipa,&#8221; and started south. We soon came to the rim of the Maraicasa
+Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley
+is well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were
+smooth and well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We passed through it and, after dark, reached
+Sondor, a tiny hamlet inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the
+owners of a well-thatched hut, and told them how &#8220;important&#8221; we were. They were unwilling to give us any shelter, so we were
+forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs, dogs, and
+cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime,
+when they can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1327">The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion.
+We had now left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1329"></a>Page 89</span>the desert. At length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes were gladdened at sight of the rich
+green oasis, a striking contrast to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding road we passed many
+fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement by
+a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers
+were unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety.
+After an exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals and men were glad enough to leave the high,
+arid desert and enter the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa, its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus.
+The air, pungent with the smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1331">We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of &#8220;La Victoria.&#8221; Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates
+at the camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall long remember. After two months in the coastal
+desert it seemed like home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain had had in bringing his machinery
+across the plateau from the nearest port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on muleback each of
+the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was equivalent to the price of a first-class pack <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1333"></a>Page 90</span>mule. As a matter of fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs are not built to survive the strain
+of carrying pieces of machinery weighing <i>five hundred pounds</i> over a desert plateau up to an altitude of 4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of the canyon,
+but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered, piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the
+obstacles with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man who designed the machinery ever traveled with
+a pack train, climbing up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am sure that he would have made his
+castings much smaller.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1338"></p>
+<div id="d0e1339" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p090-1.jpg" alt="Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1343"></p>
+<div id="d0e1344" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p090-2.jpg" alt="The Main Street of Chuquibamba"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Main Street of Chuquibamba</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1348">It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior of South America fail to realize that no single piece should
+be any heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on <i>one side</i>. One hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even a large, strong mule will last only a few days
+on such trails as are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of his cargo is over three hundred pounds.
+When a single piece weighs more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the animal. Then the load rocks,
+and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a matter of expediency
+it is better to have the individual units weigh about seventy-five <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1353"></a>Page 91</span>pounds. Such a weight is easier for the <i>arrieros</i> to handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as
+usually happens in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair load for a man or a llama, two are right
+for a burro, and three for an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1358">The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at &#8220;La Victoria,&#8221; but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant
+shade trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were
+surprised to find near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little circular or oval huts averaging eight
+feet in diameter. There was no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen in the vicinity, yet here
+had once been a village. It seemed to belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of the Parinacochas Basin.
+The road was one of the worst we encountered anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among huge piles
+of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides
+men and animals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1360">Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga, where we pitched our camps among the most extensive
+ruins that I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely
+together. It gave one a strange sensation to find <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1362"></a>Page 92</span>such a very large metropolis in what is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was strikingly reminiscent
+of some of the large groups of ruins in our own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were no terraces
+in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses
+had seats, or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained two or three small cells, possibly storerooms,
+with neither doors nor windows. We found a number of burial cists&#8212;some square, others rounded&#8212;lined with small cobblestones.
+In one house, at the foot of &#8220;cellar stairs&#8221; we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance to it was covered with a
+single stone lintel. In examining this tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a <i>boba</i>, a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth, long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled
+skin. At one place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1367">Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The
+dishes must have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar, probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone
+war club; and a broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding corn. Two <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1369"></a>Page 93</span>stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled sinkers
+used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie
+down roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever
+decoration they once had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for archeological investigation. Unfortunately,
+we had heard nothing of it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to give it. After the first night
+camp in the midst of the dead city we made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it was, as a matter
+of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece.
+We wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1371">Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud.
+Near it we encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking into town to sell and were willing to dispose
+of cheaply. The Tejadas could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain, although the circumstances were
+suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only to discover on
+reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from thieves. We were able to clear our <i>arrieros</i> of any complicity in the theft. Nevertheless, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1376"></a>Page 94</span>the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We spent
+one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Se&ntilde;or Benavides, the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route
+to Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before, spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1378">About three o'clock in the morning&#8212;after we had been jogging steadily along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of
+the night, the only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly
+visible in the starlight&#8212;the eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since set. Could this be the
+approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding the day; &#8220;the
+dawn comes up like thunder.&#8221; Surely the moon could not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly brightening
+eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy
+as a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor, neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us.
+It was the morning star. For sheer beauty, &#8220;divine, enchanting ravishment,&#8221; Venus that day surpassed anything I have ever
+seen. In the words of the great Eastern poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, &#8220;the morning stars sang
+together and all the sons of God shouted for joy.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1380"></a>Page 95</span></p><a id="d0e1381"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter V</h2>
+<h1>Titicaca</h1>
+<p id="d0e1384">Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air, bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling
+atmosphere dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau, surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani
+(20,000 ft.), El Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only one nightmare&#8212;earthquakes. About twice
+in a century the spirits of the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But they shake the bed! And Arequipa
+rests on their bed. The possibility of a <i>&#8220;terremoto&#8221;</i> is always present in the subconscious mind of the Arequipe&ntilde;o.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1389">One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently
+and we heard a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To the members of the club, however, it meant
+only one thing&#8212;an earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded with hysterical people, crying, shouting,
+and running toward the great open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on their knees in gratitude
+at having escaped from falling walls, others prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls had fallen!
+In the business district a great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1391"></a>Page 96</span>column of black smoke was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs that the noise and the trembling
+had not been due to an earthquake, but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline, kerosene, dynamite
+and giant powder!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1393">In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that
+there were no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the roaring furnace by dipping water from one
+of the <i>azequias</i>, or canals, that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense masses of smoke and flame. In any American
+city such a blaze would certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1398">While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter
+amazement the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even warm. Such is the result of building houses with
+massive walls of stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently no harm was done by sparks. So, without
+a fire department, this really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day the newspapers talked about the &#8220;dire
+necessity&#8221; of securing fire engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine could have done. Nothing could
+have saved the warehouse itself once the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have suffered more had
+they been deluged with streams of water. The facts are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1400"></a>Page 97</span>course that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1402">A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts
+a soldier's monument and a new theater, really a &#8220;movie palace.&#8221; There is a good harbor, although dredging is necessary to
+provide for steamers like the <i>Inca</i>. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine&#8212;or, rather, a <i>lacustrine</i>&#8212;railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of <i>totoras</i>, giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers learned to dry the <i>totoras</i>, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the sides as
+a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or <i>balsa</i>. Of course the <i>balsas</i> eventually become water-logged and spend a large part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so, they are
+not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one
+should go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1422">The <i>balsas</i> are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast
+is an A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied together and fastened, one to each side of the
+craft, slightly forward of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region&#8212;lumber has to be brought from Puget Sound,
+6000 miles away&#8212;so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1427"></a>Page 98</span>nearly all the masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three times. To the apex of the &#8220;A&#8221; is attached
+a forked stick, over which run the halyards. The rectangular &#8220;sail&#8221; is nothing more nor less than a large mat made of rushes.
+A short forestay fastened to the sides of the &#8220;A&#8221; about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from falling when the sail
+is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of a backstay. The <i>balsas</i> cannot beat to windward, but behave very well in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the boatmen
+must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard, for the water in the lake is cold, 55&deg; F., and none of them know
+how to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and
+near the shore.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1432"></p>
+<div id="d0e1433" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p098-1.jpg" alt="A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1437"></p>
+<div id="d0e1438" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p098-2.jpg" alt="A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1442">When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very small <i>balsa</i> not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting the weight of one man. On the other hand, large <i>balsas</i> constructed for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the lake are capable of carrying a dozen people
+and their luggage. Once I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake on a bulrush raft. To give greater
+security two <i>balsas</i> are sometimes fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1453">One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Se&ntilde;or Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic <i>balsas</i> were used in bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This theory <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1458"></a>Page 99</span>is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography,
+have not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with
+the ocean.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1460">Nevertheless, Se&ntilde;or Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the
+Andes rose. The fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms does not bother him. Se&ntilde;or Posnansky
+pins his faith to a small dried seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget that dried specimens of
+marine life, including starfish, are frequently offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who may
+be found in almost every market-place. Probably Se&ntilde;or Posnansky's seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly
+enterprising trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse has actually found its resting-place
+in La Paz, this does not alter the fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine fauna in Lake Titicaca.
+On the other hand, it has two or three kinds of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in the Rimac
+River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted the desirable <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1462"></a>Page 100</span>fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1464">Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners,
+and that &#8220;they have records in their <i>quipus</i> of the fish having been brought from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues.&#8221; The actual transference of water
+jars containing the fish would have offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea happened to appeal
+to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong as Se&ntilde;or Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic inland
+sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated
+with respectful skepticism.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1469">Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia, is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique
+among prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved monolithic images. Although they have suffered
+from weathering and from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed human figures. The richly decorated
+girdles and long tunics are carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of the designs are undoubtedly symbolic
+of the rank, achievements, or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is nothing hieroglyphic. The images
+are stiff and show no appreciation of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never had an opportunity
+to study the human body. In Andean villages, even little <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1471"></a>Page 101</span>children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia
+are always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel,
+they have developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which is in striking contrast to people who live on
+the warm sands of the South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human body as a <i>motif</i>. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the
+taboo against &#8220;nakedness&#8221; was too much for him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1476">Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves,
+out of which, say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves are not large enough for a man to stand
+upright, but to a people who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires no stretch of the imagination to
+believe that those bright disks came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated with dwellers on the western
+shore of the lake who would often see the sun or moon rise <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1478"></a>Page 102</span>over this island. On an ancient road that runs across the island my native guide pointed out the &#8220;footprints of the sun and
+moon&#8221;&#8212;two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1480">The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives,
+in his &#8220;Islands of Titicaca and Koati,&#8221; of the degradation and surly character of these Indians was not apparent at the time
+of my short visit in 1915. It is quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as he did for several months,
+digging up their ancient places of worship, disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting, in their minds,
+the proper balance between wet weather and dry, I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish treatment
+such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The
+brilliant sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air, causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come
+torrential rains. I shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the steamer encountered a rain squall. The
+resulting deluge actually came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash away the soil which the farmers
+have painfully gathered for field or garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1482"></a>Page 103</span>difference in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely
+penetrating. Fuel is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes, and none for artificial heat.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1484">Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The
+principal crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried, becomes the insipid <i>chu&ntilde;o</i>, chief reliance of the poorer families. The Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast has long
+since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from
+one to three <i>inches</i>. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double its
+size and productiveness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1492">Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause
+acute hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently
+appears to be sullen and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted.
+Those fortunate Polynesians are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim, trees from which delicious
+food can always be obtained, and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1494"></a>Page 104</span>cocoanuts from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1496">On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration
+of the large, re&euml;ntrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one within the other. Small ornamental niches are
+used to break the space between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle containing them. Also unusual
+are the niches between the doorways, made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first glance as though
+this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the
+step-shaped design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly
+for ornamental or ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man; others are in miniature. Frequently
+the steps were cut into the sacred boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca architect, accustomed
+to the stairway <i>motif</i>, to have conceived these curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them, even if he had never seen
+any representation of a Papal cross, or a cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested a striking
+resemblance which the sedilia-like niches <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1501"></a>Page 105</span>bear to Arabic or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped
+arch is distinctly Oriental in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1503">The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a
+slight depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and
+the wonderful snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than 17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks
+of surpassing beauty culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the sun and moon, who came to the sacred
+islands for some of their most elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries, rising over the majestic
+snow mountains, their glories reflected in the shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such occasions
+the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the
+colors of &#8220;rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning,&#8221; their ceremonial formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated
+walls of the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had special stations in front of the large, step-topped
+niches. One may be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able to manufacture exquisite textiles, and
+who loved to decorate their garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no opportunity <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1505"></a>Page 106</span>for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1507">On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great annual pageant is still staged every August. Although
+at present connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous image of the &#8220;Virgin of Copacabana,&#8221; this vivid
+spectacle, the most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested
+and corresponds to our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front of a large, bizarre church. During the
+first ten days in August there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and near. Everything dear to the
+heart of the Aymara Indian is offered for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders, usually women, sit
+in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive umbrellas,
+consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped
+corn; in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated
+high-laced boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another
+is devoted to such trinkets as one might expect to find in a &#8220;needle-and-thread&#8221; shop at home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers
+with scores of bamboo flutes varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with piles of freshly made native
+felts, warranted to last for at least a year; and vendors of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1509"></a>Page 107</span>aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among Inca
+ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although
+the modern Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not
+only easier to secure, but produce more striking results.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1511">As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of
+the plaza, bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain&#8212;locks, keys, spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other
+&#8220;wooden nutmegs.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1513">At the tables of the &#8220;money-changers,&#8221; just outside of the sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or
+the unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know
+all the tricks of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence of various Aymara secret societies, whose
+members, wearing repulsive masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be invented by primitive imaginations.
+Each society has its own uniform, made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf, gaudy textiles, magnificent
+epaulets bearing large golden stars on a background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1515"></a>Page 108</span>glass; tinted &#8220;ostrich&#8221; plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy
+ribbons, beruffled bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange costumes are actually reminiscent of
+the sixteenth century. The wearers are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums, and rattles, or other
+noise-makers. The result is an indescribable hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor and unmusical
+noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1517">The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels, their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number
+of tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many
+wore colored goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned
+in the din of big bass drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in
+the most tawdry manner with gewgaws from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on a rustic syrinx or
+Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1519">At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary
+barriers are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1521"></a>Page 109</span>pleasure-seekers, well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are ready to run helter-skelter in every direction
+should the bull take it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There are no <i>picadors</i>, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no <i>banderilleros</i>, with barbed darts; no heroic <i>matador</i>, ready with shining blade to give a mad and weary bull the <i>coup de grace</i>. Here all is fun and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or drunken Aymaras, who prod him with
+sticks and shake bright ponchos in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty scattering of some spectators,
+amid shrieks of delight from everybody else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is no chance of a bull
+being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage was
+let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that
+he could not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He galloped madly after any individual who crossed
+the plaza. Five or six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done, and every one had an uproariously
+good time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1535">Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is
+not pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles,
+blowing mightily with puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1537"></a>Page 110</span></p><a id="d0e1538"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VI</h2>
+<h1>The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders</h1>
+<p id="d0e1541">In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of
+alpacas thrive on the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here wool-buyers come to bid for the clip.
+The high prices which alpaca fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned in southern Peru for their
+weight and texture, are made here on hand looms. Notwithstanding the altitude&#8212;nearly as great as the top of Pike's Peak&#8212;the
+stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous, and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1543">They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally
+attached to their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance
+to secure the skin and skeleton of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known and spoke the Quichua language
+fluently. He offered a good price and obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1545"></a>Page 111</span>bones of one of their &#8220;camels&#8221; for shipment; but they never did. Apparently they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and
+none happened to die at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters, as horses often do. On the other
+hand I have never seen a llama kick or bite at his owner.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1547">The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards
+in all parts of Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it to walk easily on slopes too rough or
+steep for even a nimble-footed, mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet, due to its ability to
+sneeze or spit for a considerable distance a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's Circus came to
+town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size&#8212;they are only
+three feet high at the shoulder
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1549">tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight
+and the result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces.
+Curiously enough, in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have never seen a llama so attack a single
+human being. On the other hand, when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicu&ntilde;a which was perfectly willing to
+sneeze straight at any stranger who came within twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1551"></a>Page 112</span>more annoying than scientific curiosity. The vicu&ntilde;a is the smallest American &#8220;camel,&#8221; yet its long, slender neck, small head,
+long legs, and small body, from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an ostrich than a camel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1553">In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects
+of respect and veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the tree line, but the presence of these
+trees at Santa Rosa would seem to show that the use of the words <i>&#8220;tree</i> line&#8221; is a misnomer in the Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception of the coastal deserts,
+was once well covered with forests. When man first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields, and glaciers
+was covered with forest growth. Although many districts are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample
+fertility of soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts of forests which I found growing alongside
+of glaciers at very high elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha, has been accurately determined
+by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls and precipices,
+so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1558"></a>Page 113</span>with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong
+to many different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have this striking peculiarity&#8212;when cut down they sprout
+readily from the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable evidence of the fact that the primeval forests
+of Peru were long ago cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1560">Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes
+hanging each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells,
+&#8220;out of tune with themselves,&#8221; or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The resulting clangor and din is unforgettable.
+I presume the Chinese would say it was intended to drive away the devils&#8212;and surely such noise must be &#8220;thoroughly uncongenial
+even to the most irreclaimable devil,&#8221; as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells in the United
+States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once
+in a while one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament
+is being administered to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this part of the world seems to be to
+make the greatest possible amount <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1562"></a>Page 114</span>of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices
+which again remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental fondness for making a noise which is found
+in all healthy children.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1564">On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely
+of <i>chicha</i>, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of
+laughter and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation, and sociability. On week days, most of them, even
+the smaller boys, are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes
+finds the mountain Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with <i>chicha</i>, and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1572"></p>
+<div id="d0e1573" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p114-1.jpg" alt="Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1577"></p>
+<div id="d0e1578" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p114-2.jpg" alt="Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1582">To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the
+plaza, did not enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward, very much interested in my endeavors.
+Some of the Indian <i>alcaldes</i>, local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful
+and, armed with their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the shy, retiring women of the market-place to
+stand in a frightened, disgruntled, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1587"></a>Page 115</span>barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were
+reversible &#8220;pancake&#8221; hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather
+side with tinsel and velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung down on both sides. It is said that
+the first Inca ordered the dresses of each village to be different, so that his officials might know to which tribe an Indian
+belonged. It was only with great difficulty and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the <i>gobernador</i> or mayor, and the <i>alcaldes</i> that a dozen very reluctant females were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their faces was very eloquent.
+Some were highly indignant, others looked foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not knowing what
+evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that was
+the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact, some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken
+that they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1595">Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were
+large felt hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1597"></a>Page 116</span>ponchos, decorated with bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and ankle, a convenient style for
+herdsmen who have to walk in the long, dewy grasses of the plateau. These &#8220;high-water&#8221; pantaloons do not look badly when worn
+with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots, which did
+not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1599">The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require
+less attention and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also be securely bolted to the rafters. On
+this wind-swept plateau we frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes passed over the house and weights
+resting on the roof. Sometimes to the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of animals&#8212;probably
+to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed very
+efficacious.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1601">On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular
+raindrop will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad
+station of Araranca flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the sources of the Urubamba River,
+an important affluent of the Ucayali and also of the Amazon, but I never have <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1603"></a>Page 117</span>heard it referred to as &#8220;the source of the Amazon&#8221; except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain Blank, whose moving picture
+entertainment bore the alluring title, &#8220;From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon.&#8221; As most of his pictures of wild animals
+&#8220;in the jungle&#8221; looked as though they were taken in the zo&ouml;logical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly <i>hacienda</i> at Santa Ana, less than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure him for giving this particular
+little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1608">The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of
+as the Vilcanota, a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks of the cordillera in this vicinity.
+The lower portion was called by the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1610">Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide
+the Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by
+the owners of grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the valley and up the neighboring slopes to the
+cliffs of the Cordillera Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall are the ruins of ancient houses,
+possibly once occupied by an Inca garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of careful masonry. It
+seems to me likely that it was a hastily <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1612"></a>Page 118</span>thrown-up fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any permanent affair like the Roman wall of North
+Britain or the Great Wall of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between the peoples of the Titicaca
+Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1614">On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,<a id="d0e1616src" href="#d0e1616" class="noteref">1</a> one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui, Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800 A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and
+east, laying waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian migrations which appear to have continued for
+some time. During these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with so much care and difficulty <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1622"></a>Page 119</span>during the preceding twenty centuries, was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike, ruler of a people
+whose great achievements had been agricultural rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests; they told
+him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the strategic points and make preparations for defense. The
+invaders may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual
+exhaustion of forested areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great <i>pampas</i>. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were &#8220;fleeing from a race of giants&#8221;&#8212;possibly Patagonians or Araucanians&#8212;who had expelled them from their own lands.
+On their journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious that a great readjustment of the aborigines
+was in progress. The governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not able to summon enough strength
+to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the approach of the
+enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true, this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago, by the
+chiefs who were told to &#8220;fortify the strategic points.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1627">Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1632"></a>Page 120</span>from the Titicaca Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the key to the situation. It is probable
+that Pachacuti VI drew up his army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings, the weapon most familiar
+to the highland shepherds. The invaders, however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more difficult to
+see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded,
+they fled to &#8220;Tampu-tocco,&#8221; a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they hid the precious body of their ruler. Most
+writers believe this to be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved rock. There is no place in Peru
+to-day which still bears the name of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which do exist, and whose
+modern names are not found in the early Spanish writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to Peru,
+as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1634"></p>
+<div id="d0e1635" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p120-1.jpg" alt="A Potato-field at La Raya"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">A Potato-field at La Raya</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1639"></p>
+<div id="d0e1640" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p120-2.jpg" alt="Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1644">Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas, numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of
+herdsmen. The Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the manufacture of textiles&#8212;shawls, girdles, ponchos,
+and blankets&#8212;on hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending flocks or walking along the road they are
+always winding <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1646"></a>Page 121</span>or spinning yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The younger children, used as shepherds as soon
+as they reach the age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch their charges. Some of them were accompanied
+by long-haired <i>suncca</i> shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the <i>sunccas</i>, as well as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them showed any desire to make the acquaintance
+of &#8220;Checkers,&#8221; my faithful Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that &#8220;Checkers&#8221; could understand
+English. They had never seen a dog that could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1654">On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet,
+a record altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato field on the high slopes near here, it is the
+custom of the Indians to mark it off into squares, by &#8220;furrows&#8221; about fifteen feet apart. The Quichuas commence their task
+soon after daybreak. Due to the absence of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold before dawn,
+their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock, at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1656">We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more of Indians who were engaged in &#8220;ploughing&#8221; a potato field.
+Although he was <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1658"></a>Page 122</span>dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any except the implements of their ancestors. The process of
+&#8220;ploughing&#8221; this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries, probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The
+men, working in unison and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or &#8220;foot plough,&#8221; to the handle of which footholds
+were lashed, would, at a signal, leap forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing each pair of men
+was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to secure
+greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls
+over their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was lightened by the joyous contact of community activity.
+Every one worked with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to keep up with the procession. Those who
+fell behind were subjected to good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though it appears to require
+a strong directing hand. The &#8220;boss&#8221; was right there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1660">In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for individual effort. Private property was not understood.
+Everything belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1662"></a>Page 123</span>priests, the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything
+was done in common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas
+to go forth in huge family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village gossip and choral singing, interspersed
+at regular intervals with rest periods, in which quantities of <i>chicha</i> quenched the thirst and cheered the mind.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1667">Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of
+sheaves of wheat or barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the other in a parallel line, engaged
+in ploughing synchronously small portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit Lima and sometimes go
+to Paris and New York, where they purchase for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are still cultivated
+in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the <i>conquistadores</i>, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1672">Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant, almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima,
+is <i>ca&ntilde;ihua</i>, a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit in April. The threshing floor for <i>ca&ntilde;ihua</i> is a large blanket laid on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail applied, the blanket serving to
+prevent the small grayish seeds from escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1680"></a>Page 124</span>origin and has probably not changed for centuries.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1682">We noticed also <i>quinoa</i> and even barley growing at an elevation of 14,000 feet. <i>Quinoa</i> is another species of pigweed. It often attains a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The white-seeded
+variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article, both
+for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being cooked and &#8220;do not appear so slimy as oatmeal.&#8221; Other varieties
+of <i>quinoa</i> are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water being frequently changed. The growing <i>quinoa</i> presents an attractive appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1696">As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation, both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers
+of old terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them growing high up on the mountain side in what
+are called <i>temporales</i>, where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some
+kind of a crop in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani, we saw fields where <i>habas</i> beans had been gathered and the dried stalks piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the <i>pampa</i> where <i>oca</i> grows, we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary
+use of night watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1710">The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1712"></a>Page 125</span>roadside were different in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin or even of Santa Rosa, which is
+not far away. They were typical Quichuas&#8212;peaceful agriculturists&#8212;usually spinning wool on the little hand spindles which have
+been used in the Andes from time immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with coarse grass.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1714">The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men
+in certain localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem
+to be more enduring than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved teeth was everywhere noteworthy except
+on sugar plantations, where there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled from cakes or mixed with parched
+corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1716">The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be
+limited to face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the other hand, a large proportion of the Indians
+are pock-marked and show the effects of living in a country which is &#8220;free from medical tyranny.&#8221; There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1718">One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack
+of fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander has made the best use he could of the llama, he was
+never able to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1720"></a>Page 126</span>develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently,
+for the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr.
+Ferris that while his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back muscles stronger, and the calves of his
+legs larger and more powerful than those of almost any other race.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1722">The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony
+with each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times.
+In any event, this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to undergraduates at the beginning of the college
+year. As a matter of fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In testing the hand grip of the Quichuas
+by a dynamometer our surgeons found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the Quichua and the maximum grip
+was weak in both sexes, the average for the man being only about half of that found among American white adults of sedentary
+habits.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1724">Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and South America are perhaps due to their environmental history
+during the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American Museum of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1726"></a>Page 127</span>Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions
+of Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to
+that with which they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions
+of southern Peru, living in towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the sea, have physical peculiarities
+closely resembling those living at sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says the Labrador Eskimo
+and the Quichua constitute the two &#8220;best-known short-stature races on the American continent.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1728">So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which
+have children the average number is three or four. Large families are not common, although we generally learned that the living
+children in a family usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant mortality is very great. The
+proper feeding of children is not understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1730">Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are
+those of the throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded of all local diseases. It is really terrifying.
+Due to the rarity of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so
+at 11,000 feet. Patients <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1732"></a>Page 128</span>are frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common, its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living
+conditions practiced among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is not tightly closed and protected
+against any possible intrusion of fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the natives to use huts of
+thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of course,
+there are no &#8220;boards of health,&#8221; nor are the people bothered by being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water
+supplies are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat
+quantities of soup.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1734"></p>
+<div id="d0e1735" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p128.jpg" alt="The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1739">In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and
+lowland maize fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native &#8220;druggists&#8221; were present. Their stock usually consisted
+of &#8220;medicines,&#8221; whose efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds of simples and curiosities, cure-alls,
+and specifics. Fully half were reported to me as being &#8220;useful against fresh air&#8221; or the evil effects of drafts. The &#8220;medicines&#8221;
+included such minerals as iron ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the leaves of plants domesticated
+hundreds of years ago by the Incas or gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and such animals as starfish
+brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them were really useful herbs, while others <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1741"></a>Page 129</span>have only a psychopathic effect on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored woolen bag. The bags,
+differing in design and color, woven on miniature hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts turned
+over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1743">Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described
+by Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet
+high! Closer inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of a great temple. The wall is pierced with
+large doors and the spaces between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at the bottom. There are small
+holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The ashlars are
+beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive, but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence
+that the builders did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time plastered with clay, a very significant
+fact. The builders wanted the wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay wall rested on the ground,
+floods and erosion might have succeeded in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built foundation of
+solid masonry. Even <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1745"></a>Page 130</span>so, the great wall does not stand absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also seems to be less weathered
+on the west side. Probably the prevailing or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1747">An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty feet high&#8212;a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture.
+It also is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were
+to be seen, but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double row of these columns to support the stringers
+and tiebeams of the roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column and the other end was embedded in
+the main wall. The holes where the tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1749">Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall,
+decorated with large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of adobe, while the upper third is of
+rough, uncut stones. It looks very odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several cases the plastered
+walls are still standing, in fairly good condition, particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1751">The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly
+disintegrating, as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so long in a rainy region without any roof or
+protecting cover. It is incredible that for at least five <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1753"></a>Page 131</span>hundred years a wall of sun-dried clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels, made of hard-wood timbers
+and partially embedded in the wall, are all gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out whether
+the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to resist weathering. The factors which have caused this
+extraordinary adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy
+rains of each summer season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1755">It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity
+of the place, the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry of the neighboring village is still the manufacture
+of pottery. No better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1757">It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so
+much perhaps out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well
+known that the best pottery of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are well aware of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1759"></a>Page 132</span>uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are taken.
+Might it not have been possible that the people who were most concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple
+to insure success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple is a small modern church with two towers.
+The churchyard appears to be a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use the church to pray for success
+in their baking, just as the ancient potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are composed partly
+of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1761">Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the
+clay beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering
+to the god of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send the lava flow might be appeased. It may be
+that the Inca Viracocha, an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and was responsible for building
+the temple. If so, it would be natural for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped his memory.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1763"></p>
+<div id="d0e1764" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p132.jpg" alt="Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1768"></a>Page 133</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e1616" href="#d0e1616src" class="noteref">1</a> Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower
+of that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark
+or quinine and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the
+botanical name of the genus <i>cinchona</i>. Montesinos was well educated and appears to have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled extensively
+in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless,
+one finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham, foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology,
+was inclined to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for
+the Hakluyt Society by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e1769"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VII</h2>
+<h1>The Valley of the Huatanay</h1>
+<p id="d0e1772">The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land
+located under climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the ancient Peruvians. Containing an area
+estimated at less than 160 square miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has ever seen. It is still
+intensively cultivated, the home of a large percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself sometimes meanders
+through the valley in a natural manner, but at other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls constructed
+by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold
+is unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season, in June and July, and frost may occur any night in
+the year above 13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither warm nor cold.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1774">This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor
+of the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on
+their way to and from town. Although mules <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1776"></a>Page 134</span>are essentially the most reliable saddle animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses, which are
+larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated
+saddle, over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood
+decorated with silver bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered necessary and is usually decorated
+with a broad, embossed panel, from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The bridle is usually made
+of carefully braided leather, decorated with silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or blinder,
+to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade, which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely,
+is more useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1778">The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs
+near Oropesa divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura, or &#8220;the narrows,&#8221; is the natural gateway
+between the Oropesa Basin and the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre Basin the most interesting
+are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1780">At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca
+(<i>Rumi</i> = &#8220;stone&#8221;; <i>ccolca</i> = &#8220;granary&#8221;). It is commonly supposed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1788"></a>Page 135</span>that this was an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred
+to as a <i>&#8220;fortaleza.&#8221;</i> The major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay, while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully
+cut andesite ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some great chieftain built the rough wall in the
+days when the highlands were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one of the Incas, no longer needing
+any fortifications between the Huatanay Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built a fine gateway.
+The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the ancient
+masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention
+of the stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu
+I noticed similar bosses. The name &#8220;Stone-granary&#8221; was probably originally applied to a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1793">On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca,
+on the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called Piquillacta. A large number of its houses
+have extraordinarily high walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south, was obviously built to protect
+it from enemies approaching from the Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1795"></a>Page 136</span>slopes are so steep as to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava rock, with which the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich enough to attract
+the attention of agriculturists, who come here from neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the city
+are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat and barley are the principal crops.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1797">As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called
+Rumiccolca is figured in Squier's &#8220;Peru&#8221; as &#8220;Piquillacta.&#8221; On the other hand, the ruins of the large city, &#8220;covering thickly
+an area nearly a square mile,&#8221; are called by Squier &#8220;the great Inca town of Muyna,&#8221; a name also applied to the little lake
+which lies in the bottom of the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw Mt. Piquillacta first, then
+the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous, harmless, natural
+phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1799"></p>
+<div id="d0e1800" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p136.jpg" alt="Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1804">Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who has a country place in the neighborhood and is very
+familiar with this region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From him I learned that the city ruins
+are called Piquillacta, the name which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1806"></a>Page 137</span>ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently, it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction
+to give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. <i>Piqui</i> means &#8220;flea&#8221;; <i>llacta</i> means &#8220;town, city, country, district, or territory.&#8221; Was this &#8220;The Territory of the Fleas&#8221; or was it &#8220;Flea Town&#8221;? And what
+was its name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it was considered unlucky?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1814">Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca,
+long since abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out in regular fashion, the streets crossing
+each other at right angles, the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town of Ollantaytambo. Not a
+soul lives here. It is true that across the Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating in Mt. Ausangate,
+the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly settled
+valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely populated
+valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius
+of twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1816"></a>Page 138</span>on the increase. It is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the railroad. Yet it is <i>&#8220;abandonado&#8212;desierto&#8212;despoblado&#8221;!</i> Undoubtedly here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its being abandoned appears to be the absence
+of running water. Although Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles wide, rising to a point of
+2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated, extinct volcano
+surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites, and basalts.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1821">How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams?
+Has the climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the surrounding region is still the populous part
+of southern Peru? It is inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied on a plateau four hundred feet
+above the nearest water unless there was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing every drop up the
+hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there were no places near here better provided with water than this site, one could
+understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling
+problem I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1823"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1824"></a>Page 139</span>Squier says that this &#8220;fortress&#8221; was &#8220;the southern limit of the dominions of the first Inca.&#8221; &#8220;The fortress reaches from the
+mountain, on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly called <i>'El Aqueducto,'</i> perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an aqueduct&#8212;but the name is evidently misapplied.&#8221; Yet he admits that the cross-section
+of the wall, diminishing as it does &#8220;by graduations or steps on both sides,&#8221; &#8220;might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification&#8221; if it occupied &#8220;a different position.&#8221; He noticed that &#8220;the top of the wall
+is throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately
+in thickness&#8221; as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the &#8220;fortress&#8221; idea that he rejected not only local tradition
+as expressed in the native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own eyes. It seems to me that there is little
+doubt that instead of the ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the remains of an ancient <i>azequia</i>, or aqueduct, built by some powerful chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1832">A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water
+power for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such an <i>azequia</i>. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet, could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road, on this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1837"></a>Page 140</span>aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their
+upper limit corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an <i>azequia</i> would have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside which looks as though an <i>azequia</i> had once passed that way. In the valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old <i>azequias</i>. There has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills, and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been
+out of order for several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have disappeared in places. I regret very
+much that circumstances over which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the possibilities of such a theory.
+It remains for some fortunate future investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta, how they secured their
+water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1848"></p>
+<div id="d0e1849" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p140-1.jpg" alt="Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1853"></p>
+<div id="d0e1854" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p140-2.jpg" alt="Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1858">Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its
+chiefs and people cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community they were a separate political entity
+from the people of Cuzco; that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became sufficiently powerful to conquer
+the people of the Lucre Basin, and removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of his domain, a system
+of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1860"></a>Page 141</span>colonization well known in the history of the Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta departed,
+no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe
+that at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses, unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have
+been considered not desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed city had there been plenty of water
+available. In any case, the ruins of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1862">In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon, a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above
+the village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses of characteristic Inca construction, containing many
+symmetrically arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon
+was probably the residence of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant view of the village and of
+the hills to the south, which to-day are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a nicely constructed fountain
+of cut stone. Some of the terraces are extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly together. Access
+from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi.
+No one lives <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1864"></a>Page 142</span>at Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists
+to live at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom, than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow
+valley and occupy the old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here rather than in the open plain.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1866">While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President
+of the University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence
+of a fortification near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable and happy by the generous hospitality
+of Dr. Aguilar, whose <i>finca</i> is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1871">From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern
+town of San Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score
+or more of gable-roofed houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings have doors, windows, and niches
+in walls of small stones laid in clay, the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name of these ruins
+we were told that it was Saylla, although that is the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay, in the
+Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water supply at present. It is not <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1873"></a>Page 143</span>far from a stream called the Kkaira and could easily have been supplied with water by an <i>azequia</i> less than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It looks very much like the case of a village originally
+placed on the hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages
+of living near the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had established peace over the highlands. There
+may be another explanation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1878">It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage
+on unterraced slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1880">Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material
+from its slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory
+noticed that the streams traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by &#8220;transporting gravel from the
+head of the fan to its lower margin,&#8221; and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed in between the
+Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned
+when the rule of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand, it seems more likely that the people who
+built <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1882"></a>Page 144</span>Saylla were farmers and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation, due to increased erosion, they abandoned
+this site for one nearer the arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural residents of these ancient
+houses saw their beautiful fields at the bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous quantities
+of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students
+of agriculture will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading gravel banks probably drove the folk
+out of Saylla.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1884">The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point,
+is connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay
+Valley is much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little
+peaks are frequently snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in the Huatanay Valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1886">The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia.
+Firewood is scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1888"></a>Page 145</span>trees in sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has
+been thought of and written of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence of trees on the neighboring
+hills is due entirely to the hand of man, the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who cleared the forests
+before the days of intensive terrace agriculture, and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of Cuzco
+do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for
+cooking purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1890">In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged
+and many of the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding and the failure to improve the original stock
+by the introduction of new and superior strains.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1892">When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat
+land near the Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed a concentration of population very unusual
+in the Andes. Most of the important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in the immediate vicinity of Cuzco
+itself or on the <i>&#8220;pampas&#8221;</i> north of the city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato cultivation could be carried out are nearly
+all in this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1897"></a>Page 146</span>quadrant. In the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a
+picturesque ruin which bears the native name of Pucar&aacute;.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1899"><i>Pucar&aacute;</i> is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification
+to realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage
+was taken of small cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We noticed openings or drains which had
+been cut in the wall by the original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on the terraced floor of the
+enclosed area, which is several feet above that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in many of the
+old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucar&aacute; is occupied by llama herdsmen and drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral.
+Probably Pucar&aacute; was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas
+and alpacas on the neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1903">A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucar&aacute;, is a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut
+stone. Near by are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall containing four large, ceremonial niches,
+level with the ground and about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de Ondegardo, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1905"></a>Page 147</span>who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the &#8220;hot springs&#8221;
+near Tambo Machai, &#8220;called so from the manner in which the water boils up.&#8221; The next <i>huaca</i>, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself, &#8220;a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he went
+to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1910">The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly
+assume a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word <i>macchini</i> means &#8220;to wash&#8221; or &#8220;to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher.&#8221; It may be that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils
+devoted to royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is the place where, according to Molina, all the
+youths of Cuzco who had been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st day of the month to bathe and
+change their clothes. Afterwards they returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. &#8220;Each relation that offered
+a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the
+Sun and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1915">Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca, a small stream which finally joins <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1917"></a>Page 148</span>the Huatanay near the town of San Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the Cachimayo, famous
+as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named the
+place <i>Las Salinas</i>, or &#8220;the Salt Pits,&#8221; on account of the salt pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had filled the
+Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro
+and Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory.
+Near the salt pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches, called <i>Rumihuasi</i>, or &#8220;Stone House.&#8221; The presence of salt in many of the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance to
+our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in districts where the only water available was so saline as
+to spoil it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1925">The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, &#8220;an ancient water-body whose surface,&#8221; says Professor Gregory, &#8220;lay
+well above the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo.&#8221; This lake is believed to have reached its maximum expansion
+in early Pleistocene times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, <i>habas</i> beans, and <i>quinoa</i>, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively cultivated. It has been named &#8220;Lake Morkill&#8221; in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1933"></a>Page 149</span>research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq., without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian explorations
+as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons
+grazed on its banks. &#8220;Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly all of the glacial epoch.&#8221; Its drainage was finally
+accomplished by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1935">In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which
+may be found potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost
+third of Cuzco from the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for gardens and food crops. Here the
+hospitable Canadian missionaries have their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1937">On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>, an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight
+of several bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel banks of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1942"></a>Page 150</span>little gulch. Further examination showed that recent erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished stones more or less carefully fitted together, which
+at first sight appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and
+flush with its surface the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that the wall antedated the gravel deposits.
+Fifty feet farther up the <i>quebrada</i> another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging
+in the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that
+the wall was about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on both sides with roughly cut stone and filled
+in with rubble, a type of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older buildings in the western part of
+the city of Cuzco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1947"></p>
+<div id="d0e1948" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p150.jpg" alt="Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1952">Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man, was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by
+a compact water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand, yet a few days later, while endeavoring to
+solve the puzzle, I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to
+the compact, perpendicular gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like one of the small rocks which
+are freely interspersed throughout the gravels here. Closer examination <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1954"></a>Page 151</span>showed it to be the end of a human femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank, which rose almost perpendicularly
+for seventy or eighty feet above it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be true that here, in the
+heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it until I
+could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the
+Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although
+the gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery, ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel
+Central, where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline, packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought
+to New Haven. Here they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in the Peabody Museum. In the meantime
+Dr. Bowman had become convinced that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1959">When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a
+careful examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments which were excavated by us on July 11th failed
+to reveal this particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1961"></a>Page 152</span>being questioned, said that he had dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation of July 11th and had
+added these to the original lot. Presumably this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were packed. It did
+not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care if we
+had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that the age of the vertebrate remains might be &#8220;provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years,&#8221; until further studies could be made of the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article
+on the buried wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that &#8220;the wall is pre-Inca, that its relations to alluvial deposits
+which cover it indicate its erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed, and that it represents
+the earliest type of architecture at present known in the Cuzco basin.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1963">Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight of them were fragments of human bones representing at least
+three individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone of a dog, and three were &#8220;bovine remains.&#8221; The human
+remains agreed &#8220;in all essential respects&#8221; with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama and dog might all have belonged to Inca,
+or even more recent times, but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three fragments were from bones which
+&#8220;are among the least characteristic parts of the skeleton.&#8221; That which was of greatest interest was the fragment of a first
+rib, resembling the first rib of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1965"></a>Page 153</span>the extinct bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently characteristic of bisons and not seen in the
+domestic cattle of the United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied &#8220;that the material examined suggests the
+possibility that some species of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance with conservative methods
+to differentiate bison from domestic cattle solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small number
+of individuals.&#8221; Although staunchly supporting his theory of the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on
+their geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the fact that the bovine remains were not sharply
+differentiated from the bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that &#8220;the bluff in which the bones were found
+may be faced by younger gravel and that the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods of partial
+valley filling, &#8230; although it still seems very unlikely.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1967">Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation,
+however, has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary
+character of the skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could be drawn from the characters of the human
+skeletal parts, and the suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels which contained the bones might
+be of a later origin than he thought, we determined <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1969"></a>Page 154</span>to make further and more complete investigations in 1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all skepticism.
+I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the
+same skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions.
+Accordingly, I believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent testimony would give great weight to those
+conclusions should he find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague,
+Professor Gregory, to make the necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay Valley was prepared under
+the direction of Chief Topographer Albert H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru, was invited to
+accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1971">Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took
+the bones in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald
+dug a tunnel eleven feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into the solid mass of gravel. He expected
+to have to use timbering, but so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1973"></a>Page 155</span>No bones or artifacts were found&#8212;nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture and containing no unmistakable evidences of
+stratification. Apparently the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact gravel mass.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1975">In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been
+repeatedly buried and re&euml;xcavated many times during the past few centuries. He found evidence indicating periodic destruction
+and rebuilding of some gravel terraces, &#8220;even within the past one hundred years.&#8221; Accordingly there was no longer any necessity
+to ascribe great antiquity to the bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco <i>quebrada</i>. Although the &#8220;Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent and thickness in late Pleistocene times,&#8221;
+more recent deposits have, however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. &#8220;Surface wash from the bordering slopes,
+controlled in amount and character by climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since glacial times, and
+has greatly increased since human occupation began.&#8221; &#8220;Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of years as the
+age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1980">But how about the &#8220;bison&#8221;? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals
+offered for sale in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the &#8220;bison&#8221; was a Peruvian domestic ox. &#8220;Under
+the life-conditions prevailing in this part of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1982"></a>Page 156</span>the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed in bison.&#8221; Such was the sad end of the &#8220;bison&#8221; and
+the &#8220;Cuzco man,&#8221; who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and now believe to have been two hundred years
+old, perhaps. The word <i>Ayahuaycco</i> in Quichua means &#8220;the valley of dead bodies&#8221; or &#8220;dead man's gulch.&#8221; There is a story that it was used as a burial place for
+plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1987"></a>Page 157</span></p><a id="d0e1988"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter VIII</h2>
+<h1>The Oldest City in South America</h1>
+<p id="d0e1991">Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably
+since my own first impressions of it were published in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221; To be sure, there are still the evidences of
+antiquity to be seen on every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences of advancement. Telephones, electric
+lights, street cars, and the &#8220;movies&#8221; have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern traveler finds fault with
+some of the conditions he encounters he must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient Cuzco are not
+yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is steadily
+progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nu&ntilde;ez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade
+of the citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1993">The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of
+the food-stuffs and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently thronged with Indians, buying and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e1995"></a>Page 158</span>selling, arguing and jabbering, it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source of entertainment to one
+who is fond of the picturesque and interested in strange manners and customs.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e1997">The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats;
+in another those who sell <i>coca</i>. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their light seems
+to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those
+who specialize in everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the <i>arriero</i>: richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry
+his <i>coca</i> or other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond
+hitch than to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey, and candles to be burned before his patron
+saint as he starts for some distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2008"></p>
+<div id="d0e2009" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p158.jpg" alt="Map of Peru and view of Cuzco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Map of Peru and view of Cuzco</p>
+<p id="d0e2012">From the &#8220;Speculum Orbis Terrarum,&#8221; Antwerp, 1578.</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2015">In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure
+anthropometric measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His
+subjects were the unwilling victims <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2017"></a>Page 159</span>of friendly <i>gendarmes</i> who went out into the streets with orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most of the Indians showed
+no resentment and were in the end pleased and surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin as compensation
+for loss of time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2022">One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but
+this was not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo,
+and Maras. This may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place, the <i>gendarmes</i> may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk were
+presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation
+which the <i>gendarmes</i> could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than
+those of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore,
+the attention of the <i>gendarmes</i> might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city fashions
+do not prevail, than to those who through long residence in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day
+a large proportion of the individuals whom <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2033"></a>Page 160</span>one sees in the streets appears to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are visitors from outlying
+villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2035">Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua ancestry. The Spanish <i>conquistadores</i> did not bring European women with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed of such an extraordinary
+mixture of peoples from Europe and northern Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians, Berbers,
+and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with
+results which are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once 200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods
+of transportation it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559, there were, according to Montesinos, only
+20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2040">One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed
+Cuzce&ntilde;os past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous
+application of his brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged
+in bringing small sacks of potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built of stones taken from ancient
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2042"></a>Page 161</span>Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a bill-board
+advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the 2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos
+with broad fringes, brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume
+whose design shows no trace of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors was a barefooted Cuzco urchin
+clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap, coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2044">One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls
+which themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone
+wires intercept one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now part of the University of Cuzco. It
+is built of reddish basalt from the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor Gregory says that this
+Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately carved
+stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense diorite
+which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions
+gives to the Jesuit Church an <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2046"></a>Page 162</span>atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit teachers long
+before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the shouts
+of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, <i>&#8220;Mens sana in corpore sano.&#8221;</i>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2051">Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the political capital of the most important department in southern
+Peru, it had in 1911 only one hospital&#8212;a semi-public, non-sectarian organization on the west of the city, next door to the
+largest cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and
+the more prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the patients have to look at. The building has large
+courtyards and open colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to take advantage of open-air treatment.
+At the time of Surgeon Erving's visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows were small and practically
+always closed and shuttered, so that the atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly imagine a stronger
+contrast than exists between such wards and those to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum of sunlight
+and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was no
+resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2053"></a>Page 163</span>hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects
+of sunlight and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality and a very poor local reputation; yet it is
+the only hospital in the Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was no provision for caring for
+the sick except in their own homes. In the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs may be obtained,
+but in the great majority of towns and villages no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke, of the
+University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2055"></p>
+<div id="d0e2056" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p162.jpg" alt="Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University, Cuzco</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2060">On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived
+Carlos Inca, a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded in maintaining a precarious existence in the
+wilds of the Cordillera Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata is still preserved one of the
+most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine palace, or
+whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once
+a banker, an exporter of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of every description, including pencils
+and sugar mills, lumber and hats, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2062"></a>Page 164</span>candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas.
+Furthermore, he has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his large business to assist our expeditions.
+He has frequently brought us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters of introduction, so that our
+paths were made easy. He has provided us with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy muleteers,
+seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal, just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying
+clients. As a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation for the many favors he showed us. So important
+a factor was he in the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2064">Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making
+more exertion than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to reach the famous &#8220;fortress&#8221; is by following
+the course of the little Tullumayu, &#8220;Feeble Stream,&#8221; the easternmost of the three canalized streams which divide Cuzco into
+four parts. On its banks one first passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the remains of an old mill.
+The stone flume and the adjoining ruins are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2066"></a>Page 165</span>but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is
+hardly likely that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally, careful examination of the flume discloses
+the presence of lead cement, a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2068">A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221; Here the ancient builders constructed
+three great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest
+terrace of the &#8220;fortress&#8221; is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten tons and some weigh more than twenty tons,
+yet all are fitted together with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each time it invariably overwhelms
+and astounds. To a superstitious Indian who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been built by gods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2070">About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be
+composed entirely of gray-blue rock chips&#8212;chips from the great limestone blocks quarried here for the &#8220;fortress&#8221; and later
+conveyed with the utmost pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless thousands of quarrymen. Even in
+modern times, with steam drills, explosives, steel tools, and light railways, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2072"></a>Page 166</span>these hills would be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these mechanical devices were known to the ancient
+stonemasons and that these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all carried from the quarries by hand,
+it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2074">The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization.
+That thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract
+the blocks from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them several miles over rough country, and bond them
+together in such an intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability to organize and arrange the affairs
+of a very large population. Such a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for warfare. Their building
+operations required infinite pains, endless time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called forth, even
+by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily agriculturists.
+They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance
+with their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose that a people to whom stone-faced <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2076"></a>Page 167</span>terraces meant so much in the way of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of Cyclopean character,
+like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more likely object
+for the gigantic labor involved in the construction of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally strong
+defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in
+an infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2078">Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been
+caused by the supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient Peruvians were religious rather than warlike,
+more inclined to worship the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire to please, at whatever cost,
+the god that fructified the crops which grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors, warriors themselves
+and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value
+of its salients and re&euml;ntrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had been only recently acquired by <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2080"></a>Page 168</span>their crusading ancestors. The height and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest service to the soldiers
+of that day. They saw that it was virtually impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact, in the wars
+of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2082">So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians, who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery,
+did not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with.
+So natural did it seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress that it has seldom been thought of in
+any other way. The fact that the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders coming up the valley, or
+even over the gentle slopes from the west, or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been used as part of
+the main highway of the central Andes, never seems to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a fortress.
+It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season
+to celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for the sun's return from his &#8220;farthest north.&#8221; In any
+case I believe that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably intended for religious rather than military
+purposes. It is more likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2084"></a>Page 169</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2085">It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account
+of the last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2087"></a>Page 170</span></p><a id="d0e2088"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter IX</h2>
+<h1>The Last Four Incas</h1>
+<p id="d0e2091">Readers of Prescott's charming classic, &#8220;The Conquest of Peru,&#8221; will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca
+who had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the
+throne of the Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna
+Capac, named for the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected as the most acceptable figurehead.
+He was a young man of ability and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate ceremonies, the barbaric splendor
+of which only made the farce the more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might have been foreseen, he
+chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful Quichuas.
+There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as &#8220;the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world.&#8221; When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance
+of regaining the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river
+Urubamba, Manco made a determined stand, but Ollantaytambo <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2093"></a>Page 171</span>was too easily reached by Pizarro's mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their utmost endeavors by
+the presence of the magnificent stone edifices, fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors, found
+it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2095"></p>
+<div id="d0e2096" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p170.jpg" alt="Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2100">The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods, was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents,
+or crossing the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous
+for Hannibal and Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible
+to follow the Inca Manco over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than the summit of Mont Blanc. In no
+part of the Peruvian Andes are there so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle of Mt. Veronica (elevation
+19,342 ft.). Not far away is another magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the sea. Near Salcantay
+is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.), while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197 ft.).
+On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some
+hardy prospector or <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2102"></a>Page 172</span>inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by violent
+storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season
+the difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without
+assistance from man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2104">The <i>conquistador</i>, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a &#8220;great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts &#8230; and many loads of rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy.&#8221; The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of the ruler of a country traveling without rich &#8220;treasure.&#8221;
+It is extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or silver. Except for ornament there was little use
+to which he could have put the precious metals and they would have served only to arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His
+people had never been paid in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it as was needed to raise their
+own crops and make their own clothing was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the custom and usage
+of centuries made them faithful followers of their great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him beautiful
+textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2109"></a>Page 173</span>the benefits of a delightful climate, and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white and sweet, and the
+fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth against
+the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him,
+with a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses, cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive
+rafts, and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business
+led them over this route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by making them realize that in these raids
+they were taking sweet revenge on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting to note that Cieza de Leon
+justifies Manco in his attitude, for the Spaniards had indeed &#8220;seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave his native land,
+and to live in banishment.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2111">Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies,
+led many of the <i>Orejones</i> of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were called <i>Orejones</i>, &#8220;big ears,&#8221; by the Spaniards because the lobes of their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold earrings
+which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in
+the year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess and one of the <i>conquistadores.</i> <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2122"></a>Page 174</span>As a small child Garcilasso heard of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and spent the rest of his
+life in Spain. After forty years in Europe he wrote, partly from memory, his &#8220;Royal Commentaries,&#8221; an account of the country
+of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child, he speaks
+apologetically. He says: &#8220;In the time of Manco Inca, several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but still
+they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the
+countrey &#8230;. The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel; and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents
+of twenty-five and thirty feet long, with other venomous insects.&#8221; (I am quoting from Sir Paul Rycaut's translation, published
+in London in 1688.) Garcilasso says Manco's soldiers took only &#8220;such food as they found in the hands of the Indians; which
+the Inca did usually call his own,&#8221; saying, &#8220;That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge such a proportion
+thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary and natural support&#8221;&#8212;a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt whether
+Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them of their &#8220;wares and merchandise.&#8221; As will be seen later, we
+found in Manco's palace some metal <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2124"></a>Page 175</span>articles of European origin which might very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should be remembered
+that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott, left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were largely
+colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised
+by the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2126">The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says
+the Indians had no defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used &#8220;lances, arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts,
+and slings, and another weapon which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones sewn up in leather, and
+each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and sometimes they
+will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they will
+bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon, however, is the sling &#8230;. With it, they will hurl a huge stone
+with such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little less great than that of an arquebus; and I have
+seen a stone, thus hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in a man's hand at a distance of thirty
+paces.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2128">Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the
+Inca. Captain Villadiego <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2130"></a>Page 176</span>found it impossible to use horses, although he realized that cavalry was the &#8220;important arm against these Indians.&#8221; Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief
+reported to be traveling surrounded by his family &#8220;<i>and with rich treasure</i>,&#8221; he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here,
+fatigued and exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found
+themselves ambushed by the Inca, who with a small party, &#8220;little more than eighty Indians,&#8221; &#8220;attacked the Christians, who
+numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three.&#8221; To any one who has clambered
+over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or that the
+Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force
+of weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders,
+and surrounded by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas,
+who could &#8220;hurl a huge stone with such force that it would kill a horse,&#8221; to have literally stoned to death Captain Villadiego's
+little company before they could have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2135"></p>
+<div id="d0e2136" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p176.jpg" alt="The Urubamba Canyon"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Urubamba Canyon</p>
+<p id="d0e2139">A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2142">The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2144"></a>Page 177</span>their misfortune. The importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers that the size of the force with
+which Pizarro conquered Peru was less than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's company which had
+been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers, with all
+their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only &#8220;a little more than eighty Indians.&#8221; Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as being several thousand.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2146">Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted
+such a blow on the prestige of Spanish arms, &#8220;but this attempt also failed,&#8221; for the Inca had withdrawn across the rivers
+and mountains of Uilcapampa to Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers with the sight of the
+heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy, the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's enemies
+was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their
+enemies, remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face, and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as
+the North American Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists
+of central Peru. There were no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage on the bodies of Captain
+Villadiego's <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2148"></a>Page 178</span>unfortunate men. Probably the <i>conquistadores</i> supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have done under similar circumstances.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2153">Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos, his brother, Gonzalo, &#8220;undertook the pursuit of the Inca
+and occupied some of his passes and bridges,&#8221; but was unsuccessful in penetrating the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy
+than Captain Villadiego, he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue the young Inca or prevent his raids
+on travelers from Cuzco to Lima, Francisco Pizarro, &#8220;with the assent of the royal officers who were with him,&#8221; established
+the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless, according to
+Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, &#8220;having taken one
+of Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her, and then shot her to death with arrows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2155">Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in
+1639 his <i>&#8220;Coronica Moralizada,&#8221;</i> or &#8220;pious account of the missionary activities of the Augustinians&#8221; in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed by all the
+Indians who lived in a region extending &#8220;for two hundred leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces.&#8221; With customary monastic zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha
+accuses <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2160"></a>Page 179</span>the Inca of compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to abandon their new faith, torturing those
+who would no longer worship the old Inca &#8220;idols.&#8221; This story need not be taken too literally, although undoubtedly the escaped
+Indians acted as though they had never been baptized.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2162">Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa, in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen
+other Spanish fugitives, adherents of Almagro, &#8220;rascals,&#8221; says Calancha, &#8220;worthy of Manco's favor.&#8221; Obliged by the civil wars
+of the <i>conquistadores</i> to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and
+taught the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride
+horseback and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which,
+as we shall see, was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of what was going on in the viceroyalty.
+Although &#8220;encompassed within craggy and lofty mountains,&#8221; the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of all those &#8220;revolutions&#8221; which
+might be of benefit to him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2167">Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He
+brought the New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The
+New Laws provided, among other things, that all the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2169"></a>Page 180</span>officers of the crown were to renounce their <i>repartimientos</i> or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory personal service was to be entirely abolished. <i>Repartimientos</i> given to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave
+evidence that the Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve of the Pizarros. This was good news for
+Manco and highly pleasing to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the new viceroy, asking permission
+to appear before him and offer his services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by this means he might some
+day recover his empire, &#8220;or at least the best part of it.&#8221; Their object in persuading the Inca to send such a message to the
+viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they &#8220;also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past&#8221; and permission
+to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2177">Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from
+the Inca and the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left
+Uilcapampa, presented his letters to the viceroy, and gave him &#8220;a large relation of the State and Condition of the Inca, and
+of his true and real designs to doe him service.&#8221; &#8220;The Vice-king joyfully received the news, and granted a full and ample
+pardon of all crimes, as desired. And as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect, truly considering
+that the Interest of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2179"></a>Page 181</span>the Inca might be advantageous to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer Gomez Perez returned both
+to the Inca and to his companions.&#8221; The refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king and country.
+Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2181">&#8220;The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them, had given directions for making a bowling-green; where
+playing one day with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this Perez about the measure of a Cast,
+which often happened between them; for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any judgment or understanding,
+would take the least occasion in the world to contend with and provoke the Inca &#8230;. Being no longer able to endure his rudeness,
+the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat and passion
+either his own safety or the safety of his Companions, lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently
+on the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their
+Prince, joined together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house, and with their Swords in their hands defended
+the door; the Indians set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out into the Marketplace, where the
+Indians assaulted them and shot them with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then afterwards, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2183"></a>Page 182</span>out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast
+their bodies into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air, which they supposed to be the highest indignity
+and dishonour that they could show to their Corps.&#8221; Garcilasso concludes: &#8220;I informed myself very perfectly from those chiefs
+and nobles who were present and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash and hair-brained fool; and
+heard them tell this story to my mother and parents with tears in their eyes.&#8221; There are many versions of the tragedy.<a id="d0e2185src" href="#d0e2185" class="noteref">1</a> They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2201"></a>Page 183</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2202">Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young
+sons, Sayri Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not yet reached his majority, became Inca in his
+father's stead, and with the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish neighbors or being annoyed
+by them, unless the reference in Montesinos to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555, is correct.
+By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the
+inaccessible wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix
+Coya, an aunt of the Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and dispatched to Uiticos a messenger,
+of the blood royal, attended by Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down and the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2204"></a>Page 184</span>treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver
+the viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even
+though brought to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage and sent a messenger of their own to
+Cuzco to see if any foul play could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more trusted cousin, be sent
+to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2206">In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter
+of the unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his wife's language. Montesinos says he was a &#8220;great
+linguist.&#8221; They started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups
+of gilded silver as presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the Inca, they traveled as fast as they
+could to the Chuquichaca bridge, &#8220;the key to the valley of Uiticos.&#8221; Here they were detained by the soldiers of the regents.
+A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed, while the friar
+and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage Sayri
+Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of
+the Inca, with the presents which the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2208"></a>Page 185</span>viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done, so he requested the
+ambassadors to depart immediately with their silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes across the
+Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca decided
+to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate, observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but according
+to Garcilasso &#8220;made no inquiries of the devil.&#8221; The omens were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca
+to accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2210">Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried
+by relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to
+Cuzco, where he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome him. &#8220;I, myself,&#8221; says Garcilasso, &#8220;went in
+the name of my Father. I found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians &#8230;. I kissed his hands, and delivered
+my Message; he commanded me to sit down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor, made of Mayz [<i>chicha</i>] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink; he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me; he drank,
+and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why
+I did <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2215"></a>Page 186</span>not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, &#8216;Inca, as I am but a Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place
+me in such Ceremonies as these!&#8217; &#8216;How,&#8217; replied the Inca, &#8216;I would rather have seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in
+Town.&#8217; As I was going away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of the Indians, who are of his Alliance
+and Kindred, at which he was so much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection, as appeared by his Countenance.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2217">Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty, was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her
+in baptism, and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned
+to Uiticos. His only daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older, Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2222"></p>
+<div id="d0e2223" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p186.jpg" alt="Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2227">The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac,
+and to have felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa.
+Their first visitor, so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an interesting account of Uiticos and says
+he gave the Inca a pair of scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go to Cuzco. In time there came
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2229"></a>Page 187</span>an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the rough country of
+Uilcapampa, &#8220;a land of moderate wealth, large rivers, and the usual rains,&#8221; whose &#8220;forested mountains,&#8221; says Father Calancha,
+&#8220;are magnificent.&#8221; Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked
+up. The few Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the friar could not get there &#8220;unless he should
+be able to change himself into a bird.&#8221; However, with that courage and pertinacity which have marked so many missionary enterprises,
+Friar Marcos finally overcame all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2231">The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find
+that a Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca was annoyed to have any one preach against his
+&#8220;idolatries.&#8221; Titu Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos
+built a little church in a place called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. &#8220;He planted crosses in
+the fields and on the mountains, these being the best things to frighten off devils.&#8221; He &#8220;suffered many insults at the hands
+of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for their vices and abominated <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2233"></a>Page 188</span>among his converts the possession of four or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced him to send
+to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack, which was for him a most delicious banquet.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2235">Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on
+the road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his presence in company with Friar Marcos. &#8220;Although the
+Inca was not too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an entrance because the Inca &#8230; thought Friar Diego
+would not vex him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a license. They selected the town of Huarancalla,
+which was populous and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and villages. There was a distance of two
+or three days journey from one Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego went to his new establishment
+and in a short time built a church, a house for himself, and a hospital,&#8212;all poor buildings made in a short time.&#8221; He also
+started a school for children, and became very popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time than Friar
+Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician, was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2237">The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as follows: &#8220;Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called
+Chuquipalpa, is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2239"></a>Page 189</span>water where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped by those idolators. This was the principal <i>mochadero</i> of those forested mountains. The word <i>&#8216;mochadero&#8217;</i><a id="d0e2246src" href="#d0e2246" class="noteref">2</a> is the common name which the Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the only place where they practice
+the sacred ceremony of kissing. The origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very practice which Job
+abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all offences before God and says to Him: &#8216;Lord, all these punishments and even
+greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon
+shines clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward the sun and throw kisses to it,&#8217; an act of very
+grave iniquity which is equivalent to denying the true God.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2255">Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient
+Hebrew prophets. Apparently this ceremony &#8220;of the most profound resignation and reverence&#8221; was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close
+to Uiticos, in the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2257">Calancha goes on to say: &#8220;In this white stone of the aforesaid House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2259"></a>Page 190</span>there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses,
+and many of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have given them.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2261">One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some
+of their outlying estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular attack on this particular Devil, who
+was at the great &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221; The two monks summoned all their converts to gather at Puquiura, in
+the church or the neighboring plaza, and asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn up this Devil
+who had tormented them. &#8220;An innumerable multitude&#8221; came together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see
+the result; the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians'; while, as may readily be imagined, the rest
+of the population came to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to &#8220;the Temple of the Sun, in the village
+of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2263">Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring,
+the white rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then, having <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2265"></a>Page 191</span>exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and
+finally commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. &#8220;The
+poor Devil then fled roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2267">It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they
+were dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley, separated from their friends and far from the protecting
+hand of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as
+soon as the Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura.
+The chiefs wished to &#8220;slay the monks and tear them into small pieces,&#8221; and undoubtedly would have done so had it not been
+for the regard in which Friar Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to the Indians that even the
+Inca himself dared not punish him for the attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably originated
+the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out
+of the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians
+who came from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to remain, and finally became a trusted friend
+and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2269"></a>Page 192</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2270">One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold, was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded
+in getting permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too successful. Both gold and silver were found
+among the hills and he showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing that his reports might encourage
+others to enter Uilcapampa, put the unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations of Friar Diego. Foreigners
+were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2272">In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth
+while to make every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco
+and the major portion of Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians who lived in the province of
+Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live where he would
+always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2274">During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party, the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the
+meantime the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2276"></a>Page 193</span>Titu Cusi to come to Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against
+him. Titu Cusi's illness was very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual remedies. Unfortunately, all
+the monk's skill was unavailing and his royal patient died. The &#8220;remedies&#8221; were held by Titu Cusi's mother and her counselors
+to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer the penalty of death &#8220;for having caused the death of the Inca.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2278">The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and
+now happily married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty,
+but, thanks to the jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had not been that of a soldier. He was
+destined to have a brief, unhappy existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger was coming from the viceroy,
+seven warriors were sent to meet him on the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca bridge when he
+was attacked and killed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2280">The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow
+had been struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers
+of the viceroy of Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the energetic Toledo, surrounded by his
+council, determined to make war on the unfortunate young Tupac <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2282"></a>Page 194</span>Amaru and give a reward to the soldier who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that &#8220;many Insurrections
+might be raised in that Empire by this young Heir.&#8221; &#8220;Moreover it was alledged,&#8221; says Garcilasso &#8230;. &#8220;That by the Imprisonment
+of the Inca, all that <i>Treasure</i> might be discovered, which appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which Huayna Capac commanded to
+be made for himself to wear on the great and solemn days of their Festival&#8221;! Furthermore, the &#8220;Chain of Gold with the remaining
+Treasure <i>belong'd</i> to his Catholic Majesty by right of Conquest&#8221;! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2290">The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in
+case he should cross the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly been used by his father, Manco,
+in his marauding expeditions. The other company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from Cuzco by way
+of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had been
+met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending
+this important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2292">The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply in the middle and swayed so <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2294"></a>Page 195</span>threateningly over the gorge of the Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river was too deep to be
+forded. There were no canoes. It would have been a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees that
+grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had
+never been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son, Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters.
+The chiefs and nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying
+on their ability to take care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from crossing the narrow, swaying
+structure. General Hurtado was not taking any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain field pieces,
+with which the raw troops of the Inca were little acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from the
+river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before.
+A few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2296">Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road &#8220;narrow
+in the ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2298"></a>Page 196</span>depth.&#8221; It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at
+the head of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight
+of Tupac Amaru, sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and endeavored to hurl him over the cliff.
+The captain's life was saved by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him, carrying his sword. Drawing
+it from the scabbard &#8220;with much dexterity and animation,&#8221; the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2300">Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the
+Inca had &#8220;gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to the country of the Ma&ntilde;aries Indians, a warlike
+tribe and his friends, where <i>balsas</i> and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to escape.&#8221; Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids
+of the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself,
+he descended the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived at a place called Momori, only to find
+that the Inca, learning of their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed hard after, although he and his
+men were by this time barefooted and suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso says that Tupac
+Amaru, &#8220;considering <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2305"></a>Page 197</span>that he had not People to make resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime, or disturbance he had done
+or raised, suffered himself to be taken; choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards, than to perish
+in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those great Rivers &#8230;. The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca, and
+on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him, amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went, so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor
+Prince.&#8221; A mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was
+mangled before his eyes. His own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His little boys did not long survive.
+So perished the last of the Incas, descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2307">Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2309">1534. The Inca <i>Manco</i> ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2314">1536. <i>Manco</i> flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2319">1542. Promulgation of the &#8220;New Laws.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2321">1545. Murder of <i>Manco</i> and accession of his son <i>Sayri Tupac</i>.
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2329">1555. <i>Sayri Tupac</i> goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2334">1560. Death of <i>Sayri Tupac</i>. His half brother <i>Titu Cusi</i> becomes Inca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2342">1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2344">1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2346">1568&#8211;9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in Chuquipalpa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2348">1571. <i>Titu Cusi</i> dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. <i>Tupac Amaru</i> becomes Inca.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2356">1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de Loyola. Execution of <i>Tupac Amaru.</i>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2361"></a>Page 198</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2185" href="#d0e2185src" class="noteref">1</a> Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game of <i>chess</i> between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees, who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the
+tone and language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him.
+A totally different account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is that in a volume purporting to have
+been dictated to Friar Marcos by Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from Sir Clements Markham's
+translation:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2191" class="notetext">&#8220;After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much
+good fellowship, playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a boy [ten years old]. Without having
+any suspicion, although an Indian woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the Inca, my Father was
+playing with them as usual. In this game, just as my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded, strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed,
+and they were seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they left him for dead. I, being a little
+boy, and seeing my Father treated in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2193"></a>Page 183n</span>furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes.
+They looked for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate,
+in high spirits, saying, &#8216;Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.&#8217; But at this moment the captain Rimachi
+Yupanqui arrived with some Antis, and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get very far along a difficult
+road, they were caught and pulled from their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were burnt. Notwithstanding
+his wounds my Father lived for three days.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2195" class="notetext">Another version is given by Montesinos in his <i>Anales</i>. It is more like Titu Cusi's.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2246" href="#d0e2246src" class="noteref">2</a> A Spanish derivative from the Quichua <i>mucha</i>, &#8220;a kiss.&#8221; <i>Muchani</i> means &#8220;to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2362"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter X</h2>
+<h1>Searching for the Last Inca Capital</h1>
+<p id="d0e2365">The events described in <a id="d0e2367" href="#d0e2088">the preceding chapter</a> happened, for the most part, in Uiticos<a id="d0e2370src" href="#d0e2370" class="noteref">1</a> and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy, in
+what Prescott calls &#8220;the remote fastnesses of the Andes.&#8221; One looks in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several
+of the older maps give it. In 1625 &#8220;Viticos&#8221; is marked on de Laet's map of Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima
+and three hundred and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by some later cartographers, including Mercator,
+until about 1740, when &#8220;Viticos&#8221; disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers had learned that there was no such place
+in that vicinity. Its real location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at Nuremberg in 1599 gives &#8220;Pincos&#8221;
+in the &#8220;Andes&#8221; mountains, a small range west of &#8220;Cusco.&#8221; This does not seem to have been adopted by other cartographers; although
+a Palls map of 1739 gives &#8220;Picos&#8221; in about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth century who give
+&#8220;Viticos&#8221; supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g., &#8220;Los Viticos&#8221; or &#8220;Les Viticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2376"></p>
+<div id="d0e2377" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p198.jpg" alt="Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes Mountains</p>
+</div><p>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2381"></a>Page 199</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2382">The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer, Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing
+Peru, does not contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos, Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally,
+it may seem strange that Uiticos could ever be written <i>&#8220;Biticos.&#8221;</i> The Quichua language has no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital letter U exactly like a capital
+V. In official documents and letters Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard the word pronounced,
+naturally used the V sound instead of the U sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and Uilcapampa
+became Vilcabamba.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2387">Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before
+or is likely to do again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865 he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa;
+yet found no Uiticos. He believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of the last Incas. This view had
+been held by the French explorer, Count de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned when Sayri Tupac,
+Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including Paz
+Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nu&ntilde;ez and his friends in 1909, at the time of my visit to Choqquequirau.<a id="d0e2389src" href="#d0e2389" class="noteref">2</a> The only dissenter was the learned Peruvian historian, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2392"></a>Page 200</span>Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance of searching for
+Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian Expedition
+of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2394">That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco,
+mostly wealthy planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One told us that he went to Santa Ana every year
+and was acquainted with a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity
+of his countrymen to exaggerate, however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his shoulders, had crossed
+the bridge a score of times without taking the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, whose plantation
+was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar
+Marcos had established the first church in the &#8220;province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; But that was &#8220;near&#8221; Uiticos and near a village called
+Chuquipalpa, where should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins a &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221;
+Yet neither these friendly <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2396"></a>Page 201</span>planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting
+rock; nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2398">One of Se&ntilde;or Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins &#8220;finer than Choqquequirau&#8221; at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had
+never been to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders and did not seem to place much confidence in
+his word. Too often he had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not &#8220;pan out.&#8221; Yet his report resembled that of Charles
+Wiener, a French explorer, who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes, visited Ollantaytambo. While there
+he was told that there were fine ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called &#8220;Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu.&#8221; He decided
+to go down the valley and look for these ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla, descended the Lucumayo
+River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published a detailed
+map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name &#8220;Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m.&#8221; and to another &#8220;Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m.&#8221; His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find
+any ruins of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope to be any more successful? Would the rumors <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2400"></a>Page 202</span>that had reached us &#8220;pan out&#8221; as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since his day, to be sure, the Peruvian
+Government had actually finished a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard Anthropological Expedition,
+under the leadership of Dr. William C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting any ruins of importance.
+They were looking for savages and not ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was &#8220;finer than Choqquequirau&#8221; why had no one pointed
+it out to them?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2402"></p>
+<div id="d0e2403" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p202.jpg" alt="Peruvian Expedition of 1915"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Peruvian Expedition of 1915</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2407">To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded
+that &#8220;cradle of gold&#8221; as &#8220;the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent times.&#8221; They assured us there was nothing
+half so good. They even assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to <i>dig for buried treasure!</i> Denials were of no avail. To a people whose ancestors made fortunes out of lucky &#8220;strikes,&#8221; and who themselves have been
+brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of <i>tesoro</i>&#8212;treasure, wealth, riches&#8212;is an ever-present source of conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau&#8212;and that
+I was in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the members of the Expedition received no more than their
+expenses. He told me confidentially that Professor Foote <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2415"></a>Page 203</span>would sell his collection of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to see any one do scientific
+work except as he was paid by the government or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found our work
+misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco Historical Society.
+
+
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2417">The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route
+for those going to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway, past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica
+(12,000 ft.) the road crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the last point from which one can
+see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians, whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward the east, facing
+the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I believe that the words they use now are those of the <i>&#8220;Ave Maria,&#8221;</i> or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of
+the first Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries
+immediately preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca himself, that divine individual who was
+at once the head of Church and State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in sight of his residence
+to perform an act of veneration. This in turn might have led those leaving the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2422"></a>Page 204</span>city to fall into the same habit at the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass this point. None
+of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume, which betokened that they considered themselves to be
+Indians rather than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2424">Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came
+at length to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River
+by the untiring energy of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes bear many remains of narrow terraces,
+some of which are still in use. Above them are <i>&#8220;temporales,&#8221;</i> fields of grain, resting like a patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could be cultivated. Still higher
+up, their heads above the clouds, are the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture, rich in contrast,
+majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under
+circumstances which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the
+night in Urubamba, the modern capital of the province, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2429"></a>Page 205</span>much favored by Peruvians of to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate, and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000
+feet, is too high to have charming surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley, there is everything
+to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2431">Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. <i>Uru</i> is the Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, <i>pampa</i> means flat land. <i>Urubamba</i> is &#8220;flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars.&#8221; Had it been named by people who came up from a warm region where insects
+abound, it would hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land where caterpillars and grubs flourished
+would have been struck by such a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau dwellers who were working
+their way down into a warm region where butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated caterpillars,
+Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies, and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get
+everything.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2442">The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo, described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener,
+and Squier many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated.
+Here, as at Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2444"></a>Page 206</span>fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks.
+The village itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of
+curious gabled buildings, storehouses, &#8220;prisons,&#8221; or &#8220;monasteries,&#8221; perched here and there on well-nigh inaccessible crags
+above the village. Below are broad terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still harvested; terraces which
+will stand for ages to come as monuments to the energy and skill of a bygone race. The &#8220;fortress&#8221; is on a little hill, surrounded
+by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which cultivated
+the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As centuries passed in which the land came under the control
+of the Incas, whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it is likely that this fortress became a royal
+garden. The six great ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and placed in line on the summit of
+the hill, were brought from a quarry several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They were probably intended
+to be a record of the magnificence of an able ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number of men
+to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of
+the hill; he had to <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2446"></a>Page 207</span>supply the men with food. The building of such a monument meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source
+of pride. To his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2448"></p>
+<div id="d0e2449" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p206.jpg" alt="Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2453">A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a &#8220;granite
+palace, whose appearance [<i>appareil</i>] resembles the more beautiful parts of Ollantaytambo,&#8221; was only a storehouse. The other was probably a <i>tampu</i>, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under
+official orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal property were not understood. No one had anything
+to sell; no one had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an elaborate system of tax collecting. Two
+thirds of the produce raised by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It was a reasonable provision
+of the benevolent despotism of the Incas that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica should be provided
+with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in Cuzco
+in 1560, says that the food of the <i>chasquis</i>, Inca post runners, was provided from official storehouses; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2464"></a>Page 208</span>&#8220;those who worked for the Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense.&#8221; In Manco's day these buildings
+at Havaspampa probably sheltered the outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2466">Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes,
+one by way of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and
+Wiener in 1875; and one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the Salcantay River to Huadqui&ntilde;a, followed
+by the Count de Sartiges in 1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands between Mt. Salcantay and
+Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the villages of Piri and Huadqui&ntilde;a. This region was in 1911 undescribed in the geographical
+literature of southern Peru. We decided not to use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It led us
+into a fascinating country.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2468">Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass
+of granite mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the surrounding highlands which are composed
+of schists, conglomerates, and limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province, but it was closed for
+centuries by the combined efforts of nature and man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range, forms
+rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can be scaled only with great effort <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2470"></a>Page 209</span>and considerable peril. At one time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians, by crawling along the face
+of the cliff and sometimes swinging from one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way to any of the
+alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in various
+inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the
+foundations of an old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric man had built, at the foot of the precipices,
+close to the river, a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of Salapunco; <i>sala</i> = ruins; <i>punco</i> = gateway. Fashioned after famous Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large ashlars and also
+by reason of the salients and re&euml;ntrant angles which enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2478">Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy, Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable
+him to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate
+zone, to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon.
+On the other hand, it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2480"></a>Page 210</span>occupying the fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies coming down the valley from the direction
+of Ollantaytambo. They could easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully built and constructed
+with skill. Supplies from the plantations of Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path which antedated
+the present government road. Salapunco may have been occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however, have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely
+that he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore,
+its style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it
+seem all the more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was
+built by folk who once occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2482"></p>
+<div id="d0e2483" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p210.jpg" alt="Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2487">When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred
+to us that, in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as the Inca Manco had the force and time to
+build, we were to discover remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins enough to explain why such a
+fortress as Salapunco might possibly have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and Cuzco and not those
+well-known <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2489"></a>Page 211</span>Inca cities against the savages of the Amazon jungles.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2491">Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered a most interesting region, where we were surprised
+and charmed by the extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence of many Inca ruins, the beauty of
+the deep, narrow valleys, and the grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across the river, near Qquente,
+on top of a series of terraces, we saw the extensive ruins of Patallacta (<i>pata</i> = height or terrace; <i>llacta</i> = town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's
+map, although he does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any reference to it in the chronicles. We
+spent several months here in 1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another volume I hope to tell
+more of the antiquities of this region. At present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta disclosed
+no &#8220;white rock over a spring of water.&#8221; None of the place names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings, their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone
+roof-pegs, bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these towns and villages flourished, who built
+them, why they were deserted, we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant, or silent, as to their
+history.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2499">At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2501"></a>Page 212</span>valley, we found another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured
+some mummies. The ancient wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out the vampire bats that lived
+in the cave. On the opposite side of the river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other ruins first visited
+by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a large surveying
+instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2503">Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In 1915 rumors of Andean or &#8220;spectacled&#8221; bears having been
+seen here and of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led us to go and investigate. We found no bears,
+but at an elevation of 12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering moss not hitherto known to science.
+Above them I was so fortunate as to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians first developed many
+varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2505">Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near relative of the c&#339;nolestes. It turned out to be new
+to science. To find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen
+bears.<a id="d0e2507src" href="#d0e2507" class="noteref">3</a>
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2512"></a>Page 213</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2513">Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba, and such a canyon! The river &#8220;road&#8221; runs recklessly up and
+down rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets
+against granite cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices permitted it, the land between them and the
+river was once terraced and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable wonderland. Emotions came thick and
+fast. We marveled at the exquisite pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips of arable land from
+the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge of the
+dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built
+a temple, whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot of the interesting ruins, unable to ford
+the intervening rapids. High up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple, are the ruins of Corihuayrachina
+(<i>kori</i> = &#8220;gold&#8221;; <i>huayara</i> = &#8220;wind&#8221;; <i>huayrachina</i> = &#8220;a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place.&#8221; Possibly this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above
+us on another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2524"><span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2525"></a>Page 214</span>On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called <i>&#8220;La Maquina,&#8221;</i> where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of
+a &#8220;machine&#8221; destined never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to a sugar estate in the lower valley,
+and years ago left here to rust in the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for us to pitch our camp,
+so we pushed on over the very difficult road, which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part of the
+cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic
+bridge built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds, tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth
+and pebbles to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder
+&#8220;the machine&#8221; rested where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2530">Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we
+passed a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land of steep mountains is called a <i>pampa</i>. Were the dwellers on the <i>pampas</i> of Argentina&#8212;where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight line, except for the curvature of the earth&#8212;to see this
+little bit of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been joking or else grossly misusing a word which
+means to them illimitable space with not a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2538"></a>Page 215</span>hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while to
+build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing
+space in the bottom of the canyon is called a <i>pampa</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2543"></p>
+<div id="d0e2544" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p214.jpg" alt="The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2548">We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the
+river Urubamba on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders which interfered with the progress of the surging
+stream, was a steep mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp, near the road and yet secluded. Our
+actions, however, aroused the suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the lands of Mandor Pampa. He
+was anxious to know why we did not stay at his hut like respectable travelers. Our <i>gendarme</i>, Sergeant Carrasco, reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned that we were interested in the
+architectural remains of the Incas, he said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity&#8212;in fact, some excellent ones
+on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu, and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to reach. The story of my experiences on the following
+day will be found in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of
+very little importance, while those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2553"></a>Page 215</span>&#8220;National Geographic Magazine,&#8221; are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2555">When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered
+if it could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo, a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring
+when he said: &#8220;The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos], which is on a very high mountain, whence
+the view commanded a great part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level space, with very sumptuous
+and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as the ordinary
+ones, being of marble, elaborately carved.&#8221; Could it be that &#8220;Picchu&#8221; was the modern variant of &#8220;Pitcos&#8221;? To be sure, the
+white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty
+about fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there was no difference between the lintels of the doors
+and the walls themselves. Furthermore, there is no &#8220;white rock over a spring of water&#8221; which Calancha says was &#8220;near Uiticos.&#8221;
+There is no Pucyura in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not satisfy the geographical requirements
+of Uiticos. Although containing ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that last Inca capital for which
+we were searching. We had not yet found Manco's palace.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2557"></a>Page 217</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2370" href="#d0e2370src" class="noteref">1</a> Uiticos is probably derived from <i>Uiticuni</i>, meaning &#8220;to withdraw to a distance.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2389" href="#d0e2389src" class="noteref">2</a> Described in &#8220;Across South America.&#8221;
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2507" href="#d0e2507src" class="noteref">3</a> On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2509"></a>Page 213n</span>of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: &#8220;Of all the novelties, by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial &#8230;. Members
+of the family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador.&#8221; Mr. Heller's discovery greatly extends the recent range of
+the kangaroo family.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2558"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XI</h2>
+<h1>The Search Continued</h1>
+<p id="d0e2561">Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below
+the ruins, both Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in the flora and fauna. From the point of
+view of historical geography, Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of <i>huilca</i>, a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries tell us <i>huilca</i> is a &#8220;medicine, a purgative.&#8221; An infusion made from the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in which it is also shown that from seeds of the <i>huilca</i> a powder is prepared, sometimes called <i>cohoba</i>. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a narcotic snuff &#8220;inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated tube.&#8221; &#8220;All writers
+unite in declaring that it induced a kind of intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were regarded by
+the natives as supernatural. While under its influence the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication with
+unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the
+sick the physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the person or spirit by whom the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2575"></a>Page 218</span>patient was bewitched.&#8221; Mr. Safford quotes Las Casas as saying: &#8220;It was an interesting spectacle to witness how they took
+it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and while he was engaged all remained silent &#8230;. When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on
+his knees. Then he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must have been his prayer to the true God, or
+to him whom he held as God; after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this they did with a loud voice
+or sound. Then they gave thanks and said to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and begging him to
+reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born, or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with
+their neighbors, and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed with that intoxication.&#8221;<a id="d0e2577src" href="#d0e2577" class="noteref">1</a>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2586">Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place where <i>huilca</i> was first found and used in their incantations would be important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name
+of this river was <i>Uilca-mayu</i>: the &#8220;huilca river.&#8221; <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2594"></a>Page 219</span>The <i>pampa</i> on this river where the trees grew would likely receive the name <i>Uilca pampa</i>. If it became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named <i>Uilcapampa</i> after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact
+that denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search of this highly prized narcotic, must have found
+the first trees not far from Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2605">Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of
+San Miguel, passed the house of Se&ntilde;or Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to write his name on the granite walls of Machu
+Picchu, and came to the sugar-cane fields of Huadqui&ntilde;a. We had now left the temperate zone and entered the tropics.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2607">At Huadqui&ntilde;a we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of the plantation, Se&ntilde;ora Carmen Vargas, and her children,
+were spending the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco, but when summer brings fine weather they
+come to Huadqui&ntilde;a to enjoy the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not only with that hospitality to
+passing travelers which is common to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance in our explorations. Se&ntilde;ora
+Carmen's estate covers more than two hundred square miles. Huadqui&ntilde;a is a splendid example of the ancient patriarchal system.
+The Indians who come from other parts of Peru to work on the plantation <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2609"></a>Page 220</span>enjoy perquisites and wages unknown elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Se&ntilde;ora Carmen with an affectionate
+reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted in <i>encomienda</i> to the lords of the <i>repartimiento</i> or allotted territory.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2617">Huadqui&ntilde;a once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar cane and established the mill. After their expulsion
+from the Spanish colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadqui&ntilde;a was bought by a Peruvian. It was first described
+in geographical literature by the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when on his way to Choqquequirau.
+He says that the owner of Huadqui&ntilde;a &#8220;is perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses on his estates
+all the products of the four parts of the globe. In the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair, potatoes,
+wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, <i>coca</i>, many mines of silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold.&#8221; Truly a royal principality.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2622"></p>
+<div id="d0e2623" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p220.jpg" alt="Huadqui&ntilde;a"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Huadqui&ntilde;a</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2627">Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca
+ruins, he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadqui&ntilde;a one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without
+crossing the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind
+hosts in 1911. They scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2629"></a>Page 221</span>and extent of the Inca edifices.<a id="d0e2631src" href="#d0e2631" class="noteref">2</a> When my photographs were developed, however, and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the principal temples,
+Se&ntilde;ora Carmen and her family were struck dumb with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was possible
+that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower
+of no great interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge of San Miguel, had reported the presence of
+the ruins which he first visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little attention to his stories. We
+were soon to have a demonstration of the causes of such skepticism.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2640">Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of Calaucha's &#8220;Chronicle&#8221; which referred to the location of
+the last Inca capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of which they had never heard, they ordered
+the most intelligent tenants on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all was a sturdy <i>mestizo</i>, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there were
+&#8220;important ruins&#8221; which had been seen by some of Se&ntilde;ora Carmen's Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement
+that on a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2645"></a>Page 222</span>(<i>yurak</i> = &#8220;white&#8221;; <i>rumi</i> = &#8220;stone&#8221;) where some very interesting ruins had been found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from Calancha's &#8220;Chronicle&#8221; was the statement that &#8220;close to
+Uiticos&#8221; is the &#8220;white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak Rumi.&#8221; Our hosts assured us that this
+must be the place, since no one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman, on being closely questioned,
+said that he had seen the ruins once or twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great ruins at Ollantaytambo,
+and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi were &#8220;as good as those at Ollantaytambo.&#8221; Here was a definite statement made
+by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman
+said that the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of Indians could open it in less than a week.
+Our hosts, excited by the pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that even finer ruins might be found
+on their own property, immediately gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2653">While this was being done, Se&ntilde;ora Carmen's son, the manager of the plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu,
+where other &#8220;important ruins&#8221; had been found, which could be reached in a few hours without cutting any new trails. Acting
+on his assurance that we should not need tent or <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2655"></a>Page 223</span>cots, we left our camping outfit behind and followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We found Ccllumayu
+to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of the Indian
+tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in vain
+for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadqui&ntilde;a, but Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat <i>cuys</i> (guinea pigs), the chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough wattles which admitted plenty of
+fresh air and gave us comfortable ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles, constructed for the needs
+of short, stocky Indians, kept us from being overrun by inquisitive <i>cuys</i>, but could hardly be called as comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadqui&ntilde;a.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2663">The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts
+which probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins,
+&#8220;important&#8221; or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was our first disillusionment.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2665">On our return to Huadqui&ntilde;a, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi would be ready &#8220;in a day or two.&#8221; In the meantime our
+hosts became much interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2667"></a>Page 224</span>They brought an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded by high walls in a secluded place back
+of the house was &#8220;a great place for spiders.&#8221; We found that their statement was not exaggerated and immediately engaged in
+an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these Huadqui&ntilde;a spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy, Dr. Chamberlain
+found among them the representatives of four new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a reward of merit,
+he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2669"></p>
+<div id="d0e2670" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p225.jpg" alt=""></p>
+<p id="d0e2671">Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadqui&ntilde;a. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+from measurements and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2674">Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the
+foreman to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were &#8220;better than those of Ollantaytambo.&#8221; It was
+to be presumed that in the pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it never entered my head what
+I was actually to find. After several hours spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the walls I learned
+that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in clay. The building was without a doorway, although it
+had several small windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels of the windows and of the small
+apertures leading into the subterranean shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side or on the ends,
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2676"></a>Page 225</span>but there were four on the south side through which it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize, potatoes,
+or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of public
+storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on
+top of the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadqui&ntilde;a valleys, probably on an ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa.
+As such it was interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had done, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2678"></a>Page 226</span>was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places
+could have thought for a moment that one was &#8220;as good as the other.&#8221; To be sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and
+his interest in Inca buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo are so well known and so impressive
+that even the most casual traveler is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud of them. The real cause
+of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner is a common
+trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on us. We
+now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation
+on the part of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were interested in visiting the remains of Inca
+civilization. They knew only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and their inability to report facts
+accurately.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2680">Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to Se&ntilde;ora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani
+and proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where
+the Urubamba is joined by the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2682"></a>Page 227</span>Vilcabamba River.<a id="d0e2684src" href="#d0e2684" class="noteref">3</a> Both rivers are restricted here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on their way to the lower valley.
+A few rods from Chauillay was a fine bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded the old suspension
+bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet here
+it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy, Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado
+and Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief
+preliminary fire the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled
+to accomplish that which had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of the surroundings showed that
+Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge of Chuquichaca
+&#8220;was a measure of no small importance for the royal force.&#8221; It certainly would have caused the Spaniards &#8220;great trouble&#8221; if
+they had had to rebuild it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2687">We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the
+plantation of Santa Ana, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2689"></a>Page 228</span>Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice
+of prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca, we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders
+through a broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of
+green sugar cane, the hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians fortunate enough to dwell in this
+tropical &#8220;Garden of Eden.&#8221; The day was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees loaded with ripe
+fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver <i>real</i> she dragged out a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her to permit us to take only as many as
+our pockets could hold; but she seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2694">At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town
+of Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is
+one of the principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was
+the scene of unusual activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond it, we came to the long colonnades
+of the celebrated sugar estate of Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed this <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2696"></a>Page 229</span>way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He says that he was received here &#8220;with a thousand signs of friendship&#8221;
+(<i>&#8220;mille t&eacute;moignages d'amiti&eacute;&#8221;</i>). We were received the same way. Even in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from government officials
+and generous hospitality from private individuals, our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2701">Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible information about the little-known region into which
+we proposed to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested,
+not only in the administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in the intellectual movements of the outside
+world. He entered with zest into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new to him, but after reading over
+with us our extracts from the Spanish chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he did. Santa Ana
+is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator; the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the &#8220;winter&#8221; nights are cool; but the
+heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless, our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the
+towns and valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was not much. They all agreed that &#8220;if only Se&ntilde;or
+Lopez Torres were alive he could have been of great <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2703"></a>Page 230</span>service&#8221; to us, as &#8220;he had prospected for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had once seen some Inca
+ruins in the forest!&#8221; Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don Pedro's friends
+had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging, until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa Ana another
+friend of Don Pedro's, the <i>teniente gobernador</i> of the village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba&#8212;a crusty old fellow named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo,
+had been a member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and
+had left their names on its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried treasure, but he was totally unable
+otherwise to comprehend our desire to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the contemporaries of
+Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was the sub-prefect of the province of Convenci&oacute;n, lived at
+Quillabamba near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had received orders from his own official superior,
+the prefect of Cuzco, to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave particular orders to Mogrovejo
+to see to it that we were given every facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places of historic interest.
+Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin in the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2708"></a>Page 231</span>savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2710">Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and
+charming conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma, taking the road on the southwest side of the
+Urubamba and using the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious cargoes of <i>coca</i> and <i>aguardiente</i> from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start; not one of those meant-to-be-early
+but really late-in-the-morning departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2718">We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested, had long since been cleared, and was now covered with
+bushes and second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging
+rocks. As a boy in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting those beautiful and fascinating mollusks,
+which usually prefer the trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of gathering a large number of such
+as could easily be secured. None of the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting period. Some weeks
+later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in color,
+on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They were fairly &#8220;glued to their <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2720"></a>Page 232</span>resting places&#8221;; clustered so closely in some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2722">Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer
+had preceded us&#8212;the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence
+here of mines and minerals, but with the exception of an &#8220;abandoned <i>tampu</i>&#8221; at Maracnyoc (&#8220;the place which possesses a millstone&#8221;), he makes no mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed
+from the story of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that we were now entering the valley of Uiticos,
+it was with feel-hags of considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem strange that we should have
+been in any doubt. Yet before our visit nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos Romero still
+believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word <i>choqquequirau</i> means &#8220;cradle of gold&#8221; and this lent color to the legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had &#8220;retired to Uilcapampa,&#8221;
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau
+was Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the requirements of Calancha that it was &#8220;two or three
+days' journey&#8221; from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2730"></a>Page 233</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2731">A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack
+animals to travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces
+the cliffs in a series of little tunnels. My <i>gendarme</i> missed this road and took the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of Captain Garcia's expedition,
+&#8220;the road was narrow in the ascent with forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth.&#8221; We reached Paltaybamba
+about dusk. The owner, Se&ntilde;or Jos&eacute; S. Pancorbo, was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles of the
+river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo
+to be on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the plantation and his friends that evening. They had
+heard little of any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere
+in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> there was &#8220;an Inca city.&#8221; All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach; and none of them had ever been there. In
+the morning the manager gave us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man at that house should relay
+us to the next, and so on. These people, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2739"></a>Page 234</span>all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders, although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2741">The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle
+and dark green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the
+road is very winding, and the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must be like in February, the
+rainy season, we could only surmise. About two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi &#8220;Maracnyoc,&#8221;
+an &#8220;abandoned <i>tampu</i>,&#8221; we came to some old stone walls, the ruins of a place now called Huayara or &#8220;Hoyara.&#8221; I believe them to be the ruins of
+the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's army
+were &#8220;brought back to the valley of Hoyara,&#8221; where they were &#8220;settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+&#8230;. This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were
+taken for the service of the city, the water being very good.&#8221; The water here is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco
+Basin. On the plain near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation of Paltaybamba. &#8220;Hoyara&#8221; was abandoned
+after the discovery of gold mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish &#8220;city&#8221; was moved to the village now
+called Vilcabamba.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2746"></a>Page 235</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2747">Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of <i>Teniente Gobernador</i> Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount
+of prosperity due to the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior, the pass to the rubber estates
+in the San Miguel Valley. Here are &#8220;houses of refreshment&#8221; and two shops, the only ones in the region. One can buy cotton
+cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of
+agriculture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2752">There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived
+on the little plaza around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He had just returned from Santa Ana
+by the way of Idma, using a much worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled him to avoid passing
+through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had happened
+to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2754">We offered to pay Mogrovejo a <i>gratificaci&oacute;n</i> of a <i>sol</i>, or Peruvian silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double that amount if the locality should prove
+to contain particularly interesting <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2762"></a>Page 236</span>ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He summoned his <i>alcaldes</i> and other well-informed Indians to appear and be interviewed. They told us there were &#8220;many ruins&#8221; hereabouts! Being a practical
+man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of
+Quillabamba. So he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2767">The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower
+Vilcabamba. On all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places they were covered with forest growth, chiefly
+above the cloud line, where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on the more gentle slopes recent
+clearings gave evidence of enterprise on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's climb we reached
+what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures, on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia
+speak of a number of forts or <i>pucar&aacute;s</i> which had to be stormed and captured before Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those &#8220;fortresses.&#8221;
+Its strategic position and the ease with which it could be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2772"></a>Page 237</span>the &#8220;fortress of Pitcos,&#8221; nor the &#8220;House of the Sun&#8221; near the &#8220;white rock over the spring.&#8221; It is called <i>Incahuaracana</i>, &#8220;the place where the Inca shoots with a sling.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2777">Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices&#8212;one of two rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not particularly well built and resemble in many respects the
+ruins at Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows, although each has three front doors and is lined
+with niches, four or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three rooms, and had several front doors.
+A force of two hundred Indian soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2779">We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated
+hill, its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes, its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name
+of the hill was &#8220;Rosaspata,&#8221; a word of modern hybrid origin&#8212;<i>pata</i> being Quichua for &#8220;hill,&#8221; while <i>rosas</i> is the Spanish word for &#8220;roses.&#8221; Mogrovejo said his Indians told him that on the &#8220;Hill of Roses&#8221; there were more ruins.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2787">At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a &#8220;wretched
+hamlet with a paltry chapel.&#8221; To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large public school here, to which children come from
+villages many miles away. So crowded is the school <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2789"></a>Page 238</span>that in fine weather the children sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls wear high boots. I once
+saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of the first school
+in this whole region. For it was to <i>&#8220;Puquiura&#8221;</i> that Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the <i>&#8220;mezquina capilla&#8221;</i> which Raimondi scorned. If this were the <i>&#8220;Puquiura&#8221;</i> of Friar Marcos, then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with their famous procession of converts from
+&#8220;Puquiura&#8221; to the House of the Sun and the &#8220;white rock&#8221; which was &#8220;close to Uiticos.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2800">Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing
+quartz on a considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo, who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended
+masses said by his friend Friar Diego in a chapel which is &#8220;near my houses and on my own lands, in the mining district of
+Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2802"></p>
+<div id="d0e2803" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p238.jpg" alt="Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2807">One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite,
+hollowed out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian
+mortar and pestle, heavy enough to need the services of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2809"></a>Page 239</span>four men to work it. The mortar was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected a few inches above the
+surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from time immemorial
+by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2811">Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo
+to an old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa,
+or Inca pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single
+house, 166 feet long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since disappeared. There were six doorways in
+front, none on the ends or in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near Lucma. The walls had originally
+been built of rough stones laid in clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all at one end of the structure,
+were irregular, about two feet in width and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building which was still
+standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2813">Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and followed a path along <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2815"></a>Page 240</span>its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found myself
+on a pleasant <i>pampa</i> near the top of the mountain. The view from here commands &#8220;a great part of the province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; It is remarkably
+extensive on all sides; to the north and south are snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2820">Furthermore, on the north side of the <i>pampa</i> is an extensive level space with a very sumptuous and majestic building &#8220;erected with great skill and art, all the lintels
+of the doors, the principal as well as the ordinary ones,&#8221; being of white granite elaborately cut. At last we had found a
+place which seemed to meet most of the requirements of Ocampo's description of the &#8220;fortress of Pitcos.&#8221; To be sure it was
+not of &#8220;marble,&#8221; and the lintels of the doors were not &#8220;carved,&#8221; in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully
+finished, as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might easily pass for marble. If only we could find
+in this vicinity that Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was &#8220;near&#8221; Uiticos, all doubts would be at an end.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2825">That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings
+when in response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring valley there was a great white <i>rock</i> over a spring of water! If his story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It behooved us to make a very
+careful study of what we had found.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2830"></a>Page 241</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2577" href="#d0e2577src" class="noteref">1</a> Mr. Safford says in his article on the &#8220;Identity of Cohoba&#8221; (<i>Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences</i>, Sept. 19, 1916): &#8220;The most remarkable fact connected with <i>Piptadenia peregrina</i>, or &#8216;tree-tobacco&#8217; is that &#8230; the source of its intoxicating properties still remains unknown.&#8221; One of the bifurcated tubes.&#8220;in
+the first stages of manufacture,&#8221; was found at Machu Picchu.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2631" href="#d0e2631src" class="noteref">2</a> See the illustrations in Chapters <a id="d0e2633" href="#d0e3571">XVII</a> and <a id="d0e2636" href="#d0e3683">XVIII</a>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2684" href="#d0e2684src" class="noteref">3</a> Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river
+and the old Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by using the correct, official spelling for the
+river and town, viz., Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place referred to in the contemporary histories
+of the Inca Manco.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2831"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XII</h2>
+<h1>The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun</h1>
+<p id="d0e2834">When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied
+the supreme power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru.
+Captain Garcia earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the &#8220;<i>ma&ntilde;ana</i> habit&#8221; was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's
+Royal Council of the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this
+he says: &#8220;and having arrived at the principal fortress, Guay-napucar&aacute; [&#8220;the young fortress&#8221;], which the Incas had fortified,
+we found it defended by the Prince Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains and soldiers. It is
+on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger.
+Thus we gained the province of Uilcapampa.&#8221; The viceroy himself says this important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill
+and courage in storming <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2839"></a>Page 242</span>the heights of Guaynapucar&aacute;, &#8220;on Saint John the Baptist's day, in 1572.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2841">The &#8220;Hill of Roses&#8221; is indeed &#8220;a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags.&#8221; The side of easiest approach is protected by
+a splendid, long wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa
+could have furnished a contingent to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on all sides, and it would
+have been extremely easy for a small force to have defended it. It was undoubtedly &#8220;almost impregnable.&#8221; This was the feature
+Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2843">On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged
+so as to form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The outside dimensions of the compound are about
+160 feet by 145 feet. The builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging the houses, Due to the wanton destruction
+of many buildings by the natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so pulled down that it is impossible
+to get the exact dimensions of the buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been any niches.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2845"></p>
+<div id="d0e2846" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p242-1.jpg" alt="Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2850"></p>
+<div id="d0e2851" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p242-2.jpg" alt="Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2855">Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains
+of this building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from
+Cuzco. It is 245 feet by 43 feet. There were no <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2857"></a>Page 243</span>windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways, fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms, besides
+three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not, to be sure, of &#8220;marble&#8221; as Ocampo said&#8212;there is no marble
+in the province&#8212;but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary
+ones, are also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as eight feet in length. The doorways are better
+than any other ruins in Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention of them made by Ocampo, who lived
+near here and had time to become thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very small portion of the edifice
+was still standing. Most of the rear doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous fence. Other walls
+had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out of the cultivated <i>pampa</i>. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops and
+sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2862">On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide,
+containing doors on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It was probably a barracks for a company
+of soldiers.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2864"></a>Page 244</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2865">The intervening <i>&#8220;pampa&#8221;</i> might have been the scene of those games of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who fled from the
+wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2870">Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number
+of iron articles of European origin, heavily rusted&#8212;horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of scissors, several bridle or saddle
+ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one time, although the
+necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to
+make raids on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily have brought back with him a Spanish bridle.
+In the second place the musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have enjoyed whiling away their exile
+with melancholy twanging. In the third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish market in Cuzco, where
+there would have been displayed at times a considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally Rodriguez de
+Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European artifacts
+has been turned <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2872"></a>Page 245</span>up in the excavations of other important sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they were abandoned
+before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2874">Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the
+palace of the last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is
+astonishing how few details we have by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries are strangely silent.
+When he left Cuzco and sought refuge &#8220;in the remote fastnesses of the Andes,&#8221; there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza de Leon,
+in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;&#8212;Manco had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had &#8220;retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in
+the most retired part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes.&#8221;<a id="d0e2876src" href="#d0e2876" class="noteref">1</a> The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we
+can learn they left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2879"></a>Page 246</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2880">Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers,
+are fully described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that &#8220;close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water.&#8221; Our guide had told us there was such a place close
+to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2882">On the day after making the first studies of the &#8220;Hill of Roses,&#8221; I followed the impatient Mogrovejo&#8212;whose object was not
+to study ruins but to earn dollars for finding them&#8212;and went over the hill on its northeast side to the Valley of <i>Los Andenes</i> (&#8220;the Terraces&#8221;). Here, sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top, which had a carved seat or platform
+on its northern side. Its west side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been walled in on one side.
+When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there was a <i>manantial de agua</i> (&#8220;spring of water&#8221;) near by, I became greatly interested. On investigation, however, the&#8221; spring&#8221; turned out to be nothing
+but part of a small irrigating ditch. (<i>Manantial</i> means &#8220;spring&#8221;; it also means &#8220;running water&#8221;). But the rock was not &#8220;over the water.&#8221; Although this was undoubtedly one
+of those <i>huacas</i>, or sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important
+accessory to ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2896"></p>
+<div id="d0e2897" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p246.jpg" alt="Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2901">Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2903"></a>Page 247</span>had been the house of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a large number of very handsomely built
+agricultural terraces, the first we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in the valley. So scarce
+are <i>andenes</i> in this region and so noteworthy were these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were probably built
+under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of carved boulders, <i>huacas</i>. One had an <i>intihuatana</i>, or sundial nubbin, on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we followed a trickling stream through
+thick woods until we suddenly arrived at an open place called &ntilde;usta Isppana. Here before us was a great white rock over a
+spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly enclosing the
+gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name of
+this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2914">It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every
+side. There was not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal place for practicing the mystic ceremonies
+of an ancient cult. The remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its shadow had caused this to become
+a place of worship. Here, without doubt, was &#8220;the principal <i>mochadero</i> of those forested mountains.&#8221; It is still <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2919"></a>Page 248</span>venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests
+faced the east, greeted the rising sun, &#8220;extended their hands toward it,&#8221; and &#8220;threw kisses to it,&#8221; &#8220;a ceremony of the most
+profound resignation and reverence.&#8221; We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent robes of office, standing on
+the top of the rock at the edge of its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the early morning, awaiting
+the moment when the Great Divinity should appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it rose they saluted
+it and cried: &#8220;O Sun! Thou who art in peace and safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health and safety.
+O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu, grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it is for this that thou hast created them.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2921"></p>
+<div id="d0e2922" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p248.jpg" alt="Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana Formerly Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at &Ntilde;usta Isppana Formerly Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2926">It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying
+a stick of firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself
+in the water. Since the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect the sky, but only the overhanging,
+dark, mossy rock, the water looks black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to believe that simple-minded
+Indian worshipers in this secluded spot could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2928"></a>Page 249</span>&#8220;as a visible manifestation&#8221; in the water. Indians came from the most sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship
+here and to offer gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised the standard of the cross, recited
+their orisons, and piled firewood all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him by all the vile names
+they could think of, the friars commanded him never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple, scorched
+the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and causing the poor Devil to flee, &#8220;roaring in a fury.&#8221; &#8220;The cruel
+Devil never more returned to the rock nor to this district.&#8221; Whether the roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or
+of the flames we can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up the swamp or interfered with the arrangements
+of the water supply so that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no chance to appear in the water, where
+he had formerly been accustomed to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2930">The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state, but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well
+preserved notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height
+above the present level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are seats and large steps or platforms.
+It was customary to kill llamas at these holy <i>huacas</i>. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may have been used for such sacrifices. From <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2935"></a>Page 250</span>it runs a little crack in the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been intended to carry off the blood
+of the victim killed on top of the rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which are quietly practiced
+here by the more superstitious Indian women of the valley, possibly in memory of the &ntilde;usta or Inca princess for whom the shrine
+is named.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2937">On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four or five small seats which have been cut in the rock.
+Great care was exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly square, level, and straight. The east side
+of the rock projects over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the water. On the north side there are
+no seats. Near the water, steps have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven steps. Above them the
+rock has been flattened artificially and carved into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones, like those
+usually called <i>intihuatana</i> or &#8220;places to which the sun is tied.&#8221; In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six others. The other three are
+arranged in a triangular position above the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast face of the rock,
+where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2942"></p>
+<div id="d0e2943" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p250-1.jpg" alt="Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Carved Seats and Platforms of &Ntilde;usta Isppana</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2947"></p>
+<div id="d0e2948" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p250-2.jpg" alt="Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2952">Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running
+water under the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained the swamp which adjoins the great rock <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2954"></a>Page 251</span>on its northeastern side, we found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the water ran through the dark
+pool. We also found that what looked like a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the top of the back
+of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock.
+Since the pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used only by priests or sorcerers. It would have
+been a splendid place to practice divination. No doubt the devils &#8220;roared.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2956">All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have failed to disclose the presence of any other &#8220;white rock over
+a spring of water&#8221; surrounded by the ruins of a possible &#8220;House of the Sun.&#8221; Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the
+following conclusions: <i>First</i>, &ntilde;usta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers as Chuquipalpa.
+<i>Second</i>, Uiticos, &#8220;close to&#8221; this shrine, was once the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and Lucma. This
+is the &#8220;Viticos&#8221; of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco, who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that &#8220;having reached Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from
+various parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca, established himself <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2964"></a>Page 252</span>in the strongest place he could find, whence he sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those parts
+which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards, whom he considered as cruel enemies.&#8221; <i>Third</i>, the &#8220;strongest place&#8221; of Cieza, the Guaynapucar&aacute; of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by Ocampo as &#8220;the fortress of Pitcos,&#8221;
+where, he says, &#8220;there was a level space with majestic buildings,&#8221; the most noteworthy feature of which was that they had
+two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone lintels. <i>Fourth</i>, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although he was disappointed in the insignificance of the &#8220;wretched
+little village.&#8221; The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca, which has already been noted, the distance from
+the &#8220;House of the Sun,&#8221; not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura near the fortress, all point
+to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2972">Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary
+station in Uilcapampa, selected &#8220;the town of Huarancalla, which was populous and well located in the midst of a number of
+other little towns and villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from one convent to the other. Leaving
+Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a church.&#8221; There is no &#8220;Huarancalla&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2974"></a>Page 253</span>to-day, nor any tradition of any, but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, in the temperate
+zone where the crops with which the Incas were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and alpacas could
+have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and villages.
+Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region now
+use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows
+into the Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros,
+which Mr. Hay and I crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was founded by Pizarro, a day's journey
+from this bridge. The necessity for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point made it easy for Manco's
+foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque, which is
+probably the &#8220;Huarancalla&#8221; of Calancha's &#8220;Chronicles.&#8221; He must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac
+and its magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable
+snow fields and glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2976"></a>Page 254</span>even though they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been
+known even in recent years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding not only security from his Spanish
+enemies, but any climate that he desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to be no reason to doubt
+that the retired region around the modern town of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2978"></a>Page 255</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e2876" href="#d0e2876src" class="noteref">1</a> In those days the term &#8220;Andes&#8221; appears to have been very limited in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of
+Cuzco where lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e2979"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XIII</h2>
+<h1>Vilcabamba</h1>
+<p id="d0e2982">Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not
+mention Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father Calancha says it was a very large area, &#8220;covering
+fourteen degrees of longitude,&#8221; about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage tribes &#8220;of the far interior&#8221; who acknowledged
+the supremacy of the Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. &#8220;The Ma&ntilde;aries and the Pilcosones came a hundred and
+two hundred leagues&#8221; to visit the Inca in Uiticos.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2984">The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha
+says it was &#8220;two days' journey from Puquiura.&#8221; Raimondi thought it must be Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however,
+speak of it as being down in the warm valleys of the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, the present rubber country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on the maps of Peru is near the source
+of the Vilcabamba River, not more than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e2989"></a>Page 256</span></p>
+<p id="d0e2990">We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750 feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba
+has threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually
+heavy thatch, seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the <i>gobernador</i>, Manuel Condor&eacute;. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e2995">The <i>gobernador</i> said that the reason the town was deserted was that most of the people were now attending to their <i>chacras</i>, or little farms, and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring valleys. He said that only at special
+festival times, such as the annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here, <i>once a year</i>, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name,
+Condor&eacute; said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru.
+The solidity of the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The present air of desolation and absence
+of population is probably due to the decay of that industry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3006"></p>
+<div id="d0e3007" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p256.jpg" alt="&Ntilde;usta Isppana"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">&Ntilde;usta Isppana</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3011">The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building, is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells.
+Condor&eacute; said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It is probably the very structure whose construction
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3013"></a>Page 257</span>was carefully supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria
+from Hoyara to the neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers, went to Cuzco as agent of the interested
+parties, to take the matter up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3015">&#8220;The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal
+fifths, as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having examined the capitulations and reasons, the said
+Don Luis de Velasco [the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is now founded, ordering that it should
+have the title and name of the city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its first name. By this change
+of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo, performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my care, industry
+and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its principal chapel and great doors.&#8221; We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and the whole to show considerable &#8220;industry and solicitude.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3017">The site was called &#8220;Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered this land found the flocks and herds.&#8221; Modern Vilcabamba
+is on grassy slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes potatoes are still raised, although the valley
+itself is given up to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and sheep in abundance where the Incas
+must have pastured their <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3019"></a>Page 258</span>llamas and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that
+this was Onccoy, although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3021">We met at the <i>gobernador's</i> an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we interviewed
+through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied having heard of &#8220;Uiticos&#8221; or any of its variations.
+If we were indeed in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar with that name?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3026">Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands have now for so many generations been neglected by
+their rulers and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine
+they can secure, through the constant chewing of <i>coca</i> leaves, that they have lost much if not all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated <i>mestizos</i> of the principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but
+also from the blood of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve
+the remains of the wonderful civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba was an unknown land to
+most of the Peruvians, even those who live in the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3034"></a>Page 259</span>Incas been in a region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources were sufficient to support a large population,
+and whose roads made transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes, it would have been occupied from the
+days of Captain Garcia to the present by Spanish-speaking <i>mestizos</i>, who might have been interested in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions connected with it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3039">After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends &#8220;petered out,&#8221; or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura
+with Cuzco and civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably impassable during a large part of the
+year even to people accustomed to Andean &#8220;roads.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3041">The possibility of raising sugar cane and <i>coca</i> between Huadqui&ntilde;a and Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding
+the difficult transportation over the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing to lead any one to visit
+the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire to make it a place of residence. And until Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo opened the road to Lucma,
+Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa between
+the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the &#8220;Hill
+of Roses&#8221; in the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3046"></a>Page 260</span>days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who once
+lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the
+renaissance of historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that it occurred to any one to look for Manco's
+capital. When Raimondi, the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one thought to tell him that on the
+hilltop opposite the village once lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were still there, hidden
+underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3048">A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of &#8220;San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba&#8221; was in the &#8220;valley of Viticos.&#8221;
+The town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so
+marked on Raimondi's map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3050">Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin,
+would also seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is
+difficult to believe that if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca times to the present we should
+not have found at least a few of the indigenous American camels here. By <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3052"></a>Page 261</span>itself, such an occurrence would hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of traditions regarding
+Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of consequence
+lived in this vicinity.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3054">We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to
+at least a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles,
+chicken pox, and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction of a large proportion of those unfortunates
+whose untimely deaths were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the early Spanish miners and treasure seekers.
+Both causes undoubtedly contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the population diminished enormously
+in early colonial days. If this is true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions where the conditions
+of existence and human intercourse were less severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3056">The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier,
+are of the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time
+of the Conquest. In other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent disappearance of bad living conditions
+and forced labor at the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3058"></a>Page 262</span>mines, also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and the more comfortable conditions of existence which
+have followed the coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the number of highland Indians has increased.
+With this increase has come a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural tendency to seek less crowded
+regions, even at the expense of using difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote and inaccessible
+a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the demand
+for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years
+when no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma.
+The adobe houses of these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built in the nineteenth century.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3060">Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had
+been privileged to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that
+Choqquequirau, the only ruins reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the capital of the Incas who
+took refuge there. It also makes it seem more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and &ntilde;usta Isppana should not have
+been known to Peruvian geographers and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3062"></a>Page 263</span>historians, or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3064">We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were
+called Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century shows that there may have been three places bearing
+that name; one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo (&#8220;the old&#8221;), another also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded
+by the Spaniards, namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in Calancha's account of the trials and
+tribulations of Friar Marcos and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with considerable detail of their
+visit to &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo.&#8221; It was after the monks had already founded their religious establishment at Puquiura that they
+learned of the existence of this important religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit it. For a long time
+he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them to continue
+their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied
+the two friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road.
+The Inca, however, did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably
+along in a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3066"></a>Page 264</span>litter by servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail
+soon demoralized their footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road, &#8220;<i>Ungacacha</i>,&#8221; the trail went for some distance through water. The monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their monastic garments while passing through the water. However,
+the monks persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, &#8220;on account of its being the largest city in which was the University
+of Idolatry, where lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination.&#8221; If one may judge by the name of the place,
+Uilcapampa, the wizards and sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient snuff made from <i>huilca</i> seeds. After a three days' journey over very rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then Titu Cusi
+was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might
+not witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3074">Nothing is said about the appearance of &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; and it is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the
+city, although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks and kept up their preaching and teaching. During
+their stay Titu Cusi, who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying them <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3076"></a>Page 265</span>in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation
+with his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most beautiful Indian women, including some individuals
+of the Yungas who were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived at the &#8220;University of Idolatry&#8221; in
+&#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; were &#8220;Virgins of the Sun,&#8221; who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests and were selected
+from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is also evident that &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; was so constructed that the monks could
+be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+&#8220;abominations&#8221; which were practiced there, as they did those at the white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it
+is possible that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; was on the slopes of the mountain
+now called Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3078">In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins of Vilcabamba called &#8220;the old&#8221; by Ocampo, to distinguish
+it from the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely
+as Vilcabamba by Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3080"></a>Page 266</span></p><a id="d0e3081"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XIV</h2>
+<h1>Conservidayoc</h1>
+<p id="d0e3084">When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to &#8220;Vilcabamba
+Viejo,&#8221; or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told
+us that in 1902 Lopez Torres, who had traveled much in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> looking for rubber trees, reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don Pedro's friends assured us
+that Conservidayoc was a terrible place to reach. &#8220;No one now living had been there.&#8221; &#8220;It was inhabited by savage Indians
+who would not let strangers enter their villages.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3089">When we reached Paltaybamba, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo's manager confirmed what we had heard. He said further that an individual named
+Saavedra lived at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's
+house was extremely difficult to find. &#8220;No one had been there recently and returned alive.&#8221; Opinions differed as to how far
+away it was.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3091">Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins near Rosaspata, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, returning from his
+rubber estate in the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by, took great pains to find us and see
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3093"></a>Page 267</span>how we were progressing. When he learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc, he asked us to desist
+from the attempt. He said Saavedra was &#8220;a very powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in grand state,
+with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being visited by anybody.&#8221; The Indians were &#8220;of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile to strangers.&#8221; Admitting that he had heard there were
+Inca ruins near Saavedra's station, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our lives by going to look for them.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3095">By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar with the current stories regarding the habits of savage
+tribes who lived in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> and whose services were in great demand as rubber gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like to
+work for Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man, anxious to achieve many things, results which required more
+laborers than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had
+escaped from the rubber estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Se&ntilde;or Pancorbo's own life would have been at the mercy of their
+poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited with impunity by the
+explorers of the nineteenth century to become so savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3100">Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3102"></a>Page 268</span>its aspects. We finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports regarding the presence of Inca ruins at
+Conservidayoc we could not afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least make an effort to reach them,
+meanwhile taking every precaution to avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage retainers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3104"></p>
+<div id="d0e3105" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p268-1.jpg" alt="Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3109"></p>
+<div id="d0e3110" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p268-2.jpg" alt="One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3114">On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the <i>gobernador</i>, Condor&eacute;, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a very
+picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry was in progress. He took off his hat&#8212;but not his knitted
+cap&#8212;and endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about the surrounding country. It was he who said that
+the Inca Tupac Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins
+in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> near Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condor&eacute;. Several had heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently,
+none of them, nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited their immediate vicinity. They all agreed
+that Saavedra's place was &#8220;at least four days' hard journey on foot in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> beyond Pampaconas.&#8221; No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru, although it is frequently mentioned in the documents
+of the sixteenth <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3125"></a>Page 269</span>century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place
+called Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere down in the dense forests of the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> and presented him with a macaw and two hampers of peanuts&#8212;products of a warm region.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3130">We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map which covered this locality. We also had the new map
+of South Peru and North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical Society and gave a summary of all
+available information. The Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's
+map all of the rivers which rise in the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac and flow southwest.
+We wondered whether the stories about ruins at Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those we had
+heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadqui&ntilde;a. One of our informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the
+&#8220;Pampa of Ghosts.&#8221; Would the ruins turn out to be &#8220;ghosts&#8221;? Would they vanish on the arrival of white men with cameras and
+steel measuring tapes?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3132">No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at the village of Pampaconas, &#8220;about five leagues from here,&#8221;
+there were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies were getting low. There were no shops nearer than
+Lucma; no food was obtainable from the natives. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3134"></a>Page 270</span>Accordingly, notwithstanding the protestations of the hospitable <i>gobernador</i>, we decided to start immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3139">At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening
+meal and we were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of our favorite beverage. Several years ago,
+when traveling on muleback across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant
+and bracer in the high Andes. At first astonished to see how much tea the Indian <i>arrieros</i> drank, I learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water, which often brings on mountain-sickness. This
+particular evening, one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most horrible stuff imaginable. Examination
+showed small, oily particles floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery that one of our <i>arrieros</i> had that day placed our can of kerosene on top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had dripped down
+into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to throw
+away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more
+one seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3147">After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical
+investigations to stray far <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3149"></a>Page 271</span>up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the boundaries of known topography, headed for &#8220;Conservidayoc,&#8221; a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3151">Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the <i>gobernador</i> told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules
+could not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to
+be extremely alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two <i>gendarmes</i> who were now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our
+pack train until dusk. The <i>gobernador</i> said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this was due in part to that love of freedom which had led
+them to abandon the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords could not call on them for forced labor.
+Consequently, before the arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as our <i>gendarmes</i>, the <i>gobernador</i> and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen sturdy Indians. Their
+methods will be described presently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3168">Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an old glaciated valley, in which <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3170"></a>Page 272</span>one of our mules got thoroughly mired while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous bog. Fording the
+Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook, we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains above
+us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide.
+He does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted long before his day. As to the other minerals, the
+difficulties of transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3172">At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the
+town of Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi, followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not
+leave room enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude
+to be 73&deg; west, and our latitude to be 13&deg; 8&#8242; south. Yet according to the latest map of this region, published in the preceding
+year, this was the very position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river Pampas. We ought to have been
+swimming &#8220;the Great Speaker.&#8221; Actually we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and glaciers. The
+mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when he determined the Apurimac <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3174"></a>Page 273</span>and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored region, 1500
+square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and
+the site of a university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so long defy investigation and exploration shows
+better than anything else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable labyrinth of snow-clad peaks,
+unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3176">Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our
+maps that we were now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact, we were on the rim of the valley of
+the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas, a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead of being the Apurimac
+Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3178">At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood from Condor&eacute; that somewhere far down in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> below us was Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that
+the Incas could have built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were accustomed. The &#8220;road&#8221; was now
+so bad that only with the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3183"></a>Page 274</span>greatest difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we had to dismount, as the path led down a long,
+steep, rocky stairway of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a lonesome little hut perched on a
+shoulder of the mountain. In front of it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as they saw the
+<i>gobernador</i> approaching, they stopped their work and began to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to be
+told that Se&ntilde;or Condor&eacute; and his friends had not had anything but a cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet
+the emergency of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing <i>cuys</i> (guinea pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts of mountain Indians. Before long the savory
+odor of roast <i>cuy</i>, well basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3194">In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite
+of the celebrated dogma that &#8220;Pigs is Pigs,&#8221; this form of &#8220;pork&#8221; has never found its way to our kitchens, even though these
+&#8220;pigs&#8221; live on a very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come from Guinea and are in no way related to
+pigs&#8212;Mr. Ellis Parker Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the same family as rabbits and Belgian
+hares and have long been a highly prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are of a grayish brown color,
+which enables them to escape observation in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3196"></a>Page 275</span>which one sees in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny, varying from one another in color as much
+as do the llamas, which were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years ago. Although Anglo-Saxon &#8220;folkways,&#8221;
+as Professor Sumner would say, permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at short-eared rabbits, yet
+they were bred to be eaten.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3198">I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in
+the capital of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had I not been very hungry, I might never have
+known how delicious a roast guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose supply of animal food is
+small, whose fowls are treasured for their eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as mutton, the
+succulent guinea pig, &#8220;most prolific of mammals,&#8221; as was discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for
+emergencies. Her sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little <i>cuys</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3203">After lunch, Condor&eacute; and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome
+farm to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home
+or working in his little <i>chacra</i> they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward to shake hands, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3208"></a>Page 276</span>in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was informed
+that he had accepted pay for services which must now be performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3210">During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A paternal government saw to it that they were properly
+fed and clothed and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own necessities or else permitted to draw on official
+stores. In colonial days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of the ancient system and enforced it without
+taking pains to see that it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless landlords, backed by local authority,
+forced the Indians to work without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or even pretending to carry out promises
+and wage agreements. The peons learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having received a considerable
+portion of their pay. When once they accepted money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided that they
+must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant legal punishment.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3212">Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized
+that service was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was &#8220;busy,&#8221; that his &#8220;crops needed attention,&#8221; that his &#8220;family
+could not spare him,&#8221; that &#8220;he lacked food for a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3214"></a>Page 277</span>journey.&#8221; Condor&eacute; and Mogrovejo were accustomed to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in <i>&#8220;engaging&#8221;</i> half a dozen carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small huts scattered over grassy hillsides,
+at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3219">In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a &#8220;high, cold
+place.&#8221; This is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's
+day as being &#8220;an important town of the Incas.&#8221; There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts of Pampaconas were newly built of stone
+and mud, and thatched with grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians, who enjoyed unusual freedom from
+official or other interference and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes, on the very edge of the dense
+forest. We found that there was some excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar, or possibly a cougar,
+had come out of the forest, attacked, killed, and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3221">We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had
+been selected to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood
+in his veins, although he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied one of the best huts. A fire in
+one corner frequently filled it with acrid smoke. It was very small and had no <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3223"></a>Page 278</span>windows. At one end was a loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from molestation. Piles of sheep
+skins were arranged for visitors to sit upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves and tables.
+The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space with
+the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with a whip; only to return again and again, each time to
+be driven out as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions, we carried on a most interesting conversation
+with Guzman. He had been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu Pampa. At last the mythical &#8220;Pampa
+of Ghosts&#8221; began to take on in our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind ourselves that another
+very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins &#8220;finer than Ollantaytambo&#8221; near Huadqui&ntilde;a. Guzman did not seem to dread Conservidayoc
+as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for the journey. Although it was August and the middle of
+the dry season, rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived after dark with our pack animals, but,
+missing the trail as he neared Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3225"></a>Page 279</span>and was extracted only with considerable difficulty.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3227">We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the
+evening, after we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the rain to our comfortable little tent, only
+to hear various and sundry grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large sow and six fat young pigs,
+unable to settle down comfortably at the Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available place on the
+mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs
+to return at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman, with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming
+soup, which at first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni&#8212;a dish of which one of us was particularly fond.
+The white hollow cylinders proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As a matter of fact, we learned
+that the evening meal which Guzman's wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3229">Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be
+lying in puddles of water. Everything <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3231"></a>Page 280</span>was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what we should cook
+for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this time
+more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and
+jaws of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3233">We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the
+ten days' journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our other carriers, spent the morning grinding
+<i>chu&ntilde;o</i> (frozen potatoes) with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or toasting large quantities of sweet
+corn in a terra-cotta olla. With <i>chu&ntilde;o</i> and <i>tostado</i>, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of <i>coca</i> leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of our own provisions we had so small a quantity that
+we were unable to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have liked them as much as the food to which
+they had long been accustomed.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3247">Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc.
+We were told that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San Fernando, our first stop, was &#8220;seven leagues&#8221;
+away, far down in the densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the mountain back of Guzman's hut
+and followed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3249"></a>Page 281</span>a faint trail by a dangerous and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not improved the path. Our saddle
+mules were of little use. We had to go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could see but little of
+the deep canyon which opened below us, and into which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep, zigzag path,
+four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path, across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally
+we came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts;
+and this was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room enough in them for our six carriers. It was
+with great difficulty we found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only seven feet square. There was
+no really flat land at all.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3251">At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent, I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians
+in the near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail structure and made a great disturbance, crying out
+that there was a <i>temblor</i>. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it might have done during the stormy night which followed, they
+were in no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes
+do very serious harm, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3256"></a>Page 282</span>they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds,
+a gentle rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks later, near Huadqui&ntilde;a, we happened to stop at
+the Colpani telegraph office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th&#8212;one at five o'clock, which had shaken
+the books off his table and knocked over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and south. He said the
+shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3258">During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself to the &#8220;dry season&#8221; and we were more comfortable. Furthermore,
+camping out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of
+the bridge of San Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics.
+Sugar cane, peppers, bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and sweet potatoes. None of these things
+will grow at Pampaconas. The Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come to San Fernando to make <i>chacras</i> or small clearings. The three or four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of brass buttons that they
+disappeared during the night rather than take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands in the morning!
+From San Fernando, we sent one of our <i>gendarmes</i> back to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty pounds apiece.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3266"></a>Page 283</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3267">Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil
+here seemed to be very rich. In the <i>chacra</i> we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height, near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of a <i>mato-palo</i>, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves its name, for it commands a &#8220;charming view&#8221; of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain, whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction; now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were
+mystified; for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3275">We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under
+branches, along slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock, over a trail which not even dogs could
+follow unassisted, slowly we made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon
+before we reached another little clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet above the river, our
+men decided to spend the night in a tiny little shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had to dig
+a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3277">The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train, we made an early start. As we followed the faint little
+trail across the gulches <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3279"></a>Page 284</span>tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on
+primitive bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3281">By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled
+thickets, through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while,
+as we were now in the territory of <i>los salvajes</i>, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be particularly
+afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He
+said we should never be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was selected to go ahead did not relish
+his task. Leaving his pack behind, he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost to view almost immediately.
+There followed an exciting half-hour while we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us, and trying
+to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra, who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury, &#8220;surrounded
+by fifty servants,&#8221; and directing his myrmidons to checkmate <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3286"></a>Page 285</span>our desires to visit the Inca city on the &#8220;pampa of ghosts.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3288">Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little
+tighter in readiness for whatever might befall&#8212;when there burst out of the woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally
+clad, who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible,
+but a glance at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was with a sigh of relief that we realized there
+was to be no shower of poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs, we continued along the jungle
+trail, through woods which gradually became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight ahead and, to our
+intense astonishment, the bright green of waving sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found us at
+a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it
+was never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured
+Indian wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work, evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said
+some called this place &#8220;Jes&uacute;s Maria&#8221; because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3290">It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's invitation to make ourselves at <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3292"></a>Page 286</span>home, and sat down to an abundant meal of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (<i>manioc</i>). Saavedra gave us to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had, but that he would do everything to
+enable us to see the ruins, which were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the valley, to be reached
+only by a hard trail passable for barefooted savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a good part of the
+distance on hands and knees. The next day, while our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote collected
+a large number of insects, including eight new species of moths and butterflies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3297">I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar
+cane than he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead
+of being &#8220;a very powerful chief having many Indians under his control&#8221;&#8212;a kind of &#8220;Pooh-Bah&#8221;&#8212;he was merely a pioneer. In the
+utter wilderness, far from any neighbors, surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established his home. He was
+not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman, soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic, a modest
+Peruvian of the best type.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3299">Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate such <i>pampas</i> as he could find&#8212;one an alluvial fan near his house, another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was a thatched
+shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3304"></a>Page 287</span>each capable of being turned, with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of roughly hewn timbers fastened
+together with wooden pins and lashed with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been unable to coax any
+pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that of his
+active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other
+trade articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were
+a game. At other times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3306">Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using in the process of boiling the juice and making crude
+sugar. He said he had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by the Incas. Four of them were of the
+familiar <i>aryballus</i> type. Another was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base, single incised, conventionalized, animal-head
+nubbin attached to the shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median line. Although capable of holding
+more than ten gallons, this huge pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a rope passing through
+the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined with stones,
+with a flat stone on top&#8212;evidently ancient graves. The bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3311"></a>Page 288</span>graves had been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He had also found a few stone implements and
+two or three small bronze Inca axes.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3313">On the <i>pampa</i>, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have
+taken the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no pack animals and was usually obliged to bring
+the cane to the mill on his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier, while the cane was growing,
+to construct a new mill near the cane field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the hill. He said his
+hardest task was to get money with which to send his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in which
+he could get any cash was by making <i>chancaca</i>, crude brown sugar, and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days' journey on foot up the mountain
+to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could usually sell such a
+load for five <i>soles</i>, equivalent to two dollars and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain, although he smilingly admitted
+that it was very difficult to keep the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the river continually washed
+away his little rustic bridges. His chief regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he had had nothing
+to do, the government had decreed that all firearms should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3324"></a>Page 289</span>needed to enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3326"></p>
+<div id="d0e3327" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p288-1.jpg" alt="Saavedra and his Inca Pottery"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Saavedra and his Inca Pottery</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3331"></p>
+<div id="d0e3332" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p288-2.jpg" alt="Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3336">In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large turkey-like bird, the <i>pava de la monta&ntilde;a</i>, glossy black, its most striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly
+domesticated. It would make an attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3341">Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe
+said it was without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3343">So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about
+taxes and have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers
+ran toward the house in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a &#8220;savage&#8221; in the bushes near by. The &#8220;wild
+man&#8221; was very timid, but curiosity finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage to accept Saavedra's
+urgent invitation that he come out and meet us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad cold in his
+head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that I have ever seen.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3345">He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his ankles. It was made of a large square <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3347"></a>Page 290</span>of coarsely woven cotton cloth, with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up, leaving holes for the
+arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large mouth.
+His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber
+net. Around his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together.
+Although I did not see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees, he used this stout loop to fasten his
+ankles together and thus secure a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3349">By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us
+that these Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra and his son spoke a little of their language,
+which sounded to our unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and gutturals. It was pieced out by signs.
+The long tunics worn by the men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they wear very scanty attire&#8212;nothing
+more than a few rags hanging over one shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough garment to wear
+during the cold nights, and their only covering, must impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that
+they <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3351"></a>Page 291</span>found it uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber
+estate.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3353">Saavedra said that he had named his plantation <i>Conservidayoc</i>, because it was in truth &#8220;a spot where one may be preserved from harm.&#8221; Such was the home of the potentate from whose abode
+&#8220;no one had been known to return alive.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3358"></a>Page 292</span></p><a id="d0e3359"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XV</h2>
+<h1>The Pampa of Ghosts</h1>
+<p id="d0e3362">Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been
+clearing. We emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine view down the valley and particularly of a
+heavily wooded alluvial fan just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little oval huts of the savages
+of Espiritu Pampa, the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3364">On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower.
+From here to Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about four feet in width and nearly a third of a
+mile long. It was built of uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief duty it was to watch from
+the top of the promontory and who used their spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as a heavy
+thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle.
+We hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not
+our nervousness. The hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs driven endwise into the ground <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3366"></a>Page 293</span>and fastened together with vines. A small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two old black ollas of
+Inca origin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3368">In the little <i>chacra</i>, cassava, <i>coca</i>, and sweet potatoes were growing in haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical <i>milpa</i> farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if
+this could be the &#8220;Inca city&#8221; which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+There was nothing Incaic about the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all the rest were round. The
+buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down, but gave
+no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other
+circular walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If the savages have extended their <i>milpa</i> clearings since our visit, the falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient village probably belonged
+to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication of their having
+been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began to wonder whether the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts&#8221; really had anything important in
+store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been
+inhabited, off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an &#8220;Inca city.&#8221;
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3382"></a>Page 294</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3383">While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here, there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy
+young savage, armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a
+bird he had shot. Soon afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's, accompanied by a cross-eyed friend,
+all wearing long tunics. They offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to follow their rapid pace.
+Half an hour's scramble through the jungle brought us to a <i>pampa</i> or natural terrace on the banks of a little tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found several old
+artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long, rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only
+a foot high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently the structure had never been completed. Near by
+was a typical Inca fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous,
+hidden behind a curtain of hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few feet in any direction, the
+savages showed us the ruins of a group of stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3388"></p>
+<div id="d0e3389" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p294.jpg" alt="Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3393">One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by itself at the south end of a little <i>pampa</i>, had neither doors nor windows. It was <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3398"></a>Page 295</span>rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an unusual
+dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side of the <i>pampa</i> was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones laid
+in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo, the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the <i>pampa</i> was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed
+fountain or bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of the houses, their general arrangement, the
+niches, stone roof-pegs and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3406">Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments
+we could find would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different sizes, as though some one had been experimenting.
+Perhaps an Inca who had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them here in the jungle, but without
+success.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3408">At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands, and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary
+and sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were
+doomed to disappointment. During the day some <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3410"></a>Page 296</span>one had brought to the hut eight tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined to make the night hideous
+with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose of exorcising
+the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3412">The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as much as possible of the tangled growth near the best
+ruins. In this process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of the savages, they discovered, just below
+the &#8220;bathhouse&#8221; where we had stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of superior construction, well
+fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches, very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a little artificial
+terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery were found on the floor, including pieces of a large <i>aryballus</i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3417">Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the fact that the savages themselves had often been within five
+feet of these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3419">Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search,
+but all that any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages
+carefully. They said they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of Espiritu Pampa <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3421"></a>Page 297</span>and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Father Calancha, that &#8220;University of Idolatry where lived the teachers
+who were wizards and masters of abomination,&#8221; the place to which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering?
+Was there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they
+handled their monastic robes in the water? They called it a &#8220;three days' journey over rough country.&#8221; Another reference in
+Father Calancha speaks of Puquiura as being &#8220;two long days' journey from Vilcabamba.&#8221; It took us five days to go from Espiritu
+Pampa to Pucyura, although Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity, might do it in three. It is possible
+to fit some other details of the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road called Ungacacha. Nevertheless
+it does not seem to me reasonable to suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the &#8220;University of
+Idolatry&#8221;) who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa would
+have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and
+Egypt, or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could
+have found the seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other parts of the province, particularly at
+Machu Picchu, together with a cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3423"></a>Page 298</span>nearly resembling those to which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says <i>&#8220;Vilcabamba</i> the Old&#8221; was &#8220;the largest city&#8221; in the province, a term far more applicable to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than
+to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3428">On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i> does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his forces lost the &#8220;young fortress&#8221; of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless
+wishing to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of
+Tupac &#8220;Vilcabamba the old.&#8221; Ocampo's new &#8220;Vilcabamba&#8221; was not in existence when Friar Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this
+province. If Calancha wrote his chronicles from their notes, the term &#8220;old&#8221; would not apply to Espiritu Pampa, but to an older
+Vilcabamba than either of the places known to Ocampo.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3433">The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have required a long period to build. The unfinished building
+may have been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez
+de Figueroa should meet him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in the <i>monta&ntilde;a</i>, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common
+at Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3438"></a>Page 299</span>the ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences of this Inca&#8212;the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he
+spent his boyhood and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565.<a id="d0e3440src" href="#d0e3440" class="noteref">1</a>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3443">In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled &#8220;inland toward
+the valley of Sima-ponte &#8230; to the country of the Ma&ntilde;aries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends, where <i>balsas</i> and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to escape.&#8221; There is now no valley in this vicinity called Simaponte, so
+far as we have been able to discover. The Ma&ntilde;aries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower Urubamba. In order
+to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the &#8220;Pampa of Ghosts&#8221; to canoe
+navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that, not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river,
+he constructed five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them himself, went down the rapids, escaping
+death many times by swimming, until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of his approach,
+had gone farther into the woods. Nothing daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go on foot and barefooted,
+with hardly anything <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3448"></a>Page 300</span>to eat, most of their provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught Tupac and his friends; a tragic
+ending to a terrible chase, hard on the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3450">It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed
+possible that the Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of which were believed by Dr. Bowman's
+canoe-men to rise in the mountains of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we were able definitely
+to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the &#8220;Sima-ponte.&#8221;
+Whether the Comberciato is the &#8220;Momori&#8221; is hard to say.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3452">To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and
+Maynard. They found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were tormented by insects and great quantities
+of ants&#8212;a small red ant found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length, frequently seen among the leaves
+on the ground. The bite of the red ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of their carriers who
+was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also his leg and
+hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3454"></a>Page 301</span>made of palm leaves a few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three Indians fished all night and caught
+only one fish, a perch weighing about four pounds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3456">The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to
+become blue with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3458">The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The
+lower course of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation, but the valley is much narrower than the
+Cosireni. The width of the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the Cosireni. The climate is very trying.
+The nights are hot. Insect pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that &#8220;the forest was filled with annoying, though sting-less,
+bees which persisted in attempting to roost on the countenance of any human being available.&#8221; On the banks of the Comberciato
+he found several families of savages. All the men were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful bows
+made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3460">Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found, including the large red howler, inert and easily located
+by its deep, roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles; the giant black spider monkey, very alert,
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3462"></a>Page 302</span>and, when frightened, fairly flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey, black in color, and very
+intelligent in expression, frequently tamed by the savages, who &#8220;enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to eating them
+when food is scarce.&#8221; &#8220;The flesh of monkeys is greatly appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3464">On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened
+proved to contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies
+into a small bag, saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3466">The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it
+harder to use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate this valley for about ten years, and at first
+kept their wives and children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker were sent here to determine the astronomical
+position of Espiritu Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their families. Perhaps it is doubtful
+whether they knew just what he was doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3468"></p>
+<div id="d0e3469" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p302-1.jpg" alt="Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3473"></p>
+<div id="d0e3474" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p302-2.jpg" alt="Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3478">All the men and older boys wore white fillets of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3480"></a>Page 303</span>bamboo. The married men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the characteristic lip ornament of the
+Campas. Some of the children wore no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One of them had a truly
+savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet, had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows.
+All the women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One little girl, not more than six years old, was
+carrying on her back a child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It will be remembered that forest
+Indians nearly always use tump-lines so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer than the others and
+looked as though she might have had a Spanish ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad, wore
+a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied around her waist. All her children were naked. The children
+of the woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics, and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite,
+was decorated with bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3482">Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy
+as monkey meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by the highlanders, may be doubted. <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3484"></a>Page 304</span>Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards &#8220;rather than to perish of famine.&#8221;
+His Indian allies lived perfectly well in a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever have permitted
+Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3486">At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of this valley having been an important part of the domain
+of the last Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas.
+Although they did not have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous as to what use the latter might
+some day make of the powerful bows and long arrows.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3488">At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a
+row along the side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The
+result was a confection or &#8220;emergency ration&#8221; which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3490">At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed
+out of the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had
+been falling above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's
+fire and filled <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3492"></a>Page 305</span>our tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet, and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly
+nothing ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3494"></a>Page 306</span></p>
+<p></p>
+<hr class="noteseparator">
+<div class="notetext">
+<p class="notetext"><a id="d0e3440" href="#d0e3440src" class="noteref">1</a> Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+</p>
+</div><a id="d0e3495"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVI</h2>
+<h1>The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas</h1>
+<p id="d0e3498">It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which
+we could not fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its
+buildings are far older than the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we may have found at Machu
+Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at the time
+of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far
+away from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly
+seven hundred years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536 and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about
+800 A.D.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3500"></p>
+<div id="d0e3501" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p306.jpg" alt="Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3505">The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty generations, when, as has been told in <a id="d0e3507" href="#d0e1538">Chapter VI</a>, invaders came from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering
+feats which we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti
+VI, who was killed <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3510"></a>Page 307</span>by an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos, whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been
+translated for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University, tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI
+fled with his body to &#8220;Tampu-tocco.&#8221; This, says the historian, was &#8220;a healthy place&#8221; where there was a cave in which they
+hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General anarchy prevailed throughout
+the ancient empire. The good old days of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the old empire was
+destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which followed
+the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire, Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units.
+Each district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen
+in the ruins of small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3512">Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests, wise men, and chiefs of the ancient r&eacute;gime, built a new city at
+&#8220;Tampu-tocco.&#8221; Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to
+them, little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3514"></a>Page 308</span>chiefs or &#8220;robber barons.&#8221; In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi Truaman Quicho.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3516">The survivors of the old r&eacute;gime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco, because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or
+tremblings there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed,
+they could bury him in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of Pachacuti VI.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3518">Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed.
+To their ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth recording happened for centuries. During this
+period several of the kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great Amautas had reigned, but for
+one reason or another were obliged to forego their ambitions.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3520">One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began
+to write on the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping
+idols and animals, to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall of the Amautas, and to return to the
+ways of their ancestors. He met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were killed and little or no change
+took place. Discouraged by the failure of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause, Tupac Cauri was
+told by his soothsayers that the matter which most displeased <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3522"></a>Page 309</span>the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate
+was observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used letters. Instead, they used <i>quipus</i>, strings and knots. It was supposed that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one realized how near
+the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most momentous step.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3527">This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest.
+We have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons
+with Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal
+ancestors and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard.
+As a matter of fact, to students of Sumner's &#8220;Folkways,&#8221; the story rings true. Some young fellow, brighter than the rest,
+developed a system of ideographs which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were beginning to adopt it.
+The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets, heretofore handed
+down orally to the neophytes, might become public property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to spread.
+There followed some extremely unlucky event&#8212;the ambassadors were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3529"></a>Page 310</span>that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by
+the priests, determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient;
+the leaves withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were lost. Had the new invention been permitted to
+exist a little longer, some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it would have persisted. The rulers
+and priests, however, found that the important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well by means of the <i>quipus</i>. And the &#8220;job&#8221; of those whose duty it was to remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is nothing
+unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from making important advances.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3534">Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco a kind of university where boys were taught the use of
+<i>quipus</i>, the method of counting and the significance of the different colored strings, while their fathers and older brothers were
+trained in military exercises&#8212;in other words, practiced with the sling, the bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows
+and arrows. Around the name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called, is gathered the story of various
+intellectual movements which took place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3539"></a>Page 311</span>military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition
+of their ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to make the attempt to reestablish themselves
+there. An earthquake, which ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses, destroyed towns, and was
+followed by the outbreak of a disastrous epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although in healthy Tampu-tocco
+there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was terraced
+and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized, and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic
+ruler of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca, the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3541">There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how
+he could secure new lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined to set out with them &#8220;toward the hill
+over which the sun rose,&#8221; as we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was a descendant of a long line
+of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the antiquities
+of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it was handed down to the descendants of the former <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3543"></a>Page 312</span>rulers of Peru. In it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in reaching Cuzco and settled there. With
+the return of the descendants of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco married his own sister in
+order that he might not lose caste and that no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with his. He
+made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief,
+the most valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains and soldiers were brave, well disciplined,
+and well armed. All his affairs prospered greatly. <i>&#8220;Afterward he ordered works to be executed at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three windows, which
+were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco.&#8221;</i> I quote from Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3548"></p>
+<div id="d0e3549" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p312-1.jpg" alt="The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3553"></p>
+<div id="d0e3554" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p312-2.jpg" alt="The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3558">The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south
+of Cuzco. I learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in the town. The most important are the ruins
+of Maucallacta, an Inca village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting of several crags and large rocks,
+the surface of one of which is carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma Urco. Beneath the rocks <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3560"></a>Page 313</span>are some caves. I was told they had recently been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and the characteristics
+of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if Tampu-tocco
+must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would
+it have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army to have taken refuge there and set up an independent
+kingdom in the face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu
+is not a natural citadel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3562">The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no
+natural defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of the Amautas. Furthermore, <i>tampu</i> means &#8220;a place of temporary abode,&#8221; or &#8220;a tavern,&#8221; or &#8220;an improved piece of ground&#8221; or &#8220;farm far from a town&#8221;; <i>tocco</i> means &#8220;window.&#8221; There is an old tavern at Maucallacta near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to justify
+the name of &#8220;window tavern&#8221; or &#8220;place of temporary abode&#8221; (or &#8220;farm far from a town&#8221;) &#8220;noted for its windows.&#8221; There is nothing
+of a &#8220;masonry wall with three windows&#8221; corresponding to Salcamayhua's description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace.
+The word &#8220;Tampu-tocco&#8221; does not occur on any map I have been able to consult, nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru
+compiled by Paz Soldan.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3570"></a>Page 314</span></p><a id="d0e3571"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVII</h2>
+<h1>Machu Picchu</h1>
+<p id="d0e3574">It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions
+near Cuzco by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy to Colpani the road runs through a land
+of matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali
+near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the power of
+its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds
+more than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming,
+glistening, roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious
+vegetation, and the mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward by ever-recurring surprises through
+a deep, winding gorge, turning and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all, there is the fascination
+of finding here and there under the swaying vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of a bygone race;
+and of trying to understand the bewildering romance of the ancient <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3576"></a>Page 315</span>builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty.
+Space forbids any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama, the rank tropical foliage, the countless
+terraces, the towering cliffs, the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3578">We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told
+us of ruins at Machu Picchu, as was related in <a id="d0e3580" href="#d0e2362">Chapter X</a>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3583">The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay
+him well if he would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb for such a wet day. When he found that
+we were willing to pay him a <i>sol</i>, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity, he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed
+that they would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance
+upstream. On the road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This region has an unpleasant notoriety for
+being the favorite haunt of &#8220;vipers.&#8221; The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the fer-de-lance, a very venomous
+serpent capable of making considerable springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two of our mules died
+from snake-bite.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3588"></a>Page 316</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3589">After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of
+the river. Here there was a primitive &#8220;bridge&#8221; which crossed the roaring rapids at its narrowest part, where the stream was
+forced to flow between two great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs, some of which were not long
+enough to span the distance between the boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga and Carrasco
+took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite
+boulders. I am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled across, six inches at a time. Even after we
+reached the other side I could not help wondering what would happen to the &#8220;bridge&#8221; if a particularly heavy shower should
+fall in the valley above. A light rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the bridge was already threatened
+by the foaming rapids. It would not take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should happen during the
+day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact, it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to cross
+the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3591">Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle, and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous
+slope. For an hour and <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3593"></a>Page 317</span>twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips of
+our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way
+as to help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable cliff. In another place the slope was covered with
+slippery grass where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide said that there were lots of snakes here.
+The humidity was great, the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3595">Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected
+arrival, welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes,
+called here <i>cumara</i>, a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian <i>kumala</i>, as has been pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3603">Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a
+few ancient stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their
+home. They said they had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and they were usually free from undesirable
+visitors. They did not speak Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more ruins &#8220;a little farther
+along.&#8221; In this country one never can tell whether such a report is worthy of credence. &#8220;He may have <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3605"></a>Page 318</span>been lying&#8221; is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly, I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry
+to move. The heat was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench,
+hospitably covered immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most comfortable. Furthermore, the view
+was simply enchanting. Tremendous green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba below. Immediately in front,
+on the north side of the valley, was a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the solitary peak of Huayna
+Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped mountains
+rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3607">The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more
+difficult&#8212;a perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side of the ridge. It was their only means of egress
+in the wet season, when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was not surprised to learn that they
+went away from home only &#8220;about once a month.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3609">Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon
+had been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of the new government road settlers began once more to
+occupy this region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on the slopes of Machu <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3611"></a>Page 319</span>Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial terraces,
+in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of maize,
+sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of
+the ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found, however, that there were neither springs nor wells
+near the ancient buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream to the citadel had long since disappeared
+beneath the forest, filled with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter of the ruins, the Indians
+were now enjoying the convenience of living near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3613">Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had
+a glimpse, and the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo
+and Torontoy, I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed farther up the ridge and around a slight
+promontory. Arteaga had &#8220;been here once before,&#8221; and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte and Alvarez in the hut. They
+sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3615">Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3617"></a>Page 320</span>recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a
+maze of beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow,
+hiding in bamboo thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls of white granite ashlars most carefully
+cut and exquisitely fitted together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a &#8220;place far from town and conspicuous
+for its windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3619"></p>
+<div id="d0e3620" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p320-1.jpg" alt="Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3624"></p>
+<div id="d0e3625" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p320-2.jpg" alt="Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3629">Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended
+to be a Royal Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building had been constructed. The wall followed
+the natural curvature of the rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I have ever seen. This beautiful
+wall, made of carefully matched ashlars of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the work of a master
+artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly simple
+and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars, gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing
+in size toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars,
+and the gradual gradation of the courses, combined to produce a <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3631"></a>Page 321</span>wonderful effect, softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar,
+there are no ugly spaces between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3633">The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the
+eye of a master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the square. He had no instruments of precision, so
+he had to depend on his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry and beauty of form. His product received
+none of the harshness of mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular blocks are not really rectangular.
+The apparently straight lines of the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3635">To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework
+in the far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great
+stairway of large granite blocks, walked along a <i>pampa</i> where the Indians had a small vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins of two of the finest
+structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite; their
+walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length, and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3640">Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the side toward the clearing. The <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3642"></a>Page 322</span>principal temple was lined with exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the back wall. There were
+seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long, probably
+a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3644">The other temple is on the east side of the <i>pampa</i>. I called it the Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking
+the citadel, is a massive stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too large to serve any useful purpose,
+yet most beautifully made with the greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of peculiar significance.
+Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there a similar structure conspicuous as &#8220;a masonry wall with three windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3649">These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries
+when it was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness
+protected by natural bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent
+excavations and the clearing made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that this was the chief place
+in Uilcapampa.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3651"></a>Page 323</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3652">It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco
+and I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by
+the Indians for their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick jungle growth&#8212;some walls were actually supporting
+trees ten and twelve inches in diameter&#8212;that it was impossible to determine just what would be found here. As soon as I could
+get hold of Mr. Tucker, who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the Urubamba with Dr. Bowman,
+I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential for Mr. Tucker
+to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte and
+Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data
+from which Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could any words of mine the importance of this site
+and the necessity for further investigation.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3654">With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their
+importance. No one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of the ridge. It had never been visited by
+any of the planters of the lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds through the canyon two thousand
+feet below.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3656"></a>Page 324</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3657">It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed
+by travelers and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the <i>conquistadores</i> ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly refers
+to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges
+was at Huadqui&ntilde;a in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near, he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the
+walls of one of the finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately
+below the bridge of San Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have visited Machu Picchu long before
+that; because in 1875, as has been said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of there being ruins at
+&#8220;Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu.&#8221; He tried to find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the canyon
+of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which
+brought him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3662"></p>
+<div id="d0e3663" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p324-1.jpg" alt="Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3667"></p>
+<div id="d0e3668" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p324-2.jpg" alt="Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3672">It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up
+the lower valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the banks of the river through the grand <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3674"></a>Page 325</span>canyon to enable the much-desired <i>coca</i> and <i>aguardiente</i> to be shipped from Huadqui&ntilde;a, Maranura, and Santa Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids the
+necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent
+repair. In fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days or weeks at a time, following some tremendous
+avalanche. Yet it was this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where
+he could raise food for his family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this new road which brought Richarte,
+Alvarez, and their enterprising friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of occupying the ancient
+terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over the precipices,
+and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between Ollantaytambo
+and Huadqui&ntilde;a and enabled us to learn that the Incas, or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses
+of the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty of their ancient civilization, more interesting
+and extensive than any which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3682"></a>Page 326</span></p><a id="d0e3683"></a><h2 class="abovehead">Chapter XVIII</h2>
+<h1>The Origin of Machu Picchu</h1>
+<p id="d0e3686">Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and
+of the ancient towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest content with a discussion of its probable
+identity. Here was a powerful citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful of defenders could prevent
+a great army from taking the place by assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture as to have built
+a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3688">The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced
+in order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration.
+They were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture, sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world
+has ever seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently advanced in art to realize the beauty of
+simplicity. What could have induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes, with all its disadvantages,
+as the site for their capital, unless they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3690">The thought will already have occurred to the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3692"></a>Page 327</span>reader that the Temple of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native writer who had &#8220;heard from a child
+the most ancient traditions and histories,&#8221; including the story already quoted from Sir Clements Markham's translation that
+Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, &#8220;ordered works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called &#8216;Tampu-tocco.&#8217;&#8201;&#8221;
+Although none of the other chroniclers gives the story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the place
+of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a place called Tampu-tocco, &#8220;an inn or country place remarkable
+for its windows.&#8221; Sir Clements Markham, in his &#8220;Incas of Peru,&#8221; refers to Tampu-tocco as &#8220;the hill with the three openings
+or windows.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3694">The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu,
+about nine miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and caves, but careful examination shows that
+while there are more than three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The buildings of Machu Picchu,
+on the other hand, have far more windows than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu, like that of
+most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3696"></a>Page 328</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3697">So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of anything like a &#8220;masonry wall with three windows&#8221; of
+such a ceremonial character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would certainly seem as though the Temple of
+the Three Windows, the most significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3699"></p>
+<div id="d0e3700" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p328.jpg" alt="The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3704">The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the first meaning of <i>tocco</i> in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is &#8220;ventana&#8221; or <i>&#8220;window,&#8221;</i> and while &#8220;window&#8221; is the <i>only</i> meaning given this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908), a dictionary compiled from many sources,
+the second meaning of <i>tocco</i> given by Holguin is <i>&#8220;alacena,&#8221;</i> &#8220;a cupboard set in a wall.&#8221; Undoubtedly this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a niche. Now the
+drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression of
+niches rather than of windows. Does <i>Tampu-tocco</i> mean a <i>tampu</i> remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu,
+on the other hand, there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has been referred to as a &#8220;Royal Mausoleum.&#8221;
+As a matter of fact, nearly all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches were so common a feature
+of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling Tampu-tocco
+&#8220;the hill with <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3727"></a>Page 329</span>the three openings or windows.&#8221; In any case Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However, in view
+of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that
+they did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3729">It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by
+Toledo at the time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended from those who used to live near Las Salinas,
+the important salt works near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their fathers and grandfathers repeat
+the tradition that when the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did not say that
+the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the still older testimony of some Indians born before the
+arrival of the first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A chief, aged ninety-two, testified that
+Manco Ccapac came out of a cave called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not one of the witnesses stated
+that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu, although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done so if, as the
+contemporary historians believed, this was really the original Tampu-tocco. The <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3731"></a>Page 330</span>chroniclers were willing enough to accept the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco Ccapac was born,
+and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they should
+have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts
+had been successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with
+his body after the overthrow of the old r&eacute;gime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they know it was in the same fastnesses
+of the Andes to which in the days of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the cause of their reticence?
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3733">Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the
+Urubamba made it an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries of lawlessness and confusion which
+succeeded the barbarian invasions from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent earthquakes and also its
+healthfulness, both marked characteristics of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the existence
+of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location
+might have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3735">So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is reasonable to conclude that the first name <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3737"></a>Page 331</span>of the ruins at Machu Picchu was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of the little kingdom where
+during the centuries between the Amautas and the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions of the
+ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3739">It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great
+organization of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools
+of wood, stone, and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes who knew little of the arts of peace. The
+defeated leaders had to choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce enemies. Furthermore, in the environs
+of Machu Picchu they found every variety of climate&#8212;valleys so low as to produce the precious <i>coca, yucca</i>, and <i>plantain</i>, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics; slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize, <i>quinoa</i>, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops, including both sweet and white potatoes, <i>oca, a&ntilde;u</i>, and <i>ullucu</i>. Here, within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry and cure the <i>coca</i> leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3759">Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with the most careful terracing was not large enough to support
+a very great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3761"></a>Page 332</span>to the chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the
+broad, pleasant valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a people which had reached such a stage
+in engineering, architecture, and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged canyons. Certainly there
+is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief need was
+a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3763">Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they
+utilized their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and
+their enemies on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for generations. Aided by the temperate climate
+in which they lived, and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours' climb up or down from their towns
+and cities, they became a hardy, vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought its way back to the
+rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital, the Empire
+of the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3765">After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco, what more natural than that he should have built a fine
+temple in honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas, and nothing would have been more reasonable than
+the construction of the Temple of the <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3767"></a>Page 333</span>Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from whom they
+traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of
+Cuzco itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco
+grew and the Inca Empire flourished.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3769">As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry
+to the islands of Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace was forgotten by the common people&#8212;although
+undoubtedly known to the priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3771">Then came Pizarro and the bigoted <i>conquistadores</i>. The native chiefs faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient religion. The Spaniards coveted gold
+and silver. The most precious possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but the sacred Virgins of the
+Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome, were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great Sun God.
+Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep
+them from hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices and secure the good effects of his smiling
+face. If he delayed his coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3776"></a>Page 334</span>would mildew and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his accustomed brightness after the harvest,
+the ears of corn could not be properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual behavior on the part of
+the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as &#8220;Virgins&#8221;
+who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others
+escaped and accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3778">It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril
+of their lives urged the Inca to let them visit the &#8220;University of Idolatry,&#8221; at &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; &#8220;the largest city&#8221; in
+the province. Machu Picchu admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to
+have kept the monks in the vicinity of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single glimpse of its unique
+temples and remarkable palaces. It would have been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego to the village
+of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley crossed
+the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the
+friars might easily have been <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3780"></a>Page 335</span>lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca &#8220;university.&#8221;
+Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little knowledge of the architectural character of &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; that no
+description of it could be given their friends, eventually to be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey
+across country from Puquiura might easily have taken &#8220;three days.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3782">Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial
+caves which we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion of skulls belonging to men is very large. There
+are many so-called &#8220;trepanned&#8221; skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured in war by having their skulls crushed
+in, either with clubs or the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found more than twenty-five skulls without
+encountering some &#8220;trepanned&#8221; specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the excavations at Machu Picchu,
+where one hundred sixty-four skulls were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been &#8220;trepanned.&#8221; Of the one hundred thirty-five
+skeletons whose sex could be accurately determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore, it was in the
+graves of the females that the finest artifacts were found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not a
+single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3784"></a>Page 336</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3785">Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast.
+This fits in with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only with beautiful women of the highlands, but
+also with those who came from the tribes of the Yungas, or &#8220;warm valleys.&#8221; The &#8220;warm valleys&#8221; may be those of the rubber country,
+but Sir Clements Markham thought the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3787">Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts discovered at Machu Picchu was a &#8220;snuffing tube&#8221; intended
+for use with the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers to induce a hypnotic state. This powder
+was made from the seeds of the tree which the Incas called <i>huilca</i> or <i>uilca</i>, which, as has been pointed out in <a id="d0e3795" href="#d0e2558">Chapter XI</a>, grows near these ruins. This seems to me to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with Calancha's
+&#8220;Vilcabamba.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3798">It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the requirements of &#8220;the largest city, in which was the University
+of Idolatry.&#8221; Until some one can find the ruins of another important place within three days' journey of Pucyura which was
+an important religious center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am inclined to believe that this was
+the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Calancha, just as Espiritu Pampa was the &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo&#8221; of Ocampo.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3800">In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3802"></a>Page 337</span>to be by Titu Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos, he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from
+Cuzco went first &#8220;to Vilcabamba, the head of all that province.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3804">In the <i>&#8220;Anales del Peru&#8221;</i> Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro, thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried to please the Inca
+by sending him a present of a very fine pony and a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger, the Inca
+killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this, he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite
+wife, and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that &#8220;when she should be dead they would put her remains in a
+basket and let it float down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it to her husband, the Inca.&#8221; She
+must have believed that at that time Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu Pampa is not.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3809">We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos, where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his
+house. Surrounded by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which the Spaniards were obliged to use in
+passing from Lima to Cuzco, he could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been so conveniently located for
+robbing the Spanish caravans nor for supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3811">There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu Picchu was at one time occupied <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3813"></a>Page 338</span>by the Incas and partly built by them on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably of the so-called
+Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore,
+they are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which
+would naturally be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the &#8220;head of the province.&#8221; Espiritu Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a
+place which was so important as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as &#8220;the largest city.&#8221;
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3815">It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest
+refuge for those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants
+Manco probably built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older ones. Here they lived out their days, secure
+in the knowledge that no Indians would ever breathe to the <i>conquistadores</i> the secret of their sacred refuge.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3820"></p>
+<div id="d0e3821" class="divFigure">
+<p class="legend"><img src="img/p338.jpg" alt="The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu"></p>
+<p class="figureHead">The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel, the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu</p>
+</div><p>
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3825">When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence
+was so well kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the theories of its identity with &#8220;Tampu-tocco&#8221;
+and &#8220;Vilcabamba Viejo,&#8221; there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles Wiener heard about it.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3827"></a>Page 339</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3828">Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate
+that the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza
+de Leon and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information about all the holy places of the Incas, give the
+names of many places which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may finally recognize the temples of Machu
+Picchu. On the other hand, it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or other chroniclers had seen this
+citadel, they would have described its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3830">Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have
+the ruins of Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also the ruins of a sacred city of the last
+Incas. Surely this granite citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of its striking beauty and the indescribable
+charm of its surroundings, appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800 A.D. as the safest place of
+refuge for the last remnants of the old r&eacute;gime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the capital of a new
+kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire, it seems to have been again sought out in time of <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3832"></a>Page 340</span>trouble, when in 1534 another foreign invader arrived&#8212;this time from Europe&#8212;with a burning desire to extinguish all vestiges
+of the ancient religion. In its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the Sun, priestesses of the most
+humane cult of aboriginal America. Here, concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and nature, these
+consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls and artifacts
+to be described in another volume. Whoever they were, whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure&#8212;that few romances can ever surpass that of the granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu
+Picchu, the crown of Inca Land.
+
+</p><a id="d0e3835"></a><h1>Glossary</h1>
+<p id="d0e3838">A&ntilde;u: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3840">Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3842">Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3844">Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes
+the bar-hold is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually found in the gateway of a compound or group
+of Inca houses.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3846">Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3848">Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3850">Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches
+wide, and 2 inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles to its slope and flush with its surface.
+To it the purlins of the roof could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the lintel of a gateway to a
+compound. If the &#8220;bar-holds&#8221; were intended to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders may have been
+for a vertical bar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3852">Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The <i>alcaldes</i> are his Indian aids.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3857">Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3859">Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3861">Ma&ntilde;ana: To-morrow, or by and by. The &#8221;<i>ma&ntilde;ana</i> habit&#8221; is Spanish-American procrastination.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3866">Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3868">Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The <i>milpa</i> system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire, destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3873">Monta&ntilde;a: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys
+and the Amazon Basin.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3875">Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3877">Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3879">Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3881">Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into <span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3883"></a>Page 344</span>a gable wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used in connection with &#8220;eye-bonders,&#8221; the roof-pegs served
+as points to which the roof could be tied down.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3885">Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little less than half a gold dollar.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3887">Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3889">Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside
+so as to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often found alternating with niches and placed on a level
+with the lintels of the niches.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3891">Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3893">Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3895">Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village or hamlet.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3897">Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3899">Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3901">Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state, used for making chu&ntilde;o, after drying, freezing, and pressing
+out the bitter juices.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3903">Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3905">Viejo: Old.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3907"></a>Page 347</span></p><a id="d0e3908"></a><h1>Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the National Geographic Society</h1>
+<p id="d0e3911">Thomas Barbour:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3913">Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. <i>Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</i>, LXV, 505&#8211;507, September, 1913. 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3918">(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3920">Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian Expedition of 1914&#8211;1915. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, LVIII, 609&#8211;620, 1921<i></i>.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3927">Hiram Bingham:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3929">The Ruins of Choqquequirau. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XII, 505&#8211;525, October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3934">Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi, 405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8&deg;.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3936">Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLIV, 20&#8211;26, January, 1912.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3941">The Ascent of Coropuna. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXIV, 489&#8211;502, March, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3946">Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. <i>Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society</i>, XXII, N.S., 135&#8211;196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3951">The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 297&#8211;305, April, 1912. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3956">A Search for the Last Inca Capital. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXV, 696&#8211;705, October, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3961">The Discovery of Machu Picchu. <i>Ibid</i>., CXXVI, 709&#8211;719, April, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3966">In the Wonderland of Peru. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIV, 387&#8211;573, April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3971">The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in 1911. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 211, 1&#8211;2, July, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3976">The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XVI, No. 2, 185&#8211;199. April&#8211;June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3981">Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, CXXIX, 452&#8211;463, August, 1914. Illus., map.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e3986"></a>Page 348</span></p>
+<p id="d0e3987">The Pampaconas River. <i>The Geographical Journal</i>, XLIV, 211&#8211;214, August, 1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3992">The Story of Machu Picchu. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXVII, 172&#8211;217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e3997">Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XVII, 257&#8211;271, April&#8211;June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4002">The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. <i>Proceedings of Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists</i>, Washington, D.C., pp. 253&#8211;260, December, 1915.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4007">Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIX, 431&#8211;473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4012">Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. <i>The Builder</i>, II, No. 12, 361&#8211;366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4017">(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4019">Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIV, 12&#8211;16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4024">Isaiah Bowman:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4026">The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 306&#8211;325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4031">A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca Race. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXIV, No. 204, 497&#8211;509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4036">The Ca&ntilde;on of the Urubamba. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLIV, 881&#8211;897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4041">The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336
+pp., plates, maps, plans.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4043">Lawrence Bruner:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4045">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Acridiidae&#8212;Short Horned Locusts). <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 177&#8211;187, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4050">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to the Acridiidae). <i>Ibid</i>., XLV, 585&#8211;586, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4055">A. N. Caudell:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4057">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of Acridiidae). <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 347&#8211;357, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4062">Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4064">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. <i>Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy</i> at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177&#8211;299, 1916. 25 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4069">Frank M. Chapman:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4071">The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of Peru. <i>U.S. National Museum Bulletin</i> 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4076"></a>Page 349</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4077">O. F. Cook:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4079">Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. <i>Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences</i>, VI, No. 4, 86&#8211;90, 1916.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4084">Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. <i>Ibid</i>., VI, No. 10, 284&#8211;293, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4089">Staircase Farms of the Ancients. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, XXIX, 474&#8211;534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4094">Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. <i>Smithsonian Report for 1918</i>, 487&#8211;491. 4 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4099">Domestication of Animals in Peru. <i>Journal of Heredity</i>, x, 176&#8211;181, April, 1919. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4104">(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4106">Polar Bear Cacti. <i>Journal of Heredity</i>, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113&#8211;120, March, 1917. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4111">William H. Dall:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4113">Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XXXVIII, 177&#8211;182, 1911. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4118">Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale Expedition. <i>Smithsonian Misc. Collections</i>, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4123">Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4125">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLV, 627&#8211;649, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4130">George F. Eaton:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4132">Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of Cuzco. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIII, No. 196, 325&#8211;333, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4137">Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVI, No. 211, 3&#8211;14, July, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4142">Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 218, 141&#8211;154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4147">The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu Picchu. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, v, 3&#8211;96, May, 1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4152">William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4154">Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. <i>Yale Medical Journal</i>, XVIII, 325&#8211;335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4159">Alexander W. Evans:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4161">Hepatic&aelig;: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, XVIII, 291&#8211;345, April, 1914.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4166"></a>Page 350</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4167">Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4169">The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. <i>Memoirs, American Anthropological Assoc</i>., III, No. 2, 59&#8211;148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4174">Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga Indians. <i>Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences</i>, XXV, 1&#8211;92, April, 1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4179">Harry W. Foote:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4181">(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4183">The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze Axes. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXIV, 128&#8211;132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4188">Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4190">The Gravels at Cuzco. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 211, 15&#8211;29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4195">The La Paz Gorge. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVI, 141&#8211;150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4200">A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLV, 561&#8211;575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4205">Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XXXVI, No. 213, 187&#8211;213, September, 1913. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4210">Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 218, 125&#8211;140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4215">The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. <i>Ibid</i>., XXXVII, No. 220, 289&#8211;298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4220">A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. <i>Ibid</i>., XLI, No. 241, 1&#8211;100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4225">Osgood Hardy:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4227">Cuzco and Apurimac. <i>Bulletin of American Geographical Society</i>, XLVI, No. 7, 500&#8211;512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4232">The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, XXI, 1&#8211;27, January&#8211;March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4237">Sir Clements Markham:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4239">Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, <i>Geographical Journal</i>, XXXVIII, No. 6, 590&#8211;591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4244">C. H. Mathewson:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4246">A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from Machu Picchu. <i>American Journal of Science</i>, XL, No. 240, 525&#8211;602, December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4251">P. R. Myers:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4253">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911&#8212;Addendum to the Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLVII, 361&#8211;362, 1914.
+<span class="pageno"><a id="d0e4258"></a>Page 351</span></p>
+<p id="d0e4259">S. A. Rohwer:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4261">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911&#8212;Hymenoptera, Superfamilies Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 439&#8211;454, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4266">Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4268">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and Reptiles. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLV, 541&#8211;547, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4273">Oldfield Thomas:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4275">Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian Expedition of 1915. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, LVIII, 217&#8211;249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4280">H. L. Viereck:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4282">Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. <i>Proceedings of U.S. National Museum</i>, XLIV, 469&#8211;470, 1913.
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4287">R. S. Williams:
+
+</p>
+<p id="d0e4289">Peruvian Mosses. <i>Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club</i>, XLIII, 323&#8211;334, June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
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+</body>
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+
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diff --git a/old/10772.txt b/old/10772.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Inca Land
+       Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+Author: Hiram Bingham
+
+Release Date: January 21, 2004 [EBook #10772]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCA LAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman
+
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+Explorations in the Highlands of Peru
+
+By
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+1922
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+"Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the
+Ranges--Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for
+you. Go!"
+
+Kipling: "The Explorer"
+------
+
+
+
+
+This Volume
+
+is affectionately dedicated
+
+to
+
+the Muse who inspired it
+
+the Little Mother of Seven Sons
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+The following pages represent some of the results of four journeys into
+the interior of Peru and also many explorations into the labyrinth of
+early writings which treat of the Incas and their Land. Although my
+travels covered only a part of southern Peru, they took me into every
+variety of climate and forced me to camp at almost every altitude
+at which men have constructed houses or erected tents in the Western
+Hemisphere--from sea level up to 21,703 feet. It has been my lot to
+cross bleak Andean passes, where there are heavy snowfalls and low
+temperatures, as well as to wend my way through gigantic canyons into
+the dense jungles of the Amazon Basin, as hot and humid a region as
+exists anywhere in the world. The Incas lived in a land of violent
+contrasts. No deserts in the world have less vegetation than those of
+Sihuas and Majes; no luxuriant tropical valleys have more plant life
+than the jungles of Conservidayoc. In Inca Land one may pass from
+glaciers to tree ferns within a few hours. So also in the labyrinth
+of contemporary chronicles of the last of the Incas--no historians
+go more rapidly from fact to fancy, from accurate observation to
+grotesque imagination; no writers omit important details and give
+conflicting statements with greater frequency. The story of the Incas
+is still in a maze of doubt and contradiction.
+
+It was the mystery and romance of some of the wonderful pictures of
+a nineteenth-century explorer that first led me into the relatively
+unknown region between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, sometimes called
+"the Cradle of the Incas." Although my photographs cannot compete with
+the imaginative pencil of such an artist, nevertheless, I hope that
+some of them may lead future travelers to penetrate still farther
+into the Land of the Incas and engage in the fascinating game of
+identifying elusive places mentioned in the chronicles.
+
+Some of my story has already been told in Harper's and the National
+Geographic, to whose editors acknowledgments are due for permission
+to use the material in its present form. A glance at the Bibliography
+will show that more than fifty articles and monographs have been
+published as a result of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+and the National Geographic Society. Other reports are still in course
+of preparation. My own observations are based partly on a study
+of these monographs and the writings of former travelers, partly
+on the maps and notes made by my companions, and partly on a study
+of our Peruvian photographs, a collection now numbering over eleven
+thousand negatives. Another source of information was the opportunity
+of frequent conferences with my fellow explorers. One of the great
+advantages of large expeditions is the bringing to bear on the same
+problem of minds which have received widely different training.
+
+My companions on these journeys were, in 1909, Mr. Clarence L. Hay;
+in 1911, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Professor Harry Ward Foote, Dr. William
+G. Erving, Messrs. Kai Hendriksen, H. L. Tucker, and Paul B. Lanius;
+in 1912, Professor Herbert E. Gregory, Dr. George F. Eaton, Dr. Luther
+T. Nelson, Messrs. Albert H. Bumstead, E. C. Erdis, Kenneth C. Heald,
+Robert Stephenson, Paul Bestor, Osgood Hardy, and Joseph Little;
+and in 1915, Dr. David E. Ford, Messrs. O. F. Cook, Edmund Heller,
+E. C. Erdis, E. L. Anderson, Clarence F. Maynard, J. J. Hasbrouck,
+Osgood Hardy, Geoffrey W. Morkill, and G. Bruce Gilbert. To these, my
+comrades in enterprises which were not always free from discomfort or
+danger, I desire to acknowledge most fully my great obligations. In
+the following pages they will sometimes recognize their handiwork;
+at other times they may wonder why it has been overlooked. Perhaps
+in another volume, which is already under way and in which I hope to
+cover more particularly Machu Picchu [1] and its vicinity, they will
+eventually find much of what cannot be told here.
+
+Sincere and grateful thanks are due also to Mr. Edward S. Harkness for
+offering generous assistance when aid was most difficult to secure; to
+Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor and the National Geographic Society for liberal
+and enthusiastic support; to President Taft of the United States and
+President Leguia of Peru for official help of a most important nature;
+to Messrs. W. R. Grace & Company and to Mr. William L. Morkill and
+Mr. L. S. Blaisdell, of the Peruvian Corporation, for cordial and
+untiring cooeperation; to Don Cesare Lomellini, Don Pedro Duque,
+and their sons, and Mr. Frederic B. Johnson, of Yale University,
+for many practical kindnesses; to Mrs. Blanche Peberdy Tompkins and
+Miss Mary G. Reynolds for invaluable secretarial aid; and last, but
+by no means least, to Mrs. Alfred Mitchell for making possible the
+writing of this book.
+
+Hiram Bingham
+
+Yale University
+October 1, 1922
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+I.		Crossing the Desert	1
+II.		Climbing Coropuna 23
+III.	To Parinacochas 50
+IV.		Flamingo Lake 74
+V.		Titicaca  95
+VI.		The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders 110
+VII.	The Valley of the Huatanay 133
+VIII.	The Oldest City in South America 157
+IX.		The Last Four Incas 170
+X.		Searching for the Last Inca Capital 198
+XI.		The Search Continued 217
+XII.	The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun 241
+XIII.	Vilcabamba 255
+XIV.	Conservidayoc 266
+XV.		The Pampa of Ghosts 292
+XVI.	The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas 306
+XVII.	Machu Picchu 314
+XVIII.	The Origin of Machu Picchu 326
+
+		Glossary  341
+		Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University
+		and the National Geographic Society    345
+		Index	 353
+
+
+
+
+Illustrations
+
+
+"Something Hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges"
+Frontispiece
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru 1
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest 12
+Mt. Coropuna from the South 24
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna 32
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Camp on the Summit 42
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+The Sub-Prefect of Cotahuasi, his Military Aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the Local Rug-weaving
+Industry 60
+	Photograph by C. Watkins
+Inca Storehouses at Chichipampa, near Colta    66
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Flamingoes on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara 78
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli 90
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba 90
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno 98
+A Step-topped Niche on the Island of Koati 98
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa 114
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani 114
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket; near the Pass of La Raya 120
+Plowing a Potato-field at La Raya 120
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche 128
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912 132
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta 136
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall 140
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca 140
+Huatanay Valley, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada 150
+Map of Peru and View of Cuzco 158
+	From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578
+Towers of Jesuit Church with Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco 162
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos 170
+The Urubamba Canyon: A Reason for the Safety of the Incas in
+Uilcapampa 176
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac 186
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains 198
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1915 202
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa 206
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay 210
+The Road between Maquina and Mandor Pampa, near Machu Picchu 214
+Huadquina 220
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquina 225
+	Plan and elevations drawn by A. H. Bumstead
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley 238
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata 242
+	Photograph by E. C. Erdis
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata 242
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi 246
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Nusta Isppana 248
+	Drawn by R. H. Bumstead
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Nusta Isppana 250
+Two of the Seven Seats near the Spring under the Great White Rock 250
+	Photograph by A. H. Bumstead
+Nusta Isppana 256
+Quispi Cusi testifying about Inca Ruins 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+One of our Bearers crossing the Pampaconas River 268
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery 288
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa 288
+Inca Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa 294
+	Photograph by H. W. Foote
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa 302
+	Photograph by H. L. Tucker
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu 306
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu 312
+The Caves of Puma Urco, Near Paccaritampu 312
+Flashlight View of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu 320
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu; suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-tocco 320
+Detail of Principal Temple, Machu Picchu 324
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu 324
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu 328
+The Gorges, opening Wide Apart, reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land 338
+
+
+Except as otherwise indicated the illustrations are from photographs
+by the author.
+
+
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sketch Map of Southern Peru.
+------
+
+
+
+INCA LAND
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Crossing the Desert
+
+A kind friend in Bolivia once placed in my hands a copy of a most
+interesting book by the late E. George Squier, entitled "Peru. Travel
+and Exploration in the Land of the Incas." In that volume is a
+marvelous picture of the Apurimac Valley. In the foreground is a
+delicate suspension bridge which commences at a tunnel in the face
+of a precipitous cliff and hangs in mid-air at great height above the
+swirling waters of the "great speaker." In the distance, towering above
+a mass of stupendous mountains, is a magnificent snow-capped peak. The
+desire to see the Apurimac and experience the thrill of crossing that
+bridge decided me in favor of an overland journey to Lima.
+
+As a result I went to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the mighty empire
+of the Incas, and was there urged by the Peruvian authorities to
+visit some newly re-discovered Inca ruins. As readers of "Across
+South America" will remember, these ruins were at Choqquequirau, an
+interesting place on top of a jungle-covered ridge several thousand
+feet above the roaring rapids of the great Apurimac. There was some
+doubt as to who had originally lived here. The prefect insisted that
+the ruins represented the residence of the Inca Manco and his sons,
+who had sought refuge from Pizarro and the Spanish conquerors of Peru
+in the Andes between the Apurimac and Urubamba rivers.
+
+While Mr. Clarence L. Hay and I were on the slopes of Choqquequirau the
+clouds would occasionally break away and give us tantalizing glimpses
+of snow-covered mountains. There seemed to be an unknown region,
+"behind the Ranges," which might contain great possibilities. Our
+guides could tell us nothing about it. Little was to be found in
+books. Perhaps Manco's capital was hidden there. For months afterwards
+the fascination of the unknown drew my thoughts to Choqquequirau and
+beyond. In the words of Kipling's "Explorer":
+
+
+"... a voice, as bad as Conscience, rang interminable changes
+On one everlasting Whisper day and night repeated--so:
+'Something hidden. Go and find it. Go and look behind the Ranges--
+Something lost behind the Ranges. Lost and waiting for you. Go!' "
+
+
+To add to my unrest, during the following summer I read Bandelier's
+"Titicaca and Koati," which had just appeared. In one of the
+interesting footnotes was this startling remark: "It is much to be
+desired that the elevation of the most prominent peaks of the western
+or coast range of Peru be accurately determined. It is likely ... that
+Coropuna, in the Peruvian coast range of the Department Arequipa,
+is the culminating point of the continent. It exceeds 23,000 feet
+in height, whereas Aconcagua [conceded to be the highest peak in
+the Western Hemisphere] is but 22,763 feet (6940 meters) above
+sea level." His estimate was based on a survey made by the civil
+engineers of the Southern Railways of Peru, using a section of the
+railroad as a base. My sensations when I read this are difficult to
+describe. Although I had been studying South American history and
+geography for more than ten years, I did not remember ever to have
+heard of Coropuna. On most maps it did not exist. Fortunately, on one
+of the sheets of Raimondi's large-scale map of Peru, I finally found
+"Coropuna--6,949 m."--9 meters higher than Aconcagua!--one hundred
+miles northwest of Arequipa, near the 73d meridian west of Greenwich.
+
+Looking up and down the 73d meridian as it crossed Peru from the
+Amazon Valley to the Pacific Ocean, I saw that it passed very near
+Choqquequirau, and actually traversed those very lands "behind
+the Ranges" which had been beckoning to me. The coincidence was
+intriguing. The desire to go and find that "something hidden" was now
+reenforced by the temptation to go and see whether Coropuna really was
+the highest mountain in America. There followed the organization of an
+expedition whose object was a geographical reconnaissance of Peru along
+the 73d meridian, from the head of canoe navigation on the Urubamba
+to tidewater on the Pacific. We achieved more than we expected.
+
+Our success was due in large part to our "unit-food-boxes," a device
+containing a balanced ration which Professor Harry W. Foote had
+cooperated with me in assembling. The object of our idea was to
+facilitate the provisioning of small field parties by packing in a
+single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions
+for a given period. These boxes have given such general satisfaction,
+not only to the explorers themselves, but to the surgeons who had the
+responsibility of keeping them in good condition, that a few words
+in regard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome.
+
+The best unit-food-box provides a balanced ration for two men
+for eight days, breakfast and supper being hearty, cooked meals,
+and luncheon light and uncooked. It was not intended that the men
+should depend entirely on the food-boxes, but should vary their
+diet as much as possible with whatever the country afforded, which
+in southern Peru frequently means potatoes, corn, eggs, mutton,
+and bread. Nevertheless each box contained sliced bacon, tinned
+corned beef, roast beef, chicken, salmon, crushed oats, milk, cheese,
+coffee, sugar, rice, army bread, salt, sweet chocolates, assorted jams,
+pickles, and dried fruits and vegetables. By seeing that the jam, dried
+fruits, soups, and dried vegetables were well assorted, a sufficient
+variety was procured without destroying the balanced character of
+the ration. On account of the great difficulty of transportation in
+the southern Andes we had to eliminate foods that contained a large
+amount of water, like French peas, baked beans, and canned fruits,
+however delicious and desirable they might be. In addition to food,
+we found it desirable to include in each box a cake of laundry soap,
+two yards of dish toweling, and three empty cotton-cloth bags, to be
+used for carrying lunches and collecting specimens. The most highly
+appreciated article of food in our boxes was the rolled oats, a dish
+which on account of its being already partially cooked was easily
+prepared at high elevations, where rice cannot be properly boiled. It
+was difficult to satisfy the members of the Expedition by providing
+the right amount of sugar. At the beginning of the field season the
+allowance--one third of a pound per day per man--seemed excessive, and
+I was criticized for having overloaded the boxes. After a month in the
+field the allowance proved to be too small and had to be supplemented.
+
+Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer
+to "rough it," and to "trust to luck" for his food. I had found on
+my first two expeditions, in Venezuela and Colombia and across South
+America, that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular
+and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While "roughing it"
+is far more enticing to the inexperienced and indiscreet explorer,
+I learned in Peru that the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing,
+months in advance, a comprehensive bill of fare sufficiently varied,
+wholesome, and well-balanced, is "the better part of valor," The truth
+is that providing an abundance of appetizing food adds very greatly
+to the effectiveness of a party. To be sure, it may mean trouble
+and expense for one's transportation department, and some of the
+younger men may feel that their reputations as explorers are likely
+to be damaged if it is known that strawberry jam, sweet chocolate and
+pickles are frequently found on their menu! Nevertheless, experience
+has shown that the results of "trusting to luck" and "living as the
+natives do" means not only loss of efficiency in the day's work, but
+also lessened powers of observation and diminished enthusiasm for
+the drudgery of scientific exploration. Exciting things are always
+easy to do, no matter how you are living, but frequently they produce
+less important results than tasks which depend upon daily drudgery;
+and daily drudgery depends upon a regular supply of wholesome food.
+
+
+
+
+
+We reached Arequipa, the proposed base for our campaign against
+Mt. Coropuna, in June, 1911. We learned that the Peruvian "winter"
+reaches its climax in July or August, and that it would be folly to
+try to climb Coropuna during the winter snowstorms. On the other
+hand, the "summer months," beginning with November, are cloudy
+and likely to add fog and mist to the difficulties of climbing a
+new mountain. Furthermore, June and July are the best months for
+exploration in the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Amazon
+Basin, the lands "behind the Ranges." Although the montana, or jungle
+country, is rarely actually dry, there is less rain then than in the
+other months of the year; so we decided to go first to the Urubamba
+Valley. The story of our discoveries there, of identifying Uiticos,
+the capital of the last Incas, and of the finding of Machu Picchu will
+be found in later chapters. In September I returned to Arequipa and
+started the campaign against Coropuna by endeavoring to get adequate
+transportation facilities for crossing the desert.
+
+Arequipa, as everybody knows, is the home of a station of
+the Harvard Observatory, but Arequipa is also famous for its
+large mules. Unfortunately, a "mule trust" had recently been
+formed--needless to say, by an American--and I found it difficult to
+make any satisfactory arrangements. After two weeks of skirmishing,
+the Tejada brothers appeared, two arrieros, or muleteers, who seemed
+willing to listen to our proposals. We offered them a thousand soles
+(five hundred dollars gold) if they would supply us with a pack train
+of eleven mules for two months and go with us wherever we chose,
+we agreeing not to travel on an average more than seven leagues
+[2] a day. It sounds simple enough but it took no end of argument
+and persuasion on the part of our friends in Arequipa to convince
+these worthy arrieros that they were not going to be everlastingly
+ruined by this bargain. The trouble was that they owned their mules,
+knew the great danger of crossing the deserts that lay between us
+and Mt. Coropuna, and feared to travel on unknown trails. Like most
+muleteers, they were afraid of unfamiliar country. They magnified the
+imaginary evils of the road to an inconceivable pitch. The argument
+that finally persuaded them to accept the proffered contract was my
+promise that after the first week the cargo would be so much less that
+at least two of the pack mules could always be free. The Tejadas,
+realizing only too well the propensity of pack animals to get sore
+backs and go lame, regarded my promise in the light of a factor of
+safety. Lame mules would not have to carry loads.
+
+Everything was ready by the end of the month. Mr. H. L. Tucker,
+a member of Professor H. C. Parker's 1910 Mr. McKinley Expedition
+and thoroughly familiar with the details of snow-and-ice-climbing,
+whom I had asked to be responsible for securing the proper equipment,
+was now entrusted with planning and directing the actual ascent
+of Coropuna. Whatever success was achieved on the mountain was
+due primarily to Mr. Tucker's skill and foresight. We had no Swiss
+guides, and had originally intended to ask two other members of the
+Expedition to join us on the climb. However, the exigencies of making
+a geological and topographical cross section along the 73d meridian
+through a practically unknown region, and across one of the highest
+passes in the Andes (17,633 ft.), had delayed the surveying party to
+such an extent as to make it impossible for them to reach Coropuna
+before the first of November. On account of the approach of the cloudy
+season it did not seem wise to wait for their cooeperation. Accordingly,
+I secured in Arequipa the services of Mr. Casimir Watkins, an English
+naturalist, and of Mr. F. Hinckley, of the Harvard Observatory. It
+was proposed that Mr. Hinckley, who had twice ascended El Misti
+(19,120 ft.), should accompany us to the top, while Mr. Watkins,
+who had only recently recovered from a severe illness, should take
+charge of the Base Camp.
+
+The prefect of Arequipa obligingly offered us a military escort in
+the person of Corporal Gamarra, a full-blooded Indian of rather more
+than average height and considerably more than average courage, who
+knew the country. As a member of the mounted gendarmerie, Gamarra had
+been stationed at the provincial capital of Cotahuasi a few months
+previously. One day a mob of drunken, riotous revolutionists stormed
+the government buildings while he was on sentry duty. Gamarra stood
+his ground and, when they attempted to force their way past him, shot
+the leader of the crowd. The mob scattered. A grateful prefect made
+him a corporal and, realizing that his life was no longer safe in that
+particular vicinity, transferred him to Arequipa. Like nearly all of
+his race, however, he fell an easy prey to alcohol. There is no doubt
+that the chief of the mounted police in Arequipa, when ordered by the
+prefect to furnish us an escort for our journey across the desert,
+was glad enough to assign Gamarra to us. His courage could not be
+called in question even though his habits might lead him to become
+troublesome. It happened that Gamarra did not know we were planning
+to go to Cotahuasi. Had he known this, and also had he suspected the
+trials that were before him on Mt. Coropuna, he probably would have
+begged off--but I am anticipating.
+
+On the 2d of October, Tucker, Hinckley, Corporal Gamarra and I left
+Arequipa; Watkins followed a week later. The first stage of the
+journey was by train from Arequipa to Vitor, a distance of thirty
+miles. The arrieros sent the cargo along too. In addition to the
+food-boxes we brought with us tents, ice axes, snowshoes, barometers,
+thermometers, transit, fiber cases, steel boxes, duffle bags, and
+a folding boat. Our pack train was supposed to have started from
+Arequipa the day before. We hoped it would reach Vitor about the
+same time that we did, but that was expecting too much of arrieros
+on the first day of their journey. So we had an all-day wait near
+the primitive little railway station.
+
+We amused ourselves wandering off over the neighboring pampa and
+studying the medanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes which are common in
+the great coastal desert. One reads so much of the great tropical
+jungles of South America and of wellnigh impenetrable forests that
+it is difficult to realize that the West Coast from Ecuador, on
+the north, to the heart of Chile, on the south, is a great desert,
+broken at intervals by oases, or valleys whose rivers, coming
+from melting snows of the Andes, are here and there diverted for
+purposes of irrigation. Lima, the capital of Peru, is in one of the
+largest of these oases. Although frequently enveloped in a damp fog,
+the Peruvian coastal towns are almost never subjected to rain. The
+causes of this phenomenon are easy to understand. Winds coming from
+the east, laden with the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and the
+steaming Amazon Basin, are rapidly cooled by the eastern slopes of
+the Andes and forced to deposit this moisture in the montana. By
+the time the winds have crossed the mighty cordillera there is no
+rain left in them. Conversely, the winds that come from the warm
+Pacific Ocean strike a cold area over the frigid Humboldt Current,
+which sweeps up along the west coast of South America. This cold belt
+wrings the water out of the westerly winds, so that by the time they
+reach the warm land their relative humidity is low. To be sure, there
+are months in some years when so much moisture falls on the slopes
+of the coast range that the hillsides are clothed with flowers, but
+this verdure lasts but a short time and does not seriously affect the
+great stretches of desert pampa in the midst of which we now were. Like
+the other pampas of this region, the flat surface inclines toward the
+sea. Over it the sand is rolled along by the wind and finally built
+into crescent-shaped dunes. These medanos interested us greatly.
+
+The prevailing wind on the desert at night is a relatively gentle
+breeze that comes down from the cool mountain slopes toward the
+ocean. It tends to blow the lighter particles of sand along in a
+regular dune, rolling it over and over downhill, leaving the heavier
+particles behind. This is reversed in the daytime. As the heat
+increases toward noon, the wind comes rushing up from the ocean to
+fill the vacuum caused by the rapidly ascending currents of hot air
+that rise from the overheated pampas. During the early afternoon this
+wind reaches a high velocity and swirls the sand along in clouds. It
+is now strong enough to move the heavier particles of sand, uphill. It
+sweeps the heaviest ones around the base of the dune and deposits
+them in pointed ridges on either side. The heavier material remains
+stationary at night while the lighter particles are rolled downhill,
+but the whole mass travels slowly uphill again during the gales of
+the following afternoon. The result is the beautiful crescent-shaped
+medano.
+
+
+
+
+
+About five o'clock our mules, a fine-looking lot--far superior to any
+that we had been able to secure near Cuzco--trotted briskly into the
+dusty little plaza. It took some time to adjust the loads, and it was
+nearly seven o'clock before we started off in the moonlight for the
+oasis of Vitor. As we left the plateau and struck the dusty trail
+winding down into a dark canyon we caught a glimpse of something
+white shimmering faintly on the horizon far off to the northwest;
+Coropuna! Shortly before nine o'clock we reached a little corral,
+where the mules were unloaded. For ourselves we found a shed with
+a clean, stone-paved floor, where we set up our cots, only to be
+awakened many times during the night by passing caravans anxious to
+avoid the terrible heat of the desert by day.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the Northwest
+------
+
+
+Where the oases are only a few miles apart one often travels by day,
+but when crossing the desert is a matter of eight or ten hours'
+steady jogging with no places to rest, no water, no shade, the pack
+animals suffer greatly. Consequently, most caravans travel, so far
+as possible, by night. Our first desert, the pampa of Sihuas, was
+reported to be narrow, so we preferred to cross it by day and see
+what was to be seen. We got up about half-past four and were off
+before seven. Then our troubles began. Either because he lived in
+Arequipa or because they thought he looked like a good horseman,
+or for reasons best known to themselves, the Tejadas had given
+Mr. Hinckley a very spirited saddle-mule. The first thing I knew,
+her rider, carrying a heavy camera, a package of plate-holders, and
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+was pitched headlong into the sand. Fortunately no damage was done,
+and after a lively chase the runaway mule was brought back by Corporal
+Gamarra. After Mr. Hinckley was remounted on his dangerous mule we
+rode on for a while in peace, between cornfields and vineyards, over
+paths flanked by willows and fig trees. The chief industry of Vitor is
+the making of wine from vines which date back to colonial days. The
+wine is aged in huge jars, each over six feet high, buried in the
+ground. We had a glimpse of seventeen of them standing in a line,
+awaiting sale. It made one think of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
+who would have had no trouble at all hiding in these Cyclopean crocks.
+
+The edge of the oasis of Vitor is the contour line along which
+the irrigating canal runs. There is no gradual petering out of
+foliage. The desert begins with a stunning crash. On one side is
+the bright, luxurious green of fig trees and vineyards; on the other
+side is the absolute stark nakedness of the sandy desert. Within the
+oasis there is an abundance of water. Much of it runs to waste. The
+wine growers receive more than they can use; in fact, more land
+could easily be put under cultivation. The chief difficulties are
+the scarcity of ports from which produce can be shipped to the outer
+world, the expense of the transportation system of pack trains over
+the deserts which intervene between the oases and the railroad,
+and the lack of capital. Otherwise the irrigation system might be
+extended over great stretches of rich, volcanic soil, now unoccupied.
+
+A steady climb of three quarters of an hour took us to the northern rim
+of the valley. Here we again saw the snowy mass of Coropuna, glistening
+in the sunlight, seventy-five miles away to the northwest. Our view was
+a short one, for in less than three minutes we had to descend another
+canyon. We crossed this and climbed out on the pampa of Sihuas. There
+was little to interest us in our immediate surroundings, but in the
+distance was Coropuna, and I had just begun to study the problem of
+possible routes for climbing the highest peak when Mr. Hinckley's
+mule trotted briskly across the trail directly in front of me, kicked
+up her heels, and again sent him sprawling over the sand, barometer,
+camera, plates, and all. Unluckily, this time his foot caught in a
+stirrup and, still holding the bridle, he was dragged some distance
+before he got it loose. He struggled to his feet and tried to keep
+the mule from running away, when a violent kick released his hold
+and knocked him out. We immediately set up our little "Mummery"
+tent on the hot, sandy floor of the desert and rendered first-aid to
+the unlucky astronomer. We found that the sharp point of one of the
+vicious mule's new shoes had opened a large vein in Mr. Hinckley's
+leg. The cut was not dangerous, but too deep for successful mountain
+climbing. With Gamarra's aid, Mr. Hinckley was able to reach Arequipa
+that night, but his enforced departure not only shattered his own hopes
+of climbing Coropuna, but also made us wonder how we were going to have
+the necessary three-men-on-the-rope when we reached the glaciers. To
+be sure, there was the corporal--but would he go? Indians do not like
+snow mountains. Packing up the tent again, we resumed our course over
+the desert.
+
+The oasis of Sihuas, another beautiful garden in the bottom of a
+huge canyon, was reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We
+should have been compelled to camp in the open with the arrieros had
+not the parish priest invited us to rest in the cool shade of his
+vine-covered arbor. He graciously served us with cakes and sweet
+native wine, and asked us to stay as long as we liked. The desert
+of Majes, which now lay ahead of us, is perhaps the widest, hottest,
+and most barren in this region. Our arrieros were unwilling to cross
+it in the daytime. They said it was forty-five miles between water
+and water. The next day we enjoyed the hospitality of our kindly host
+until after supper.
+
+So sure are the inhabitants of these oases that it is not going to
+rain that their houses are built merely as a shelter against the sun
+and wind. They are made of the canes that grow in the jungles of the
+larger river bottoms, or along the banks of irrigating ditches. On the
+roof the spaces between the canes are filled with adobe, sun-dried
+mud. It is not necessary to plaster the sides of the houses, for it
+is pleasant to let the air have free play, and it is amusing to look
+out through the cracks and see everything that is passing.
+
+That evening we saddled in the moonlight. Slowly we climbed out of the
+valley, to spend the night jogging steadily, hour after hour, across
+the desert. As the moon was setting we entered a hilly region, and
+at sunrise found ourselves in the midst of a tumbled mass of enormous
+sand dunes--the result of hundreds of medanos blown across the pampa
+of Majes and deposited along the border of the valley. It took us
+three hours to wind slowly down from the level of the desert to a
+point where we could see the great canyon, a mile deep and two miles
+across. Its steep sides are of various colored rocks and sand. The
+bottom is a bright green oasis through which flows the rapid Majes
+River, too deep to be forded even in the dry season. A very large
+part of the flood plain of the unruly river is not cultivated, and
+consists of a wild jungle, difficult of access in the dry season and
+impossible when the river rises during the rainy months. The contrast
+between the gigantic hills of sand and the luxurious vegetation was
+very striking; but to us the most beautiful thing in the landscape
+was the long, glistening, white mass of Coropuna, now much larger
+and just visible above the opposite rim of the valley.
+
+At eight o'clock in the morning, as we were wondering how long it would
+be before we could get down to the bottom of the valley and have some
+breakfast, we discovered, at a place called Pitas (or Cerro Colorado),
+a huge volcanic boulder covered with rude pictographs. Further
+search in the vicinity revealed about one hundred of these boulders,
+each with its quota of crude drawings. I did not notice any ruins of
+houses near the rocks. Neither of the Tejada brothers, who had been
+past here many times, nor any of the natives of this region appeared
+to have any idea of the origin or meaning of this singular collection
+of pictographic rocks. The drawings represented jaguars, birds, men,
+and dachshund-like dogs. They deserved careful study. Yet not even the
+interest and excitement of investigating the "rocas jeroglificos,"
+as they are called here, could make us forget that we had had no
+food or sleep for a good many hours. So after taking a few pictures
+we hastened on and crossed the Majes River on a very shaky temporary
+bridge. It was built to last only during the dry season. To construct
+a bridge which would withstand floods is not feasible at present. We
+spent the day at Coriri, a pleasant little village where it was almost
+impossible to sleep, on account of the myriads of gnats.
+
+The next day we had a short ride along the western side of the valley
+to the town of Aplao, the capital of the province of Castilla, called
+by its present inhabitants "Majes," although on Raimondi's map that
+name is applied only to the river and the neighboring desert. In 1865,
+at the time of his visit, it had a bad reputation for disease. Now
+it seems more healthy. The sub-prefect of Castilla had been informed
+by telegraph of our coming, and invited us to an excellent dinner.
+
+The people of Majes are largely of mixed white and Indian
+ancestry. Many of them appeared to be unusually businesslike. The
+proprietor of one establishment was a great admirer of American shoes,
+the name of which he pronounced in a manner that puzzled us for a
+long time. "W" is unknown in Spanish and the letters "a," "l," and "k"
+are never found in juxtaposition. When he asked us what we thought of
+"Valluck-ofair'," accenting strongly the last syllable, we could not
+imagine what he meant. He was equally at a loss to understand how we
+could be so stupid as not to recognize immediately the well-advertised
+name of a widely known shoe.
+
+At Majes we observed cotton, which is sent to the mills at Arequipa,
+alfalfa, highly prized as fodder for pack animals, sugar cane, from
+which aguardiente, or white rum, is made, and grapes. It is said that
+the Majes vineyards date back to the sixteenth century, and that some
+of the huge, buried, earthenware wine jars now in use were made as far
+back as the reign of Philip II. The presence of so much wine in the
+community does not seem to have a deleterious effect on the natives,
+who were not only hospitable but energetic--far more so, in fact,
+than the natives of towns in the high Andes, where the intense cold
+and the difficulty of making a living have reacted upon the Indians,
+often causing them to be morose, sullen, and without ambition. The
+residences of the wine growers are sometimes very misleading. A typical
+country house of the better class is not much to look at. Its long,
+low, flat roof and rough, unwhitewashed, mud-colored walls give it
+an unattractive appearance; yet to one's intense surprise the inside
+may be clean and comfortable, with modern furniture, a piano, and
+a phonograph.
+
+Our conscientious and hard-working arrieros rose at two o'clock the
+next morning, for they knew their mules had a long, hard climb ahead
+of them, from an elevation of 1000 feet above sea level to 10,000
+feet. After an all-day journey we camped at a place where forage could
+be obtained. We had now left the region of tropical products and come
+back to potatoes and barley. The following day a short ride brought us
+past another pictographic rock, recently blasted open by an energetic
+"treasure seeker" of Chuquibamba. This town has 3000 inhabitants and
+is the capital of the province of Condesuyos. It was the place which
+we had selected several months before as the rendezvous for the attack
+on Coropuna. The climate here is delightful and the fruits and cereals
+of the temperate zone are easily raised. The town is surrounded by
+gardens, vineyards, alfalfa and grain fields; all showing evidence
+of intensive cultivation. It is at the head of one of the branches
+of the Majes Valley and is surrounded by high cliffs.
+
+The people of Chuquibamba were friendly. We were kindly welcomed by
+Senor Benavides, the sub-prefect, who hospitably told us to set up our
+cots in the grand salon of his own house. Here we received calls from
+the local officials, including the provincial physician, Dr. Pastor,
+and the director of the Colegio Nacional, Professor Alejandro
+Coello. The last two were keen to go with us up Mt. Coropuna.  They
+told us that there was a hill near by called the Calvario, whence the
+mountain could be seen, and offered to take us up there. We accepted,
+thinking at the same time that this would show who was best fitted to
+join in the climb, for we needed another man on the rope. Professor
+Coello easily distanced the rest of us and won the coveted place.
+
+From the Calvario hill we had a splendid view of those white solitudes
+whither we were bound, now only twenty-five miles away. It seemed
+clear that the western or truncated peak, which gives its name to the
+mass (koro = "cut off at the top"; puna = "a cold, snowy height"),
+was the highest point of the range, and higher than all the eastern
+peaks. Yet behind the flat-topped dome we could just make out a
+northerly peak. Tucker wondered whether or not that might prove to
+be higher than the western peak which we decided to climb. No one
+knew anything about the mountain. There were no native guides to be
+had. The wildest opinions were expressed as to the best routes and
+methods of getting to the top. We finally engaged a man who said he
+knew how to get to the foot of the mountain, so we called him "guide"
+for want of a more appropriate title. The Peruvian spring was now well
+advanced and the days were fine and clear. It appeared, however, that
+there had been a heavy snowstorm on the mountain a few days before. If
+summer were coming unusually early it behooved us to waste no time,
+and we proceeded to arrange the mountain equipment as fast as possible.
+
+Our instruments for determining altitude consisted of a special
+mountain-mercurial barometer made by Mr. Henry J. Green, of
+Brooklyn, capable of recording only such air pressures as one might
+expect to find above 12,000 feet; a hypsometer loaned us by the
+Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
+of Washington, with thermometers especially made for us by Green;
+a large mercurial barometer, borrowed from the Harvard Observatory,
+which, notwithstanding its rough treatment by Mr. Hinckley's mule, was
+still doing good service; and one of Green's sling psychrometers. Our
+most serious want was an aneroid, in case the fragile mercurials
+should get broken. Six months previously I had written to J. Hicks,
+the celebrated instrument maker of London, asking him to construct,
+with special care, two large "Watkins" aneroids capable of recording
+altitudes five thousand feet higher than Coropuna was supposed to
+be. His reply had never reached me, nor did any one in Arequipa know
+anything about the barometers. Apparently my letter had miscarried. It
+was not until we opened our specially ordered "mountain grub" boxes
+here in Chuquibamba that we found, alongside of the pemmican and
+self-heating tins of stew which had been packed for us in London by
+Grace Brothers, the two precious aneroids, each as large as a big alarm
+clock. With these two new aneroids, made with a wide margin of safety,
+we felt satisfied that, once at the summit, we should know whether
+there was a chance that Bandelier was right and this was indeed the
+top of America.
+
+For exact measurements we depended on Topographer Hendriksen, who was
+due to triangulate Coropuna in the course of his survey along the 73d
+meridian. My chief excuse for going up the mountain was to erect a
+signal at or near the top which Hendriksen could use as a station in
+order to make his triangulation more exact. My real object, it must
+be confessed, was to enjoy the satisfaction, which all Alpinists feel,
+of conquering a "virgin peak."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Climbing Coropuna
+
+The desert plateau above Chuquibamba is nearly 2500 feet higher than
+the town, and it was nine o'clock on the morning of October 10th
+before we got out of the valley. Thereafter Coropuna was always in
+sight, and as we slowly approached it we studied it with care. The
+plateau has an elevation of over 15,000 feet, yet the mountain stood
+out conspicuously above it. Coropuna is really a range about twenty
+miles long. Its gigantic massif was covered with snow fields from one
+end to the other. So deep did the fresh snow lie that it was generally
+impossible to see where snow fields ended and glaciers began. We could
+see that of the five well-defined peaks the middle one was probably
+the lowest. The two next highest are at the right, or eastern, end of
+the massif. The culminating truncated dome at the western end, with its
+smooth, uneroded sides, apparently belonged to a later volcanic period
+than the rest of the mountain. It seemed to be the highest peak of
+all. To reach it did not appear to be difficult. Rock-covered slopes
+ran directly up to the snow. Snow fields, without many rock-falls,
+appeared to culminate in a saddle at the base of the great snowy
+dome. The eastern slope of the dome itself offered an unbroken,
+if steep, path to the top. If we could once reach the snow line,
+it looked as though, with the aid of ice-creepers or snowshoes,
+we could climb the mountain without serious trouble.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Coropuna from the South
+------
+
+
+Between us and the first snow-covered slopes, however, lay more
+than twenty miles of volcanic desert intersected by deep canyons,
+steep quebradas, and very rough aa lava. Directed by our "guide,"
+we left the Cotahuasi road and struck across country, dodging the
+lava flows and slowly ascending the gentle slope of the plateau. As
+it became steeper our mules showed signs of suffering. While waiting
+for them to get their wind we went ahead on foot, climbed a short
+rise, and to our surprise and chagrin found ourselves on the rim of a
+steep-walled canyon, 1500 feet deep, which cut right across in front
+of the mountain and lay between us and its higher slopes. After the
+mules had rested, the guide now decided to turn to the left instead of
+going straight toward the mountain. A dispute ensued as to how much he
+knew, even about the foot of Coropuna. He denied that there were any
+huts whatever in the canyon. "Abandonado; despoblado; desierto." "A
+waste; a solitude; a wilderness." So he described it. Had he been
+there? "No, Senor." Luckily we had been able to make out from the rim
+of the canyon two or three huts near a little stream. As there was no
+question that we ought to get to the snow line as soon as possible, we
+decided to dispense with the services of so well-informed a "guide,"
+and make such way as we could alone. The altitude of the rim of the
+canyon was 16,000 feet; the mules showed signs of acute distress from
+mountain sickness. The arrieros began to complain loudly, but did
+what they could to relieve the mules by punching holes in their ears;
+the theory being that bloodletting is a good thing for soroche. As
+soon as the timid arrieros reached a point where they could see
+down into the canyon, they spotted some patches of green pasture,
+cheered up a bit, and even smiled over the dismal ignorance of the
+"guide." Soon we found a trail which led to the huts.
+
+Near the huts was a taciturn Indian woman, who refused to furnish us
+with either fuel or forage, although we tried to pay in advance and
+offered her silver. Nevertheless, we proceeded to pitch our tents
+and took advantage of the sheltering stone wall of her corral for
+our camp fire. After peace had settled down and it became perfectly
+evident that we were harmless, the door of one of the huts opened
+and an Indian man appeared. Doubtless the cause of his disappearance
+before our arrival had been the easily discernible presence in our
+midst of the brass buttons of Corporal Gamarra. Possibly he who had
+selected this remote corner of the wilderness for his abode had a
+guilty conscience and at the sight of a gendarme decided that he had
+better hide at once. More probably, however, he feared the visit of
+a recruiting party, since it is quite likely that he had not served
+his legal term of military service. At all events, when his wife
+discovered that we were not looking for her man, she allowed his
+curiosity to overcome his fears. We found that the Indians kept a
+few llamas. They also made crude pottery, firing it with straw and
+llama dung. They lived almost entirely on gruel made from chuno,
+frozen bitter potatoes. Little else than potatoes will grow at 14,000
+feet above the sea. For neighbors the Indians had a solitary old man,
+who lived half a mile up nearer the glaciers, and a small family,
+a mile and a half down the valley.
+
+Before dark the neighbors came to call, and we tried our best to
+persuade the men to accompany us up the mountain and help to carry
+the loads from the point where the mules would have to stop; but they
+declined absolutely and positively. I think one of the men might have
+gone, but as soon as his quiet, well-behaved wife saw him wavering
+she broke out in a torrent of violent denunciation, telling him the
+mountain would "eat him up" and that unless he wanted to go to heaven
+before his time he had better let well enough alone and stay where he
+was. Cieza de Leon, one of the most careful of the early chroniclers
+(1550), says that at Coropuna "the devil" talks "more freely" than
+usual. "For some secret reason known to God, it is said that devils
+walk visibly about in that place, and that the Indians see them and are
+much terrified. I have also heard that these devils have appeared to
+Christians in the form of Indians." Perhaps the voluble housewife was
+herself one of the famous Coropuna devils. She certainly talked "more
+freely" than usual. Or possibly she thought that the Coropuna "devils"
+were now appearing to Indians "in the form of" Christians! Anyhow the
+Indians said that on top of Coropuna there was a delightful, warm
+paradise containing beautiful flowers, luscious fruits, parrots of
+brilliant plumage, macaws, and even monkeys, those faithful denizens
+of hot climates. The souls of the departed stop to rest and enjoy
+themselves in this charming spot on their upward flight. Like most
+primitive people who live near snow-capped mountains, they had an
+abject terror of the forbidding summits and the snowstorms that seem
+to come down from them. Probably the Indians hope to propitiate
+the demons who dwell on the mountain tops by inventing charming
+stories relating to their abode. It is interesting to learn that in
+the neighboring hamlet of Pampacolca, the great explorer Raimondi,
+in 1865, found the natives "exiled from the civilized world, still
+preserving their primitive customs... carrying idols to the slopes
+of the great snow mountain Coropuna, and there offering them as a
+sacrifice." Apparently the mountain still inspires fear in the hearts
+of all those who live near it.
+
+The fact that we agreed to pay in advance unheard-of wages, ten
+times the usual amount earned by laborers in this vicinity, that we
+added offers of the precious coca leaves, the greatly-to-be-desired
+"fire-water," the rarely seen tobacco, and other good things usually
+coveted by Peruvian highlanders, had no effect in the face of the
+terrors of the mountain. They knew only too well that snow-blindness
+was one of the least of ills to be encountered; while the advantages
+of dark-colored glasses, warm clothes, kerosene stoves, and plenty
+of good food, which we freely offered, were far too remote from the
+realm of credible possibilities. Professor Coello understood all these
+matters perfectly and, being able to speak Quichua, the language of
+our prospective carriers, did his best in the way of argument, not
+only out of loyalty to the Expedition, but because Peruvian gentlemen
+always regard the carrying of a load as extremely undignified and
+improper. I have known one of the most energetic and efficient business
+men in Peru, a highly respected gentleman in a mountain city, so to
+dislike being obliged to carry a rolled and unmounted photograph,
+little larger than a lead pencil, that he sent for a cargador, an
+Indian porter, to bear it for him!
+
+As a matter of fact, Professor Coello was perfectly willing to do
+his share and more; but neither he nor we were anxious to climb with
+heavy packs on our backs, in the rarefied air of elevations several
+thousand feet higher than Mont Blanc. The argument with the Indians
+was long and verbose and the offerings of money and goods were made
+more and more generous. All was in vain. We finally came to realize
+that whatever supplies and provisions were carried up Coropuna would
+have to be borne on our own shoulders. That evening the top of the
+truncated dome, which was just visible from the valley near our camp,
+was bathed in a roseate Alpine glow, unspeakably beautiful. The air,
+however, was very bitter and the neighboring brook froze solid. During
+the night the gendarme's mule became homesick and disappeared with
+Coello's horse. Gamarra was sent to look for the strays, with orders
+to follow us as soon as possible.
+
+As no bearers or carriers were to be secured, it was essential to
+persuade the Tejadas to take their pack mules up as far as the snow,
+a feat they declined to do. The mules, Don Pablo said, had already gone
+as far as and farther than mules had any business to go. Soon after
+reaching camp Tucker had gone off on a reconnaissance. He reported that
+there was a path leading out of the canyon up to the llama pastures on
+the lower slopes of the mountains. The arrieros denied the accuracy
+of his observations. However, after a long argument, they agreed
+to go as far as there was a good path, and no farther. There was no
+question of our riding. It was simply a case of getting the loads as
+high up as possible before we had to begin to carry them ourselves. It
+may be imagined that the arrieros packed very slowly and grudgingly,
+although the loads were now considerably reduced. Finally, leaving
+behind our saddles, ordinary supplies, and everything not considered
+absolutely necessary for a two weeks' stay on the mountain, we set off.
+
+We could easily walk faster than the loaded mules, and thought it
+best to avoid trouble by keeping far enough ahead so as not to hear
+the arrieros' constant complaints. After an hour of not very hard
+climbing over a fairly good llama trail, the Tejadas stopped at the
+edge of the pastures and shouted to us to come back. We replied
+equally vociferously, calling them to come ahead, which they did
+for half an hour more, slowly zigzagging up a slope of coarse,
+black volcanic sand. Then they not only stopped but commenced to
+unload the mules. It was necessary to rush back and commence a
+violent and acrimonious dispute as to whether the letter of the
+contract had been fulfilled and the mules had gone "as far as they
+could reasonably be expected to go." The truth was, the Tejadas
+were terrified at approaching mysterious Coropuna. They were sure
+it would take revenge on them by destroying their mules, who would
+"certainly die the following day of soroche." We offered a bonus of
+thirty soles--fifteen dollars--if they would go on for another hour,
+and threatened them with all sorts of things if they would not. At
+last they readjusted the loads and started climbing again.
+
+The altitude was now about 16,000 feet, but at the foot of a steep
+little rise the arrieros stopped again. This time they succeeded in
+unloading two mules before we could scramble down over the sand and
+boulders to stop them. Threats and prayers were now of no avail. The
+only thing that would satisfy was a legal document! They demanded
+an agreement "in writing" that in case any mule or mules died as
+a result of this foolish attempt to get up to the snow line, I
+should pay in gold two hundred soles for each and every mule that
+died. Further, I must agree to pay a bonus of fifty soles if they
+would keep climbing until noon or until stopped by snow. This document,
+having been duly drawn up by Professor Coello, seated on a lava rock
+amidst the clinker-like cinders of the old volcano, was duly signed
+and sealed. In order that there might be no dispute as to the time,
+my best chronometer was handed over to Pablo Tejada to carry until
+noon. The mules were reloaded and again the ascent began. Presently the
+mules encountered some pretty bad going, on a steep slope covered with
+huge lava boulders and scoriaceous sand. We expected more trouble every
+minute. However, the arrieros, having made an advantageous bargain,
+did their best to carry it out. Fortunately the mules reached the
+snow line just fifteen minutes before twelve o'clock. The Tejadas
+lost no time in unloading, claimed their bonus, promised to return
+in ten days, and almost before we knew it had disappeared down the
+side of the mountain.
+
+We spent the afternoon establishing our Base Camp. We had three tents,
+the "Mummery," a very light and diminutive wall tent about four feet
+high, made by Edgington of London; an ordinary wall tent, 7 by 7, of
+fairly heavy material, with floor sewed in; and an improved pyramidal
+tent, made by David Abercrombie, but designed by Mr. Tucker after
+one used on Mt. McKinley by Professor Parker. Tucker's tent had two
+openings--a small vent in the top of the pyramid, capable of being
+closed by an adjustable cap in case of storm, and an oval entrance
+through which one had to crawl. This opening could be closed to any
+desired extent with a pucker string. A fairly heavy, waterproof floor,
+measuring 7 by 7, was sewed to the base of the pyramid so that a single
+pole, without guy ropes, was all that was necessary to keep the tent
+upright after the floor had been securely pegged to the ground, or
+snow. Tucker's tent offered the advantages of being carried without
+difficulty, easily erected by one man, readily ventilated and yet
+giving shelter to four men in any weather. We proposed to leave the
+wall tent at the Base, but to take the pyramidal tent with us on the
+climb. We determined to carry the "Mummery" to the top of the mountain
+to use while taking observations.
+
+The elevation of the Base Camp was 17,300 feet. We were surprised
+and pleased to find that at first we had good appetites and no
+soroche. Less than a hundred yards from the wall tent was a small
+diurnal stream, fed by melting snow. Whenever I went to get water for
+cooking or washing purposes I noticed a startling and rapid rise in
+pulse and increasing shortness of breath. My normal pulse is 70. After
+I walked slowly a hundred feet on a level at this altitude it rose to
+120. After I had been seated awhile it dropped down to 100. Gradually
+our sense of well-being departed and was followed by a feeling of
+malaise and general disability. There was a splendid sunset, but we
+were too sick and cold to enjoy it. That night all slept badly and had
+some headache. A high wind swept around the mountain and threatened
+to carry away both of our tents. As we lay awake, wondering at what
+moment we should find ourselves deserted by the frail canvas shelters,
+we could not help thinking that Coropuna was giving us a fair warning
+of what might happen higher up.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Base Camp, Coropuna, at 17,300 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Camping at 18,450 Feet on the Slopes of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+For breakfast we had pemmican, hard-tack, pea soup and tea. We
+all wanted plenty of sugar in our tea and drank large quantities
+of it. Experience on Mt. McKinley had led Tucker to believe
+heartily in the advantages of pemmican, a food especially prepared
+for Arctic explorers. Neither Coello nor Gamarra nor I had ever
+tasted it before. We decided that it is not very palatable on first
+acquaintance. Although doubtless of great value when one has to spend
+long periods of time in the Arctic, where even seal's blubber is a
+delicacy "as good as cow's cream," I presume we could have done just
+as well without it.
+
+It was decided to carry with us from the Base enough fuel and
+supplies to last through any possible misadventure, even of a week's
+duration. Accounts of climbs in the high Andes are full of failures
+due to the necessity of the explorers' being obliged to return to
+food, warmth, and shelter before having effected the conquest of
+a new peak. One remembers the frequent disappointments that came
+to such intrepid climbers as Whymper in Ecuador, Martin Conway in
+Bolivia and Fitzgerald in Chile and Argentina, due to high winds,
+the sudden advent of terrific snowstorms and the weakness caused by
+soroche. At the cost of carrying extra-heavy loads we determined to
+try to avoid being obliged to turn back. We could only hope that no
+unforeseen event would finally defeat our efforts.
+
+Tucker decided to establish a cache of food and fuel as far up the
+mountain side as he and Coello could carry fifty pounds in a single
+day's climb. Leaving me to reset the demoralized tents and do other
+chores, they started off, packing loads of about twenty-five pounds
+each. To me their progress up the mountain side seemed extraordinarily
+slow. Were they never going to get anywhere? Their frequent stops
+seemed ludicrous. I was to learn later that it is as difficult at a
+high elevation for one who is not climbing to have any sympathy for
+those suffering from soroche as it is for a sailor to appreciate the
+sensations of one who is seasick.
+
+During the morning I set up the barometers and took a series of
+observations. It was pleasant to note that the two new mountain
+aneroids registered exactly alike. All the different units of the
+cargo that was to be taken up the mountain then had to be weighed,
+so that they might be equitably distributed in our loads the following
+day. We had two small kerosene stoves with Primus burners. Our grub,
+ordered months before, specially for this climb, consisted of pemmican
+in 8 1/4-pound tins, Kola chocolate in half-pound tins, seeded raisins
+in 1-pound tins, cube sugar in 4-pound tins, hard-tack in 6 1/2-pound
+tins, jam, sticks of dried pea soup, Plasmon biscuit, tea, and a few
+of Silver's self-heating "messtins" containing Irish stew, beef a la
+mode, et al. Corporal Gamarra appeared during the day, having found
+his mule, which had strayed twelve miles down the canyon. He did not
+relish the prospect of climbing Coropuna, but when he saw the warm
+clothes which we had provided for him and learned that he would get
+a bonus of five gold sovereigns on top of the mountain, he decided
+to accept his duties philosophically.
+
+Tucker and Coello returned in the middle of the afternoon, reported
+that there seemed to be no serious difficulties in the first part
+of the climb and that a cache had been established about 2000 feet
+above the Base Camp, on a snow field. Tucker now assigned our packs
+for the morrow and skillfully prepared the tump-lines and harness
+with which we were to carry them.
+
+Notwithstanding an unusual headache which lasted all day long, I
+still had some appetite. Our supper consisted of pemmican pudding
+with raisins, hard-tack and pea soup, which every one was able to
+eat, if not to enjoy. That night we slept better, one reason being
+that the wind did not blow as hard as it had the night before. The
+weather continued fine. Watkins was due to arrive from Arequipa in
+a day or two, but we decided not to wait for him or run any further
+risk of encountering an early summer snowstorm. The next morning,
+after adjusting our fifty-pound loads to our unaccustomed backs,
+we left camp about nine o'clock. We wore Appalachian Mountain
+Club snow-creepers, or crampons, heavy Scotch mittens, knit woolen
+helmets, dark blue snow-glasses, and very heavy clothing. It will be
+remembered by visitors to the Zermatt Museum that the Swiss guides
+who once climbed Huascaran, in the northern Peruvian Andes, had been
+maimed for life by their experiences in the deep snows of those great
+altitudes. We determined to take no chances, and in order to prevent
+the possibility of frost-bite each man was ordered to put on four pairs
+of heavy woolen socks and two or three pairs of heavy underdrawers.
+
+Professor Coello and Corporal Gamarra wore large, heavy boots. I
+had woolen puttees and "Arctic" overshoes. Tucker improvised what
+he regarded as highly satisfactory sandals out of felt slippers and
+pieces of a rubber poncho. Since there seemed to be no rock-climbing
+ahead of us, we decided to depend on crampons rather than on the
+heavy hob-nailed climbing boots with which Alpinists are familiar.
+
+The snow was very hard until about one o'clock. By three o'clock it
+was so soft as to make further progress impossible. We found that,
+loaded as we were, we could not climb a gentle rise faster than twenty
+steps at a time. On the more level snow fields we took twenty-five
+or thirty steps before stopping to rest. At the end of each stint
+it seemed as though they would be the last steps we should ever
+take. Panting violently, fatigued beyond belief, and overcome with
+mountain-sickness, we would stop and lean on our ice axes until able
+to take twenty-five steps more.
+
+It did not take very long to recover one's wind. Finally we reached a
+glacier marked by a network of crevasses, none very wide, and nearly
+all covered with snow-bridges. We were roped together, and although
+there was an occasional fall no great strain was put on the rope. Then
+came great snow fields with not a single crevasse. For the most part
+our day was simply an unending succession of stints--twenty-five steps
+and a rest, repeated four or five times and followed by thirty-five
+steps and a longer rest, taken lying down in the snow. We pegged along
+until about half-past two, when the rapidly melting snow stopped all
+progress. At an altitude of about 18,450 feet, the Tucker tent was
+pitched on a fairly level snow field. We now noticed with dismay that
+the two big aneroids had begun to differ. As the sun declined the
+temperature fell rapidly. At half-past five the thermometer stood
+at 22 deg. F. During the night the minimum thermometer registered 9 deg.
+F. We noticed a considerable number of lightning flashes in the
+northeast. They were not accompanied by any thunder, but alarmed us
+considerably. We feared the expected November storms might be ahead of
+time. We closed the tent door on account of a biting wind. Owing to
+the ventilating device at the top of the tent, we managed to breathe
+fairly well. Mountain climbers at high altitudes have occasionally
+observed that one of the symptoms of acute soroche is a very annoying,
+racking cough, as violent as whooping cough and frequently accompanied
+by nausoa. We had not experienced this at 17,000 feet, but now it
+began to be painfully noticeable, and continued during the ensuing
+days and nights, particularly nights, until we got back to the Indians'
+huts again. We slept very poorly and continually awakened one another
+by coughing.
+
+The next morning we had very little appetite, no ambition, and a
+miserable sense of malaise and great fatigue. There was nothing for
+it but to shoulder our packs, arrange our tump-lines, and proceed with
+the same steady drudgery--now a little harder than the day before. We
+broke camp at half-past seven and by noon had reached an altitude
+of about 20,000 feet, on a snow field within a mile of the saddle
+between the great truncated peak and the rest of the range. It looked
+possible to reach the summit in one more day's climb from here. The
+aneroids now differed by over five hundred feet. Leaving me to pitch
+the tent, the others went back to the cache to bring up some of the
+supplies. Due to the fact that we were carrying loads twice as heavy
+as those which Tucker and Coello had first brought up, we had not
+passed their cache until to-day. By the time my companions appeared
+again I was so completely rested that I marveled at the snail-like
+pace they made over the nearly level snow field. It seemed incredible
+that they should find it necessary to rest four times after they were
+within one hundred yards of the camp.
+
+We were none of us hungry that evening. We craved sweet tea. Before
+turning in for the night we took the trouble to melt snow and make
+a potful of tea which could be warmed up the first thing in the
+morning. We passed another very bad night. The thermometer registered
+7 deg. F., but we did not suffer from the cold. In fact, when you stow away
+four men on the floor of a 7 by 7 tent they are obliged to sleep so
+close together as to keep warm. Furthermore, each man had an eiderdown
+sleeping-bag, blankets, and plenty of heavy clothes and sweaters. We
+did, however, suffer from soroche. Violent whooping cough assailed
+us at frequent intervals. None of us slept much. I amused myself by
+counting my pulse occasionally, only to find that it persistently
+refused to go below 120, and if I moved would jump up to 135. I don't
+know where it went on the actual climb. So far as I could determine,
+it did not go below 120 for four days and nights.
+
+On the morning of October 15th we got up at three o'clock. Hot sweet
+tea was the one thing we all craved. The tea-pot was found to be
+frozen solid, although it had been hung up in the tent. It took an
+hour to thaw and the tea was just warm enough for practical purposes
+when I made an awkward move in the crowded tent and kicked over the
+tea-pot! Never did men keep their tempers better under more aggravating
+circumstances. Not a word of reproach or indignation greeted my
+clumsy accident, although poor Corporal Gamarra, who was lying on the
+down side of the tent, had to beat a hasty retreat into the colder
+(but somewhat drier) weather outside. My clumsiness necessitated
+a delay of nearly an hour in starting. While we were melting more
+frozen snow and re-making the tea, we warmed up some pea soup and
+Irish stew. Tucker and I managed to eat a little. Coello and Gamarra
+had no stomachs for anything but tea. We decided to leave the Tucker
+tent at the 20,000 foot level, together with most of our outfit and
+provisions. From here to the top we were to carry only such things
+as were absolutely necessary. They included the Mummery tent with
+pegs and poles, the mountain-mercurial barometer, the two Watkins
+aneroids, the hypsometer, a pair of Zeiss glasses, two 3A kodaks,
+six films, a sling psychrometer, a prismatic compass and clinometer,
+a Stanley pocket level, an eighty-foot red-strand mountain rope,
+three ice axes, a seven-foot flagpole, an American flag and a Yale
+flag. In order to avoid disaster in case of storm, we also carried
+four of Silver's self-heating cans of Irish stew and mock-turtle soup,
+a cake of chocolate, and eight hard-tack, besides raisins and cubes
+of sugar in our pockets. Our loads weighed about twenty pounds each.
+
+To our great satisfaction and relief, the weather continued fine
+and there was very little wind. On the preceding afternoon the snow
+had been so soft one frequently went in over one's knees, but now
+everything was frozen hard. We left camp at five o'clock. It was
+still dark. The great dome of Coropuna loomed up on our left, cut
+off from direct attack by gigantic ice falls. To reach it we must
+first surmount the saddle on the main ridge. From there an apparently
+unbroken slope extended to the top. Our progress was distressingly
+slow, even with the light loads. When we reached the saddle there came
+a painful surprise. To the north of us loomed a great snowy cone, the
+peak which we had at first noticed from the Chuquibamba Calvario. Now
+it actually looked higher than the dome we were about to climb! From
+the Sihuas Desert, eighty miles away, the dome had certainly seemed
+to be the highest point. So we stuck to our task, although constantly
+facing the possibility that our painful labors might be in vain and
+that eventually, this north peak would prove to be higher. We began to
+doubt whether we should have strength enough for both. Loss of sleep,
+soroche, and lack of appetite were rapidly undermining our endurance.
+
+The last slope had an inclination of thirty degrees. We should have
+had to cut steps with our ice axes all the way up had it not been for
+our snow-creepers, which worked splendidly. As it was, not more than
+a dozen or fifteen steps actually had to be cut even in the steepest
+part. Tucker was first on the rope, I was second, Coello third, and
+Gamarra brought up the rear. We were not a very gay party. The high
+altitude was sapping all our ambition. I found that an occasional lump
+of sugar acted as the best rapid restorative to sagging spirits. It was
+astonishing how quickly the carbon in the sugar was absorbed by the
+system and came to the relief of smoldering bodily fires. A single
+cube gave new strength and vigor for several minutes. Of course,
+one could not eat sugar without limit, but it did help to tide over
+difficult places.
+
+We zigzagged slowly up, hour after hour, alternately resting and
+climbing, until we were about to reach what seemed to be the top,
+obviously, alas, not as high as our enemy to the north. Just then
+Tucker gave a great shout. The rest of us were too much out of breath
+to ask him why he was wasting his strength shouting. When at last we
+painfully came to the edge of what looked like the summit we saw the
+cause of his joy. There, immediately ahead of us, lay another slope
+three hundred feet higher than where we were standing. It may seem
+strange that in our weakened condition we should have been glad to
+find that we had three hundred feet more to climb. Remember, however,
+that all the morning we had been gazing with dread at that aggravating
+north peak. Whenever we had had a moment to give to the consideration
+of anything but the immediate difficulties of our climb our hearts
+had sunk within us at the thought that possibly, after all, we might
+find the north peak higher. The fact that there lay before us another
+three hundred feet, which would undoubtedly take us above the highest
+point of that aggravating north peak, was so very much the less of
+two possible evils that we understood Tucker's shout. Yet none of us
+was lusty enough to echo it.
+
+With faint smiles and renewed courage we pegged along, resting on
+our ice axes, as usual, every twenty-five steps until at last, at
+half-past eleven, after six hours and a half of climbing from the
+20,000-foot camp, we reached the culminating point of Coropuna. As
+we approached it, Tucker, although naturally much elated at having
+successfully engineered the first ascent of this great mountain,
+stopped and with extraordinary courtesy and self-abnegation smilingly
+motioned me to go ahead in order that the director of the Expedition
+might be actually the first person to reach the culminating point. In
+order to appreciate how great a sacrifice he was willing to make,
+it should be stated that his willingness to come on the Expedition
+was due chiefly to a fondness for mountain climbing and his desire
+to add Coropuna to his sheaf of victories. Greatly as I appreciated
+his kindness in making way for me, I could only acquiesce in so far
+as to continue the climb by his side. We reached the top together,
+and sank down to rest and look about.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Camp on the Summit of Coropuna Elevation, 21,703 Feet
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of the Frequent Rests in the Ascent of Coropuna
+------
+
+
+
+The truncated summit is an oval-shaped snow field, almost flat,
+having an area of nearly half an acre, about 100 feet north and
+south and 175 feet east and west. If it once were, as we suppose, a
+volcanic crater, the pit had long since been filled up with snow and
+ice. There were no rocks to be seen on the rim--only the hard crust of
+the glistening white surface. The view from the top was desolate in
+the extreme. We were in the midst of a great volcanic desert dotted
+with isolated peaks covered with snow and occasional glaciers. Not
+an atom of green was to be seen anywhere. Apparently we stood on
+top of a dead world. Mountain climbers in the Andes have frequently
+spoken of seeing condors at great altitudes. We saw none. Northwest,
+twenty miles away across the Pampa Colorada, a reddish desert, rose
+snow-capped Solimana. In the other direction we looked along the
+range of Coropuna itself; several of the lesser peaks being only a
+few hundred feet below our elevation. Far to the southwest we imagined
+we could see the faint blue of the Pacific Ocean, but it was very dim.
+
+My father was an ardent mountain climber, glorying not only in the
+difficulties of the ascent, but particularly in the satisfaction coming
+from the magnificent view to be obtained at the top. His zeal had
+led him once, in winter, to ascend the highest peak in the Pacific,
+Mauna Kea on Hawaii. He taught me as a boy to be fond of climbing
+the mountains of Oahu and Maui and to be appreciative of the views
+which could be obtained by such expenditure of effort. Yet now I
+could not take the least interest or pleasure in the view from the
+top of Coropuna, nor could my companions. No sense of satisfaction
+in having attained a difficult objective cheered us up. We all felt
+greatly depressed and said little, although Gamarra asked for his
+bonus and regarded the gold coins with grim complacency.
+
+After we had rested awhile we began to take observations. Unslinging
+the aneroid which I had been carrying, I found to my surprise and
+dismay that the needle showed a height of only 21,525 feet above
+sea level. Tucker's aneroid read more than a thousand feet higher,
+22,550 feet, but even this fell short of Raimondi's estimate of
+22,775 feet, and considerably below Bandelier's "23,000 feet." This
+was a keen disappointment, for we had hoped that the aneroids would
+at least show a margin over the altitude of Mt. Aconcagua, 22,763
+feet. This discovery served to dampen our spirits still further. We
+took what comfort we could from the fact that the aneroids, which
+had checked each other perfectly up to 17,000 feet, were now so
+obviously untrustworthy. We could only hope that both might prove
+to be inaccurate, as actually happened, and that both might now
+be reading too low. Anyhow, the north peak did look lower than we
+were. To satisfy any doubts on this subject, Tucker took the wooden
+box in which we had brought the hypsometer, laid it on the snow,
+leveled it up carefully with the Stanley pocket level, and took a
+squint over it toward the north peak. He smiled and said nothing. So
+each of us in turn lay down in the snow and took a squint. It was
+all right. We were at least 250 feet higher than that aggravating peak.
+
+We were also 450 feet higher than the east peak of Coropuna, and
+a thousand feet higher than any other mountain in sight. At any
+rate, we should not have to call upon our fast-ebbing strength for
+any more hard climbs in the immediate future. After arriving at
+this satisfactory conclusion we pitched the little Mummery tent,
+set up the tripod for the mercurial barometer, arranged the boiling
+point thermometer with its apparatus, and with the aid of kodaks and
+notebooks proceeded to take as many observations as possible in the
+next four hours. At two o'clock we read the mercurial, knowing that
+at the same hour readings were being made by Watkins at the Base Camp
+and by the Harvard astronomers in the Observatory at Arequipa. The
+barometer was suspended from a tripod set up in the shade of the
+tent. The mercury, which at sea level often stands at 31 inches, now
+stood at 13.838 inches. The temperature of the thermometer on the
+barometer was exactly +32 deg. F. At the same time, inside the tent we
+got the water to boiling and took a reading with the hypsometer. Water
+boils at sea level at a temperature of 212 deg. F. Here it boiled at 174 deg.
+F. After taking the reading we greedily drank the water which had been
+heated for the hypsometer. We were thirsty enough to have drunk five
+times as much. We were not hungry, and made no use of our provisions
+except a few raisins, some sugar, and chocolate.
+
+After completing our observations, we fastened the little tent
+as securely as possible, banking the snow around it, and left it
+on top, first having placed in it one of the Appalachian Mountain
+Club's brass record cylinders, in which we had sealed the Yale flag,
+a contemporary map of Peru, and two brief statements regarding the
+ascent. The American flag was left flying from a nine-foot pole,
+which we planted at the northwest rim of the dome, where it could
+be seen from the road to Cotahuasi. Here Mr. Casimir Watkins saw
+it a week later and Dr. Isaiah Bowman two weeks later. When Chief
+Topographer Hendriksen arrived three weeks later to make his survey,
+it had disappeared. Probably a severe storm had blown it over and
+buried it in the snow.
+
+We left the summit at three o'clock and arrived at the 20,000 foot camp
+two hours and fifteen minutes later. The first part of the way down
+to the saddle we attempted a glissade. Then the slope grew steeper and
+we got up too much speed for comfort, so we finally had to be content
+with a slower method of locomotion. That night there was very little
+wind. Mountain climbers have more to fear from excessively high winds
+than almost any other cause. We were very lucky. Nothing occurred
+to interfere with the best progress we were physically capable of
+making. It turned out that we did not need to have brought so many
+supplies with us. In fact, it is an open question whether our acute
+mountain-sickness would have permitted us to outlast a long storm,
+or left us enough appetite to use the provisions. Although one does
+get accustomed to high altitudes, we felt very doubtful. No one in
+the Western Hemisphere had ever made night camps at 20,000 feet or
+pitched a tent as high as the summit of Coropuna. The severity of
+mountain-sickness differs greatly in different localities, apparently
+not depending entirely on the altitude. I do not know how long we could
+have stood it. It is difficult to believe that with strength enough
+to achieve the climb we should have felt as weak and ill as we did.
+
+That night, although we were very weary, none of us slept much. The
+violent whooping cough continued and all of us were nauseated again
+in the morning. We felt so badly and were able to take so little
+nourishment that it was determined to get to a lower altitude as
+fast as possible. To lighten our loads we left behind some of our
+supplies. We broke camp at 9:20. Eighteen minutes later, without
+having to rest, the cache was reached and the few remnants were picked
+up. Although many things had been abandoned, our loads seemed heavier
+than ever. We had some difficulty in negotiating the crevasses, but
+Gamarra was the only one actually to fall in, and he was easily pulled
+out again. About noon we heard a faint halloo, and finally made out two
+animated specks far down the mountain side. The effect of again seeing
+somebody from the outside world was rather curious. I had a choking
+sensation. Tucker, who led the way, told me long afterward that he
+could not keep the tears from running down his cheeks, although we
+did not see it at the time. The "specks" turned out to be Watkins
+and an Indian boy, who came up as high as was safe without ropes or
+crampons, and relieved us of some weight. The Base Camp was reached
+at half-past twelve. One of the first things Tucker did on returning
+was to weigh all the packs. To my surprise and disgust I learned that
+on the way down Tucker, afraid that some of us would collapse, had
+carried sixty-one pounds, and Gamarra sixty-four, while he had given
+me only thirty-one pounds, and the same to Coello. This, of course,
+does not include the weight of our ice-creepers, axes, or rope.
+
+The next day all of us felt very tired and drowsy. In fact, I was
+almost overcome with inertia. It was a fearful task even to lift one's
+hand. The sun had burned our faces terribly. Our lips were painfully
+swollen. We coughed and whooped. It seemed best to make every effort
+to get back to a still lower altitude for the mules. So we broke camp,
+got the loads ready without waiting, put our sleeping-bags and blankets
+on our backs, and went rapidly down to the Indians' huts. Immediately
+our malaise left us. We felt physically stronger. We took deep breaths
+as though we had gotten back to sea level. There was no sensation
+of oppression on the chest. Yet we were still actually higher than
+the top of Pike's Peak. We could move rapidly about without getting
+out of breath; the aggravating "whooping cough" left us; and our
+appetites returned. To be sure, we still suffered from the effects
+of snow and sun. On the ascent I had been very thirsty and foolishly
+had allowed myself to eat a considerable amount of snow. As a result
+my tongue was now so extremely sensitive that pieces of soda biscuit
+tasted like broken glass. Corporal Gamarra, who had been unwilling
+to keep his snow-glasses always in place and thought to relieve his
+eyes by frequently dispensing with them, now suffered from partial
+snow-blindness. The rest of us were spared any inflammation of the
+eyes. There followed two days of resting and waiting. Then the smiling
+arrieros, surprised and delighted at seeing us alive again after our
+adventure with Coropuna, arrived with our mules. The Tejadas gave us
+hearty embraces and promptly went off up to the snow line to get the
+loads. The next day we returned to Chuquibamba.
+
+In November Chief Topographer Hendriksen completed his survey and
+found the latitude of Coropuna to be 15 deg. 31' South, and the longitude
+to be 72 deg. 42' 40'' West of Greenwich. He computed its altitude to be
+21,703 feet above sea level. The result of comparing the readings of
+our mercurial barometer, taken at the summit, with the simultaneous
+readings taken at Arequipa gave practically the same figures. There
+was less than sixty feet difference between the two. Although Coropuna
+proves to be thirteen hundred feet lower than Bandelier's estimate,
+and a thousand feet lower than the highest mountain in South America,
+still it is a thousand feet higher than the highest mountain in
+North America. While we were glad we were the first to reach the top,
+we all agreed we would never do it again!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+To Parinacochas
+
+After a few days in the delightful climate of Chuquibamba we set
+out for Parinacochas, the "Flamingo Lake" of the Incas. The late Sir
+Clements Markham, literary and historical successor of the author of
+"The Conquest of Peru," had called attention to this unexplored lake
+in one of the publications of the Royal Geographical Society, and had
+named a bathymetric survey of Parinacochas as one of the principal
+desiderata for future exploration in Peru. So far as one could judge
+from the published maps Parinacochas, although much smaller than
+Titicaca, was the largest body of water entirely in Peru. A thorough
+search of geographical literature failed to reveal anything regarding
+its depth. The only thing that seemed to be known about it was that it
+had no outlet. General William Miller, once British consul general in
+Honolulu, who had as a young man assisted General San Martin in the
+Wars for the Independence of Chile and Peru, published his memoirs
+in London in 1828. During the campaigns against the Spanish forces
+in Peru he had had occasion to see many out-of-the-way places in the
+interior. On one of his rough sketch maps he indicates the location of
+Lake Parinacochas and notes the fact that the water is "brackish." This
+statement of General Miller's and the suggestion of Sir Clements
+Markham that a bathymetric survey of the lake would be an important
+contribution to geographical knowledge was all that we were able to
+learn. Our arrieros, the Tejadas, had never been to Parinacochas,
+but knew in a general way its location and were not afraid to try to
+get there. Some of their friends had been there and come back alive!
+
+First, however, it was necessary for us to go to Cotahuasi, the
+capital of the Province of Antabamba, and meet Dr. Bowman and
+Mr. Hendriksen, who had slowly been working their way across the
+Andes from the Urubamba Valley, and who would need a new supply of
+food-boxes if they were to complete the geographical reconnaissance
+of the 73d meridian. Our route led us out of the Chuquibamba Valley
+by a long, hard climb up the steep cliffs at its head and then over
+the gently sloping, semi-arid desert in a northerly direction, around
+the west flanks of Coropuna. When we stopped to make camp that night
+on the Pampa of Chumpillo, our arrieros used dried moss and dung for
+fuel for the camp fire. There was some bunch-grass, and there were
+llamas pasturing on the plains. Near our tent were some Inca ruins,
+probably the dwelling of a shepherd chief, or possibly the remains
+of a temple described by Cieza de Leon (1519-1560), whose remarkable
+accounts of what he saw and learned in Peru during the time of the
+Pizarros are very highly regarded. He says that among the five most
+important temples in the Land of the Incas was one "much venerated and
+frequented by them, named Coropuna." "It is on a very lofty mountain
+which is covered with snow both in summer and winter. The kings
+of Peru visited this temple making presents and offerings .... It
+is held for certain [by treasure hunters!] that among the gifts
+offered to this temple there were many loads of silver, gold, and
+precious stones buried in places which are now unknown. The Indians
+concealed another great sum which was for the service of the idol,
+and of the priests and virgins who attended upon it. But as there
+are great masses of snow, people do not ascend to the summit, nor is
+it known where these are hidden. This temple possessed many flocks,
+farms, and service of Indians." No one lives here now, but there are
+many flocks and llamas, and not far away we saw ancient storehouses
+and burial places. That night we suffered from intense cold and were
+kept awake by the bitter wind which swept down from the snow fields
+of Coropuna and shook the walls of our tent violently.
+
+The next day we crossed two small oases, little gulches watered from
+the melting snow of Coropuna. Here there was an abundance of peat
+and some small gnarled trees from which Chuquibamba derives part of
+its fuel supply. We climbed slowly around the lower spurs of Coropuna
+into a bleak desert wilderness of lava blocks and scoriaceous sand,
+the Red Desert, or Pampa Colorada. It is for the most part between
+15,000 and 16,000 feet above sea level, and is bounded on the northwest
+by the canyon of the Rio Arma, 2000 feet deep, where we made our camp
+and passed a more agreeable night. The following morning we climbed
+out again on the farther side of the canyon and skirted the eastern
+slopes of Mt. Solimana. Soon the trail turned abruptly to the left,
+away from our old friend Coropuna.
+
+We wondered how long ago our mountain was an active volcano. To-day,
+less than two hundred miles south of here are live peaks, like El
+Misti and Ubinas, which still smolder occasionally and have been
+known in the memory of man to give forth great showers of cinders
+covering a wide area. Possibly not so very long ago the great
+truncated peak of Coropuna was formed by a last flickering of the
+ancient fires. Dr. Bowman says that the greater part of the vast
+accumulation of lavas and volcanic cinders in this vicinity goes
+far back to a period preceding the last glacial epoch. The enormous
+amount of erosion that has taken place in the adjacent canyons and
+the great numbers of strata, composed of lava flows, laid bare by
+the mighty streams of the glacial period all point to this conclusion.
+
+My saddle mule was one of those cantankerous beasts that are gentle
+enough as long as they are allowed to have their own way. In her
+case this meant that she was happy only when going along close to
+her friends in the caravan. If reined in, while I took some notes,
+she became very restive, finally whirling around, plunging and
+kicking. Contrariwise, no amount of spurring or lashing with a stout
+quirt availed to make her go ahead of her comrades. This morning I
+was particularly anxious to get a picture of our pack train jogging
+steadily along over the desert, directly away from Coropuna. Since
+my mule would not gallop ahead, I had to dismount, run a couple of
+hundred yards ahead of the rapidly advancing animals and take the
+picture before they reached me. We were now at an elevation of 16,000
+feet above sea level. Yet to my surprise and delight I found that it
+was relatively as easy to run here as anywhere, so accustomed had my
+lungs and heart become to very rarefied air. Had I attempted such
+a strenuous feat at a similar altitude before climbing Coropuna it
+would have been physically impossible. Any one who has tried to run
+two hundred yards at three miles above sea level will understand.
+
+We were still in a very arid region; mostly coarse black sand and
+pebbles, with typical desert shrubs and occasional bunches of tough
+grass. The slopes of Mt. Solimana on our left were fairly well covered
+with sparse vegetation. Among the bushes we saw a number of vicunas,
+the smallest wild camels of the New World. We tried in vain to get
+near enough for a photograph. They were extremely timid and scampered
+away before we were within three hundred yards.
+
+Seven or eight miles more of very gradual downward slope brought
+us suddenly and unexpectedly to the brink of a magnificent canyon,
+the densely populated valley of Cotahuasi. The walls of the canyon
+were covered with innumerable terraces--thousands of them. It seemed
+at first glance as though every available spot in the canyon had been
+either terraced or allotted to some compact little village. One could
+count more than a score of towns, including Cotahuasi itself, its long
+main street outlined by whitewashed houses. As we zigzagged down into
+the canyon our road led us past hundreds of the artificial terraces
+and through little villages of thatched huts huddled together on spurs
+rescued from the all-embracing agriculture. After spending several
+weeks in a desert region, where only the narrow valley bottoms showed
+any signs of cultivation, it seemed marvelous to observe the extent
+to which terracing had been carried on the side of the Cotahuasi
+Valley. Although we were now in the zone of light annual rains, it
+was evident from the extraordinary irrigation system that agriculture
+here depends very largely on ability to bring water down from the
+great mountains in the interior. Most of the terraces and irrigation
+canals were built centuries ago, long before the discovery of America.
+
+No part of the ancient civilization of Peru has been more admired
+than the development of agriculture. Mr. Cook says that there is no
+part of the world in which more pains have been taken to raise crops
+where nature made it hard for them to be planted. In other countries,
+to be sure, we find reclamation projects, where irrigation canals serve
+to bring water long distances to be used on arid but fruitful soil. We
+also find great fertilizer factories turning out, according to proper
+chemical formula, the needed constituents to furnish impoverished soils
+with the necessary materials for plant growth. We find man overcoming
+many obstacles in the way of transportation, in order to reach great
+regions where nature has provided fertile fields and made it easy to
+raise life-giving crops. Nowhere outside of Peru, either in historic or
+prehistoric times, does one find farmers spending incredible amounts
+of labor in actually creating arable fields, besides bringing the
+water to irrigate them and the guano to fertilize them; yet that
+is what was done by the ancient highlanders of Peru. As they spread
+over a country in which the arable flat land was usually at so great
+an elevation as to be suitable for only the hardiest of root crops,
+like the white potato and the oca, they were driven to use narrow
+valley bottoms and steep, though fertile, slopes in order to raise the
+precious maize and many of the other temperate and tropical plants
+which they domesticated for food and medicinal purposes. They were
+constantly confronted by an extraordinary scarcity of soil. In the
+valley bottoms torrential rivers, meandering from side to side, were
+engaged in an endless endeavor to tear away the arable land and bear
+it off to the sea. The slopes of the valleys were frequently so very
+steep as to discourage the most ardent modern agriculturalist. The
+farmer might wake up any morning to find that a heavy rain during
+the night had washed away a large part of his carefully planted
+fields. Consequently there was developed, through the centuries,
+a series of stone-faced andenes, terraces or platforms.
+
+Examination of the ancient andenes discloses the fact that they were
+not made by simply hoeing in the earth from the hillside back of a
+carefully constructed stone wall. The space back of the walls was
+first filled in with coarse rocks, clay, and rubble; then followed
+smaller rocks, pebbles, and gravel, which would serve to drain the
+subsoil. Finally, on top of all this, and to a depth of eighteen
+inches or so, was laid the finest soil they could procure. The
+result was the best possible field for intensive cultivation. It
+seems absolutely unbelievable that such an immense amount of pains
+should have been taken for such relatively small results. The need
+must have been very great. In many cases the terraces are only a few
+feet wide, although hundreds of yards in length. Usually they follow
+the natural contours of the valley. Sometimes they are two hundred
+yards wide and a quarter of a mile long. To-day corn, barley, and
+alfalfa are grown on the terraces.
+
+Cotahuasi itself lies in the bottom of the valley, a pleasant place
+where one can purchase the most fragrant and highly prized of all
+Peruvian wines. The climate is agreeable, and has attracted many
+landlords, whose estates lie chiefly on the bleak plateaus of the
+surrounding highlands, where shepherds tend flocks of llamas, sheep,
+and alpacas.
+
+We were cordially welcomed by Senor Viscarra, the sub-prefect, and
+invited to stay at his house. He was a stranger to the locality, and,
+as the visible representative of a powerful and far-away central
+government, was none too popular with some of the people of his
+province. Very few residents of a provincial capital like Cotahuasi
+have ever been to Lima;--probably not a single member of the Lima
+government had ever been to Cotahuasi. Consequently one could not
+expect to find much sympathy between the two. The difficulties of
+traveling in Peru are so great as to discourage pleasure trips. With
+our letters of introduction and the telegrams that had preceded us
+from the prefect at Arequipa, we were known to be friends of the
+government and so were doubly welcome to the sub-prefect. By nature a
+kind and generous man, of more than usual education and intelligence,
+Senor Viscarra showed himself most courteous and hospitable to us in
+every particular. In our honor he called together his friends. They
+brought pictures of Theodore Roosevelt and Elihu Root, and made a
+large American flag; a courtesy we deeply appreciated, even if the
+flag did have only thirty-six stars. Finally, they gave us a splendid
+banquet as a tribute of friendship for America.
+
+One day the sub-prefect offered to have his personal barber attend
+us. It was some time since Mr. Tucker and I had seen a barber-shop. The
+chances were that we should find none at Parinacochas. Consequently we
+accepted with pleasure. When the barber arrived, closely guarded by a
+gendarme armed with a loaded rifle, we learned that he was a convict
+from the local jail! I did not like to ask the nature of his crime,
+but he looked like a murderer. When he unwrapped an ancient pair of
+clippers from an unspeakably soiled and oily rag, I wished I was in
+a position to decline to place myself under his ministrations. The
+sub-prefect, however, had been so kind and was so apologetic as to
+the inconveniences of the "barber-shop" that there was nothing for it
+but to go bravely forward. Although it was unpleasant to have one's
+hair trimmed by an uncertain pair of rusty clippers, I could not
+help experiencing a feeling of relief that the convict did not have a
+pair of shears. He was working too near my jugular vein. Finally the
+period of torture came to an end, and the prisoner accepted his fees
+with a profound salutation. We breathed sighs of relief, not unmixed
+with sympathy, as we saw him marched safely away by the gendarme.
+
+We had arrived in Cotahuasi almost simultaneously with Dr. Bowman and
+Topographer Hendriksen. They had encountered extraordinary difficulties
+in carrying out the reconnaissance of the 73d meridian, but were now
+past the worst of it. Their supplies were exhausted, so those which we
+had brought from Arequipa were doubly welcome. Mr. Watkins was assigned
+to assist Mr. Hendriksen and a few days later Dr. Bowman started south
+to study the geology and geography of the desert. He took with him
+as escort Corporal Gamarra, who was only too glad to escape from the
+machinations of his enemies. It will be remembered that it was Gamarra
+who had successfully defended the Cotahuasi barracks and jail at the
+time of a revolutionary riot which occurred some months previous to
+our visit. The sub-prefect accompanied Dr. Bowman out of town. For
+Gamarra's sake they left the house at three o'clock in the morning
+and our generous host agreed to ride with them until daybreak. In his
+important monograph, "The Andes of Southern Peru," Dr. Bowman writes:
+"At four o'clock our whispered arrangements were made. We opened
+the gates noiselessly and our small cavalcade hurried through the
+pitch-black streets of the town. The soldier rode ahead, his rifle
+across his saddle, and directly behind him rode the sub-prefect and
+myself. The pack mules were in the rear. We had almost reached the
+end of the street when a door opened suddenly and a shower of sparks
+flew out ahead of us. Instantly the soldier struck spurs into his
+mule and turned into a side street. The sub-prefect drew his horse
+back savagely, and when the next shower of sparks flew out pushed
+me against the wall and whispered, 'For God's sake, who is it?' Then
+suddenly he shouted. 'Stop blowing! Stop blowing!' "
+
+The cause of all the disturbance was a shabby, hard-working tailor
+who had gotten up at this unearthly hour to start his day's work by
+pressing clothes for some insistent customer. He had in his hand
+an ancient smoothing-iron filled with live coals, on which he had
+been vigorously blowing. Hence the sparks! That a penitent tailor
+and his ancient goose should have been able to cause such terrific
+excitement at that hour in the morning would have interested our own
+Oliver Wendell Holmes, who was fond of referring to this picturesque
+apparatus and who might have written an appropriate essay on The Goose
+that Startled the Soldier of Cotahuasi; with Particular Reference to
+His Being a Possible Namesake of the Geese that Aroused the Soldiers
+of Ancient Rome.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The sub-perfect of Cotahuasi, his military aide, and Messrs. Tucker,
+Hendriksen, Bowman, and Bingham inspecting the local rug-weaving
+industry.
+------
+
+
+The most unusual industry of Cotahuasi is the weaving of rugs and
+carpets on vertical hand looms. The local carpet weavers make the warp
+and woof of woolen yarn in which loops of alpaca wool, black, gray,
+or white, are inserted to form the desired pattern. The loops are cut
+so as to form a deep pile. The result is a delightfully thick, warm,
+gray rug. Ordinarily the native Peruvian rug has no pile. Probably the
+industry was brought from Europe by some Spaniard centuries ago. It
+seems to be restricted to this remote region. The rug makers are a
+small group of Indians who live outside the town but who carry their
+hand looms from house to house, as required. It is the custom for the
+person who desires a rug to buy the wool, supply the pattern, furnish
+the weaver with board, lodging, coca, tobacco and wine, and watch the
+rug grow from day to day under the shelter of his own roof. The rug
+weavers are very clever in copying new patterns. Through the courtesy
+of Senor Viscarra we eventually received several small rugs, woven
+especially for us from monogram designs drawn by Mr. Hendriksen.
+
+Early one morning in November we said good-bye to our friendly host,
+and, directed by a picturesque old guide who said he knew the road to
+Parinacochas, we left Cotahuasi. The highway crossed the neighboring
+stream on a treacherous-looking bridge, the central pier of which
+was built of the crudest kind of masonry piled on top of a gigantic
+boulder in midstream. The main arch of the bridge consisted of two
+long logs across which had been thrown a quantity of brush held down
+by earth and stones. There was no rail on either side, but our mules
+had crossed bridges of this type before and made little trouble. On
+the northern side of the valley we rode through a compact little town
+called Mungi and began to climb out of the canyon, passing hundreds
+of very fine artificial terraces, at present used for crops of maize
+and barley. In one place our road led us by a little waterfall,
+an altogether surprising and unexpected phenomenon in this arid
+region. Investigation, however, proved that it was artificial, as
+well as the fields. Its presence may be due to a temporary connection
+between the upper and lower levels of ancient irrigation canals.
+
+Hour after hour our pack train painfully climbed the narrow, rocky
+zigzag trail. The climate is favorable for agriculture. Wherever the
+sides of the canyon were not absolutely precipitous, stone-faced
+terraces and irrigation had transformed them long ago into arable
+fields. Four thousand feet above the valley floor we came to a very
+fine series of beautiful terraces. On a shelf near the top of the
+canyon we pitched our tent near some rough stone corrals used by
+shepherds whose flocks grazed on the lofty plateau beyond, and near
+a tiny brook, which was partly frozen over the next morning. Our
+camp was at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the sea. Near by were
+turreted rocks, curious results of wind-and-sand erosion.
+
+The next day we entered a region of mountain pastures. We passed
+occasional swamps and little pools of snow water. From one of these
+we turned and looked back across the great Cotahuasi Canyon, to the
+glaciers of Solimana and snow-clad Coropuna, now growing fainter
+and fainter as we went toward Parinacochas. At an altitude of 16,500
+feet we struck across a great barren plateau covered with rocks and
+sand--hardly a living thing in sight. In the midst of it we came to
+a beautiful lake, but it was not Parinacochas. On the plateau it was
+intensely cold. Occasionally I dismounted and jogged along beside my
+mule in order to keep warm. Again I noticed that as the result of my
+experiences on Coropuna I suffered no discomfort, nor any symptoms
+of mountain-sickness, even after trotting steadily for four or five
+hundred yards. In the afternoon we began to descend from the plateau
+toward Lampa and found ourselves in the pasture lands of Ajochiucha,
+where ichu grass and other little foliage plants, watered by rain
+and snow, furnish forage for large flocks of sheep, llamas, and
+alpacas. Their owners live in the cultivated valleys, but the Indian
+herdsmen must face the storms and piercing winds of the high pastures.
+
+Alpacas are usually timid. On this occasion, however, possibly
+because they were thirsty and were seeking water holes in the upper
+courses of a little swale, they stopped and allowed me to observe
+them closely. The fleece of the alpaca is one of the softest in
+the world. However, due to the fact that shrewd tradesmen, finding
+that the fabric manufactured from alpaca wool was highly desired,
+many years ago gave the name to a far cheaper fabric, the "alpaca"
+of commerce, a material used for coat linings, umbrellas, and thin,
+warm-weather coats, is a fabric of cotton and wool, with a hard
+surface, and generally dyed black. It usually contains no real alpaca
+wool at all, and is fairly cheap. The real alpaca wool which comes into
+the market to-day is not so called. Long and silky, straighter than
+the sheep's wool, it is strong, small of fiber, very soft, pliable and
+elastic. It is capable of being woven into fabrics of great beauty and
+comfort. Many of the silky, fluffy, knitted garments that command the
+highest prices for winter wear, and which are called by various names,
+such as "vicuna," "camel's hair," etc., are really made of alpaca.
+
+The alpaca, like its cousin, the llama, was probably domesticated by
+the early Peruvians from the wild guanaco, largest of the camels of the
+New World. The guanaco still exists in a wild state and is always of
+uniform coloration. Llamas and alpacas are extremely variegated. The
+llama has so coarse a hair that it is seldom woven into cloth for
+wearing apparel, although heavy blankets made from it are in use by
+the natives. Bred to be a beast of burden, the llama is accustomed to
+the presence of strangers and is not any more timid of them than our
+horses and cows. The alpaca, however, requiring better and scarcer
+forage--short, tender grass and plenty of water--frequents the most
+remote and lofty of the mountain pastures, is handled only when the
+fleece is removed, seldom sees any one except the peaceful shepherds,
+and is extremely shy of strangers, although not nearly as timid as its
+distant cousin the vicuna. I shall never forget the first time I ever
+saw some alpacas. They looked for all the world like the "woolly-dogs"
+of our toys shops--woolly along the neck right up to the eyes and
+woolly along the legs right down to the invisible wheels! There was
+something inexpressibly comic about these long-legged animals. They
+look like toys on wheels, but actually they can gallop like cows.
+
+The llama, with far less hair on head, neck, and legs, is also amusing,
+but in a different way. His expression is haughty and supercilious
+in the extreme. He usually looks as though his presence near one is
+due to circumstances over which he really had no control. Pride of
+race and excessive haughtiness lead him to carry his head so high
+and his neck so stiffly erect that he can be corralled, with others
+of his kind, by a single rope passed around the necks of the entire
+group. Yet he can be bought for ten dollars.
+
+On the pasture lands of Ajochiucha there were many ewes and lambs,
+both of llamas and alpacas. Even the shepherds were mostly children,
+more timid than their charges. They crouched inconspicuously behind
+rocks and shrubs, endeavoring to escape our notice. About five o'clock
+in the afternoon, on a dry pampa, we found the ruins of one of the
+largest known Inca storehouses, Chichipampa, an interesting reminder
+of the days when benevolent despots ruled the Andes and, like the
+Pharaohs of old, provided against possible famine. The locality is
+not occupied, yet near by are populous valleys.
+
+As soon as we left our camp the next morning, we came abruptly to the
+edge of the Lampa Valley. This was another of the mile-deep canyons
+so characteristic of this region. Our pack mules grunted and groaned
+as they picked their way down the corkscrew trail. It overhangs the
+mud-colored Indian town of Colta, a rather scattered collection of
+a hundred or more huts. Here again, as in the Cotahuasi Valley, are
+hundreds of ancient terraces, extending for thousands of feet up the
+sides of the canyon. Many of them were badly out of repair, but those
+near Colta were still being used for raising crops of corn, potatoes,
+and barley. The uncultivated spots were covered with cacti, thorn
+bushes, and the gnarled, stunted trees of a semi-arid region. In the
+town itself were half a dozen specimens of the Australian eucalyptus,
+that agreeable and extraordinarily successful colonist which one
+encounters not only in the heart of Peru, but in the Andes of Colombia
+and the new forest preserves of California and the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Storehouses at Chinchipampa, near Colta
+------
+
+
+Colta has a few two-storied houses, with tiled roofs. Some of them
+have open verandas on the second floor--a sure indication that the
+climate is at times comfortable. Their walls are built of sun-dried
+adobe, and so are the walls of the little grass-thatched huts of the
+majority. Judging by the rather irregular plan of the streets and
+the great number of terraces in and around town, one may conclude
+that Colta goes far back of the sixteenth century and the days of
+the Spanish Conquest, as indeed do most Peruvian towns. The cities
+of Lima and Arequipa are noteworthy exceptions. Leaving Colta,
+we wound around the base of the projecting ridge, on the sides of
+which were many evidences of ancient culture, and came into the
+valley of Huancahuanca, a large arid canyon. The guide said that we
+were nearing Parinacochas. Not many miles away, across two canyons,
+was a snow-capped peak, Sarasara.
+
+Lampa, the chief town in the Huancahuanca Canyon, lies on a great
+natural terrace of gravel and alluvium more than a thousand feet
+above the river. Part of the terrace seemed to be irrigated and
+under cultivation. It was proposed by the energetic farmers at
+the time of our visit to enlarge the system of irrigation so as to
+enable them to cultivate a larger part of the pampa on which they
+lived. In fact, the new irrigation scheme was actually in process of
+being carried out and has probably long since been completed. Our
+reception in Lampa was not cordial. It will be remembered that
+our military escort, Corporal Gamarra, had gone back to Arequipa
+with Dr. Bowman. Our two excellent arrieros, the Tejada brothers,
+declared they preferred to travel without any "brass buttons,"
+so we had not asked the sub-prefect of Cotahuasi to send one of
+his small handful of gendarmes along with us. Probably this was a
+mistake. Unless one is traveling in Peru on some easily understood
+matter, such as prospecting for mines or representing one of the
+great importing and commission houses, or actually peddling goods,
+one cannot help arousing the natural suspicions of a people to whom
+traveling on muleback for pleasure is unthinkable, and scientific
+exploration for its own sake is incomprehensible. Of course, if the
+explorers arrive accompanied by a gendarme it is perfectly evident
+that the enterprise has the approval and probably the financial
+backing of the government. It is surmised that the explorers are
+well paid, and what would be otherwise inconceivable becomes merely
+one of the ordinary experiences of life. South American governments
+almost without exception are paternalistic, and their citizens are
+led to expect that all measures connected with research, whether it be
+scientific, economic, or social, are to be conducted by the government
+and paid for out of the national treasury. Individual enterprise is
+not encouraged. During all my preceding exploration in Peru I had
+had such an easy time that I not only forgot, but failed to realize,
+how often an ever-present gendarme, provided through the courtesy of
+President Leguia's government, had quieted suspicions and assured us
+a cordial welcome.
+
+Now, however, when without a gendarme we entered the smart little
+town of Lampa, we found ourselves immediately and unquestionably the
+objects of extreme suspicion and distrust. Yet we could not help
+admiring the well-swept streets, freshly whitewashed houses, and
+general air of prosperity and enterprise. The gobernador of the town
+lived on the main street in a red-tiled house, whose courtyard and
+colonnade were probably two hundred years old. He had heard nothing
+of our undertaking from the government. His friends urged him to take
+some hostile action. Fortunately, our arrieros, respectable men of high
+grade, although strangers in Lampa, were able to allay his suspicions
+temporarily. We were not placed under arrest, although I am sure
+his action was not approved by the very suspicious town councilors,
+who found it far easier to suggest reasons for our being fugitives
+from justice than to understand the real object of our journey.
+
+The very fact that we were bound for Lake Parinacochas, a place well
+known in Lampa, added to their suspicion. It seems that Lampa is famous
+for its weavers, who utilize the wool of the countless herds of sheep,
+alpacas, and vicunas in this vicinity to make ponchos and blankets
+of high grade, much desired not only in this locality but even in
+Arequipa. These are marketed, as so often happens in the outlying
+parts of the world, at a great annual fair, attended by traders who
+come hundreds of miles, bringing the manufactured articles of the
+outer world and seeking the highly desired products of these secluded
+towns. The great fair for this vicinity has been held, for untold
+generations, on the shores of Lake Parinacochas. Every one is anxious
+to attend the fair, which is an occasion for seeing one's friends, an
+opportunity for jollification, carousing, and general enjoyment--like a
+large county fair at home. Except for this annual fair week, the basin
+of Parinacochas is as bleak and desolate as our own fair-grounds,
+with scarcely a house to be seen except those that are used for the
+purposes of the fair. Had we been bound for Parinacochas at the proper
+season nothing could have been more reasonable and praiseworthy. Why
+anybody should want to go to Parinacochas during one of the other
+fifty-one weeks in the year was utterly beyond the comprehension
+or understanding of these village worthies. So, to our "selectmen,"
+are the idiosyncrasies of itinerant gypsies who wish to camp in our
+deserted fair-grounds.
+
+The Tejadas were not anxious to spend the night in town--probably
+because, according to our contract, the cost of feeding the mules
+devolved entirely upon them and fodder is always far more expensive
+in town than in the country. It was just as well for us that this
+was so, for I am sure that before morning the village gossips would
+have persuaded the gobernador to arrest us. As it was, however, he was
+pleasant and hospitable, and considerably amused at the embarrassment
+of an Indian woman who was weaving at a hand loom in his courtyard
+and whom we desired to photograph. She could not easily escape, for
+she was sitting on the ground with one end of the loom fastened around
+her waist, the other end tied to a eucalyptus tree. So she covered her
+eyes and mouth with her hands, and almost wept with mortification at
+our strange procedure. Peruvian Indian women are invariably extremely
+shy, rarely like to be photographed, and are anxious only to escape
+observation and notice. The ladies of the gobernador's own family,
+however, of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, not only had no
+objection to being photographed, but were moved to unseemly and
+unsympathetic laughter at the predicament of their unfortunate sister.
+
+After leaving Lampa we found ourselves on the best road that we
+had seen in a long time. Its excellence was undoubtedly due to the
+enterprise and energy of the people of this pleasant town. One might
+expect that citizens who kept their town so clean and neat and were
+engaged in the unusual act of constructing new irrigation works would
+have a comfortable road in the direction toward which they usually
+would wish to go, namely, toward the coast.
+
+As we climbed out of the Huancahuanca Valley we noticed no evidences
+of ancient agricultural terraces, either on the sides of the valley
+or on the alluvial plain which has given rise to the town of Lampa
+and whose products have made its people well fed and energetic. The
+town itself seems to be of modern origin. One wonders why there are so
+few, if any, evidences of the ancient regime when there are so many
+a short distance away in Colta and the valley around it. One cannot
+believe that the Incas would have overlooked such a fine agricultural
+opportunity as an extensive alluvial terrace in a region where there
+is so little arable land. Possibly the very excellence of the land
+and its relative flatness rendered artificial terracing unnecessary
+in the minds of the ancient people who lived here. On the other hand,
+it may have been occupied until late Inca times by one of the coast
+tribes. Whatever the cause, certainly the deep canyon of Huancahuanca
+divides two very different regions. To come in a few hours, from
+thickly terraced Colta to unterraced Lampa was so striking as to give
+us cause for thought and speculation. It is well known that in the
+early days before the Inca conquest of Peru, not so very long before
+the Spanish Conquest, there were marked differences between the tribes
+who inhabited the high plateau and those who lived along the shore
+of the Pacific. Their pottery is as different as possible in design
+and ornamentation; the architecture of their cities and temples is
+absolutely distinct. Relative abundance of flat lands never led them
+to develop terracing to the same extent that the mountain people had
+done. Perhaps on this alluvial terrace there lived a remnant of the
+coastal peoples. Excavation would show.
+
+Scarcely had we climbed out of the valley of Huancahuanca and
+surmounted the ridge when we came in sight of more artificial
+terraces. Beyond a broad, deep valley rose the extinct volcanic cone of
+Mt. Sarasara, now relatively close at hand, its lower slopes separated
+from us by another canyon. Snow lay in the gulches and ravines near
+the top of the mountain. Our road ran near the towns of Pararca
+and Colcabamba, the latter much like Colta, a straggling village of
+thatched huts surrounded by hundreds of terraces. The vegetation on
+the valley slopes indicated occasional rains. Near Pararca we passed
+fields of barley and wheat growing on old stone-faced terraces. On
+every hand were signs of a fairly large population engaged in
+agriculture, utilizing fields which had been carefully prepared
+for them by their ancestors. They were not using all, however. We
+noticed hundreds of terraces that did not appear to have been under
+cultivation recently. They may have been lying fallow temporarily.
+
+Our arrieros avoided the little towns, and selected a camp site on the
+roadside near the Finca Rodadero. After all, when one has a comfortable
+tent, good food, and skillful arrieros it is far pleasanter to spend
+the night in the clean, open country, even at an elevation of 12,000
+or 13,000 feet, than to be surrounded by the smells and noises of an
+Indian town.
+
+The next morning we went through some wheat fields, past the town
+of Puyusca, another large Indian village of thatched adobe houses
+placed high on the shoulder of a rocky hill so as to leave the
+best arable land available for agriculture. It is in a shallow,
+well-watered valley, full of springs. The appearance of the country
+had changed entirely since we left Cotahuasi. The desert and its
+steep-walled canyons seemed to be far behind us. Here was a region of
+gently sloping hills, covered with terraces, where the cereals of the
+temperate zone appeared to be easily grown. Finally, leaving the grain
+fields, we climbed up to a shallow depression in the low range at the
+head of the valley and found ourselves on the rim of a great upland
+basin more than twenty miles across. In the center of the basin was
+a large, oval lake. Its borders were pink. The water in most of the
+lake was dark blue, but near the shore the water was pink, a light
+salmon-pink. What could give it such a curious color? Nothing but
+flamingoes, countless thousands of flamingoes--Parinacochas at last!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Flamingo Lake
+
+The Parinacochas Basin is at an elevation of between 11,500 and
+12,000 feet above sea level. It is about 150 miles northwest of
+Arequipa and 170 miles southwest of Cuzco, and enjoys a fair amount
+of rainfall. The lake is fed by springs and small streams. In past
+geological times the lake, then very much larger, had an outlet not
+far from the town of Puyusca. At present Parinacochas has no visible
+outlet. It is possible that the large springs which we noticed as we
+came up the valley by Puyusca may be fed from the lake. On the other
+hand, we found numerous small springs on the very borders of the lake,
+generally occurring in swampy hillocks--built up perhaps by mineral
+deposits--three or four feet higher than the surrounding plain. There
+are very old beach marks well above the shore. The natives told us that
+in the wet season the lake was considerably higher than at present,
+although we could find no recent evidence to indicate that it had
+been much more than a foot above its present level. Nevertheless a
+rise of a foot would enlarge the area of the lake considerably.
+
+When making preparations in New Haven for the "bathymetric survey of
+Lake Parinacochas," suggested by Sir Clements Markham, we found it
+impossible to discover any indication in geographical literature as
+to whether the depth of the lake might be ten feet or ten thousand
+feet. We decided to take a chance on its not being more than ten
+hundred feet. With the kind assistance of Mr. George Bassett, I secured
+a thousand feet of stout fish line, known to anglers as "24 thread,"
+wound on a large wooden reel for convenience in handling. While we
+were at Chuquibamba Mr. Watkins had spent many weary hours inserting
+one hundred and sixty-six white and red cloth markers at six-foot
+intervals in the strands of this heavy line, so that we might be able
+more rapidly to determine the result in fathoms.
+
+Arrived at a low peninsula on the north shore of the lake, Tucker
+and I pitched our camp, sent our mules back to Puyusca for fodder,
+and set up the Acme folding boat, which we had brought so many miles
+on muleback, for the sounding operations. The "Acme" proved easy
+to assemble, although this was our first experience with it. Its
+lightness enabled it to be floated at the edge of the lake even in
+very shallow water, and its rigidity was much appreciated in the late
+afternoon when the high winds raised a vicious little "sea." Rowing
+out on waters which we were told by the natives had never before
+been navigated by craft of any kind, I began to take soundings. Lake
+Titicaca is over nine hundred feet deep. It would be aggravating if
+Lake Parinacochas should prove to be over a thousand, for I had brought
+no extra line. Even nine hundred feet would make sounding slow work,
+and the lake covered an area of over seventy square miles.
+
+It was with mixed feelings of trepidation and expectation that I rowed
+out five miles from shore and made a sounding. Holding the large reel
+firmly in both hands, I cast the lead overboard. The reel gave a turn
+or two and stopped. Something was wrong. The line did not run out. Was
+the reel stuck? No, the apparatus was in perfect running order. Then
+what was the matter? The bottom was too near! Alas for all the pains
+that Mr. Bassett had taken to put a thousand feet of the best strong
+24-thread line on one reel! Alas for Mr. Watkins and his patient
+insertion of one hundred and sixty-six "fathom-markers"! The bottom of
+the lake was only four feet away from the bottom of my boat! After
+three or four days of strenuous rowing up and down the eighteen
+miles of the lake's length, and back and forth across the seventeen
+miles of its width, I never succeeded in wetting Watkins's first
+marker! Several hundred soundings failed to show more than five feet of
+water anywhere. Possibly if we had come in the rainy season we might
+at least have wet one marker, but at the time of our visit (November,
+1911), the lake had a maximum depth of 4 1/2 feet. The satisfaction of
+making this slight contribution to geographic knowledge was, I fear,
+lost in the chagrin of not finding a really noteworthy body of water.
+
+Who would have thought that so long a lake could be so
+shallow? However, my feelings were soothed by remembering the story of
+the captain of a man-of-war who was once told that the salt lake near
+one of the red hills between Honolulu and Pearl Harbor was reported
+by the natives to be "bottomless." He ordered one of the ship's heavy
+boats to be carried from the shore several miles inland to the salt
+lake, at great expenditure of strength and labor. The story told me
+in my boyhood does not say how much sounding line was brought. Anyhow,
+they found this "fathomless" body of water to be not more than fifteen
+feet deep.
+
+Notwithstanding my disappointment at the depth of Parinacochas, I
+was very glad that we had brought the little folding boat, for it
+enabled me to float gently about among the myriads of birds which
+use the shallow waters of the lake as a favorite feeding ground;
+pink flamingoes, white gulls, small "divers," large black ducks,
+sandpipers, black ibis, teal ducks, and large geese. On the banks
+were ground owls and woodpeckers. It is not surprising that the
+natives should have named this body of water "Parinacochas" (Parina =
+"flamingo," cochas = "lake"). The flamingoes are here in incredible
+multitudes; they far outnumber all other birds, and as I have said,
+actually make the shallow waters of the lake look pink. Fortunately
+they had not been hunted for their plumage and were not timid. After
+two days of familiarity with the boat they were willing to let me
+approach within twenty yards before finally taking wing. The coloring,
+in this land of drab grays and browns, was a delight to the eye. The
+head is white, the beak black, the neck white shading into salmon-pink;
+the body pinkish white on the back, the breast white, and the tail
+salmon-pink. The wings are salmon-pink in front, but the tips and
+the under-parts are black. As they stand or wade in the water their
+general appearance is chiefly pink-and-white. When they rise from the
+water, however, the black under-parts of the wings become strikingly
+conspicuous and cause a flock of flying flamingoes to be a wonderful
+contrast in black-and-white. When flying, the flamingo seems to keep
+his head moving steadily forward at an even pace, although the ropelike
+neck undulates with the slow beating of the wings. I could not be sure
+that it was not an optical delusion. Nevertheless, I thought the heavy
+body was propelled irregularly, while the head moved forward at uniform
+speed, the difference being caught up in the undulations of the neck.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flamingos on Lake Parinacochas, and Mt. Sarasara
+------
+
+
+The flamingo is an amusing bird to watch. With its haughty Roman
+nose and long, ropelike neck, which it coils and twists in a most
+incredible manner, it seems specially intended to distract one's mind
+from bathymetric disappointments. Its hoarse croaking, "What is it,"
+"What is it," seemed to express deep-throated sympathy with the
+sounding operations. On one bright moonlight night the flamingoes
+were very noisy, keeping up a continual clatter of very hoarse
+"What-is-it's." Apparently they failed to find out the answer in time
+to go to bed at the proper time, for next morning we found them all
+sound asleep, standing in quiet bays with their heads tucked under
+their wings. During the course of the forenoon, when the water was
+quiet, they waded far out into the lake. In the afternoon, as winds
+and waves arose, they came in nearer the shores, but seldom left
+the water. The great extent of shallow water in Parinacochas offers
+them a splendid, wide feeding ground. We wondered where they all
+came from. Apparently they do not breed here. Although there were
+thousands and thousands of birds, we could find no flamingo nests,
+either old or new, search as we would. It offers a most interesting
+problem for some enterprising biological explorer. Probably Mr. Frank
+Chapman will some day solve it.
+
+Next in number to the flamingoes were the beautiful white gulls (or
+terns?), looking strangely out of place in this Andean lake 11,500
+feet above the sea. They usually kept together in flocks of several
+hundred. There were quantities of small black divers in the deeper
+parts of the lake where the flamingoes did not go. The divers were
+very quick and keen, true individualists operating alone and showing
+astonishing ability in swimming long distances under water. The large
+black ducks were much more fearless than the flamingoes and were
+willing to swim very near the canoe. When frightened, they raced over
+the water at a tremendous pace, using both wings and feet in their
+efforts to escape. These ducks kept in large flocks and were about
+as common as the small divers. Here and there in the lake were a few
+tiny little islands, each containing a single deserted nest, possibly
+belonging to an ibis or a duck. In the banks of a low stream near
+our first camp were holes made by woodpeckers, who in this country
+look in vain for trees and telegraph poles.
+
+Occasionally, a mile or so from shore, my boat would startle a great
+amphibious ox standing in the water up to his middle, calmly eating
+the succulent water grass. To secure it he had to plunge his head
+and neck well under the surface.
+
+While I was raising blisters and frightening oxen and flamingoes,
+Mr. Tucker triangulated the Parinacochas Basin, making the first
+accurate map of this vicinity. As he carried his theodolite from point
+to point he often stirred up little ground owls, who gazed at him with
+solemn, reproachful looks. And they were not the only individuals to
+regard his activities with suspicion and dislike. Part of my work was
+to construct signal stations by piling rocks at conspicuous points on
+the well-rounded hills so as to enable the triangulation to proceed as
+rapidly as possible. During the night some of these signal stations
+would disappear, torn down by the superstitious shepherds who lived
+in scattered clusters of huts and declined to have strange gods set
+up in their vicinity. Perhaps they thought their pastures were being
+preempted. We saw hundreds of their sheep and cattle feeding on flat
+lands formerly the bed of the lake. The hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin are bare of trees, and offer some pasturage. In some places they
+are covered with broken rock. The grass was kept closely cropped by
+the degenerate descendants of sheep brought into the country during
+Spanish colonial days. They were small in size and mostly white in
+color, although there were many black ones. We were told that the
+sheep were worth about fifty cents apiece here.
+
+On our first arrival at Parinacochas we were left severely alone by the
+shepherds; but two days later curiosity slowly overcame their shyness,
+and a group of young shepherds and shepherdesses gradually brought
+their grazing flocks nearer and nearer the camp, in order to gaze
+stealthily on these strange visitors, who lived in a cloth house,
+actually moved over the forbidding waters of the lake, and busied
+themselves from day to day with strange magic, raising and lowering
+a glittering glass eye on a tripod. The women wore dresses of heavy
+material, the skirts reaching halfway from knee to ankle. In lieu of
+hats they had small variegated shawls, made on hand looms, folded
+so as to make a pointed bonnet over the head and protect the neck
+and shoulders from sun and wind. Each woman was busily spinning with
+a hand spindle, but carried her baby and its gear and blankets in a
+hammock or sling attached to a tump-line that went over her head. These
+sling carry-alls were neatly woven of soft wool and decorated with
+attractive patterns. Both women and boys were barefooted. The boys
+wore old felt hats of native manufacture, and coats and long trousers
+much too large for them.
+
+At one end of the upland basin rises the graceful cone of
+Mt. Sarasara. The view of its snow-capped peak reflected in the
+glassy waters of the lake in the early morning was one long to be
+remembered. Sarasara must once have been much higher than it is at
+present. Its volcanic cone has been sharply eroded by snow and ice. In
+the days of its greater altitude, and consequently wider snow fields,
+the melting snows probably served to make Parinacochas a very much
+larger body of water. Although we were here at the beginning of summer,
+the wind that came down from the mountain at night was very cold. Our
+minimum thermometer registered 22 deg. F. near the banks of the lake at
+night. Nevertheless, there was only a very thin film of ice on the
+borders of the lake in the morning, and except in the most shallow
+bays there was no ice visible far from the bank. The temperature of the
+water at 10:00 A.M. near the shore, and ten inches below the surface,
+was 61 deg. F., while farther out it was three or four degrees warmer. By
+noon the temperature of the water half a mile from shore was 67.5 deg.
+F. Shortly after noon a strong wind came up from the coast, stirring
+up the shallow water and cooling it. Soon afterwards the temperature
+of the water began to fall, and, although the hot sun was shining
+brightly almost directly overhead, it went down to 65 deg. by 2:30 P.M.
+
+The water of the lake is brackish, yet we were able to make our
+camps on the banks of small streams of sweet water, although in
+each case near the shore of the lake. A specimen of the water,
+taken near the shore, was brought back to New Haven and analyzed
+by Dr. George S. Jamieson of the Sheffield Scientific School. He
+found that it contained small quantities of silica, iron phosphate,
+magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, potassium
+nitrate, potassium sulphate, sodium borate, sodium sulphate, and a
+considerable quantity of sodium chloride. Parinacochas water contains
+more carbonate and potassium than that of the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Great Salt Lake. As compared with the salinity of typical "salt"
+waters, that of Lake Parinacochas occupies an intermediate position,
+containing more than Lake Koko-Nor, less than that of the Atlantic,
+and only one twentieth the salinity of the Great Salt Lake.
+
+When we moved to our second camp the Tejada brothers preferred to let
+their mules rest in the Puyusca Valley, where there was excellent
+alfalfa forage. The arrieros engaged at their own expense a pack
+train which consisted chiefly of Parinacochas burros. It is the
+custom hereabouts to enclose the packs in large-meshed nets made of
+rawhide which are then fastened to the pack animal by a surcingle. The
+Indians who came with the burro train were pleasant-faced, sturdy
+fellows, dressed in "store clothes" and straw hats. Their burros
+were as cantankerous as donkeys can be, never fractious or flighty,
+but stubbornly resisting, step by step, every effort to haul them
+near the loads.
+
+Our second camp was near the village of Incahuasi, "the house of the
+Inca," at the northwestern corner of the basin. Raimondi visited it
+in 1863. The representative of the owner of Parinacochas occupies
+one of the houses. The other buildings are used only during the third
+week in August, at the time of the annual fair. In the now deserted
+plaza were many low stone rectangles partly covered with adobe and
+ready to be converted into booths. The plaza was surrounded by long,
+thatched buildings of adobe and stone, mostly of rough ashlars. A
+few ashlars showed signs of having been carefully dressed by ancient
+stonemasons. Some loose ashlars weighed half a ton and had baffled
+the attempts of modern builders.
+
+In constructing the large church, advantage was taken of a beautifully
+laid wall of close-fitting ashlars. Incahuasi was well named; there had
+been at one time an Inca house here, possibly a temple--lakes were once
+objects of worship--or rest-house, constructed in order to enable the
+chiefs and tax-gatherers to travel comfortably over the vast domains
+of the Incas. We found the slopes of the hills of the Parinacochas
+Basin to be well covered with remains of ancient terraces. Probably
+potatoes and other root crops were once raised here in fairly large
+quantities. Perhaps deforestation and subsequent increased aridity
+might account for the desertion of these once-cultivated lands. The
+hills west of the lake are intersected by a few dry gulches in which
+are caves that have been used as burial places. The caves had at one
+time been walled in with rocks laid in adobe, but these walls had
+been partly broken down so as to permit the sepulchers to be rifled of
+whatever objects of value they might have contained. We found nine or
+ten skulls lying loose in the rubble of the caves. One of the skulls
+seemed to have been trepanned.
+
+On top of the ridge are the remains of an ancient road, fifty feet
+wide, a broad grassy way through fields of loose stones. No effort
+had been made at grading or paving this road, and there was no
+evidence of its having been used in recent times. It runs from the
+lake across the ridge in a westerly direction toward a broad valley,
+where there are many terraces and cultivated fields; it is not far from
+Nasca. Probably the stones were picked up and piled on each side to
+save time in driving caravans of llamas across the stony ridges. The
+llama dislikes to step over any obstacle, even a very low wall. The
+grassy roadway would certainly encourage the supercilious beasts to
+proceed in the desired direction.
+
+In many places on the hills were to be seen outlines of large and
+small rock circles and shelters erected by herdsmen for temporary
+protection against the sudden storms of snow and hail which come
+up with unexpected fierceness at this elevation (12,000 feet). The
+shelters were in a very ruinous state. They were made of rough,
+scoriaceous lava rocks. The circular enclosures varied from 8 to 25
+feet in diameter. Most of them showed no evidences whatever of recent
+occupation. The smaller walls may have been the foundation of small
+circular huts. The larger walls were probably intended as corrals, to
+keep alpacas and llamas from straying at night and to guard against
+wolves or coyotes. I confess to being quite mystified as to the age
+of these remains. It is possible that they represent a settlement
+of shepherds within historic times, although, from the shape and
+size of the walls, I am inclined to doubt this. The shelters may
+have been built by the herdsmen of the Incas. Anyhow, those on the
+hills west of Parinacochas had not been used for a long time. Nasca,
+which is not very far away to the northwest, was the center of one
+of the most artistic pre-Inca cultures in Peru. It is famous for its
+very delicate pottery.
+
+Our third camp was on the south side of the lake. Near us the traces
+of the ancient road led to the ruins of two large, circular corrals,
+substantiating my belief that this curious roadway was intended to keep
+the llamas from straying at will over the pasture lands. On the south
+shores of the lake there were more signs of occupation than on the
+north, although there is nothing so clearly belonging to the time of
+the Incas as the ashlars and finely built wall at Incahuasi. On top of
+one of the rocky promontories we found the rough stone foundations of
+the walls of a little village. The slopes of the promontory were nearly
+precipitous on three sides. Forty or fifty very primitive dwellings
+had been at one time huddled together here in a position which could
+easily be defended. We found among the ruins a few crude potsherds
+and some bits of obsidian. There was nothing about the ruins of the
+little hill village to give any indication of Inca origin. Probably
+it goes back to pre-Inca days. No one could tell us anything about
+it. If there were traditions concerning it they were well concealed
+by the silent, superstitious shepherds of the vicinity. Possibly it
+was regarded as an unlucky spot, cursed by the gods.
+
+The neighboring slopes showed faint evidences of having been roughly
+terraced and cultivated. The tutu potato would grow here, a hardy
+variety not edible in the fresh state, but considered highly desirable
+for making potato flour after having been repeatedly frozen and its
+bitter juices all extracted. So would other highland root crops of the
+Peruvians, such as the oca, a relative of our sheep sorrel, the anu,
+a kind of nasturtium, and the ullucu (ullucus tuberosus).
+
+On the flats near the shore were large corrals still kept in good
+repair. New walls were being built by the Indians at the time of our
+visit. Near the southeast corner of the lake were a few modern huts
+built of stone and adobe, with thatched roofs, inhabited by drovers
+and shepherds. We saw more cattle at the east end of the lake than
+elsewhere, but they seemed to prefer the sweet water grasses of the
+lake to the tough bunch-grass on the slopes of Sarasara.
+
+Viscachas were common amongst the gray lichen-covered rocks. They
+are hunted for their beautiful pearly gray fur, the "chinchilla" of
+commerce; they are also very good eating, so they have disappeared
+from the more accessible parts of Peru. One rarely sees them, although
+they may be found on bleak uplands in the mountains of Uilcapampa,
+a region rarely visited by any one on account of treacherous bogs and
+deep tams. Writers sometimes call viscachas "rabbit-squirrels." They
+have large, rounded ears, long hind legs, a long, bushy tail, and do
+look like a cross between a rabbit and a gray squirrel.
+
+Surmounting one of the higher ridges one day, I came suddenly upon
+an unusually large herd of wild vicunas. It included more than one
+hundred individuals. Their relative fearlessness also testified to the
+remoteness of Parinacochas and the small amount of hunting that is done
+here. Vicunas have never been domesticated, but are often hunted for
+their skins. Their silky fleece is even finer than alpaca. The more
+fleecy portions of their skins are sewed together to make quilts,
+as soft as eider down and of a golden brown color.
+
+After Mr. Tucker finished his triangulation of the lake I told the
+arrieros to find the shortest road home. They smiled, murmured
+"Arequipa," and started south. We soon came to the rim of the
+Maraicasa Valley where, peeping up over one of the hills far to the
+south, we got a little glimpse of Coropuna. The Maraicasa Valley is
+well inhabited and there were many grain fields in sight, although
+few seemed to be terraced. The surrounding hills were smooth and
+well rounded and the valley bottom contained much alluvial land. We
+passed through it and, after dark, reached Sondor, a tiny hamlet
+inhabited by extremely suspicious and inhospitable drovers. In the
+darkness Don Pablo pleaded with the owners of a well-thatched hut,
+and told them how "important" we were. They were unwilling to give
+us any shelter, so we were forced to pitch our tent in the very rocky
+and dirty corral immediately in front of one of the huts, where pigs,
+dogs, and cattle annoyed us all night. If we had arrived before dark
+we might have received a different welcome. As a matter of fact,
+the herdsmen only showed the customary hostility of mountaineers and
+wilderness folk to those who do not arrive in the daytime, when they
+can be plainly seen and fully discussed.
+
+The next morning we passed some fairly recent lava flows and noted also
+many curious rock forms caused by wind and sand erosion. We had now
+left the belt of grazing lands and once more come into the desert. At
+length we reached the rim of the mile-deep Caraveli Canyon and our eyes
+were gladdened at sight of the rich green oasis, a striking contrast
+to the barren walls of the canyon. As we descended the long, winding
+road we passed many fine specimens of tree cactus. At the foot of the
+steep descent we found ourselves separated from the nearest settlement
+by a very wide river, which it was necessary to ford. Neither of the
+Tejadas had ever been here before and its depths and dangers were
+unknown. Fortunately Pablo found a forlorn individual living in a
+tiny hut on the bank, who indicated which way lay safety. After an
+exciting two hours we finally got across to the desired shore. Animals
+and men were glad enough to leave the high, arid desert and enter
+the oasis of Caraveli with its luscious, green fields of alfalfa,
+its shady fig trees and tall eucalyptus. The air, pungent with the
+smell of rich vegetation, seemed cooler and more invigorating.
+
+We found at Caraveli a modern British enterprise, the gold mine of
+"La Victoria." Mr. Prain, the Manager, and his associates at the
+camp gave us a cordial welcome, and a wonderful dinner which I shall
+long remember. After two months in the coastal desert it seemed like
+home. During the evening we learned of the difficulties Mr. Prain
+had had in bringing his machinery across the plateau from the nearest
+port. Our own troubles seemed as nothing. The cost of transporting on
+muleback each of the larger pieces of the quartz stamping-mill was
+equivalent to the price of a first-class pack mule. As a matter of
+fact, although it is only a two days' journey, pack animals' backs
+are not built to survive the strain of carrying pieces of machinery
+weighing five hundred pounds over a desert plateau up to an altitude of
+4000 feet. Mules brought the machinery from the coast to the brink of
+the canyon, but no mule could possibly have carried it down the steep
+trail into Caraveli. Accordingly, a windlass had been constructed
+on the edge of the precipice and the machinery had been lowered,
+piece by piece, by block and tackle. Such was one of the obstacles
+with which these undaunted engineers had had to contend. Had the man
+who designed the machinery ever traveled with a pack train, climbing
+up and down over these rocky stairways called mountain trails, I am
+sure that he would have made his castings much smaller.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mr. Tucker on a Mountain Trail near Caraveli
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Main Street of Chuquibamba
+------
+
+
+It is astonishing how often people who ship goods to the interior
+of South America fail to realize that no single piece should be any
+heavier than a pack animal can carry comfortably on one side. One
+hundred and fifty pounds ought to be the extreme limit of a unit. Even
+a large, strong mule will last only a few days on such trails as
+are shown in the accompanying illustration if the total weight of
+his cargo is over three hundred pounds. When a single piece weighs
+more than two hundred pounds it has to be balanced on the back of the
+animal. Then the load rocks, and chafes the unfortunate mule, besides
+causing great inconvenience and constant worry to the muleteers. As a
+matter of expediency it is better to have the individual units weigh
+about seventy-five pounds. Such a weight is easier for the arrieros to
+handle in the loading, unloading, and reloading that goes on all day
+long, particularly if the trail is up-and-down, as usually happens
+in the Andes. Furthermore, one seventy-five-pound unit makes a fair
+load for a man or a llama, two are right for a burro, and three for
+an average mule. Four can be loaded, if necessary, on a stout mule.
+
+The hospitable mining engineers urged us to prolong our stay at
+"La Victoria," but we had to hasten on. Leaving the pleasant shade
+trees of Caraveli, we climbed the barren, desolate hills of coarse
+gravel and lava rock and left the canyon. We were surprised to find
+near the top of the rise the scattered foundations of fifty little
+circular or oval huts averaging eight feet in diameter. There was
+no water near here. Hardly a green thing of any sort was to be seen
+in the vicinity, yet here had once been a village. It seemed to
+belong to the same period as that found on the southern slopes of
+the Parinacochas Basin. The road was one of the worst we encountered
+anywhere, being at times merely a rough, rocky trail over and among
+huge piles of lava blocks. Several of the larger boulders were covered
+with pictographs. They represented a serpent and a sun, besides men
+and animals.
+
+Shortly afterwards we descended to the Rio Grande Valley at Callanga,
+where we pitched our camps among the most extensive ruins that
+I have seen in the coastal desert. They covered an area of one
+hundred acres, the houses being crowded closely together. It gave
+one a strange sensation to find such a very large metropolis in what
+is now a desolate region. The general appearance of Callanga was
+strikingly reminiscent of some of the large groups of ruins in our
+own Southwest. Nothing about it indicated Inca origin. There were
+no terraces in the vicinity. It is difficult to imagine what such a
+large population could have done here, or how they lived. The walls
+were of compact cobblestones, rough-laid and stuccoed with adobe and
+sand. Most of the stucco had come off. Some of the houses had seats,
+or small sleeping-platforms, built up at one end. Others contained
+two or three small cells, possibly storerooms, with neither doors
+nor windows. We found a number of burial cists--some square, others
+rounded--lined with small cobblestones. In one house, at the foot of
+"cellar stairs" we found a subterranean room, or tomb. The entrance
+to it was covered with a single stone lintel. In examining this
+tomb Mr. Tucker had a narrow escape from being bitten by a boba,
+a venomous snake, nearly three feet in length, with vicious mouth,
+long fangs like a rattlesnake, and a strikingly mottled skin. At one
+place there was a low pyramid less than ten feet in height. To its
+top led a flight of rude stone steps.
+
+Among the ruins we found a number of broken stone dishes, rudely
+carved out of soft, highly porous, scoriaceous lava. The dishes must
+have been hard to keep clean! We also found a small stone mortar,
+probably used for grinding paint; a broken stone war club; and a
+broken compact stone mortar and pestle possibly used for grinding
+corn. Two stones, a foot and a half long, roughly rounded, with
+a shallow groove across the middle of the flatter sides, resembled
+sinkers used by fishermen to hold down large nets, although ten times
+larger than any I had ever seen used. Perhaps they were to tie down
+roofs in a gale. There were a few potsherds lying on the surface of
+the ground, so weathered as to have lost whatever decoration they once
+had. We did no excavating. Callanga offers an interesting field for
+archeological investigation. Unfortunately, we had heard nothing of
+it previously, came upon it unexpectedly, and had but little time to
+give it. After the first night camp in the midst of the dead city we
+made the discovery that although it seemed to be entirely deserted, it
+was, as a matter of fact, well populated! I was reminded of Professor
+T. D. Seymour's story of his studies in the ruins of ancient Greece. We
+wondered what the fleas live on ordinarily.
+
+Our next stopping-place was the small town of Andaray, whose thatched
+houses are built chiefly of stone plastered with mud. Near it we
+encountered two men with a mule, which they said they were taking
+into town to sell and were willing to dispose of cheaply. The Tejadas
+could not resist the temptation to buy a good animal at a bargain,
+although the circumstances were suspicious. Drawing on us for six gold
+sovereigns, they smilingly added the new mule to the pack train; only
+to discover on reaching Chuquibamba that they had purchased it from
+thieves. We were able to clear our arrieros of any complicity in the
+theft. Nevertheless, the owner of the stolen mule was unwilling to pay
+anything for its return. So they lost their bargain and their gold. We
+spent one night in Chuquibamba, with our friend Senor Benavides,
+the sub-prefect, and once more took up the well-traveled route to
+Arequipa. We left the Majes Valley in the afternoon and, as before,
+spent the night crossing the desert.
+
+About three o'clock in the morning--after we had been jogging steadily
+along for about twelve hours in the dark and quiet of the night, the
+only sound the shuffle of the mules' feet in the sand, the only sight
+an occasional crescent-shaped dune, dimly visible in the starlight--the
+eastern horizon began to be faintly illumined. The moon had long since
+set. Could this be the approach of dawn? Sunrise was not due for at
+least two hours. In the tropics there is little twilight preceding
+the day; "the dawn comes up like thunder." Surely the moon could
+not be going to rise again! What could be the meaning of the rapidly
+brightening eastern sky? While we watched and marveled, the pure white
+light grew brighter and brighter, until we cried out in ecstasy as
+a dazzling luminary rose majestically above the horizon. A splendor,
+neither of the sun nor of the moon, shone upon us. It was the morning
+star. For sheer beauty, "divine, enchanting ravishment," Venus that day
+surpassed anything I have ever seen. In the words of the great Eastern
+poet, who had often seen such a sight in the deserts of Asia, "the
+morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Titicaca
+
+Arequipa is one of the pleasantest places in the world: mountain air,
+bright sunshine, warm days, cool nights, and a sparkling atmosphere
+dear to the hearts of star-gazers. The city lies on a plateau,
+surrounded by mighty snow-capped volcanoes, Chachani (20,000 ft.), El
+Misti (19,000 ft.), and Pichu Pichu (18,000 ft.). Arequipa has only
+one nightmare--earthquakes. About twice in a century the spirits of
+the sleeping volcanoes stir, roll over, and go to sleep again. But
+they shake the bed! And Arequipa rests on their bed. The possibility
+of a "terremoto" is always present in the subconscious mind of the
+Arequipeno.
+
+One evening I happened to be dining with a friend at the hospitable
+Arequipa Club. Suddenly the windows rattled violently and we heard
+a loud explosion; at least that is what it sounded like to me. To
+the members of the club, however, it meant only one thing--an
+earthquake. Everybody rushed out; the streets were already crowded
+with hysterical people, crying, shouting, and running toward the great
+open plaza in front of the beautiful cathedral. Here some dropped on
+their knees in gratitude at having escaped from falling walls, others
+prayed to the god of earthquakes to spare their city. Yet no walls
+had fallen! In the business district a great column of black smoke
+was rising. Gradually it became known to the panic-stricken throngs
+that the noise and the trembling had not been due to an earthquake,
+but to an explosion in a large warehouse which had contained gasoline,
+kerosene, dynamite and giant powder!
+
+In this city of 35,000 people, the second largest of Peru, fires are
+so very rare, not even annual, scarcely biennial, that there were
+no fire engines. A bucket brigade was formed and tried to quench the
+roaring furnace by dipping water from one of the azequias, or canals,
+that run through the streets. The fire continued to belch forth dense
+masses of smoke and flame. In any American city such a blaze would
+certainly become a great conflagration.
+
+While the fire was at its height I went into the adjoining building
+to see whether any help could be rendered. To my utter amazement
+the surface of the wall next to the fiery furnace was not even
+warm. Such is the result of building houses with massive walls of
+stone. Furthermore, the roofs in Arequipa are of tiles; consequently
+no harm was done by sparks. So, without a fire department, this
+really terrible fire was limited to one warehouse! The next day
+the newspapers talked about the "dire necessity" of securing fire
+engines. It was difficult for me to see what good a fire engine
+could have done. Nothing could have saved the warehouse itself once
+the fire got under way; and surely the houses next door would have
+suffered more had they been deluged with streams of water. The facts
+are almost incredible to an American. We take it as a matter of course
+that cities should have fires and explosions. In Arequipa everybody
+thought it was an earthquake!
+
+
+
+
+
+A day's run by an excellent railroad takes one to Puno, the chief
+port of Lake Titicaca, elevation 12,500 feet. Puno boasts a soldier's
+monument and a new theater, really a "movie palace." There is a good
+harbor, although dredging is necessary to provide for steamers like
+the Inca. Repairs to the lake boats are made on a marine--or, rather,
+a lacustrine--railway. The bay of Puno grows quantities of totoras,
+giant bulrushes sometimes twelve feet long. Ages ago the lake dwellers
+learned to dry the totoras, tie them securely in long bundles, fasten
+the bundles together, turn up the ends, fix smaller bundles along the
+sides as a free-board, and so construct a fishing-boat, or balsa. Of
+course the balsas eventually become water-logged and spend a large
+part of their existence on the shore, drying in the sun. Even so,
+they are not very buoyant. I can testify that it is difficult to use
+them without getting one's shoes wet. As a matter of fact one should
+go barefooted, or wear sandals, as the natives do.
+
+The balsas are clumsy, and difficult to paddle. The favorite method of
+locomotion is to pole or, when the wind favors, sail. The mast is an
+A-shaped contraption, twelve feet high, made of two light poles tied
+together and fastened, one to each side of the craft, slightly forward
+of amidships. Poles are extremely scarce in this region--lumber has
+to be brought from Puget Sound, 6000 miles away--so nearly all the
+masts I saw were made of small pieces of wood spliced two or three
+times. To the apex of the "A" is attached a forked stick, over which
+run the halyards. The rectangular "sail" is nothing more nor less
+than a large mat made of rushes. A short forestay fastened to the
+sides of the "A" about four feet above the hull prevents the mast from
+falling when the sail is hoisted. The main halyards take the place of
+a backstay. The balsas cannot beat to windward, but behave very well
+in shallow water with a favoring breeze. When the wind is contrary the
+boatmen must pole. They are extremely careful not to fall overboard,
+for the water in the lake is cold, 55 deg. F., and none of them know how
+to swim. Lake Titicaca itself never freezes over, although during
+the winter ice forms at night on the shallow bays and near the shore.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Lake Titicaca Balsa at Puno
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Step-Topped Niche on the Island of Koati
+------
+
+
+When the Indians wish to go in the shallowest waters they use a very
+small balsa not over eight feet long, barely capable of supporting
+the weight of one man. On the other hand, large balsas constructed
+for use in crossing the rough waters of the deeper portions of the
+lake are capable of carrying a dozen people and their luggage. Once
+I saw a ploughman and his team of oxen being ferried across the lake
+on a bulrush raft. To give greater security two balsas are sometimes
+fastened together in the fashion of a double canoe.
+
+One of the more highly speculative of the Bolivian writers, Senor
+Posnansky, of La Paz, believes that gigantic balsas were used in
+bringing ten-ton monoliths across the lake to Tiahuanaco. This
+theory is based on the assumption that Titicaca was once very much
+higher than it is now, a hypothesis which has not commended itself
+to modern geologists or geographers. Dr. Isaiah Bowman and Professor
+Herbert Gregory, who have studied its geology and physiography, have
+not been able to find any direct evidence of former high levels for
+Lake Titicaca, or of its having been connected with the ocean.
+
+Nevertheless, Senor Posnansky believes that Lake Titicaca was once a
+salt sea which became separated from the ocean as the Andes rose. The
+fact that the lake fishes are fresh-water, rather than marine, forms
+does not bother him. Senor Posnansky pins his faith to a small dried
+seahorse once given him by a Titicaca fisherman. He seems to forget
+that dried specimens of marine life, including starfish, are frequently
+offered for sale in the Andes by the dealers in primitive medicines who
+may be found in almost every market-place. Probably Senor Posnansky's
+seahorse was brought from the ocean by some particularly enterprising
+trader. Although starfish are common enough in the Andes and a seahorse
+has actually found its resting-place in La Paz, this does not alter the
+fact that scientific investigators have never found any strictly marine
+fauna in Lake Titicaca. On the other hand, it has two or three kinds
+of edible fresh-water fish. One of them belongs to a species found in
+the Rimac River near Lima. It seems to me entirely possible that the
+Incas, with their scorn of the difficulties of carrying heavy burdens
+over seemingly impossible trails, might have deliberately transplanted
+the desirable fresh-water fishes of the Rimac River to Lake Titicaca.
+
+Polo de Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, says that the Incas
+used to bring fresh fish from the sea by special runners, and that
+"they have records in their quipus of the fish having been brought
+from Tumbez, a distance of more than three hundred leagues." The
+actual transference of water jars containing the fish would have
+offered no serious obstacle whatever to the Incas, provided the idea
+happened to appeal to them as desirable. Yet I may be as far wrong
+as Senor Posnansky! At any rate, the romantic stories of a gigantic
+inland sea, vastly more extensive than the present lake and actually
+surrounding the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, must be treated with
+respectful skepticism.
+
+Tiahuanaco, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia,
+is famous for the remains of a pre-Inca civilization. Unique among
+prehistoric remains in the highlands of Peru or Bolivia are its carved
+monolithic images. Although they have suffered from weathering and
+from vandalism, enough remains to show that they represent clothed
+human figures. The richly decorated girdles and long tunics are
+carved in low relief with an intricate pattern. While some of
+the designs are undoubtedly symbolic of the rank, achievements,
+or attributes of the divinities or chiefs here portrayed, there is
+nothing hieroglyphic. The images are stiff and show no appreciation
+of the beauty of the human form. Probably the ancient artists never
+had an opportunity to study the human body. In Andean villages, even
+little children do not go naked as they do among primitive peoples
+who live in warm climates. The Highlanders of Peru and Bolivia are
+always heavily clothed, day and night. Forced by their climate to
+seek comfort in the amount and thickness of their apparel, they have
+developed an excessive modesty in regard to bodily exposure which
+is in striking contrast to people who live on the warm sands of the
+South Seas. Inca sculptors and potters rarely employed the human
+body as a motif. Tiahuanaco is pre-Inca, yet even here the images are
+clothed. They were not represented as clothed in order to make easier
+the work of the sculptor. His carving shows he had great skill, was
+observant, and had true artistic feeling. Apparently the taboo against
+"nakedness" was too much for him.
+
+Among the thirty-six islands in Lake Titicaca, some belong to
+Peru, others to Bolivia. Two of the latter, Titicaca and Koati,
+were peculiarly venerated in Inca days. They are covered with
+artificial terraces, most of which are still used by the Indian
+farmers of to-day. On both islands there are ruins of important Inca
+structures. On Titicaca Island I was shown two caves, out of which,
+say the Indians, came the sun and moon at their creation. These caves
+are not large enough for a man to stand upright, but to a people
+who do not appreciate the size of the heavenly bodies it requires
+no stretch of the imagination to believe that those bright disks
+came forth from caves eight feet wide. The myth probably originated
+with dwellers on the western shore of the lake who would often see
+the sun or moon rise over this island. On an ancient road that runs
+across the island my native guide pointed out the "footprints of the
+sun and moon"--two curious effects of erosion which bear a distant
+resemblance to the footprints of giants twenty or thirty feet tall.
+
+The present-day Indians, known as Aymaras, seem to be hard-working and
+fairly cheerful. The impression which Bandelier gives, in his "Islands
+of Titicaca and Koati," of the degradation and surly character of these
+Indians was not apparent at the time of my short visit in 1915. It is
+quite possible, however, that if I had to live among the Indians, as
+he did for several months, digging up their ancient places of worship,
+disturbing their superstitious prejudices, and possibly upsetting,
+in their minds, the proper balance between wet weather and dry,
+I might have brought upon myself uncivil looks and rough, churlish
+treatment such as he experienced. In judging the attitude of mind
+of the natives of Titicaca one should remember that they live under
+most trying conditions of climate and environment. During several
+months of the year everything is dried up and parched. The brilliant
+sun of the tropics, burning mercilessly through the rarefied air,
+causes the scant vegetation to wither. Then come torrential rains. I
+shall never forget my first experience on Lake Titicaca, when the
+steamer encountered a rain squall. The resulting deluge actually
+came through the decks. Needless to say, such downpours tend to wash
+away the soil which the farmers have painfully gathered for field or
+garden. The sun in the daytime is extremely hot, yet the difference
+in temperature between sun and shade is excessive. Furthermore, the
+winds at night are very damp; the cold is intensely penetrating. Fuel
+is exceedingly scarce, there is barely enough for cooking purposes,
+and none for artificial heat.
+
+Food is hard to get. Few crops can be grown at 12,500 feet. Some
+barley is raised, but the soil is lacking in nitrogen. The principal
+crop is the bitter white potato, which, after being frozen and dried,
+becomes the insipid chuno, chief reliance of the poorer families. The
+Inca system of bringing guano from the islands of the Pacific coast
+has long since been abandoned. There is no money to pay for modern
+fertilizers. Consequently, crops are poor. On Titicaca Island I
+saw native women, who had just harvested their maize, engaged in
+shucking and drying ears of corn which varied in length from one to
+three inches. To be sure this miniature corn has the advantage of
+maturing in sixty days, but good soil and fertilizers would double
+its size and productiveness.
+
+Naturally these Indians always feel themselves at the mercy of the
+elements. Either a long rainy season or a drought may cause acute
+hunger and extreme suffering. Consequently, one must not blame the
+Bolivian or Peruvian Highlander if he frequently appears to be sullen
+and morose. On the other hand, one ought not to praise Samoans for
+being happy, hospitable, and light-hearted. Those fortunate Polynesians
+are surrounded by warm waters in which they can always enjoy a swim,
+trees from which delicious food can always be obtained, and cocoanuts
+from which cooling drinks are secured without cost. Who could not
+develop cheerfulness under such conditions?
+
+On the small island, Koati, some of the Inca stonework is remarkably
+good, and has several unusual features, such as the elaboration of the
+large, reentrant, ceremonial niches formed by step-topped arches, one
+within the other. Small ornamental niches are used to break the space
+between these recesses and the upper corners of the whole rectangle
+containing them. Also unusual are the niches between the doorways,
+made in the form of an elaborate quadrate cross. It might seem at first
+glance as though this feature showed Spanish influence, since a Papal
+cross is created by the shadow cast in the intervening recessed courses
+within their design. As a matter of fact, the cross nowy quadrant is
+a natural outcome of using for ornamental purposes the step-shaped
+design, both erect and inverted. All over the land of the Incas one
+finds flights of steps or terraces used repeatedly for ornamental or
+ceremonial purposes. Some stairs are large enough to be used by man;
+others are in miniature. Frequently the steps were cut into the sacred
+boulders consecrated to ancestor worship. It was easy for an Inca
+architect, accustomed to the stairway motif, to have conceived these
+curious doorways on Koati and also the cross-like niches between them,
+even if he had never seen any representation of a Papal cross, or a
+cross nowy quadrant. My friend, Mr. Bancel La Farge, has also suggested
+a striking resemblance which the sedilia-like niches bear to Arabic
+or Moorish architecture, as shown, for instance, in the Court of the
+Lions in the Alhambra. The step-topped arch is distinctly Oriental
+in form, yet flights of steps or terraces are also thoroughly Incaic.
+
+The principal structure on Koati was built around three sides of
+a small plaza, constructed on an artificial terrace in a slight
+depression on the eastern side of the island. The fourth side is
+open and affords a magnificent view of the lake and the wonderful
+snow-covered Cordillera Real, 200 miles long and nowhere less than
+17,000 feet high. This range of lofty snow-peaks of surpassing beauty
+culminates in Mt. Sorata, 21,520 feet high. To the worshipers of the
+sun and moon, who came to the sacred islands for some of their most
+elaborate religious ceremonies, the sight of those heavenly luminaries,
+rising over the majestic snow mountains, their glories reflected in the
+shining waters of the lake, must have been a sublime spectacle. On such
+occasions the little plaza would indeed have been worth seeing. We may
+imagine the gayly caparisoned Incas, their faces lit up by the colors
+of "rosy-fingered dawn, daughter of the morning," their ceremonial
+formation sharply outlined against the high, decorated walls of
+the buildings behind them. Perhaps the rulers and high priests had
+special stations in front of the large, step-topped niches. One may
+be sure that a people who were fond of bright colors, who were able
+to manufacture exquisite textiles, and who loved to decorate their
+garments with spangles and disks of beaten gold, would have lost no
+opportunity for making the ancient ceremonies truly resplendent.
+
+On the peninsula of Copacabana, opposite the sacred islands, a great
+annual pageant is still staged every August. Although at present
+connected with a pious pilgrimage to the shrine of the miraculous
+image of the "Virgin of Copacabana," this vivid spectacle, the
+most celebrated fair in all South America, has its origin in the
+dim past. It comes after the maize is harvested and corresponds to
+our Thanksgiving festival. The scene is laid in the plaza in front
+of a large, bizarre church. During the first ten days in August
+there are gathered here thousands of the mountain folk from far and
+near. Everything dear to the heart of the Aymara Indian is offered
+for sale, including quantities of his favorite beverages. Traders,
+usually women, sit in long rows on blankets laid on the cobblestone
+pavement. Some of them are protected from the sun by primitive
+umbrellas, consisting of a square cotton sheet stretched over a bamboo
+frame. In one row are those traders who sell parched and popped corn;
+in another those who deal in sandals and shoes, the simple gear
+of the humblest wayfarer and the elaborately decorated high-laced
+boots affected by the wealthy Chola women of La Paz. In another row
+are the dealers in Indian blankets; still another is devoted to such
+trinkets as one might expect to find in a "needle-and-thread" shop at
+home. There are stolid Aymara peddlers with scores of bamboo flutes
+varying in size from a piccolo to a bassoon; the hat merchants, with
+piles of freshly made native felts, warranted to last for at least a
+year; and vendors of aniline dyes. The fabrics which have come to us
+from Inca times are colored with beautifully soft vegetable dyes. Among
+Inca ruins one may find small stone mortars, in which the primitive
+pigments were ground and mixed with infinite care. Although the modern
+Indian still prefers the product of hand looms, he has been quick to
+adopt the harsh aniline dyes, which are not only easier to secure,
+but produce more striking results.
+
+As a citizen of Connecticut it gave me quite a start to see, carelessly
+exposed to the weather on the rough cobblestones of the plaza,
+bright new hardware from New Haven and New Britain--locks, keys,
+spring scales, bolts, screw eyes, hooks, and other "wooden nutmegs."
+
+At the tables of the "money-changers," just outside of the
+sacred enclosure, are the real moneymakers, who give nothing for
+something. Thimble-riggers and three-card-monte-men do a brisk
+business and stand ready to fleece the guileless native or the
+unsuspecting foreigner. The operators may wear ragged ponchos and
+appear to be incapable of deep designs, but they know all the tricks
+of the trade! The most striking feature of the fair is the presence
+of various Aymara secret societies, whose members, wearing repulsive
+masks, are clad in the most extraordinary costumes which can be
+invented by primitive imaginations. Each society has its own uniform,
+made up of tinsels and figured satins, tin-foil, gold and silver leaf,
+gaudy textiles, magnificent epaulets bearing large golden stars on a
+background of silver decorated with glittering gems of colored glass;
+tinted "ostrich" plumes of many colors sticking straight up eighteen
+inches above the heads of their wearers, gaudy ribbons, beruffled
+bodices, puffed sleeves, and slashed trunks. Some of these strange
+costumes are actually reminiscent of the sixteenth century. The wearers
+are provided with flutes, whistles, cymbals, flageolets, snare drums,
+and rattles, or other noise-makers. The result is an indescribable
+hubbub; a garish human kaleidoscope, accompanied by fiendish clamor
+and unmusical noises which fairly outstrip a dozen jazz bands. It is
+bedlam let loose, a scene of wild uproar and confusion.
+
+The members of one group were dressed to represent female angels,
+their heads tightly turbaned so as to bear the maximum number of
+tall, waving, variegated plumes. On their backs were gaudy wings
+resembling the butterflies of children's pantomimes. Many wore colored
+goggles. They marched solemnly around the plaza, playing on bamboo
+flageolets, their plaintive tunes drowned in the din of big bass
+drums and blatant trumpets. In an eddy in the seething crowd was a
+placid-faced Aymara, bedecked in the most tawdry manner with gewgaws
+from Birmingham or Manchester, sedately playing a melancholy tune on
+a rustic syrinx or Pan's pipe, charmingly made from little tubes of
+bamboo from eastern Bolivia.
+
+At the close of the festival, on a Sunday afternoon, the costumes
+disappear and there occurs a bull-baiting. Strong temporary barriers
+are erected at the comers of the plaza; householders bar their
+doors. A riotous crowd, composed of hundreds of pleasure-seekers,
+well fortified with Dutch courage, gathers for the fray. All are
+ready to run helter-skelter in every direction should the bull take
+it into his head to charge toward them. It is not a bullfight. There
+are no picadors, armed with lances to prick the bull to madness; no
+banderilleros, with barbed darts; no heroic matador, ready with shining
+blade to give a mad and weary bull the coup de grace. Here all is fun
+and frolic. To be sure, the bull is duly annoyed by boastful boys or
+drunken Aymaras, who prod him with sticks and shake bright ponchos
+in his face until he dashes after his tormentors and causes a mighty
+scattering of some spectators, amid shrieks of delight from everybody
+else. When one animal gets tired, another is brought on. There is
+no chance of a bull being wounded or seriously hurt. At the time of
+our visit the only animal who seemed at all anxious to do real damage
+was let alone. He showed no disposition to charge at random into the
+crowds. The spectators surrounded the plaza so thickly that he could
+not distinguish any one particular enemy on whom to vent his rage. He
+galloped madly after any individual who crossed the plaza. Five or
+six bulls were let loose during the excitement, but no harm was done,
+and every one had an uproariously good time.
+
+Such is the spectacle of Copacabana, a mixture of business and
+pleasure, pagan and Christian, Spain and Titicaca. Bedlam is not
+pleasant to one's ears; yet to see the staid mountain herdsmen, attired
+in plumes, petticoats, epaulets, and goggles, blowing mightily with
+puffed-out lips on bamboo flageolets, is worth a long journey.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Vilcanota Country and the Peruvian Highlanders
+
+In the northernmost part of the Titicaca Basin are the grassy foothills
+of the Cordillera Vilcanota, where large herds of alpacas thrive on
+the sweet, tender pasturage. Santa Rosa is the principal town. Here
+wool-buyers come to bid for the clip. The high prices which alpaca
+fleece commands have brought prosperity. Excellent blankets, renowned
+in southern Peru for their weight and texture, are made here on hand
+looms. Notwithstanding the altitude--nearly as great as the top of
+Pike's Peak--the stocky inhabitants of Santa Rosa are hardy, vigorous,
+and energetic. Ricardo Charaja, the best Quichua assistant we ever had,
+came from Santa Rosa. Nearly all the citizens are of pure Indian stock.
+
+They own many fine llamas. There is abundant pasturage and the llamas
+are well cared for by the Indians, who become personally attached to
+their flocks and are loath to part with any of the individuals. Once I
+attempted through a Cuzco acquaintance to secure the skin and skeleton
+of a fine llama for the Yale Museum. My friend was favorably known
+and spoke the Quichua language fluently. He offered a good price and
+obtained from various llama owners promises to bring the hide and bones
+of one of their "camels" for shipment; but they never did. Apparently
+they regarded it as unlucky to kill a llama, and none happened to die
+at the right time. The llamas never show affection for their masters,
+as horses often do. On the other hand I have never seen a llama kick
+or bite at his owner.
+
+The llama was the only beast of burden known in either North or South
+America before Columbus. It was found by the Spaniards in all parts of
+Inca Land. Its small two-toed feet, with their rough pads, enable it
+to walk easily on slopes too rough or steep for even a nimble-footed,
+mountain-bred mule. It has the reputation of being an unpleasant pet,
+due to its ability to sneeze or spit for a considerable distance
+a small quantity of acrid saliva. When I was in college Barnum's
+Circus came to town. The menagerie included a dozen llamas, whose
+supercilious expression, inoffensive looks, and small size--they are
+only three feet high at the shoulder
+
+tempted some little urchins to tease them. When the llamas felt
+that the time had come for reprisals, their aim was straight and the
+result a precipitate retreat. Their tormentors, howling and rubbing
+their eyes, had to run home and wash their faces. Curiously enough,
+in the two years which I have spent in the Peruvian highlands I have
+never seen a llama so attack a single human being. On the other hand,
+when I was in Santa Rosa in 1915 some one had a tame vicuna which was
+perfectly willing to sneeze straight at any stranger who came within
+twenty feet of it, even if one's motive was nothing more annoying than
+scientific curiosity. The vicuna is the smallest American "camel,"
+yet its long, slender neck, small head, long legs, and small body,
+from which hangs long, feathery fleece, make it look more like an
+ostrich than a camel.
+
+In the churchyard of Santa Rosa are two or three gnarled trees which
+have been carefully preserved for centuries as objects of respect and
+veneration. Some travelers have thought that 14,000 feet is above the
+tree line, but the presence of these trees at Santa Rosa would seem
+to show that the use of the words "tree line" is a misnomer in the
+Andes. Mr. Cook believes that the Peruvian plateau, with the exception
+of the coastal deserts, was once well covered with forests. When man
+first came into the Andes, everything except rocky ledges, snow fields,
+and glaciers was covered with forest growth. Although many districts
+are now entirely treeless, Mr. Cook found that the conditions of light,
+heat, and moisture, even at the highest elevations, are sufficient
+to support the growth of trees; also that there is ample fertility of
+soil. His theories are well substantiated by several isolated tracts
+of forests which I found growing alongside of glaciers at very high
+elevations. One forest in particular, on the slopes of Mt. Soiroccocha,
+has been accurately determined by Mr. Bumstead to be over 15,000 feet
+above sea level. It is cut off from the inhabited valley by rock falls
+and precipices, so it has not been available for fuel. Virgin forests
+are not known to exist in the Peruvian highlands on any lands which
+could have been cultivated. A certain amount of natural reforestation
+with native trees is taking place on abandoned agricultural terraces
+in some of the high valleys. Although these trees belong to many
+different species and families, Mr. Cook found that they all have
+this striking peculiarity--when cut down they sprout readily from
+the stumps and are able to survive repeated pollarding; remarkable
+evidence of the fact that the primeval forests of Peru were long ago
+cut down for fuel or burned over for agriculture.
+
+Near the Santa Rosa trees is a tall bell-tower. The sight of a
+picturesque belfry with four or five bells of different sizes hanging
+each in its respective window makes a strong appeal. It is quite
+otherwise on Sunday mornings when these same bells, "out of tune with
+themselves," or actually cracked, are all rung at the same time. The
+resulting clangor and din is unforgettable. I presume the Chinese would
+say it was intended to drive away the devils--and surely such noise
+must be "thoroughly uncongenial even to the most irreclaimable devil,"
+as Lord Frederick Hamilton said of the Canton practices. Church bells
+in the United States and England are usually sweet-toned and intended
+to invite the hearer to come to service, or else they ring out in
+joyous peals to announce some festive occasion. There is nothing
+inviting or joyous about the bells in southern Peru. Once in a while
+one may hear a bell of deep, sweet tone, like that of the great bell in
+Cuzco, which is tolled when the last sacrament is being administered
+to a dying Christian; but the general idea of bell-ringers in this
+part of the world seems to be to make the greatest possible amount
+of racket and clamor. On popular saints' days this is accompanied by
+firecrackers, aerial bombs, and other noise-making devices which again
+remind one of Chinese folkways. Perhaps it is merely that fundamental
+fondness for making a noise which is found in all healthy children.
+
+On Sunday afternoon the plaza of Santa Rosa was well filled with
+Quichua holiday-makers, many of whom had been imbibing freely of
+chicha, a mild native brew usually made from ripe corn. The crowd was
+remarkably good-natured and given to an unusual amount of laughter
+and gayety. For them Sunday is truly a day of rest, recreation,
+and sociability. On week days, most of them, even the smaller boys,
+are off on the mountain pastures, watching the herds whose wool
+brings prosperity to Santa Rosa. One sometimes finds the mountain
+Indians on Sunday afternoon sodden, thoroughly soaked with chicha,
+and inclined to resent the presence of inquisitive strangers; not so
+these good folk of Santa Rosa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Indian Alcaldes at Santa Rosa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Native Druggists in the Plaza of Sicuani
+------
+
+
+To be sure, the female vendors of eggs, potatoes, peppers, and sundry
+native vegetables, squatting in two long rows on the plaza, did not
+enjoy being photographed, but the men and boys crowded eagerly forward,
+very much interested in my endeavors. Some of the Indian alcaldes,
+local magistrates elected yearly to serve as the responsible officials
+for villages or tribal precincts, were very helpful and, armed with
+their large, silver-mounted staffs of office, tried to bring the
+shy, retiring women of the market-place to stand in a frightened,
+disgruntled, barefooted group before the camera. The women were dressed
+in the customary tight bodices, heavy woolen skirts, and voluminous
+petticoats of the plateau. Over their shoulders were pinned heavy
+woolen shawls, woven on hand looms. On their heads were reversible
+"pancake" hats made of straw, covered on the wet-weather side with
+coarse woolen stuff and on the fair-weather side with tinsel and
+velveteen. In accordance with local custom, tassels and fringes hung
+down on both sides. It is said that the first Inca ordered the dresses
+of each village to be different, so that his officials might know
+to which tribe an Indian belonged. It was only with great difficulty
+and by the combined efforts of a good-natured priest, the gobernador
+or mayor, and the alcaldes that a dozen very reluctant females
+were finally persuaded to face the camera. The expression of their
+faces was very eloquent. Some were highly indignant, others looked
+foolish or supercilious, two or three were thoroughly frightened, not
+knowing what evil might befall them next. Not one gave any evidence
+of enjoying it or taking the matter as a good joke, although that
+was the attitude assumed by all their male acquaintances. In fact,
+some of the men were so anxious to have their pictures taken that
+they followed us about and posed on the edge of every group.
+
+Men and boys all wore knitted woolen caps, with ear flaps, which they
+seldom remove either day or night. On top of these were large felt
+hats, turned up in front so as to give a bold aspect to their husky
+wearers. Over their shoulders were heavy woolen ponchos, decorated with
+bright stripes. Their trousers end abruptly halfway between knee and
+ankle, a convenient style for herdsmen who have to walk in the long,
+dewy grasses of the plateau. These "high-water" pantaloons do not
+look badly when worn with sandals, as is the usual custom; but since
+this was Sunday all the well-to-do men had put on European boots,
+which did not come up to the bottom of their trousers and produced
+a singular effect, hardly likely to become fashionable.
+
+The prosperity of the town was also shown by corrugated iron roofs. Far
+less picturesque than thatch or tile, they require less attention
+and give greater satisfaction during the rainy season. They can also
+be securely bolted to the rafters. On this wind-swept plateau we
+frequently noticed that a thatched roof was held in place by ropes
+passed over the house and weights resting on the roof. Sometimes to
+the peak of a gable are fastened crosses, tiny flags, or the skulls of
+animals--probably to avert the Evil Eye or bring good luck. Horseshoes
+do not seem to be in demand. Horses' skulls, however, are deemed
+very efficacious.
+
+On the rim of the Titicaca Basin is La Raya. The watershed is so level
+that it is almost impossible to say whether any particular raindrop
+will eventually find itself in Lake Titicaca or in the Atlantic
+Ocean. The water from a spring near the railroad station of Araranca
+flows definitely to the north. This spring may be said to be one of the
+sources of the Urubamba River, an important affluent of the Ucayali
+and also of the Amazon, but I never have heard it referred to as
+"the source of the Amazon" except by an adventurous lecturer, Captain
+Blank, whose moving picture entertainment bore the alluring title,
+"From the Source to the Mouth of the Amazon." As most of his pictures
+of wild animals "in the jungle" looked as though they were taken in
+the zooelogical gardens at Para, and the exciting tragedies of his canoe
+trip were actually staged near a friendly hacienda at Santa Ana, less
+than a week's journey from Cuzco, it is perhaps unnecessary to censure
+him for giving this particular little spring such a pretentious title.
+
+The Urubamba River is known by various names to the people who live on
+its banks. The upper portion is sometimes spoken of as the Vilcanota,
+a term which applies to a lake as well as to the snow-covered peaks
+of the cordillera in this vicinity. The lower portion was called by
+the Incas the Uilca or the Uilcamayu.
+
+Near the water-parting of La Raya I noticed the remains of an
+interesting wall which may have served centuries ago to divide the
+Incas of Cuzco from the Collas or warlike tribes of the Titicaca
+Basin. In places the wall has been kept in repair by the owners of
+grazing lands, but most of it can be but dimly traced across the
+valley and up the neighboring slopes to the cliffs of the Cordillera
+Vilcanota. It was built of rough stones. Near the historic wall
+are the ruins of ancient houses, possibly once occupied by an Inca
+garrison. I observed no ashlars among the ruins nor any evidence of
+careful masonry. It seems to me likely that it was a hastily thrown-up
+fortification serving for a single military campaign, rather than any
+permanent affair like the Roman wall of North Britain or the Great Wall
+of China. We know from tradition that war was frequently waged between
+the peoples of the Titicaca Basin and those of the Urubamba and Cuzco
+valleys. It is possible that this is a relic of one of those wars.
+
+On the other hand, it may be much older than the Incas. Montesinos,
+[3] one of the best early historians, tells us of Titu Yupanqui,
+Pachacuti VI, sixty-second of the Peruvian Amautas, rulers who
+long preceded the Incas. Against Pachacuti VI there came (about 800
+A.D.) large hordes of fierce soldiers from the south and east, laying
+waste fields and capturing cities and towns; evidently barbarian
+migrations which appear to have continued for some time. During
+these wars the ancient civilization, which had been built up with
+so much care and difficulty during the preceding twenty centuries,
+was seriously threatened. Pachacuti VI, more religious than warlike,
+ruler of a people whose great achievements had been agricultural
+rather than military, was frightened by his soothsayers and priests;
+they told him of many bad omens. Instead of inducing him to follow
+a policy of military preparedness, he was urged to make sacrifices
+to the deities. Nevertheless he ordered his captains to fortify the
+strategic points and make preparations for defense. The invaders
+may have come from Argentina. It is possible that they were spurred
+on by hunger and famine caused by the gradual exhaustion of forested
+areas and the subsequent spread of untillable grasslands on the great
+pampas. Montesinos indicates that many of the people who came up
+into the highlands at that time were seeking arable lands for their
+crops and were "fleeing from a race of giants"--possibly Patagonians
+or Araucanians--who had expelled them from their own lands. On their
+journey they had passed over plains, swamps, and jungles. It is obvious
+that a great readjustment of the aborigines was in progress. The
+governors of the districts through which these hordes passed were not
+able to summon enough strength to resist them. Pachacuti VI assembled
+the larger part of his army near the pass of La Raya and awaited the
+approach of the enemy. If the accounts given in Montesinos are true,
+this wall near La Raya may have been built about 1100 years ago,
+by the chiefs who were told to "fortify the strategic points."
+
+Certainly the pass of La Raya, long the gateway from the Titicaca
+Basin to the important cities and towns of the Urubamba Basin, was the
+key to the situation. It is probable that Pachacuti VI drew up his
+army behind this wall. His men were undoubtedly armed with slings,
+the weapon most familiar to the highland shepherds. The invaders,
+however, carried bows and arrows, more effective arms, swifter, more
+difficult to see, less easy to dodge. As Pachacuti VI was carried
+over the field of battle on a golden stretcher, encouraging his men,
+he was killed by an arrow. His army was routed. Montesinos states that
+only five hundred escaped. Leaving behind their wounded, they fled to
+"Tampu-tocco," a healthy place where there was a cave, in which they
+hid the precious body of their ruler. Most writers believe this to
+be at Paccaritampu where there are caves under an interesting carved
+rock. There is no place in Peru to-day which still bears the name
+of Tampu-tocco. To try and identify it with some of the ruins which
+do exist, and whose modern names are not found in the early Spanish
+writers, has been one of the principal objects of my expeditions to
+Peru, as will be described in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+A Potato-field at La Raya
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Laying Down the Warp for a Blanket: Near the Pass of La Raya
+------
+
+
+Near the watershed of La Raya we saw great flocks of sheep and alpacas,
+numerous corrals, and the thatched-roofed huts of herdsmen. The
+Quichua women are never idle. One often sees them engaged in the
+manufacture of textiles--shawls, girdles, ponchos, and blankets--on
+hand looms fastened to stakes driven into the ground. When tending
+flocks or walking along the road they are always winding or spinning
+yarn. Even the men and older children are sometimes thus engaged. The
+younger children, used as shepherds as soon as they reach the
+age of six or seven, are rarely expected to do much except watch
+their charges. Some of them were accompanied by long-haired suncca
+shepherd dogs, as large as Airedales, but very cowardly, given to
+barking and slinking away. It is claimed that the sunccas, as well
+as two other varieties, were domesticated by the Incas. None of them
+showed any desire to make the acquaintance of "Checkers," my faithful
+Airedale. Their masters, however, were always interested to see that
+"Checkers" could understand English. They had never seen a dog that
+could understand anything but Quichua!
+
+On the hillside near La Raya, Mr. Cook, Mr. Gilbert, and I visited
+a healthy potato field at an elevation of 14,500 feet, a record
+altitude for potatoes. When commencing to plough or spade a potato
+field on the high slopes near here, it is the custom of the Indians to
+mark it off into squares, by "furrows" about fifteen feet apart. The
+Quichuas commence their task soon after daybreak. Due to the absence
+of artificial lighting and the discomfort of rising in the bitter cold
+before dawn, their wives do not prepare breakfast before ten o'clock,
+at which time it is either brought from home in covered earthenware
+vessels or cooked in the open fields near where the men are working.
+
+We came across one energetic landowner supervising a score or more
+of Indians who were engaged in "ploughing" a potato field. Although
+he was dressed in European garb and was evidently a man of means and
+intelligence, and near the railroad, there were no modern implements
+in sight. We found that it is difficult to get Indians to use any
+except the implements of their ancestors. The process of "ploughing"
+this field was undoubtedly one that had been used for centuries,
+probably long before the Spanish Conquest. The men, working in unison
+and in a long row, each armed with a primitive spade or "foot plough,"
+to the handle of which footholds were lashed, would, at a signal, leap
+forward with a shout and plunge their spades into the turf. Facing
+each pair of men was a girl or woman whose duty it was to turn the
+clods over by hand. The men had taken off their ponchos, so as to
+secure greater freedom of action, but the women were fully clothed as
+usual, modesty seeming to require them even to keep heavy shawls over
+their shoulders. Although the work was hard and painful, the toil was
+lightened by the joyous contact of community activity. Every one worked
+with a will. There appeared to be a keen desire among the workers to
+keep up with the procession. Those who fell behind were subjected to
+good-natured teasing. Community work is sometimes pleasant, even though
+it appears to require a strong directing hand. The "boss" was right
+there. Such practices would never suit those who love independence.
+
+In the centuries of Inca domination there was little opportunity for
+individual effort. Private property was not understood. Everything
+belonged to the government. The crops were taken by the priests,
+the Incas and the nobles. The people were not as unhappy as we
+should be. One seldom had to labor alone. Everything was done in
+common. When it was time to cultivate the fields or to harvest the
+crops, the laborers were ordered by the Incas to go forth in huge
+family parties. They lessened the hardships of farm labor by village
+gossip and choral singing, interspersed at regular intervals with
+rest periods, in which quantities of chicha quenched the thirst and
+cheered the mind.
+
+Habits of community work are still shown in the Andes. One often sees a
+score or more of Indians carrying huge bundles of sheaves of wheat or
+barley. I have found a dozen yoke of oxen, each a few yards from the
+other in a parallel line, engaged in ploughing synchronously small
+portions of a large field. Although the landlords frequently visit
+Lima and sometimes go to Paris and New York, where they purchase
+for their own use the products of modern invention, the fields are
+still cultivated in the fashion introduced three centuries ago by the
+conquistadores, who brought the first draft animals and the primitive
+pointed plough of the ancient Mediterranean.
+
+Crops at La Raya are not confined to potatoes. Another food plant,
+almost unknown to Europeans, even those who live in Lima, is canihua,
+a kind of pigweed. It was being harvested at the time of our visit
+in April. The threshing floor for canihua is a large blanket laid
+on the ground. On top of this the stalks are placed and the flail
+applied, the blanket serving to prevent the small grayish seeds from
+escaping. The entire process uses nothing of European origin and has
+probably not changed for centuries.
+
+We noticed also quinoa and even barley growing at an elevation of
+14,000 feet. Quinoa is another species of pigweed. It often attains
+a height of three to four feet. There are several varieties. The
+white-seeded variety, after being boiled, may be fairly compared
+with oatmeal. Mr. Cook actually preferred it to the Scotch article,
+both for taste and texture. The seeds retain their form after being
+cooked and "do not appear so slimy as oatmeal." Other varieties of
+quinoa are bitter and have to be boiled several times, the water
+being frequently changed. The growing quinoa presents an attractive
+appearance; its leaves assume many colors.
+
+As we went down the valley the evidences of extensive cultivation,
+both ancient and modern, steadily increased. Great numbers of old
+terraces were to be seen. There were many fields of wheat, some of them
+growing high up on the mountain side in what are called temporales,
+where, owing to the steep slope, there is little effort at tillage or
+cultivation, the planter trusting to luck to get some kind of a crop
+in reward for very little effort. On April 14th, just above Sicuani,
+we saw fields where habas beans had been gathered and the dried stalks
+piled in little stacks. At Occobamba, or the pampa where oca grows,
+we found fields of that useful tuber, just now ripening. Near by
+were little thatched shelters, erected for the temporary use of night
+watchmen during the harvest season.
+
+The Peruvian highlanders whom we met by the roadside were different
+in feature, attitude, and clothing from those of the Titicaca Basin
+or even of Santa Rosa, which is not far away. They were typical
+Quichuas--peaceful agriculturists--usually spinning wool on the
+little hand spindles which have been used in the Andes from time
+immemorial. Their huts are built of adobe, the roofs thatched with
+coarse grass.
+
+The Quichuas are brown in color. Their hair is straight and black. Gray
+hair is seldom seen. It is the custom among the men in certain
+localities to wear their hair long and braided. Beards are sparse or
+lacking. Bald heads are very rare. Teeth seem to be more enduring
+than with us. Throughout the Andes the frequency of well-preserved
+teeth was everywhere noteworthy except on sugar plantations, where
+there is opportunity to indulge freely in crude brown sugar nibbled
+from cakes or mixed with parched corn and eaten as a travel ration.
+
+The Quichua face is broad and short. Its breadth is nearly the same
+as the Eskimo. Freckles are not common and appear to be limited to
+face and arms, in the few cases in which they were observed. On the
+other hand, a large proportion of the Indians are pock-marked and
+show the effects of living in a country which is "free from medical
+tyranny." There is no compulsory vaccination.
+
+One hardly ever sees a fat Quichua. It is difficult to tell whether
+this is a racial characteristic or due rather to the lack of
+fat-producing foods in their diet. Although the Peruvian highlander
+has made the best use he could of the llama, he was never able to
+develop its slender legs and weak back sufficiently to use it for
+loads weighing more than eighty or a hundred pounds. Consequently, for
+the carrying of really heavy burdens he had to depend on himself. As
+a result, it is not surprising to learn from Dr. Ferris that while
+his arms are poorly developed, his shoulders are broader, his back
+muscles stronger, and the calves of his legs larger and more powerful
+than those of almost any other race.
+
+The Quichuas are fond of shaking hands. When a visiting Indian
+joins a group he nearly always goes through the gentle ceremony with
+each person in turn. I do not know whether this was introduced by
+the Spaniards or comes down from prehistoric times. In any event,
+this handshaking in no way resembles the hearty clasp familiar to
+undergraduates at the beginning of the college year. As a matter of
+fact the Quichua handshake is extremely fishy and lacks cordiality. In
+testing the hand grip of the Quichuas by a dynamometer our surgeons
+found that the muscles of the forearm were poorly developed in the
+Quichua and the maximum grip was weak in both sexes, the average
+for the man being only about half of that found among American white
+adults of sedentary habits.
+
+Dr. Ales Hrdlicka believes that the aboriginal races of North
+and South America were of the same stock. The wide differences
+in physiognomy observable among the different tribes in North and
+South America are perhaps due to their environmental history during
+the past 10,000 or 20,000 years. Mr. Frank Chapman, of the American
+Museum of Natural History, has pointed out the interesting biological
+fact that animals and birds found at sea level in the cold regions of
+Tierra del Fuego, while not found at sea level in Peru, do exist at
+very high altitudes, where the climate is similar to that with which
+they are acquainted. Similarly, it is interesting to learn that the
+inhabitants of the cold, lofty regions of southern Peru, living in
+towns and villages at altitudes of from 9000 to 14,000 feet above the
+sea, have physical peculiarities closely resembling those living at
+sea level in Tierra del Fuego, Alaska, and Labrador. Dr. Ferris says
+the Labrador Eskimo and the Quichua constitute the two "best-known
+short-stature races on the American continent."
+
+So far as we could learn by questions and observation, about one
+quarter of the Quichuas are childless. In families which have children
+the average number is three or four. Large families are not common,
+although we generally learned that the living children in a family
+usually represented less than half of those which had been born. Infant
+mortality is very great. The proper feeding of children is not
+understood and it is a marvel how any of them manage to grow up at all.
+
+Coughs and bronchial trouble are very common among the Indians. In
+fact, the most common afflictions of the tableland are those of the
+throat and lungs. Pneumonia is the most serious and most to be dreaded
+of all local diseases. It is really terrifying. Due to the rarity
+of the air and relative scarcity of oxygen, pneumonia is usually
+fatal at 8000 feet and is uniformly so at 11,000 feet. Patients are
+frequently ill only twenty-four hours. Tuberculosis is fairly common,
+its prevalence undoubtedly caused by the living conditions practiced
+among the highlanders, who are unwilling to sleep in a room which is
+not tightly closed and protected against any possible intrusion of
+fresh air. In the warmer valleys, where bodily comfort has led the
+natives to use huts of thatch and open reeds, instead of the air-tight
+hovels of the cold, bleak plateau, tuberculosis is seldom seen. Of
+course, there are no "boards of health," nor are the people bothered by
+being obliged to conform to any sanitary regulations. Water supplies
+are so often contaminated that the people have learned to avoid
+drinking it as far as possible. Instead, they eat quantities of soup.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Ruins of the Temple of Viracocha at Racche
+------
+
+
+In the market-place of Sicuani, the largest town in the valley, and
+the border-line between the potato-growing uplands and lowland maize
+fields, we attended the famous Sunday market. Many native "druggists"
+were present. Their stock usually consisted of "medicines," whose
+efficacy was learned by the Incas. There were forty or fifty kinds
+of simples and curiosities, cure-alls, and specifics. Fully half
+were reported to me as being "useful against fresh air" or the evil
+effects of drafts. The "medicines" included such minerals as iron
+ore and sulphur; such vegetables as dried seeds, roots, and the
+leaves of plants domesticated hundreds of years ago by the Incas or
+gathered in the tropical jungles of the lower Urubamba Valley; and
+such animals as starfish brought from the Pacific Ocean. Some of them
+were really useful herbs, while others have only a psychopathic effect
+on the patient. Each medicine was in an attractive little particolored
+woolen bag. The bags, differing in design and color, woven on miniature
+hand looms, were arranged side by side on the ground, the upper parts
+turned over and rolled down so as to disclose the contents.
+
+Not many miles below Sicuani, at a place called Racche, are the
+remarkable ruins of the so-called Temple of Viracocha, described by
+Squier. At first sight Racche looks as though there were here a row
+of nine or ten lofty adobe piers, forty or fifty feet high! Closer
+inspection, however, shows them all to be parts of the central wall of
+a great temple. The wall is pierced with large doors and the spaces
+between the doors are broken by niches, narrower at the top than at
+the bottom. There are small holes in the doorposts for bar-holds. The
+base of the great wall is about five feet thick and is of stone. The
+ashlars are beautifully cut and, while not rectangular, are roughly
+squared and fitted together with most exquisite care, so as to insure
+their making a very firm foundation. Their surface is most attractive,
+but, strange to say, there is unmistakable evidence that the builders
+did not wish the stonework to show. This surface was at one time
+plastered with clay, a very significant fact. The builders wanted the
+wall to seem to be built entirely of adobe, yet, had the great clay
+wall rested on the ground, floods and erosion might have succeeded
+in undermining it. Instead, it rests securely on a beautifully built
+foundation of solid masonry. Even so, the great wall does not stand
+absolutely true, but leans slightly to the westward. The wall also
+seems to be less weathered on the west side. Probably the prevailing
+or strongest wind is from the east.
+
+An interesting feature of the ruins is a round column about twenty
+feet high--a very rare occurrence in Inca architecture. It also
+is of adobe, on a stone foundation. There is only one column now
+standing. In Squier's day the remains of others were to be seen,
+but I could find no evidences of them. There was probably a double
+row of these columns to support the stringers and tiebeams of the
+roof. Apparently one end of a tiebeam rested on the circular column
+and the other end was embedded in the main wall. The holes where the
+tiebeams entered the wall have stone lintels.
+
+Near the ruins of the great temple are those of other buildings, also
+unique, so far as I know. The base of the party wall, decorated with
+large niches, is of cut ashlars carefully laid; the middle course is of
+adobe, while the upper third is of rough, uncut stones. It looks very
+odd now but was originally covered with fine clay or stucco. In several
+cases the plastered walls are still standing, in fairly good condition,
+particularly where they have been sheltered from the weather.
+
+The chief marvel of Racche, however, is the great adobe wall of the
+temple, which is nearly fifty feet high. It is slowly disintegrating,
+as might be expected. The wonder is that it should have stood so
+long in a rainy region without any roof or protecting cover. It is
+incredible that for at least five hundred years a wall of sun-dried
+clay should have been able to defy severe rainstorms. The lintels,
+made of hard-wood timbers and partially embedded in the wall, are all
+gone; yet the adobe remains. It would be very interesting to find out
+whether the water of the springs near the temple contains lime. If
+so this might have furnished natural calcareous cement in sufficient
+quantity to give the clay a particularly tenacious quality, able to
+resist weathering. The factors which have caused this extraordinary
+adobe wall to withstand the weather in such an exposed position for
+so many centuries, notwithstanding the heavy rains of each summer
+season from December to March, are worthy of further study.
+
+It has been claimed that this temple was devoted to the worship
+of Viracocha, a great deity, the Jove or Zeus of the ancient
+pantheon. It seems to me more reasonable to suppose that a primitive
+folk constructed here a temple to the presiding divinity of the place,
+the god who gave them this precious clay. The principal industry
+of the neighboring village is still the manufacture of pottery. No
+better clay for ceramic purposes has been found in the Andes.
+
+It would have been perfectly natural for the prehistoric potters to
+have desired to placate the presiding divinity, not so much perhaps
+out of gratitude for the clay as to avert his displeasure and fend
+off bad luck in baking pottery. It is well known that the best pottery
+of the Incas was extremely fine in texture. Students of ceramics are
+well aware of the uncertainty of the results of baking clay. Bad luck
+seems to come most unaccountably, even when the greatest pains are
+taken. Might it not have been possible that the people who were most
+concerned with creating pottery decided to erect this temple to insure
+success and get as much good luck as possible? Near the ancient temple
+is a small modern church with two towers. The churchyard appears to be
+a favorite place for baking pottery. Possibly the modern potters use
+the church to pray for success in their baking, just as the ancient
+potters used the great temple of Viracocha. The walls of the church are
+composed partly of adobe and partly of cut stones taken from the ruins.
+
+Not far away is a fairly recent though prehistoric lava flow. It
+occurs to me that possibly this flow destroyed some of the clay
+beds from which the ancient potters got their precious material. The
+temple may have been erected as a propitiatory offering to the god
+of volcanoes in the hope that the anger which had caused him to send
+the lava flow might be appeased. It may be that the Inca Viracocha,
+an unusually gifted ruler, was particularly interested in ceramics and
+was responsible for building the temple. If so, it would be natural
+for people who are devoted to ancestor worship to have here worshiped
+his memory.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Route Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912
+------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Valley of the Huatanay
+
+The valley of the Huatanay is one of many valleys tributary to the
+Urubamba. It differs from them in having more arable land located under
+climatic conditions favorable for the raising of the food crops of the
+ancient Peruvians. Containing an area estimated at less than 160 square
+miles, it was the heart of the greatest empire that South America has
+ever seen. It is still intensively cultivated, the home of a large
+percentage of the people of this part of Peru. The Huatanay itself
+sometimes meanders through the valley in a natural manner, but at
+other times is seen to be confined within carefully built stone walls
+constructed by prehistoric agriculturists anxious to save their fields
+from floods and erosion. The climate is temperate. Extreme cold is
+unknown. Water freezes in the lowlands during the dry winter season,
+in June and July, and frost may occur any night in the year above
+13,000 feet, but in general the climate may be said to be neither
+warm nor cold.
+
+This rich valley was apportioned by the Spanish conquerors to
+soldiers who were granted large estates as well as the labor of
+the Indians living on them. This method still prevails and one may
+occasionally meet on the road wealthy landholders on their way to and
+from town. Although mules are essentially the most reliable saddle
+animals for work in the Andes, these landholders usually prefer horses,
+which are larger and faster, as well as being more gentle and better
+gaited. The gentry of the Huatanay Valley prefer a deep-seated saddle,
+over which is laid a heavy sheepskin or thick fur mat. The fashionable
+stirrups are pyramidal in shape, made of wood decorated with silver
+bands. Owing to the steepness of the roads, a crupper is considered
+necessary and is usually decorated with a broad, embossed panel,
+from which hang little trappings reminiscent of medieval harness. The
+bridle is usually made of carefully braided leather, decorated with
+silver and frequently furnished with an embossed leather eye shade or
+blinder, to indicate that the horse is high-spirited. This eye shade,
+which may be pulled down so as to blind both eyes completely, is more
+useful than a hitching post in persuading the horse to stand still.
+
+The valley of the Huatanay River is divided into three parts, the
+basins of Lucre, Oropesa, and Cuzco. The basaltic cliffs near Oropesa
+divide the Lucre Basin from the Oropesa Basin. The pass at Angostura,
+or "the narrows," is the natural gateway between the Oropesa Basin and
+the Cuzco Basin. Each basin contains interesting ruins. In the Lucre
+Basin the most interesting are those of Rumiccolca and Piquillacta.
+
+At the extreme eastern end of the valley, on top of the pass which
+leads to the Vilcanota is an ancient gateway called Rumiccolca (Rumi =
+"stone"; ccolca = "granary"). It is commonly supposed that this was
+an Inca fortress, intended to separate the chiefs of Cuzco from those
+of Vilcanota. It is now locally referred to as a "fortaleza." The
+major part of the wall is well built of rough stones, laid in clay,
+while the sides of the gateway are faced with carefully cut andesite
+ashlars of an entirely different style. It is conceivable that some
+great chieftain built the rough wall in the days when the highlands
+were split up among many little independent rulers, and that later one
+of the Incas, no longer needing any fortifications between the Huatanay
+Valley and the Vilcanota Valley, tore down part of the wall and built
+a fine gateway. The faces of the ashlars are nicely finished except
+for several rough bosses or nubbins. They were probably used by the
+ancient masons in order to secure a better hold when finally adjusting
+the ashlars with small crowbars. It may have been the intention of the
+stone masons to remove these nubbins after the wall was completed. In
+one of the unfinished structures at Machu Picchu I noticed similar
+bosses. The name "Stone-granary" was probably originally applied to
+a neighboring edifice now in ruins.
+
+On the rocky hillside above Rumiccolca are the ruins of many ancient
+terraces and some buildings. Not far from Rumiccolca, on the slopes
+of Mt. Piquillacta, are the ruins of an extensive city, also called
+Piquillacta. A large number of its houses have extraordinarily high
+walls. A high wall outside the city, and running north and south,
+was obviously built to protect it from enemies approaching from the
+Vilcanota Valley. In the other directions the slopes are so steep as
+to render a wall unnecessary. The walls are built of fragments of lava
+rock, with which the slopes of Mt. Piquillacta are covered. Cacti and
+thorny scrub are growing in the ruins, but the volcanic soil is rich
+enough to attract the attention of agriculturists, who come here from
+neighboring villages to cultivate their crops. The slopes above the
+city are still extensively cultivated, but without terraces. Wheat
+and barley are the principal crops.
+
+As an illustration of the difficulty of identifying places in ancient
+Peru, it is worth noting that the gateway now called Rumiccolca is
+figured in Squier's "Peru" as "Piquillacta." On the other hand,
+the ruins of the large city, "covering thickly an area nearly a
+square mile," are called by Squier "the great Inca town of Muyna,"
+a name also applied to the little lake which lies in the bottom of
+the Lucre Basin. As Squier came along the road from Racche he saw
+Mt. Piquillacta first, then the gateway, then Lake Muyna, then the
+ruins of the city. In each case the name of the most conspicuous,
+harmless, natural phenomenon seems to have been applied to ruins by
+those of whom he inquired. My own experience was different.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Lucre Basin, Lake Muyna, and the City Wall of Piquillacta
+------
+
+
+Dr. Aguilar, a distinguished professor in the University of Cuzco, who
+has a country place in the neighborhood and is very familiar with this
+region, brought me to this ancient city from the other direction. From
+him I learned that the city ruins are called Piquillacta, the name
+which is also applied to the mountain which lies to the eastward
+of the ruins and rises 1200 feet above them. Dr. Aguilar lives near
+Oropesa. As one comes from Oropesa, Mt. Piquillacta is a conspicuous
+point and is directly in line with the city ruins. Consequently,
+it would be natural for people viewing it from this direction to
+give to the ruins the name of the mountain rather than that of the
+lake. Yet the mountain may be named for the ruins. Piqui means "flea";
+llacta means "town, city, country, district, or territory." Was this
+"The Territory of the Fleas" or was it "Flea Town"? And what was its
+name in the days of the Incas? Was the old name abandoned because it
+was considered unlucky?
+
+Whatever the reason, it is a most extraordinary fact that we have
+here the evidences of a very large town, possibly pre-Inca, long since
+abandoned. There are scores of houses and numerous compounds laid out
+in regular fashion, the streets crossing each other at right angles,
+the whole covering an area considerably larger than the important town
+of Ollantaytambo. Not a soul lives here. It is true that across the
+Vilcanota to the east is a difficult, mountainous country culminating
+in Mt. Ausangate, the highest peak in the department. Yet Piquillacta
+is in the midst of a populous region. To the north lies the thickly
+settled valley of Pisac and Yucay; to the south, the important
+Vilcanota Valley with dozens of villages; to the west the densely
+populated valley of the Huatanay and Cuzco itself, the largest city
+in the highlands of Peru. Thousands of people live within a radius of
+twenty miles of Piquillacta, and the population is on the increase. It
+is perfectly easy of access and is less than a mile east of the
+railroad. Yet it is "abandonado--desierto--despoblado"! Undoubtedly
+here was once a large city of great importance. The reason for its
+being abandoned appears to be the absence of running water. Although
+Mt. Piquillacta is a large mass, nearly five miles long and two miles
+wide, rising to a point of 2000 feet above the Huatanay and Vilcanota
+rivers, it has no streams, brooks, or springs. It is an isolated,
+extinct volcano surrounded by igneous rocks, lavas, andesites,
+and basalts.
+
+How came it that so large a city as Piquillacta could have been built
+on the slopes of a mountain which has no running streams? Has the
+climate changed so much since those days? If so, how is it that the
+surrounding region is still the populous part of southern Peru? It is
+inconceivable that so large a city could have been built and occupied
+on a plateau four hundred feet above the nearest water unless there
+was some way of providing it other than the arduous one of bringing
+every drop up the hill on the backs of men and llamas. If there
+were no places near here better provided with water than this site,
+one could understand that perhaps its inhabitants were obliged to
+depend entirely upon water carriers. On the contrary, within a radius
+of six miles there are half a dozen unoccupied sites near running
+streams. Until further studies can be made of this puzzling problem
+I believe that the answer lies in the ruins of Rumiccolca, which are
+usually thought of as a fortress.
+
+Squier says that this "fortress" was "the southern limit of the
+dominions of the first Inca." "The fortress reaches from the mountain,
+on one side, to a high, rocky eminence on the other. It is popularly
+called 'El Aqueducto,' perhaps from some fancied resemblance to an
+aqueduct--but the name is evidently misapplied." Yet he admits that the
+cross-section of the wall, diminishing as it does "by graduations or
+steps on both sides," "might appear to conflict with the hypothesis
+of its being a work of defense or fortification" if it occupied
+"a different position." He noticed that "the top of the wall is
+throughout of the same level; becomes less in height as it approaches
+the hills on either hand and diminishes proportionately in thickness"
+as an aqueduct should do. Yet, so possessed was he by the "fortress"
+idea that he rejected not only local tradition as expressed in the
+native name, but even turned his back on the evidence of his own
+eyes. It seems to me that there is little doubt that instead of the
+ruins of Rumiccolca representing a fortification, we have here the
+remains of an ancient azequia, or aqueduct, built by some powerful
+chieftain to supply the people of Piquillacta with water.
+
+A study of the topography of the region shows that the river which
+rises southwest of the village of Lucre and furnishes water power
+for its modern textile mills could have been used to supply such
+an azequia. The water, collected at an elevation of 10,700 feet,
+could easily have been brought six miles along the southern slopes
+of the Lucre Basin, around Mt. Rumiccolca and across the old road,
+on this aqueduct, at an elevation of about 10,600 feet. This would
+have permitted it to flow through some of the streets of Piquillacta
+and give the ancient city an adequate supply of water. The slopes
+of Rumiccolca are marked by many ancient terraces. Their upper limit
+corresponds roughly with the contour along which such an azequia would
+have had to pass. There is, in fact, a distinct line on the hillside
+which looks as though an azequia had once passed that way. In the
+valley back of Lucre are also faint indications of old azequias. There
+has been, however, a considerable amount of erosion on the hills,
+and if, as seems likely, the water-works have been out of order for
+several centuries, it is not surprising that all traces of them have
+disappeared in places. I regret very much that circumstances over
+which I had no control prevented my making a thorough study of the
+possibilities of such a theory. It remains for some fortunate future
+investigator to determine who were the inhabitants of Piquillacta,
+how they secured their water supply, and why the city was abandoned.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Sacsahuaman: Detail of Lower Terrace Wall
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of the Aqueduct of Rumiccolca
+------
+
+
+Until then I suggest as a possible working hypothesis that we have at
+Piquillacta the remains of a pre-Inca city; that its chiefs and people
+cultivated the Lucre Basin and its tributaries; that as a community
+they were a separate political entity from the people of Cuzco;
+that the ruler of the Cuzco people, perhaps an Inca, finally became
+sufficiently powerful to conquer the people of the Lucre Basin, and
+removed the tribes which had occupied Piquillacta to a distant part of
+his domain, a system of colonization well known in the history of the
+Incas; that, after the people who had built and lived in Piquillacta
+departed, no subsequent dwellers in this region cared to reoccupy the
+site, and its aqueduct fell into decay. It is easy to believe that
+at first such a site would have been considered unlucky. Its houses,
+unfamiliar and unfashionable in design, would have been considered not
+desirable. Their high walls might have been used for a reconstructed
+city had there been plenty of water available. In any case, the ruins
+of the Lucre Basin offer a most fascinating problem.
+
+In the Oropesa Basin the most important ruins are those of Tipon,
+a pleasant, well-watered valley several hundred feet above the
+village of Quispicanchi. They include carefully constructed houses
+of characteristic Inca construction, containing many symmetrically
+arranged niches with stone lintels. The walls of most of the houses
+are of rough stones laid in clay. Tipon was probably the residence
+of the principal chief of the Oropesa Basin. It commands a pleasant
+view of the village and of the hills to the south, which to-day
+are covered with fields of wheat and barley. At Tipon there is a
+nicely constructed fountain of cut stone. Some of the terraces are
+extremely well built, with roughly squared blocks fitting tightly
+together. Access from one terrace to another was obtained by steps made
+each of a single bonder projecting from the face of the terrace. Few
+better constructed terrace walls are to be seen anywhere. The terraces
+are still cultivated by the people of Quispicanchi. No one lives at
+Tipon now, although little shepherd boys and goatherds frequent the
+neighborhood. It is more convenient for the agriculturists to live
+at the edge of their largest fields, which are in the valley bottom,
+than to climb five hundred feet into the narrow valley and occupy the
+old buildings. Motives of security no longer require a residence here
+rather than in the open plain.
+
+While I was examining the ruins and digging up a few attractive
+potsherds bearing Inca designs, Dr. Giesecke, the President of the
+University of Cuzco, who had accompanied me, climbed the mountain above
+Tipon with Dr. Aguilar and reported the presence of a fortification
+near its summit. My stay at Oropesa was rendered most comfortable
+and happy by the generous hospitality of Dr. Aguilar, whose finca
+is between Quispicanchi and Oropesa and commands a charming view of
+the valley.
+
+From the Oropesa Basin, one enters the Cuzco Basin through an opening
+in the sandstone cliffs of Angostura near the modern town of San
+Geronimo. On the slopes above the south bank of the Huatanay, just
+beyond Angostura, are the ruins of a score or more of gable-roofed
+houses of characteristic Inca construction. The ancient buildings
+have doors, windows, and niches in walls of small stones laid in clay,
+the lintels having been of wood, now decayed. When we asked the name
+of these ruins we were told that it was Saylla, although that is
+the name of a modern village three miles away, down the Huatanay,
+in the Oropesa Basin. Like Piquillacta, old Saylla has no water
+supply at present. It is not far from a stream called the Kkaira
+and could easily have been supplied with water by an azequia less
+than two miles in length brought along the 11,000 feet contour. It
+looks very much like the case of a village originally placed on the
+hills for the sake of comparative security and isolation and later
+abandoned through a desire to enjoy the advantages of living near
+the great highway in the bottom of the valley, after the Incas had
+established peace over the highlands. There may be another explanation.
+
+It appears from Mr. Cook's studies that the deforestation of the Cuzco
+Basin by the hand of man, and modern methods of tillage on unterraced
+slopes, have caused an unusual amount of erosion to occur. Landslides
+are frequent in the rainy season.
+
+Opposite Saylla is Mt. Picol, whose twin peaks are the most conspicuous
+feature on the north side of the basin. Waste material from its
+slopes is causing the rapid growth of a great gravel fan north of the
+village of San Geronimo. Professor Gregory noticed that the streams
+traversing the fan are even now engaged in burying ancient fields by
+"transporting gravel from the head of the fan to its lower margin,"
+and that the lower end of the Cuzco Basin, where the Huatanay, hemmed
+in between the Angostura Narrows, cannot carry away the sediment as
+fast as it is brought down by its tributaries, is being choked up. If
+old Saylla represents a fortress set here to defend Cuzco against old
+Oropesa, it might very naturally have been abandoned when the rule
+of the Incas finally spread far over the Andes. On the other hand,
+it seems more likely that the people who built Saylla were farmers
+and that when the lower Cuzco Basin was filled up by aggradation,
+due to increased erosion, they abandoned this site for one nearer the
+arable lands. One may imagine the dismay with which the agricultural
+residents of these ancient houses saw their beautiful fields at the
+bottom of the hill, covered in a few days, or even hours, by enormous
+quantities of coarse gravel brought down from the steep slopes of Picol
+after some driving rainstorm. It may have been some such catastrophe
+that led them to take up their residence elsewhere. As a matter of
+fact we do not know when it was abandoned. Further investigation
+might point to its having been deserted when the Spanish village of
+San Geronimo was founded. However, I believe students of agriculture
+will agree with me that deforestation, increased erosion, and aggrading
+gravel banks probably drove the folk out of Saylla.
+
+The southern rim of the Cuzco Basin is broken by no very striking
+peaks, although Huanacaurai (13,427 ft.), the highest point, is
+connected in Inca tradition with some of the principal festivals
+and religious celebrations. The north side of the Huatanay Valley is
+much more irregular, ranging from Ttica Ttica pass (12,000 ft.) to
+Mt. Pachatucsa (15,915 ft.), whose five little peaks are frequently
+snow-clad. There is no permanent snow either here or elsewhere in
+the Huatanay Valley.
+
+The people of the Cuzco Basin are very short of fuel. There is no
+native coal. What the railroad uses comes from Australia. Firewood is
+scarce. The ancient forests disappeared long ago. The only trees in
+sight are a few willows or poplars from Europe and one or two groves of
+eucalyptus, also from Australia. Cuzco has been thought of and written
+of as being above the tree line, but such is not the case. The absence
+of trees on the neighboring hills is due entirely to the hand of man,
+the long occupation, the necessities of early agriculturists, who
+cleared the forests before the days of intensive terrace agriculture,
+and the firewood requirements of a large population. The people of
+Cuzco do not dream of having enough fuel to make their houses warm
+and comfortable. Only with difficulty can they get enough for cooking
+purposes. They depend largely on fagots and straw which are brought
+into town on the backs of men and animals.
+
+In the fields of stubble left from the wheat and barley harvest we
+saw many sheep feeding. They were thin and long-legged and many of
+the rams had four horns, apparently due to centuries of inbreeding
+and the failure to improve the original stock by the introduction of
+new and superior strains.
+
+When one looks at the great amount of arable slopes on most of the
+hills of the Cuzco Basin and the unusually extensive flat land near the
+Huatanay, one readily understands why the heart of Inca Land witnessed
+a concentration of population very unusual in the Andes. Most of the
+important ruins are in the northwest quadrant of the basin either in
+the immediate vicinity of Cuzco itself or on the "pampas" north of the
+city. The reason is that the arable lands where most extensive potato
+cultivation could be carried out are nearly all in this quadrant. In
+the midst of this potato country, at the foot of the pass that leads
+directly to Pisac and Paucartambo, is a picturesque ruin which bears
+the native name of Pucara.
+
+Pucara is the Quichua word for fortress and it needs but one glance
+at the little hilltop crowned with a rectangular fortification to
+realize that the term is justified. The walls are beautifully made of
+irregular blocks closely fitted together. Advantage was taken of small
+cliffs on two sides of the hill to strengthen the fortifications. We
+noticed openings or drains which had been cut in the wall by the
+original builders in order to prevent the accumulation of moisture on
+the terraced floor of the enclosed area, which is several feet above
+that of the sloping field outside. Similar conduits may be seen in
+many of the old walls in the city of Cuzco. Apparently, the ancient
+folk fully appreciated the importance of good drainage and took pains
+to secure it. At present Pucara is occupied by llama herdsmen and
+drovers, who find the enclosure a very convenient corral. Probably
+Pucara was built by the chief of a tribe of prehistoric herdsmen who
+raised root crops and kept their flocks of llamas and alpacas on the
+neighboring grassy slopes.
+
+A short distance up the stream of the Lkalla Chaca, above Pucara, is
+a warm mineral spring. Around it is a fountain of cut stone. Near by
+are the ruins of a beautiful terrace, on top of which is a fine wall
+containing four large, ceremonial niches, level with the ground and
+about six feet high. The place is now called Tampu Machai. Polo de
+Ondegardo, who lived in Cuzco in 1560, while many of the royal family
+of the Incas were still alive, gives a list of the sacred or holy
+places which were venerated by all the Indians in those days. Among
+these he mentions that of Timpucpuquio, the "hot springs" near Tambo
+Machai, "called so from the manner in which the water boils up." The
+next huaca, or holy place, he mentions is Tambo Machai itself,
+"a house of the Inca Yupanqui, where he was entertained when he
+went to be married. It was placed on a hill near the road over the
+Andes. They sacrifice everything here except children."
+
+The stonework of the ruins here is so excellent in character, the
+ashlars being very carefully fitted together, one may fairly assume
+a religious origin for the place. The Quichua word macchini means
+"to wash" or "to rinse a large narrow-mouthed pitcher." It may be
+that at Tampu Machai ceremonial purification of utensils devoted to
+royal or priestly uses was carried on. It is possible that this is
+the place where, according to Molina, all the youths of Cuzco who had
+been armed as knights in the great November festival came on the 21st
+day of the month to bathe and change their clothes. Afterwards they
+returned to the city to be lectured by their relatives. "Each relation
+that offered a sacrifice flogged a youth and delivered a discourse to
+him, exhorting him to be valiant and never to be a traitor to the Sun
+and the Inca, but to imitate the bravery and prowess of his ancestors."
+
+Tampu Machai is located on a little bluff above the Lkalla Chaca,
+a small stream which finally joins the Huatanay near the town of San
+Sebastian. Before it reaches the Huatanay, the Lkalla Chaca joins the
+Cachimayo, famous as being so highly impregnated with salt as to have
+caused the rise of extensive salt works. In fact, the Pizarros named
+the place Las Salinas, or "the Salt Pits," on account of the salt
+pans with which, by a careful system of terracing, the natives had
+filled the Cachimayo Valley. Prescott describes the great battle which
+took place here on April 26, 1539, between the forces of Pizarro and
+Almagro, the two leaders who had united for the original conquest of
+Peru, but quarreled over the division of the territory. Near the salt
+pans are many Inca walls and the ruins of structures, with niches,
+called Rumihuasi, or "Stone House." The presence of salt in many of
+the springs of the Huatanay Valley was a great source of annoyance
+to our topographic engineers, who were frequently obliged to camp in
+districts where the only water available was so saline as to spoil
+it for drinking purposes and ruin the tea.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Cuzco Basin was undoubtedly once the site of a lake, "an ancient
+water-body whose surface," says Professor Gregory, "lay well above
+the present site of San Sebastian and San Geronimo." This lake is
+believed to have reached its maximum expansion in early Pleistocene
+times. Its rich silts, so well adapted for raising maize, habas beans,
+and quinoa, have always attracted farmers and are still intensively
+cultivated. It has been named "Lake Morkill" in honor of that loyal
+friend of scientific research in Peru, William L. Morkill, Esq.,
+without whose untiring aid we could never have brought our Peruvian
+explorations as far along as we did. In pre-glacial times Lake Morkill
+fluctuated in volume. From time to time parts of the shore were
+exposed long enough to enable plants to send their roots into the fine
+materials and the sun to bake and crack the muds. Mastodons grazed
+on its banks. "Lake Morkill probably existed during all or nearly
+all of the glacial epoch." Its drainage was finally accomplished
+by the Huatanay cutting down the sandstone hills, near Saylla, and
+developing the Angostura gorge.
+
+In the banks of the Huatanay, a short distance below the city of
+Cuzco, the stratified beds of the vanished Lake Morkill to-day
+contain many fossil shells. Above these are gravels brought down by
+the floods and landslides of more modern times, in which may be found
+potsherds and bones. One of the chief affluents of the Huatanay is the
+Chunchullumayo, which cuts off the southernmost third of Cuzco from
+the center of the city. Its banks are terraced and are still used for
+gardens and food crops. Here the hospitable Canadian missionaries have
+their pleasant station, a veritable oasis of Anglo-Saxon cleanliness.
+
+On a July morning in 1911, while strolling up the Ayahuaycco quebrada,
+an affluent of the Chunchullumayo, in company with Professor Foote
+and Surgeon Erving, my interest was aroused by the sight of several
+bones and potsherds exposed by recent erosion in the stratified gravel
+banks of the little gulch. Further examination showed that recent
+erosion had also cut through an ancient ash heap. On the side toward
+Cuzco I discovered a section of stone wall, built of roughly finished
+stones more or less carefully fitted together, which at first sight
+appeared to have been built to prevent further washing away of that
+side of the gulch. Yet above the wall and flush with its surface
+the bank appeared to consist of stratified gravel, indicating that
+the wall antedated the gravel deposits. Fifty feet farther up the
+quebrada another portion of wall appeared under the gravel bank. On
+top of the bank was a cultivated field! Half an hour's digging in
+the compact gravel showed that there was more wall underneath the
+field. Later investigation by Dr. Bowman showed that the wall was
+about three feet thick and nine feet in height, carefully faced on
+both sides with roughly cut stone and filled in with rubble, a type
+of stonework not uncommon in the foundations of some of the older
+buildings in the western part of the city of Cuzco.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huatanay Vallye, Cuzco, and the Ayahuaycco Quebrada
+------
+
+
+Even at first sight it was obvious that this wall, built by man,
+was completely covered to a depth of six or eight feet by a compact
+water-laid gravel bank. This was sufficiently difficult to understand,
+yet a few days later, while endeavoring to solve the puzzle,
+I found something even more exciting. Half a mile farther up the
+gulch, the road, newly cut, ran close to the compact, perpendicular
+gravel bank. About five feet above the road I saw what looked like
+one of the small rocks which are freely interspersed throughout the
+gravels here. Closer examination showed it to be the end of a human
+femur. Apparently it formed an integral part of the gravel bank,
+which rose almost perpendicularly for seventy or eighty feet above
+it. Impressed by the possibilities in case it should turn out to be
+true that here, in the heart of Inca Land, a human bone had been buried
+under seventy-five feet of gravel, I refrained from disturbing it
+until I could get Dr. Bowman and Professor Foote, the geologist and the
+naturalist of the 1911 Expedition, to come with me to the Ayahuaycco
+quebrada. We excavated the femur and found behind it fragments of
+a number of other bones. They were excessively fragile. The femur
+was unable to support more than four inches of its own weight and
+broke off after the gravel had been partly removed. Although the
+gravel itself was somewhat damp the bones were dry and powdery,
+ashy gray in color. The bones were carried to the Hotel Central,
+where they were carefully photographed, soaked in melted vaseline,
+packed in cotton batting, and eventually brought to New Haven. Here
+they were examined by Dr. George F. Eaton, Curator of Osteology in
+the Peabody Museum. In the meantime Dr. Bowman had become convinced
+that the compact gravels of Ayahuaycco were of glacial origin.
+
+When Dr. Eaton first examined the bone fragments he was surprised
+to find among them the bone of a horse. Unfortunately a careful
+examination of the photographs taken in Cuzco of all the fragments
+which were excavated by us on July 11th failed to reveal this
+particular bone. Dr. Bowman, upon being questioned, said that he had
+dug out one or two more bones in the cliff adjoining our excavation
+of July 11th and had added these to the original lot. Presumably
+this horse bone was one which he had added when the bones were
+packed. It did not worry him, however, and so sure was he of his
+interpretation of the gravel beds that he declared he did not care
+if we had found the bone of a Percheron stallion, he was sure that
+the age of the vertebrate remains might be "provisionally estimated
+at 20,000 to 40,000 years," until further studies could be made of
+the geology of the surrounding territory. In an article on the buried
+wall, Dr. Bowman came to the conclusion that "the wall is pre-Inca,
+that its relations to alluvial deposits which cover it indicate its
+erection before the alluvial slope in which it lies buried was formed,
+and that it represents the earliest type of architecture at present
+known in the Cuzco basin."
+
+Dr. Eaton's study of the bones brought out the fact that eight
+of them were fragments of human bones representing at least three
+individuals, four were fragments of llama bones, one of the bone
+of a dog, and three were "bovine remains." The human remains agreed
+"in all essential respects" with the bones of modern Quichuas. Llama
+and dog might all have belonged to Inca, or even more recent times,
+but the bovine remains presented considerable difficulty. The three
+fragments were from bones which "are among the least characteristic
+parts of the skeleton." That which was of greatest interest was the
+fragment of a first rib, resembling the first rib of the extinct
+bison. Since this fragmentary bovine rib was of a form apparently
+characteristic of bisons and not seen in the domestic cattle of the
+United States, Dr. Eaton felt that it could not be denied "that
+the material examined suggests the possibility that some species
+of bison is here represented, yet it would hardly be in accordance
+with conservative methods to differentiate bison from domestic cattle
+solely by characters obtained from a study of the first ribs of a small
+number of individuals." Although staunchly supporting his theory of
+the age of the vertebrate remains, Dr. Bowman in his report on their
+geological relations admitted that the weakness of his case lay in the
+fact that the bovine remains were not sharply differentiated from the
+bones of modern cattle, and also in the possibility that "the bluff
+in which the bones were found may be faced by younger gravel and that
+the bones were found in a gravel veneer deposited during later periods
+of partial valley filling, ... although it still seems very unlikely."
+
+Reports of glacial man in America have come from places as widely
+separated as California and Argentina. Careful investigation, however,
+has always thrown doubt on any great age being certainly attributable
+to any human remains. In view of the fragmentary character of the
+skeletal evidence, the fact that no proof of great antiquity could
+be drawn from the characters of the human skeletal parts, and the
+suggestion made by Dr. Bowman of the possibility that the gravels
+which contained the bones might be of a later origin than he thought,
+we determined to make further and more complete investigations in
+1912. It was most desirable to clear up all doubts and dissolve all
+skepticism. I felt, perhaps mistakenly, that while a further study
+of the geology of the Cuzco Basin undoubtedly might lead Dr. Bowman
+to reverse his opinion, as was expected by some geologists, if
+it should lead him to confirm his original conclusions the same
+skeptics would be likely to continue their skepticism and say he
+was trying to bolster up his own previous opinions. Accordingly, I
+believed it preferable to take another geologist, whose independent
+testimony would give great weight to those conclusions should he
+find them confirmed by an exhaustive geological study of the Huatanay
+Valley. I asked Dr. Bowman's colleague, Professor Gregory, to make the
+necessary studies. At his request a very careful map of the Huatanay
+Valley was prepared under the direction of Chief Topographer Albert
+H. Bumstead. Dr. Eaton, who had had no opportunity of seeing Peru,
+was invited to accompany us and make a study of the bones of modern
+Peruvian cattle as well as of any other skeletal remains which might
+be found.
+
+Furthermore, it seemed important to me to dig a tunnel into the
+Ayahuaycco hillside at the exact point from which we took the bones
+in 1911. So I asked Mr. K. C. Heald, whose engineering training had
+been in Colorado, to superintend it. Mr. Heald dug a tunnel eleven
+feet long, with a cross-section four and a half by three feet, into
+the solid mass of gravel. He expected to have to use timbering, but
+so firmly packed was the gravel that this was not necessary. No bones
+or artifacts were found--nothing but coarse gravel, uniform in texture
+and containing no unmistakable evidences of stratification. Apparently
+the bones had been in a land slip on the edge of an older, compact
+gravel mass.
+
+In his studies of the Cuzco Basin Professor Gregory came to the
+conclusion that the Ayahuaycco gravel banks might have been repeatedly
+buried and reexcavated many times during the past few centuries. He
+found evidence indicating periodic destruction and rebuilding of some
+gravel terraces, "even within the past one hundred years." Accordingly
+there was no longer any necessity to ascribe great antiquity to the
+bones or the wall which we found in the Ayahuaycco quebrada. Although
+the "Cuzco gravels are believed to have reached their greatest extent
+and thickness in late Pleistocene times," more recent deposits have,
+however, been superimposed on top and alongside of them. "Surface
+wash from the bordering slopes, controlled in amount and character by
+climatic changes, has probably been accumulating continuously since
+glacial times, and has greatly increased since human occupation
+began." "Geologic data do not require more than a few hundreds of
+years as the age of the human remains found in the Cuzco gravels."
+
+But how about the "bison"? Soon after his arrival in Cuzco, Dr. Eaton
+examined the first ribs of carcasses of beef animals offered for sale
+in the public markets. He immediately became convinced that the "bison"
+was a Peruvian domestic ox. "Under the life-conditions prevailing in
+this part of the Andes, and possibly in correlation with the increased
+action of the respiratory muscles in a rarefied air, domestic cattle
+occasionally develop first ribs, closely approaching the form observed
+in bison." Such was the sad end of the "bison" and the "Cuzco man,"
+who at one time I thought might be forty thousand years old, and
+now believe to have been two hundred years old, perhaps. The word
+Ayahuaycco in Quichua means "the valley of dead bodies" or "dead
+man's gulch." There is a story that it was used as a burial place
+for plague victims in Cuzco, not more than three generations ago!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Oldest City in South America
+
+Cuzco, the oldest city in South America, has changed completely since
+Squier's visit. In fact it has altered considerably since my own
+first impressions of it were published in "Across South America." To
+be sure, there are still the evidences of antiquity to be seen on
+every side; on the other hand there are corresponding evidences
+of advancement. Telephones, electric lights, street cars, and the
+"movies" have come to stay. The streets are cleaner. If the modern
+traveler finds fault with some of the conditions he encounters he
+must remember that many of the achievements of the people of ancient
+Cuzco are not yet duplicated in his own country nor have they ever
+been equaled in any other part of the world. And modern Cuzco is
+steadily progressing. The great square in front of the cathedral was
+completely metamorphosed by Prefect Nunez in 1911; concrete walks
+and beds of bright flowers have replaced the market and the old
+cobblestone paving and made the plaza a favorite promenade of the
+citizens on pleasant evenings.
+
+The principal market-place now is the Plaza of San Francisco. It is
+crowded with booths of every description. Nearly all of the food-stuffs
+and utensils used by the Indians may be bought here. Frequently
+thronged with Indians, buying and selling, arguing and jabbering,
+it affords, particularly in the early morning, a never-ending source
+of entertainment to one who is fond of the picturesque and interested
+in strange manners and customs.
+
+The retail merchants of Cuzco follow the very old custom of
+congregating by classes. In one street are the dealers in hats; in
+another those who sell coca. The dressmakers and tailors are nearly
+all in one long arcade in a score or more of dark little shops. Their
+light seems to come entirely from the front door. The occupants are
+operators of American sewing-machines who not only make clothing to
+order, but always have on hand a large assortment of standard sizes and
+patterns. In another arcade are the shops of those who specialize in
+everything which appeals to the eye and the pocketbook of the arriero:
+richly decorated halters, which are intended to avert the Evil Eye
+from his best mules; leather knapsacks in which to carry his coca or
+other valuable articles; cloth cinches and leather bridles; rawhide
+lassos, with which he is more likely to make a diamond hitch than
+to rope a mule; flutes to while away the weary hours of his journey,
+and candles to be burned before his patron saint as he starts for some
+distant village; in a word, all the paraphernalia of his profession.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Map of Peru and view of Cuzco
+
+From the "Speculum Orbis Terrarum," Antwerp, 1578.
+------
+
+
+In order to learn more about the picturesque Quichuas who throng the
+streets of Cuzco it was felt to be important to secure anthropometric
+measurements of a hundred Indians. Accordingly, Surgeon Nelson set up
+a laboratory in the Hotel Central. His subjects were the unwilling
+victims of friendly gendarmes who went out into the streets with
+orders to bring for examination only pure-blooded Quichuas. Most
+of the Indians showed no resentment and were in the end pleased and
+surprised to find themselves the recipients of a small silver coin
+as compensation for loss of time.
+
+One might have supposed that a large proportion of Dr. Nelson's
+subjects would have claimed Cuzco as their native place, but this was
+not the case. Actually fewer Indians came from the city itself than
+from relatively small towns like Anta, Huaracondo, and Maras. This
+may have been due to a number of causes. In the first place,
+the gendarmes may have preferred to arrest strangers from distant
+villages, who would submit more willingly. Secondly, the city folk
+were presumably more likely to be in their shops attending to their
+business or watching their wares in the plaza, an occupation which the
+gendarmes could not interrupt. On the other hand it is also probably
+true that the residents of Cuzco are of more mixed descent than those
+of remote villages, where even to-day one cannot find more than two
+or three individuals who speak Spanish. Furthermore, the attention
+of the gendarmes might have been drawn more easily to the quaintly
+caparisoned Indians temporarily in from the country, where city
+fashions do not prevail, than to those who through long residence
+in the city had learned to adopt a costume more in accordance with
+European notions. In 1870, according to Squier, seven eighths of
+the population of Cuzco were still pure Indian. Even to-day a large
+proportion of the individuals whom one sees in the streets appears
+to be of pure aboriginal ancestry. Of these we found that many are
+visitors from outlying villages. Cuzco is the Mecca of the most
+densely populated part of the Andes.
+
+Probably a large part of its citizens are of mixed Spanish and Quichua
+ancestry. The Spanish conquistadores did not bring European women
+with them. Nearly all took native wives. The Spanish race is composed
+of such an extraordinary mixture of peoples from Europe and northern
+Africa, Celts, Iberians, Romans, and Goths, as well as Carthaginians,
+Berbers, and Moors, that the Hispanic peoples have far less antipathy
+toward intermarriage with the American race than have the Anglo-Saxons
+and Teutons of northern Europe. Consequently, there has gone on for
+centuries intermarriage of Spaniards and Indians with results which
+are difficult to determine. Some writers have said there were once
+200,000 people in Cuzco. With primitive methods of transportation
+it would be very difficult to feed so many. Furthermore, in 1559,
+there were, according to Montesinos, only 20,000 Indians in Cuzco.
+
+One of the charms of Cuzco is the juxtaposition of old and new. Street
+cars clanging over steel rails carry crowds of well-dressed Cuzcenos
+past Inca walls to greet their friends at the railroad station. The
+driver is scarcely able by the most vigorous application of his
+brakes to prevent his mules from crashing into a compact herd of
+quiet, supercilious llamas sedately engaged in bringing small sacks of
+potatoes to the Cuzco market. The modern convent of La Merced is built
+of stones taken from ancient Inca structures. Fastened to ashlars which
+left the Inca stonemason's hands six or seven centuries ago, one sees a
+bill-board advertising Cuzco's largest moving-picture theater. On the
+2d of July, 1915, the performance was for the benefit of the Belgian
+Red Cross! Gazing in awe at this sign were Indian boys from some remote
+Andean village where the custom is to wear ponchos with broad fringes,
+brightly colored, and knitted caps richly decorated with tasseled
+tops and elaborate ear-tabs, a costume whose design shows no trace
+of European influence. Side by side with these picturesque visitors
+was a barefooted Cuzco urchin clad in a striped jersey, cloth cap,
+coat, and pants of English pattern.
+
+One sees electric light wires fastened to the walls of houses
+built four hundred years ago by the Spanish conquerors, walls which
+themselves rest on massive stone foundations laid by Inca masons
+centuries before the conquest. In one place telephone wires intercept
+one's view of the beautiful stone facade of an old Jesuit Church, now
+part of the University of Cuzco. It is built of reddish basalt from
+the quarries of Huaccoto, near the twin peaks of Mt. Picol. Professor
+Gregory says that this Huaccoto basalt has a softness and uniformity
+of texture which renders it peculiarly suitable for that elaborately
+carved stonework which was so greatly desired by ecclesiastical
+architects of the sixteenth century. As compared with the dense
+diorite which was extensively used by the Incas, the basalt weathers
+far more rapidly. The rich red color of the weathered portions gives
+to the Jesuit Church an atmosphere of extreme age. The courtyard of
+the University, whose arcades echoed to the feet of learned Jesuit
+teachers long before Yale was founded, has recently been paved with
+concrete, transformed into a tennis court, and now echoes to the
+shouts of students to whom Dr. Giesecke, the successful president, is
+teaching the truth of the ancient axiom, "Mens sana in corpore sano."
+
+Modern Cuzco is a city of about 20,000 people. Although it is the
+political capital of the most important department in southern Peru,
+it had in 1911 only one hospital--a semi-public, non-sectarian
+organization on the west of the city, next door to the largest
+cemetery. In fact, so far away is it from everything else and
+so close to the cemetery that the funeral wreaths and the more
+prominent monuments are almost the only interesting things which the
+patients have to look at. The building has large courtyards and open
+colonnades, which would afford ideal conditions for patients able to
+take advantage of open-air treatment. At the time of Surgeon Erving's
+visit he found the patients were all kept in wards whose windows
+were small and practically always closed and shuttered, so that the
+atmosphere was close and the light insufficient. One could hardly
+imagine a stronger contrast than exists between such wards and those
+to which we are accustomed in the United States, where the maximum
+of sunlight and fresh air is sought and patients are encouraged to
+sit out-of-doors, and even have their cots on porches. There was
+no resident physician. The utmost care was taken throughout the
+hospital to have everything as dark as possible, thus conforming to
+the ancient mountain traditions regarding the evil effects of sunlight
+and fresh air. Needless to say, the hospital has a high mortality
+and a very poor local reputation; yet it is the only hospital in the
+Department. Outside of Cuzco, in all the towns we visited, there was
+no provision for caring for the sick except in their own homes. In
+the larger places there are shops where some of the more common drugs
+may be obtained, but in the great majority of towns and villages
+no modern medicines can be purchased. No wonder President Giesecke,
+of the University, is urging his students to play football and tennis.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Towers of Jesuit Church With Cloisters and Tennis Court of University,
+Cuzco
+------
+
+
+On the slopes of the hill which overshadows the University are the
+interesting terraces of Colcampata. Here, in 1571, lived Carlos Inca,
+a cousin of Inca Titu Cusi, one of the native rulers who succeeded
+in maintaining a precarious existence in the wilds of the Cordillera
+Uilcapampa after the Spanish Conquest. In the gardens of Colcampata
+is still preserved one of the most exquisite bits of Inca stonework to
+be seen in Peru. One wonders whether it is all that is left of a fine
+palace, or whether it represents the last efforts of a dying dynasty
+to erect a suitable residence for Titu Cusi's cousin. It is carefully
+preserved by Don Cesare Lomellini, the leading business man of Cuzco, a
+merchant prince of Italian origin, who is at once a banker, an exporter
+of hides and other country produce, and an importer of merchandise of
+every description, including pencils and sugar mills, lumber and hats,
+candy and hardware. He is also an amateur of Spanish colonial furniture
+as well as of the beautiful pottery of the Incas. Furthermore, he
+has always found time to turn aside from the pressing cares of his
+large business to assist our expeditions. He has frequently brought
+us in touch with the owners of country estates, or given us letters
+of introduction, so that our paths were made easy. He has provided us
+with storerooms for our equipment, assisted us in procuring trustworthy
+muleteers, seen to it that we were not swindled in local purchases
+of mules and pack saddles, given us invaluable advice in overcoming
+difficulties, and, in a word, placed himself wholly at our disposal,
+just as though we were his most desirable and best-paying clients. As
+a matter of fact, he never was willing to receive any compensation
+for the many favors he showed us. So important a factor was he in
+the success of our expeditions that he deserves to be gratefully
+remembered by all friends of exploration.
+
+Above his country house at Colcampata is the hill of Sacsahuaman. It
+is possible to scramble up its face, but only by making more exertion
+than is desirable at this altitude, 11,900 feet. The easiest way to
+reach the famous "fortress" is by following the course of the little
+Tullumayu, "Feeble Stream," the easternmost of the three canalized
+streams which divide Cuzco into four parts. On its banks one first
+passes a tannery and then, a short distance up a steep gorge, the
+remains of an old mill. The stone flume and the adjoining ruins
+are commonly ascribed by the people of Cuzco to-day to the Incas,
+but do not look to me like Inca stonework. Since the Incas did not
+understand the mechanical principle of the wheel, it is hardly likely
+that they would have known how to make any use of water power. Finally,
+careful examination of the flume discloses the presence of lead cement,
+a substance unknown in Inca masonry.
+
+A little farther up the stream one passes through a massive
+megalithic gateway and finds one's self in the presence of the
+astounding gray-blue Cyclopean walls of Sacsahuaman, described in
+"Across South America." Here the ancient builders constructed three
+great terraces, which extend one above another for a third of a mile
+across the hill between two deep gulches. The lowest terrace of the
+"fortress" is faced with colossal boulders, many of which weigh ten
+tons and some weigh more than twenty tons, yet all are fitted together
+with the utmost precision. I have visited Sacsahuaman repeatedly. Each
+time it invariably overwhelms and astounds. To a superstitious Indian
+who sees these walls for the first time, they must seem to have been
+built by gods.
+
+About a mile northeast of Sacsahuaman are several small artificial
+hills, partly covered with vegetation, which seem to be composed
+entirely of gray-blue rock chips--chips from the great limestone blocks
+quarried here for the "fortress" and later conveyed with the utmost
+pains down to Sacsahuaman. They represent the labor of countless
+thousands of quarrymen. Even in modern times, with steam drills,
+explosives, steel tools, and light railways, these hills would
+be noteworthy, but when one pauses to consider that none of these
+mechanical devices were known to the ancient stonemasons and that
+these mountains of stone chips were made with stone tools and were all
+carried from the quarries by hand, it fairly staggers the imagination.
+
+The ruins of Sacsahuaman represent not only an incredible amount of
+human labor, but also a very remarkable governmental organization. That
+thousands of people could have been spared from agricultural
+pursuits for so long a time as was necessary to extract the blocks
+from the quarries, hew them to the required shapes, transport them
+several miles over rough country, and bond them together in such an
+intricate manner, means that the leaders had the brains and ability
+to organize and arrange the affairs of a very large population. Such
+a folk could hardly have spent much time in drilling or preparing for
+warfare. Their building operations required infinite pains, endless
+time, and devoted skill. Such qualities could hardly have been called
+forth, even by powerful monarchs, had not the results been pleasing
+to the great majority of their people, people who were primarily
+agriculturists. They had learned to avert hunger and famine by relying
+on carefully built, stone-faced terraces, which would prevent their
+fields being carried off and spread over the plains of the Amazon. It
+seems to me possible that Sacsahuaman was built in accordance with
+their desires to please their gods. Is it not reasonable to suppose
+that a people to whom stone-faced terraces meant so much in the way
+of life-giving food should have sometimes built massive terraces of
+Cyclopean character, like Sacsahuaman, as an offering to the deity
+who first taught them terrace construction? This seems to me a more
+likely object for the gigantic labor involved in the construction
+of Sacsahuaman than its possible usefulness as a fortress. Equally
+strong defenses against an enemy attempting to attack the hilltop
+back of Cuzco might have been constructed of smaller stones in an
+infinitely shorter time, with far less labor and pains.
+
+Such a display of the power to control the labor of thousands of
+individuals and force them to superhuman efforts on an unproductive
+undertaking, which in its agricultural or strategic results was out
+of all proportion to the obvious cost, might have been caused by the
+supreme vanity of a great soldier. On the other hand, the ancient
+Peruvians were religious rather than warlike, more inclined to worship
+the sun than to fight great battles. Was Sacsahuaman due to the desire
+to please, at whatever cost, the god that fructified the crops which
+grew on terraces? It is not surprising that the Spanish conquerors,
+warriors themselves and descendants of twenty generations of a fighting
+race, accustomed as they were to the salients of European fortresses,
+should have looked upon Sacsahuaman as a fortress. To them the military
+use of its bastions was perfectly obvious. The value of its salients
+and reentrant angles was not likely to be overlooked, for it had
+been only recently acquired by their crusading ancestors. The height
+and strength of its powerful walls enabled it to be of the greatest
+service to the soldiers of that day. They saw that it was virtually
+impregnable for any artillery with which they were familiar. In fact,
+in the wars of the Incas and those which followed Pizarro's entry
+into Cuzco, Sacsahuaman was repeatedly used as a fortress.
+
+So it probably never occurred to the Spaniards that the Peruvians,
+who knew nothing of explosive powder or the use of artillery, did
+not construct Sacsahuaman in order to withstand such a siege as the
+fortresses of Europe were only too familiar with. So natural did it
+seem to the first Europeans who saw it to regard it as a fortress
+that it has seldom been thought of in any other way. The fact that
+the sacred city of Cuzco was more likely to be attacked by invaders
+coming up the valley, or even over the gentle slopes from the west,
+or through the pass from the north which for centuries has been
+used as part of the main highway of the central Andes, never seems
+to have troubled writers who regarded Sacsahuaman essentially as a
+fortress. It may be that Sacsahuaman was once used as a place where
+the votaries of the sun gathered at the end of the rainy season to
+celebrate the vernal equinox, and at the summer solstice to pray for
+the sun's return from his "farthest north." In any case I believe
+that the enormous cost of its construction shows that it was probably
+intended for religious rather than military purposes. It is more
+likely to have been an ancient shrine than a mighty fortress.
+
+It now becomes necessary, in order to explain my explorations north
+of Cuzco, to ask the reader's attention to a brief account of the
+last four Incas who ruled over any part of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+The Last Four Incas
+
+Readers of Prescott's charming classic, "The Conquest of Peru,"
+will remember that Pizarro, after killing Atahualpa, the Inca who
+had tried in vain to avoid his fate by filling a room with vessels
+of gold, decided to establish a native prince on the throne of the
+Incas to rule in accordance with the dictates of Spain. The young
+prince, Manco, a son of the great Inca Huayna Capac, named for the
+first Inca, Manco Ccapac, the founder of the dynasty, was selected
+as the most acceptable figurehead. He was a young man of ability
+and spirit. His induction into office in 1534 with appropriate
+ceremonies, the barbaric splendor of which only made the farce the
+more pitiful, did little to gratify his natural ambition. As might
+have been foreseen, he chafed under restraint, escaped as soon as
+possible from his attentive guardians, and raised an army of faithful
+Quichuas. There followed the siege of Cuzco, briefly characterized
+by Don Alonzo Enriques de Guzman, who took part in it, as "the most
+fearful and cruel war in the world." When in 1536 Cuzco was relieved
+by Pizarro's comrade, Almagro, and Manco's last chance of regaining
+the ancient capital of his ancestors failed, the Inca retreated to
+Ollantaytambo. Here, on the banks of the river Urubamba, Manco made a
+determined stand, but Ollantaytambo was too easily reached by Pizarro's
+mounted cavaliers. The Inca's followers, although aroused to their
+utmost endeavors by the presence of the magnificent stone edifices,
+fortresses, granaries, palaces, and hanging gardens of their ancestors,
+found it necessary to retreat. They fled in a northerly direction and
+made good their escape over snowy passes to Uiticos in the fastnesses
+of Uilcapampa, a veritable American Switzerland.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Glaciers Between Cuzco and Uiticos
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who attempted to follow Manco found his position
+practically impregnable. The citadel of Uilcapampa, a gigantic
+natural fortress defended by Nature in one of her profoundest moods,
+was only to be reached by fording dangerous torrents, or crossing
+the mountains by narrow defiles which themselves are higher than
+the most lofty peaks of Europe. It was hazardous for Hannibal and
+Napoleon to bring their armies through the comparatively low passes
+of the Alps. Pizarro found it impossible to follow the Inca Manco
+over the Pass of Panticalla, itself a snowy wilderness higher than
+the summit of Mont Blanc. In no part of the Peruvian Andes are there
+so many beautiful snowy peaks. Near by is the sharp, icy pinnacle
+of Mt. Veronica (elevation 19,342 ft.). Not far away is another
+magnificent snow-capped peak, Mt. Salcantay, 20,565 feet above the
+sea. Near Salcantay is the sharp needle of Mt. Soray (19,435 ft.),
+while to the west of it are Panta (18,590 ft.) and Soiroccocha (18,197
+ft.). On the shoulders of these mountains are unnamed glaciers and
+little valleys that have scarcely ever been seen except by some hardy
+prospector or inquisitive explorer. These valleys are to be reached
+only through passes where the traveler is likely to be waylaid by
+violent storms of hail and snow. During the rainy season a large part
+of Uilcapampa is absolutely impenetrable. Even in the dry season the
+difficulties of transportation are very great. The most sure-footed
+mule is sometimes unable to use the trails without assistance from
+man. It was an ideal place for the Inca Manco.
+
+The conquistador, Cieza de Leon, who wrote in 1550 a graphic account
+of the wars of Peru, says that Manco took with him a "great quantity
+of treasure, collected from various parts ... and many loads of
+rich clothing of wool, delicate in texture and very beautiful
+and showy." The Spaniards were absolutely unable to conceive of
+the ruler of a country traveling without rich "treasure." It is
+extremely doubtful whether Manco burdened himself with much gold or
+silver. Except for ornament there was little use to which he could
+have put the precious metals and they would have served only to
+arouse the cupidity of his enemies. His people had never been paid
+in gold or silver. Their labor was his due, and only such part of it
+as was needed to raise their own crops and make their own clothing
+was allotted to them; in fact, their lives were in his hands and the
+custom and usage of centuries made them faithful followers of their
+great chief. That Manco, however, actually did carry off with him
+beautiful textiles, and anything else which was useful, may be taken
+for granted. In Uiticos, safe from the armed forces of his enemies,
+the Inca was also able to enjoy the benefits of a delightful climate,
+and was in a well-watered region where corn, potatoes, both white
+and sweet, and the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical regions
+easily grow. Using this as a base, he was accustomed to sally forth
+against the Spaniards frequently and in unexpected directions. His
+raids were usually successful. It was relatively easy for him, with
+a handful of followers, to dash out of the mountain fastnesses,
+cross the Apurimac River either by swimming or on primitive rafts,
+and reach the great road between Cuzco and Lima, the principal highway
+of Peru. Officials and merchants whose business led them over this
+route found it extremely precarious. Manco cheered his followers by
+making them realize that in these raids they were taking sweet revenge
+on the Spaniards for what they had done to Peru. It is interesting
+to note that Cieza de Leon justifies Manco in his attitude, for the
+Spaniards had indeed "seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave
+his native land, and to live in banishment."
+
+Manco's success in securing such a place of refuge, and in using
+it as a base from which he could frequently annoy his enemies, led
+many of the Orejones of Cuzco to follow him. The Inca chiefs were
+called Orejones, "big ears," by the Spaniards because the lobes of
+their ears had been enlarged artificially to receive the great gold
+earrings which they were fond of wearing. Three years after Manco's
+retirement to the wilds of Uilcapampa there was born in Cuzco in the
+year 1539, Garcilasso Inca de la Vega, the son of an Inca princess
+and one of the conquistadores. As a small child Garcilasso heard
+of the activities of his royal relative. He left Peru as a boy and
+spent the rest of his life in Spain. After forty years in Europe
+he wrote, partly from memory, his "Royal Commentaries," an account
+of the country of his Indian ancestors. Of the Inca Manco, of whom
+he must frequently have heard uncomplimentary reports as a child,
+he speaks apologetically. He says: "In the time of Manco Inca,
+several robberies were committed on the road by his subjects; but
+still they had that respect for the Spanish Merchants that they let
+them go free and never pillaged them of their wares and merchandise,
+which were in no manner useful to them; howsoever they robbed the
+Indians of their cattle [llamas and alpacas], bred in the countrey
+.... The Inca lived in the Mountains, which afforded no tame Cattel;
+and only produced Tigers and Lions and Serpents of twenty-five and
+thirty feet long, with other venomous insects." (I am quoting from Sir
+Paul Rycaut's translation, published in London in 1688.) Garcilasso
+says Manco's soldiers took only "such food as they found in the hands
+of the Indians; which the Inca did usually call his own," saying,
+"That he who was Master of that whole Empire might lawfully challenge
+such a proportion thereof as was convenient to supply his necessary
+and natural support"--a reasonable apology; and yet personally I doubt
+whether Manco spared the Spanish merchants and failed to pillage them
+of their "wares and merchandise." As will be seen later, we found
+in Manco's palace some metal articles of European origin which might
+very well have been taken by Manco's raiders. Furthermore, it should
+be remembered that Garcilasso, although often quoted by Prescott,
+left Peru when he was sixteen years old and that his ideas were
+largely colored by his long life in Spain and his natural desire to
+extol the virtues of his mother's people, a brown race despised by
+the white Europeans for whom he wrote.
+
+The methods of warfare and the weapons used by Manco and his followers
+at this time are thus described by Guzman. He says the Indians had no
+defensive arms such as helmets, shields, and armor, but used "lances,
+arrows, dubs, axes, halberds, darts, and slings, and another weapon
+which they call ayllas (the bolas), consisting of three round stones
+sewn up in leather, and each fastened to a cord a cubit long. They
+throw these at the horses, and thus bind their legs together; and
+sometimes they will fasten a man's arms to his sides in the same
+way. These Indians are so expert in the use of this weapon that they
+will bring down a deer with it in the chase. Their principal weapon,
+however, is the sling .... With it, they will hurl a huge stone with
+such force that it will kill a horse; in truth, the effect is little
+less great than that of an arquebus; and I have seen a stone, thus
+hurled from a sling, break a sword in two pieces which was held in
+a man's hand at a distance of thirty paces."
+
+Manco's raids finally became so annoying that Pizarro sent a small
+force from Cuzco under Captain Villadiego to attack the Inca. Captain
+Villadiego found it impossible to use horses, although he realized
+that cavalry was the "important arm against these Indians." Confident
+in his strength and in the efficacy of his firearms, and anxious
+to enjoy the spoils of a successful raid against a chief reported
+to be traveling surrounded by his family "and with rich treasure,"
+he pressed eagerly on, up through a lofty valley toward a defile in
+the mountains, probably the Pass of Panticalla. Here, fatigued and
+exhausted by their difficult march and suffering from the effects
+of the altitude (16,000 ft.), his men found themselves ambushed by
+the Inca, who with a small party, "little more than eighty Indians,"
+"attacked the Christians, who numbered twenty-eight or thirty, and
+killed Captain Villadiego and all his men except two or three." To any
+one who has clambered over the passes of the Cordillera Uilcapampa
+it is not surprising that this military expedition was a failure or
+that the Inca, warned by keen-sighted Indians posted on appropriate
+vantage points, could have succeeded in defeating a small force of
+weary soldiers armed with the heavy blunderbuss of the seventeenth
+century. In a rocky pass, protected by huge boulders, and surrounded
+by quantities of natural ammunition for their slings, it must have
+been relatively simple for eighty Quichuas, who could "hurl a huge
+stone with such force that it would kill a horse," to have literally
+stoned to death Captain Villadiego's little company before they could
+have prepared their clumsy weapons for firing.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Urubamba Canyon
+
+A reason for the safety of the Incas in Uilcapampa.
+------
+
+
+The fugitives returned to Cuzco and reported their misfortune. The
+importance of the reverse will be better appreciated if one remembers
+that the size of the force with which Pizarro conquered Peru was less
+than two hundred, only a few times larger than Captain Villadiego's
+company which had been wiped out by Manco. Its significance is
+further increased by the fact that the contemporary Spanish writers,
+with all their tendency to exaggerate, placed Manco's force at only
+"a little more than eighty Indians." Probably there were not even
+that many. The wonder is that the Inca's army was not reported as
+being several thousand.
+
+Francisco Pizarro himself now hastily set out with a body of soldiers
+determined to punish this young Inca who had inflicted such a blow on
+the prestige of Spanish arms, "but this attempt also failed," for the
+Inca had withdrawn across the rivers and mountains of Uilcapampa to
+Uiticos, where, according to Cieza de Leon, he cheered his followers
+with the sight of the heads of his enemies. Unfortunately for accuracy,
+the custom of displaying on the ends of pikes the heads of one's
+enemies was European and not Peruvian. To be sure, the savage Indians
+of some of the Amazonian jungles do sometimes decapitate their enemies,
+remove the bones of the skull, dry the shrunken scalp and face,
+and wear the trophy as a mark of prowess just as the North American
+Indians did the scalps of their enemies. Such customs had no place
+among the peace-loving Inca agriculturists of central Peru. There were
+no Spaniards living with Manco at that time to report any such outrage
+on the bodies of Captain Villadiego's unfortunate men. Probably the
+conquistadores supposed that Manco did what the Spaniards would have
+done under similar circumstances.
+
+Following the failure of Francisco Pizarro to penetrate to Uiticos,
+his brother, Gonzalo, "undertook the pursuit of the Inca and occupied
+some of his passes and bridges," but was unsuccessful in penetrating
+the mountain labyrinth. Being less foolhardy than Captain Villadiego,
+he did not come into actual conflict with Manco. Unable to subdue
+the young Inca or prevent his raids on travelers from Cuzco to Lima,
+Francisco Pizarro, "with the assent of the royal officers who were
+with him," established the city of Ayacucho at a convenient point
+on the road, so as to make it secure for travelers. Nevertheless,
+according to Montesinos, Manco caused the good people of Ayacucho quite
+a little trouble. Finally, Francisco Pizarro, "having taken one of
+Manco's wives prisoner with other Indians, stripped and flogged her,
+and then shot her to death with arrows."
+
+Accounts of what happened in Uiticos under the rule of Manco are
+not very satisfactory. Father Calancha, who published in 1639 his
+"Coronica Moralizada," or "pious account of the missionary activities
+of the Augustinians" in Peru, says that the Inca Manco was obeyed
+by all the Indians who lived in a region extending "for two hundred
+leagues and more toward the east and toward the south, where there
+were innumerable Indians in various provinces." With customary monastic
+zeal and proper religious fervor, Father Calancha accuses the Inca of
+compelling the baptized Indians who fled to him from the Spaniards to
+abandon their new faith, torturing those who would no longer worship
+the old Inca "idols." This story need not be taken too literally,
+although undoubtedly the escaped Indians acted as though they had
+never been baptized.
+
+Besides Indians fleeing from harsh masters, there came to Uilcapampa,
+in 1542, Gomez Perez, Diego Mendez, and half a dozen other Spanish
+fugitives, adherents of Almagro, "rascals," says Calancha, "worthy
+of Manco's favor." Obliged by the civil wars of the conquistadores
+to flee from the Pizarros, they were glad enough to find a welcome
+in Uiticos. To while away the time they played games and taught
+the Inca checkers and chess, as well as bowling-on-the-green and
+quoits. Montesinos says they also taught him to ride horseback
+and shoot an arquebus. They took their games very seriously and
+occasionally violent disputes arose, one of which, as we shall see,
+was to have fatal consequences. They were kept informed by Manco of
+what was going on in the viceroyalty. Although "encompassed within
+craggy and lofty mountains," the Inca was thoroughly cognizant of
+all those "revolutions" which might be of benefit to him.
+
+Perhaps the most exciting news that reached Uiticos in 1544 was in
+regard to the arrival of the first Spanish viceroy. He brought the
+New Laws, a result of the efforts of the good Bishop Las Casas to
+alleviate the sufferings of the Indians. The New Laws provided, among
+other things, that all the officers of the crown were to renounce
+their repartimientos or holdings of Indian serfs, and that compulsory
+personal service was to be entirely abolished. Repartimientos given
+to the conquerors were not to pass to their heirs, but were to revert
+to the king. In other words, the New Laws gave evidence that the
+Spanish crown wished to be kind to the Indians and did not approve
+of the Pizarros. This was good news for Manco and highly pleasing
+to the refugees. They persuaded the Inca to write a letter to the
+new viceroy, asking permission to appear before him and offer his
+services to the king. The Spanish refugees told the Inca that by
+this means he might some day recover his empire, "or at least the
+best part of it." Their object in persuading the Inca to send such
+a message to the viceroy becomes apparent when we learn that they
+"also wrote as from themselves desiring a pardon for what was past"
+and permission to return to Spanish dominions.
+
+Gomez Perez, who seems to have been the active leader of the little
+group, was selected to be the bearer of the letters from the Inca and
+the refugees. Attended by a dozen Indians whom the Inca instructed
+to act as his servants and bodyguard, he left Uilcapampa, presented
+his letters to the viceroy, and gave him "a large relation of the
+State and Condition of the Inca, and of his true and real designs
+to doe him service." "The Vice-king joyfully received the news,
+and granted a full and ample pardon of all crimes, as desired. And
+as to the Inca, he made many kind expressions of love and respect,
+truly considering that the Interest of the Inca might be advantageous
+to him, both in War and Peace. And with this satisfactory answer
+Gomez Perez returned both to the Inca and to his companions." The
+refugees were delighted with the news and got ready to return to king
+and country. Their departure from Uiticos was prevented by a tragic
+accident, thus described by Garcilasso.
+
+"The Inca, to humour the Spaniards and entertain himself with them,
+had given directions for making a bowling-green; where playing one day
+with Gomez Perez, he came to have some quarrel and difference with this
+Perez about the measure of a Cast, which often happened between them;
+for this Perez, being a person of a hot and fiery brain, without any
+judgment or understanding, would take the least occasion in the world
+to contend with and provoke the Inca .... Being no longer able to
+endure his rudeness, the Inca punched him on the breast, and bid him
+to consider with whom he talked. Perez, not considering in his heat
+and passion either his own safety or the safety of his Companions,
+lifted up his hand, and with the bowl struck the Inca so violently on
+the head, that he knocked him down. [He died three days later.] The
+Indians hereupon, being enraged by the death of their Prince, joined
+together against Gomez and the Spaniards, who fled into a house,
+and with their Swords in their hands defended the door; the Indians
+set fire to the house, which being too hot for them, they sallied out
+into the Marketplace, where the Indians assaulted them and shot them
+with their Arrows until they had killed every man of them; and then
+afterwards, out of mere rage and fury they designed either to eat
+them raw as their custome was, or to burn them and cast their ashes
+into the river, that no sign or appearance might remain of them; but
+at length, after some consultation, they agreed to cast their bodies
+into the open fields, to be devoured by vulters and birds of the air,
+which they supposed to be the highest indignity and dishonour that
+they could show to their Corps." Garcilasso concludes: "I informed
+myself very perfectly from those chiefs and nobles who were present
+and eye-witnesses of the unparalleled piece of madness of that rash
+and hair-brained fool; and heard them tell this story to my mother
+and parents with tears in their eyes." There are many versions of
+the tragedy. [4] They all agree that a Spaniard murdered the Inca.
+
+Thus, in 1545, the reign of an attractive and vigorous personality
+was brought to an abrupt close. Manco left three young sons, Sayri
+Tupac, Titu Cusi, and Tupac Amaru. Sayri Tupac, although he had not
+yet reached his majority, became Inca in his father's stead, and with
+the aid of regents reigned for ten years without disturbing his Spanish
+neighbors or being annoyed by them, unless the reference in Montesinos
+to a proposed burning of bridges near Abancay, under date of 1555,
+is correct. By a curious lapse Montesinos ascribes this attempt to
+the Inca Manco, who had been dead for ten years. In 1555 there came
+to Lima a new viceroy, who decided that it would be safer if young
+Sayri Tupac were within reach instead of living in the inaccessible
+wilds of Uilcapampa. The viceroy wisely undertook to accomplish this
+difficult matter through the Princess Beatrix Coya, an aunt of the
+Inca, who was living in Cuzco. She took kindly to the suggestion and
+dispatched to Uiticos a messenger, of the blood royal, attended by
+Indian servants. The journey was a dangerous one; bridges were down
+and the treacherous trails were well-nigh impassable. Sayri Tupac's
+regents permitted the messenger to enter Uilcapampa and deliver the
+viceroy's invitation, but were not inclined to believe that it was
+quite so attractive as appeared on the surface, even though brought
+to them by a kinsman. Accordingly, they kept the visitor as a hostage
+and sent a messenger of their own to Cuzco to see if any foul play
+could be discovered, and also to request that one John Sierra, a more
+trusted cousin, be sent to treat in this matter. All this took time.
+
+In 1558 the viceroy, becoming impatient, dispatched from Lima Friar
+Melchior and one John Betanzos, who had married the daughter of the
+unfortunate Inca Atahualpa and pretended to be very learned in his
+wife's language. Montesinos says he was a "great linguist." They
+started off quite confidently for Uiticos, taking with them several
+pieces of velvet and damask, and two cups of gilded silver as
+presents. Anxious to secure the honor of being the first to reach the
+Inca, they traveled as fast as they could to the Chuquichaca bridge,
+"the key to the valley of Uiticos." Here they were detained by the
+soldiers of the regents. A day or so later John Sierra, the Inca's
+cousin from Cuzco, arrived at the bridge and was allowed to proceed,
+while the friar and Betanzos were still detained. John Sierra was
+welcomed by the Inca and his nobles, and did his best to encourage
+Sayri Tupac to accept the viceroy's offer. Finally John Betanzos and
+the friar were also sent for and admitted to the presence of the Inca,
+with the presents which the viceroy had sent. Sayri Tupac's first
+idea was to remain free and independent as he had hitherto done,
+so he requested the ambassadors to depart immediately with their
+silver gilt cups. They were sent back by one of the western routes
+across the Apurimac. A few days later, however, after John Sierra
+had told him some interesting stories of life in Cuzco, the Inca
+decided to reconsider the matter. His regents had a long debate,
+observed the flying of birds and the nature of the weather, but
+according to Garcilasso "made no inquiries of the devil." The omens
+were favorable and the regents finally decided to allow the Inca to
+accept the invitation of the viceroy.
+
+Sayri Tupac, anxious to see something of the world, went directly
+to Lima, traveling in a litter made of rich materials, carried by
+relays chosen from the three hundred Indians who attended him. He
+was kindly received by the viceroy, and then went to Cuzco, where
+he lodged in his aunt's house. Here his relatives went to welcome
+him. "I, myself," says Garcilasso, "went in the name of my Father. I
+found him then playing a certain game used amongst the Indians .... I
+kissed his hands, and delivered my Message; he commanded me to sit
+down, and presently they brought two gilded cups of that Liquor,
+made of Mayz [chicha] which scarce contained four ounces of Drink;
+he took them both, and with his own Hand he gave one of them to me;
+he drank, and I pledged him, which as we have said, is the custom of
+Civility amongst them. This Ceremony being past, he asked me, Why I
+did not meet him at Uillcapampa. I answered him, 'Inca, as I am but a
+Youngman, the Governours make no account of me, to place me in such
+Ceremonies as these!' 'How,' replied the Inca, 'I would rather have
+seen you than all the Friers and Fathers in Town.' As I was going
+away I made him a submissive bow and reverence, after the manner of
+the Indians, who are of his Alliance and Kindred, at which he was so
+much pleased, that he embraced me heartily, and with much affection,
+as appeared by his Countenance."
+
+Sayri Tupac now received the sacred Red Fringe of Inca sovereignty,
+was married to a princess of the blood royal, joined her in baptism,
+and took up his abode in the beautiful valley of Yucay, a day's
+journey northeast of Cuzco, and never returned to Uiticos. His only
+daughter finally married a certain Captain Garcia, of whom more
+anon. Sayri Tupac died in 1560, leaving two brothers; the older,
+Titu Cusi Yupanqui, illegitimate, and the younger, Tupac Amaru,
+his rightful successor, an inexperienced youth.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Yucay, Last Home of Sayri Tupac
+------
+
+
+The throne of Uiticos was seized by Titu Cusi. The new Inca seems to
+have been suspicious of the untimely death of Sayri Tupac, and to have
+felt that the Spaniards were capable of more foul play. So with his
+half-brother he stayed quietly in Uilcapampa. Their first visitor,
+so far as we know, was Diego Rodriguez de Figueroa, who wrote an
+interesting account of Uiticos and says he gave the Inca a pair of
+scissors. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to get Titu Cusi to go
+to Cuzco. In time there came an Augustinian missionary, Friar Marcos
+Garcia, who, six years after the death of Sayri Tupac, entered the
+rough country of Uilcapampa, "a land of moderate wealth, large rivers,
+and the usual rains," whose "forested mountains," says Father Calancha,
+"are magnificent." Friar Marcos had a hard journey. The bridges were
+down, the roads had been destroyed, and the passes blocked up. The few
+Indians who did occasionally appear in Cuzco from Uilcapampa said the
+friar could not get there "unless he should be able to change himself
+into a bird." However, with that courage and pertinacity which have
+marked so many missionary enterprises, Friar Marcos finally overcame
+all difficulties and reached Uiticos.
+
+The missionary chronicler says that Titu Cusi was far from glad
+to see him and received him angrily. It worried him to find that a
+Spaniard had succeeded in penetrating his retreat. Besides, the Inca
+was annoyed to have any one preach against his "idolatries." Titu
+Cusi's own story, as written down by Friar Marcos, does not agree
+with Calancha's. Anyhow, Friar Marcos built a little church in a place
+called Puquiura, where many of the Inca's people were then living. "He
+planted crosses in the fields and on the mountains, these being the
+best things to frighten off devils." He "suffered many insults at
+the hands of the chiefs and principal followers of the Inca. Some
+of them did it to please the Devil, others to flatter the Inca, and
+many because they disliked his sermons, in which he scolded them for
+their vices and abominated among his converts the possession of four
+or six wives. So they punished him in the matter of food, and forced
+him to send to Cuzco for victuals. The Convent sent him hard-tack,
+which was for him a most delicious banquet."
+
+Within a year or so another Augustinian missionary, Friar Diego
+Ortiz, left Cuzco alone for Uilcapampa. He suffered much on the
+road, but finally reached the retreat of the Inca and entered his
+presence in company with Friar Marcos. "Although the Inca was not
+too happy to see a new preacher, he was willing to grant him an
+entrance because the Inca ... thought Friar Diego would not vex
+him nor take the trouble to reprove him. So the Inca gave him a
+license. They selected the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days journey from one
+Convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar Diego
+went to his new establishment and in a short time built a church,
+a house for himself, and a hospital,--all poor buildings made in a
+short time." He also started a school for children, and became very
+popular as he went about healing and teaching. He had an easier time
+than Friar Marcos, who, with less tact and no skill as a physician,
+was located nearer the center of the Inca cult.
+
+The principal shrine of the Inca is described by Father Calancha as
+follows: "Close to Vitcos [or Uiticos] in a village called Chuquipalpa,
+is a House of the Sun, and in it a white rock over a spring of water
+where the Devil appears as a visible manifestation and was worshipped
+by those idolators. This was the principal mochadero of those forested
+mountains. The word 'mochadero' [5] is the common name which the
+Indians apply to their places of worship. In other words it is the
+only place where they practice the sacred ceremony of kissing. The
+origin of this, the principal part of their ceremonial, is that very
+practice which Job abominates when he solemnly clears himself of all
+offences before God and says to Him: 'Lord, all these punishments and
+even greater burdens would I have deserved had I done that which the
+blind Gentiles do when the sun rises resplendent or the moon shines
+clear and they exult in their hearts and extend their hands toward
+the sun and throw kisses to it,' an act of very grave iniquity which
+is equivalent to denying the true God."
+
+Thus does the ecclesiastical chronicler refer to the practice in
+Peru of that particular form of worship of the heavenly bodies
+which was also widely spread in the East, in Arabia, and Palestine
+and was inveighed against by Mohammed as well as the ancient Hebrew
+prophets. Apparently this ceremony "of the most profound resignation
+and reverence" was practiced in Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos, in
+the reign of the Inca Titu Cusi.
+
+Calancha goes on to say: "In this white stone of the aforesaid
+House of the Sun, which is called Yurac Rumi [meaning, in Quichua,
+a white rock], there attends a Devil who is Captain of a legion. He
+and his legionaries show great kindness to the Indian idolators, but
+great terrors to the Catholics. They abuse with hideous cruelties the
+baptized ones who now no longer worship them with kisses, and many
+of the Indians have died from the horrible frights these devils have
+given them."
+
+One day, when the Inca and his mother and their principal chiefs and
+counselors were away from Uiticos on a visit to some of their outlying
+estates, Friar Marcos and Friar Diego decided to make a spectacular
+attack on this particular Devil, who was at the great "white rock
+over a spring of water." The two monks summoned all their converts
+to gather at Puquiura, in the church or the neighboring plaza, and
+asked each to bring a stick of firewood in order that they might burn
+up this Devil who had tormented them. "An innumerable multitude" came
+together on the day appointed. The converted Indians were most anxious
+to get even with this Devil who had slain their friends and inflicted
+wounds on themselves; the doubters were curious to see the result;
+the Inca priests were there to see their god defeat the Christians';
+while, as may readily be imagined, the rest of the population came
+to see the excitement. Starting out from Pucyura they marched to "the
+Temple of the Sun, in the village of Chuquipalpa, close to Uiticos."
+
+Arrived at the sacred palisade, the monks raised the standard of
+the cross, recited their orisons, surrounded the spring, the white
+rock and the Temple of the Sun, and piled high the firewood. Then,
+having exorcised the locality, they called the Devil by all the vile
+names they could think of, to show their lack of respect, and finally
+commanded him never to return to this vicinity. Calling on Christ and
+the Virgin, they applied fire to the wood. "The poor Devil then fled
+roaring in a fury, and making the mountains to tremble."
+
+It took remarkable courage on the part of the two lone monks thus
+to desecrate the chief shrine of the people among whom they were
+dwelling. It is almost incredible that in this remote valley,
+separated from their friends and far from the protecting hand
+of the Spanish viceroy, they should have dared to commit such an
+insult to the religion of their hosts. Of course, as soon as the
+Inca Titu Cusi heard of it, he was greatly annoyed. His mother was
+furious. They returned immediately to Pucyura. The chiefs wished to
+"slay the monks and tear them into small pieces," and undoubtedly
+would have done so had it not been for the regard in which Friar
+Diego was held. His skill in curing disease had so endeared him to
+the Indians that even the Inca himself dared not punish him for the
+attack on the Temple of the Sun. Friar Marcos, however, who probably
+originated the plan, and had done little to gain the good will of the
+Indians, did not fare so well. Calancha says he was stoned out of
+the province and the Inca threatened to kill him if he ever should
+return. Friar Diego, particularly beloved by those Indians who came
+from the fever-stricken jungles in the lower valleys, was allowed to
+remain, and finally became a trusted friend and adviser of Titu Cusi.
+
+One day a Spaniard named Romero, an adventurous prospector for gold,
+was found penetrating the mountain valleys, and succeeded in getting
+permission from the Inca to see what minerals were there. He was too
+successful. Both gold and silver were found among the hills and he
+showed enthusiastic delight at his good fortune. The Inca, fearing
+that his reports might encourage others to enter Uilcapampa, put the
+unfortunate prospector to death, notwithstanding the protestations
+of Friar Diego. Foreigners were not wanted in Uilcapampa.
+
+In the year 1570, ten years after the accession of Titu Cusi
+to the Inca throne in Uiticos, a new Spanish viceroy came to
+Cuzco. Unfortunately for the Incas, Don Francisco de Toledo, an
+indefatigable soldier and administrator, was excessively bigoted,
+narrow-minded, cruel, and pitiless. Furthermore, Philip II and his
+Council of the Indies had decided that it would be worth while to make
+every effort to get the Inca out of Uiticos. For thirty-five years
+the Spanish conquerors had occupied Cuzco and the major portion of
+Peru without having been able to secure the submission of the Indians
+who lived in the province of Uilcapampa. It would be a great feather
+in the cap of Toledo if he could induce Titu Cusi to come and live
+where he would always be accessible to Spanish authority.
+
+During the ensuing rainy season, after an unusually lively party,
+the Inca got soaked, had a chill, and was laid low. In the meantime
+the viceroy had picked out a Cuzco soldier, one Tilano de Anaya, who
+was well liked by the Inca, to try to persuade Titu Cusi to come to
+Cuzco. Tilano was instructed to go by way of Ollantaytambo and the
+Chuquichaca bridge. Luck was against him. Titu Cusi's illness was
+very serious. Friar Diego, his physician, had prescribed the usual
+remedies. Unfortunately, all the monk's skill was unavailing and his
+royal patient died. The "remedies" were held by Titu Cusi's mother
+and her counselors to be responsible. The poor friar had to suffer
+the penalty of death "for having caused the death of the Inca."
+
+The third son of Manco, Tupac Amaru, brought up as a playfellow of
+the Virgins of the Sun in the Temple near Uiticos, and now happily
+married, was selected to rule the little kingdom. His brows were
+decked with the Scarlet Fringe of Sovereignty, but, thanks to the
+jealous fear of his powerful illegitimate brother, his training had
+not been that of a soldier. He was destined to have a brief, unhappy
+existence. When the young Inca's counselors heard that a messenger
+was coming from the viceroy, seven warriors were sent to meet him on
+the road. Tilano was preparing to spend the night at the Chuquichaca
+bridge when he was attacked and killed.
+
+The viceroy heard of the murder of his ambassador at the same time
+that he learned of the martyrdom of Friar Diego. A blow had been
+struck at the very heart of Spanish domination; if the representatives
+of the Vice-Regent of Heaven and the messengers of the viceroy of
+Philip II were not inviolable, then who was safe? On Palm Sunday the
+energetic Toledo, surrounded by his council, determined to make war
+on the unfortunate young Tupac Amaru and give a reward to the soldier
+who would effect his capture. The council was of the opinion that
+"many Insurrections might be raised in that Empire by this young
+Heir." "Moreover it was alledged," says Garcilasso .... "That by the
+Imprisonment of the Inca, all that Treasure might be discovered, which
+appertained to former kings, together with that Chain of Gold, which
+Huayna Capac commanded to be made for himself to wear on the great
+and solemn days of their Festival"! Furthermore, the "Chain of Gold
+with the remaining Treasure belong'd to his Catholic Majesty by right
+of Conquest"! Excuses were not wanting. The Incas must be exterminated.
+
+The expedition was divided into two parts. One company was sent by way
+of Limatambo to Curahuasi, to head off the Inca in case he should cross
+the Apurimac and try to escape by one of the routes which had formerly
+been used by his father, Manco, in his marauding expeditions. The other
+company, under General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia, marched from
+Cuzco by way of Yucay and Ollantaytambo. They were more fortunate
+than Captain Villadiego whose force, thirty-five years before, had
+been met and destroyed at the pass of Panticalla. That was in the
+days of the active Inca Manco. Now there was no force defending this
+important pass. They descended the Lucumayo to its junction with the
+Urubamba and came to the bridge of Chuquichaca.
+
+The narrow suspension bridge, built of native fibers, sagged deeply
+in the middle and swayed so threateningly over the gorge of the
+Urubamba that only one man could pass it at a time. The rapid river
+was too deep to be forded. There were no canoes. It would have been
+a difficult matter to have constructed rafts, for most of the trees
+that grow here are of hard wood and do not float. On the other side
+of the Urubamba was young Tupac Amaru, surrounded by his councilors,
+chiefs, and soldiers. The first hostile forces which in Pizarro's
+time had endeavored to fight their way into Uilcapampa had never
+been allowed by Manco to get as far as this. His youngest son,
+Tupac Amaru, had had no experience in these matters. The chiefs and
+nobles had failed to defend the pass; and they now failed to destroy
+the Chuquichaca bridge, apparently relying on their ability to take
+care of one Spanish soldier at a time and prevent the Spaniards from
+crossing the narrow, swaying structure. General Hurtado was not taking
+any such chances. He had brought with him one or two light mountain
+field pieces, with which the raw troops of the Inca were little
+acquainted. The sides of the valley at this point rise steeply from
+the river and the reverberations caused by gun fire would be fairly
+terrifying to those who had never heard anything like it before. A
+few volleys from the guns and the arquebuses, and the Indians fled
+pellmell in every direction, leaving the bridge undefended.
+
+Captain Garcia, who had married the daughter of Sayri Tupac, was
+sent in pursuit of the Inca. His men found the road "narrow in the
+ascent, with forest on the right, and on the left a ravine of great
+depth." It was only a footpath, barely wide enough for two men to
+pass. Garcia, with customary Spanish bravery, marched at the head
+of his company. Suddenly out of the thick forest an Inca chieftain
+named Hualpa, endeavoring to protect the flight of Tupac Amaru,
+sprang on Garcia, held him so that he could not get at his sword and
+endeavored to hurl him over the cliff. The captain's life was saved
+by a faithful Indian servant who was following immediately behind him,
+carrying his sword. Drawing it from the scabbard "with much dexterity
+and animation," the Indian killed Hualpa and saved his master's life.
+
+Garcia fought several battles, took some forts and succeeded in
+capturing many prisoners. From them it was learned that the Inca had
+"gone inland toward the valley of Simaponte; and that he was flying to
+the country of the Manaries Indians, a warlike tribe and his friends,
+where balsas and canoes were posted to save him and enable him to
+escape." Nothing daunted by the dangers of the jungle nor the rapids of
+the river, Garcia finally managed to construct five rafts, on which he
+put some of his soldiers. Accompanying them himself, he descended the
+rapids, escaping death many times by swimming, and finally arrived
+at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca, learning of
+their approach, had gone farther into the woods. Garcia followed
+hard after, although he and his men were by this time barefooted and
+suffering from want of food. They finally captured the Inca. Garcilasso
+says that Tupac Amaru, "considering that he had not People to make
+resistance, and that he was not conscious to himself of any Crime,
+or disturbance he had done or raised, suffered himself to be taken;
+choosing rather to entrust himself in the hands of the Spaniards,
+than to perish in those Mountains with Famine, or be drowned in those
+great Rivers .... The Spaniards in this manner seizing on the Inca,
+and on all the Indian Men and Women, who were in Company with him,
+amongst which was his Wife, two Sons, and a Daughter, returned
+with them in Triumph to Cuzco; to which place the Vice-King went,
+so soon as he was informed of the imprisonment of the poor Prince." A
+mock trial was held. The captured chiefs were tortured to death with
+fiendish brutality. Tupac Amaru's wife was mangled before his eyes. His
+own head was cut off and placed on a pole in the Cuzco Plaza. His
+little boys did not long survive. So perished the last of the Incas,
+descendants of the wisest Indian rulers America has ever seen.
+
+Brief Summary of the Last Four Incas
+
+1534. The Inca Manco ascends the throne of his fathers.
+
+1536. Manco flees from Cuzco to Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+1542. Promulgation of the "New Laws."
+
+1545. Murder of Manco and accession of his son Sayri Tupac.
+1555. Sayri Tupac goes to Cuzco and Yucay.
+
+1560. Death of Sayri Tupac. His half brother Titu Cusi becomes Inca.
+
+1566. Friar Marcos reaches Uiticos. Settles in Puquiura.
+
+1566. Friar Diego joins him.
+
+1568-9 (?). They burn the House of the Sun at Yurac Rumi in
+Chuquipalpa.
+
+1571. Titu Cusi dies. Friar Diego suffers martyrdom. Tupac Amaru
+becomes Inca.
+
+1572. Expedition of General Martin Hurtado and Captain Garcia de
+Loyola. Execution of Tupac Amaru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Searching for the Last Inca Capital
+
+The events described in the preceding chapter happened, for the most
+part, in Uiticos [6] and Uilcapampa, northwest of Ollantaytambo, about
+one hundred miles away from the Cuzco palace of the Spanish viceroy,
+in what Prescott calls "the remote fastnesses of the Andes." One looks
+in vain for Uiticos on modern maps of Peru, although several of the
+older maps give it. In 1625 "Viticos" is marked on de Laet's map of
+Peru as a mountainous province northeast of Lima and three hundred
+and fifty miles northwest of Vilcabamba! This error was copied by
+some later cartographers, including Mercator, until about 1740,
+when "Viticos" disappeared from all maps of Peru. The map makers
+had learned that there was no such place in that vicinity. Its real
+location was lost about three hundred years ago. A map published at
+Nuremberg in 1599 gives "Pincos" in the "Andes" mountains, a small
+range west of "Cusco." This does not seem to have been adopted by
+other cartographers; although a Palls map of 1739 gives "Picos" in
+about the same place. Nearly all the cartographers of the eighteenth
+century who give "Viticos" supposed it to be the name of a tribe, e.g.,
+"Los Viticos" or "Les Viticos."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Part of the Nuremberg Map of 1599, Showing Pincos and the Andes
+Mountains
+------
+
+
+The largest official map of Peru, the work of that remarkable explorer,
+Raimondi, who spent his life crossing and recrossing Peru, does not
+contain the word Uiticos nor any of its numerous spellings, Viticos,
+Vitcos, Pitcos, or Biticos. Incidentally, it may seem strange that
+Uiticos could ever be written "Biticos." The Quichua language has
+no sound of V. The early Spanish writers, however, wrote the capital
+letter U exactly like a capital V. In official documents and letters
+Uiticos became Viticos. The official readers, who had never heard
+the word pronounced, naturally used the V sound instead of the U
+sound. Both V and P easily become B. So Uiticos became Biticos and
+Uilcapampa became Vilcabamba.
+
+Raimondi's marvelous energy led him to penetrate to more out-of-the-way
+Peruvian villages than any one had ever done before or is likely to do
+again. He stopped at nothing in the way of natural obstacles. In 1865
+he went deep into the heart of Uilcapampa; yet found no Uiticos. He
+believed that the ruins of Choqquequirau represented the residence of
+the last Incas. This view had been held by the French explorer, Count
+de Sartiges, in 1834, who believed that Choqquequirau was abandoned
+when Sayri Tupac, Manco's oldest son, went to live in Yucay. Raimondi's
+view was also held by the leading Peruvian geographers, including
+Paz Soldan in 1877, and by Prefect Nunez and his friends in 1909, at
+the time of my visit to Choqquequirau. [7] The only dissenter was the
+learned Peruvian historian, Don Carlos Romero, who insisted that the
+last Inca capital must be found elsewhere. He urged the importance
+of searching for Uiticos in the valleys of the rivers now called
+Vilcabamba and Urubamba. It was to be the work of the Yale Peruvian
+Expedition of 1911 to collect the geographical evidence which would
+meet the requirements of the chronicles and establish the whereabouts
+of the long-lost Inca capital.
+
+That there were undescribed and unidentified ruins to be found in the
+Urubamba Valley was known to a few people in Cuzco, mostly wealthy
+planters who had large estates in the province of Convencion. One
+told us that he went to Santa Ana every year and was acquainted with
+a muleteer who had told him of some interesting ruins near the San
+Miguel bridge. Knowing the propensity of his countrymen to exaggerate,
+however, he placed little confidence in the story and, shrugging his
+shoulders, had crossed the bridge a score of times without taking
+the trouble to look into the matter. Another, Senor Pancorbo, whose
+plantation was in the Vilcabamba Valley, said that he had heard vague
+rumors of ruins in the valley above his plantation, particularly
+near Pucyura. If his story should prove to be correct, then it was
+likely that this might be the very Puquiura where Friar Marcos had
+established the first church in the "province of Uilcapampa." But
+that was "near" Uiticos and near a village called Chuquipalpa, where
+should be found the ruins of a Temple of the Sun, and in these ruins
+a "white rock over a spring of water." Yet neither these friendly
+planters nor the friends among whom they inquired had ever heard of
+Uiticos or a place called Chuquipalpa, or of such an interesting rock;
+nor had they themselves seen the ruins of which they had heard.
+
+One of Senor Lomellini's friends, a talkative old fellow who
+had spent a large part of his life in prospecting for mines in
+the department of Cuzco, said that he had seen ruins "finer than
+Choqquequirau" at a place called Huayna Picchu; but he had never been
+to Choqquequirau. Those who knew him best shrugged their shoulders
+and did not seem to place much confidence in his word. Too often he
+had been over-enthusiastic about mines which did not "pan out." Yet
+his report resembled that of Charles Wiener, a French explorer,
+who, about 1875, in the course of his wanderings in the Andes,
+visited Ollantaytambo. While there he was told that there were fine
+ruins down the Urubamba Valley at a place called "Huaina-Picchu or
+Matcho-Picchu." He decided to go down the valley and look for these
+ruins. According to his text he crossed the Pass of Panticalla,
+descended the Lucumayo River to the bridge of Choqquechacca, and
+visited the lower Urubamba, returning by the same route. He published
+a detailed map of the valley. To one of its peaks he gives the name
+"Huaynapicchu, ele. 1815 m." and to another "Matchopicchu, ele. 1720
+m." His interest in Inca ruins was very keen. He devotes pages to
+Ollantaytambo. He failed to reach Machu Picchu or to find any ruins
+of importance in the Urubamba or Vilcabamba valleys. Could we hope
+to be any more successful? Would the rumors that had reached us "pan
+out" as badly as those to which Wiener had listened so eagerly? Since
+his day, to be sure, the Peruvian Government had actually finished
+a road which led past Machu Picchu. On the other hand, a Harvard
+Anthropological Expedition, under the leadership of Dr. William
+C. Farrabee, had recently been over this road without reporting
+any ruins of importance. They were looking for savages and not
+ruins. Nevertheless, if Machu Picchu was "finer than Choqquequirau"
+why had no one pointed it out to them?
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Peruvian Expedition of 1915
+------
+
+
+To most of our friends in Cuzco the idea that there could be anything
+finer than Choqquequirau seemed, absurd. They regarded that "cradle
+of gold" as "the most remarkable archeological discovery of recent
+times." They assured us there was nothing half so good. They even
+assumed that we were secretly planning to return thither to dig
+for buried treasure! Denials were of no avail. To a people whose
+ancestors made fortunes out of lucky "strikes," and who themselves
+have been brought up on stories of enormous wealth still remaining
+to be discovered by some fortunate excavator, the question of
+tesoro--treasure, wealth, riches--is an ever-present source of
+conversation. Even the prefect of Cuzco was quite unable to conceive
+of my doing anything for the love of discovery. He was convinced
+that I should find great riches at Choqquequirau--and that I was
+in receipt of a very large salary! He refused to believe that the
+members of the Expedition received no more than their expenses. He
+told me confidentially that Professor Foote would sell his collection
+of insects for at least $10,000! Peruvians have not been accustomed to
+see any one do scientific work except as he was paid by the government
+or employed by a railroad or mining company. We have frequently found
+our work misunderstood and regarded with suspicion, even by the Cuzco
+Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+
+The valley of the Urubamba, or Uilcamayu, as it used to be called, may
+be reached from Cuzco in several ways. The usual route for those going
+to Yucay is northwest from the city, over the great Andean highway,
+past the slopes of Mt. Sencca. At Ttica-Ttica (12,000 ft.) the road
+crosses the lowest pass at the western end of the Cuzco Basin. At the
+last point from which one can see the city of Cuzco, all true Indians,
+whether on their way out of the valley or into it, pause, turn toward
+the east, facing the city, remove their hats and mutter a prayer. I
+believe that the words they use now are those of the "Ave Maria,"
+or some other familiar orison of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless,
+the custom undoubtedly goes far back of the advent of the first
+Spanish missionaries. It is probably a relic of the ancient habit
+of worshiping the rising sun. During the centuries immediately
+preceding the conquest, the city of Cuzco was the residence of the Inca
+himself, that divine individual who was at once the head of Church and
+State. Nothing would have been more natural than for persons coming in
+sight of his residence to perform an act of veneration. This in turn
+might have led those leaving the city to fall into the same habit at
+the same point in the road. I have watched hundreds of travelers pass
+this point. None of those whose European costume proclaimed a white or
+mixed ancestry stopped to pray or make obeisance. On the other hand,
+all those, without exception, who were clothed in a native costume,
+which betokened that they considered themselves to be Indians rather
+than whites, paused for a moment, gazing at the ancient city, removed
+their hats, and said a short prayer.
+
+Leaving Ttica-Ttica, we went northward for several leagues, passed
+the town of Chincheros, with its old Inca walls, and came at length
+to the edge of the wonderful valley of Yucay. In its bottom are great
+level terraces rescued from the Urubamba River by the untiring energy
+of the ancient folk. On both sides of the valley the steep slopes
+bear many remains of narrow terraces, some of which are still in
+use. Above them are "temporales," fields of grain, resting like a
+patch-work quilt on slopes so steep it seems incredible they could
+be cultivated. Still higher up, their heads above the clouds, are
+the jagged snow-capped peaks. The whole offers a marvelous picture,
+rich in contrast, majestic in proportion. In Yucay once dwelt the Inca
+Manco's oldest son, Sayri Tupac, after he had accepted the viceroy's
+invitation to come under Spanish protection. Here he lived three years
+and here, in 1560, he died an untimely death under circumstances
+which led his brothers, Titu Cusi and Tupac Amaru, to think that
+they would be safer in Uiticos. We spent the night in Urubamba,
+the modern capital of the province, much favored by Peruvians of
+to-day because of its abundant water supply, delightful climate,
+and rich fruits. Cuzco, 11,000 feet, is too high to have charming
+surroundings, but two thousand feet lower, in the Urubamba Valley,
+there is everything to please the eye and delight the horticulturist.
+
+Speaking of horticulturists reminds me of their enemies. Uru is the
+Quichua word for caterpillars or grubs, pampa means flat land. Urubamba
+is "flat-land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars." Had it been named
+by people who came up from a warm region where insects abound, it would
+hardly have been so denominated. Only people not accustomed to land
+where caterpillars and grubs flourished would have been struck by such
+a circumstance. Consequently, the valley was probably named by plateau
+dwellers who were working their way down into a warm region where
+butterflies and moths are more common. Notwithstanding its celebrated
+caterpillars, Urubamba's gardens of to-day are full of roses, lilies,
+and other brilliant flowers. There are orchards of peaches, pears,
+and apples; there are fields where luscious strawberries are raised
+for the Cuzco market. Apparently, the grubs do not get everything.
+
+The next day down the valley brought us to romantic Ollantaytambo,
+described in glowing terms by Castelnau, Marcou, Wiener, and Squier
+many years ago. It has lost none of its charm, even though Marcou's
+drawings are imaginary and Squier's are exaggerated. Here, as at
+Urubamba, there are flower gardens and highly cultivated green
+fields. The brooks are shaded by willows and poplars. Above them
+are magnificent precipices crowned by snow-capped peaks. The village
+itself was once the capital of an ancient principality whose history
+is shrouded in mystery. There are ruins of curious gabled buildings,
+storehouses, "prisons," or "monasteries," perched here and there
+on well-nigh inaccessible crags above the village. Below are broad
+terraces of unbelievable extent where abundant crops are still
+harvested; terraces which will stand for ages to come as monuments to
+the energy and skill of a bygone race. The "fortress" is on a little
+hill, surrounded by steep cliffs, high walls, and hanging gardens so
+as to be difficult of access. Centuries ago, when the tribe which
+cultivated the rich fields in this valley lived in fear and terror
+of their savage neighbors, this hill offered a place of refuge to
+which they could retire. It may have been fortified at that time. As
+centuries passed in which the land came under the control of the Incas,
+whose chief interest was the peaceful promotion of agriculture, it
+is likely that this fortress became a royal garden. The six great
+ashlars of reddish granite weighing fifteen or twenty tons each, and
+placed in line on the summit of the hill, were brought from a quarry
+several miles away with an immense amount of labor and pains. They
+were probably intended to be a record of the magnificence of an able
+ruler. Not only could he command the services of a sufficient number
+of men to extract these rocks from the quarry and carry them up an
+inclined plane from the bottom of the valley to the summit of the hill;
+he had to supply the men with food. The building of such a monument
+meant taking five hundred Indians away from their ordinary occupations
+as agriculturists. He must have been a very good administrator. To his
+people the magnificent megaliths were doubtless a source of pride. To
+his enemies they were a symbol of his power and might.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Mt. Veronica and Salapunco, the Gateway to Uilcapampa
+------
+
+
+A league below Ollantaytambo the road forks. The right branch
+ascends a steep valley and crosses the pass of Panticalla near
+snow-covered Mt. Veronica. Near the pass are two groups of ruins. One
+of them, extravagantly referred to by Wiener as a "granite palace,
+whose appearance [appareil] resembles the more beautiful parts
+of Ollantaytambo," was only a storehouse. The other was probably a
+tampu, or inn, for the benefit of official travelers. All travelers in
+Inca times, even the bearers of burdens, were acting under official
+orders. Commercial business was unknown. The rights of personal
+property were not understood. No one had anything to sell; no one
+had any money to buy it with. On the other hand, the Incas had an
+elaborate system of tax collecting. Two thirds of the produce raised
+by their subjects was claimed by the civil and religious rulers. It
+was a reasonable provision of the benevolent despotism of the Incas
+that inhospitable regions like the Panticalla Pass near Mt. Veronica
+should be provided with suitable rest houses and storehouses. Polo de
+Ondegardo, an able and accomplished statesman, who was in office in
+Cuzco in 1560, says that the food of the chasquis, Inca post runners,
+was provided from official storehouses; "those who worked for the
+Inca's service, or for religion, never ate at their own expense." In
+Manco's day these buildings at Havaspampa probably sheltered the
+outpost which defeated Captain Villadiego.
+
+Before the completion of the river road, about 1895, travelers from
+Cuzco to the lower Urubamba had a choice of two routes, one by way
+of the pass of Panticalla, followed by Captain Garcia in 1571, by
+General Miller in 1835, Castelnau in 1842, and Wiener in 1875; and
+one by way of the pass between Mts. Salcantay and Soray, along the
+Salcantay River to Huadquina, followed by the Count de Sartiges in
+1834 and Raimondi in 1865. Both of these routes avoid the highlands
+between Mt. Salcantay and Mt. Veronica and the lowlands between the
+villages of Piri and Huadquina. This region was in 1911 undescribed
+in the geographical literature of southern Peru. We decided not to
+use either pass, but to go straight down the Urubamba river road. It
+led us into a fascinating country.
+
+Two leagues beyond Piri, at Salapunco, the road skirts the base of
+precipitous cliffs, the beginnings of a wonderful mass of granite
+mountains which have made Uilcapampa more difficult of access than the
+surrounding highlands which are composed of schists, conglomerates, and
+limestone. Salapunco is the natural gateway to the ancient province,
+but it was closed for centuries by the combined efforts of nature and
+man. The Urubamba River, in cutting its way through the granite range,
+forms rapids too dangerous to be passable and precipices which can
+be scaled only with great effort and considerable peril. At one
+time a footpath probably ran near the river, where the Indians,
+by crawling along the face of the cliff and sometimes swinging from
+one ledge to another on hanging vines, were able to make their way
+to any of the alluvial terraces down the valley. Another path may
+have gone over the cliffs above the fortress, where we noticed, in
+various inaccessible places, the remains of walls built on narrow
+ledges. They were too narrow and too irregular to have been intended
+to support agricultural terraces. They may have been built to make the
+cliff more precipitous. They probably represent the foundations of an
+old trail. To defend these ancient paths we found that prehistoric
+man had built, at the foot of the precipices, close to the river,
+a small but powerful fortress whose ruins now pass by the name of
+Salapunco; sala = ruins; punco = gateway. Fashioned after famous
+Sacsahuaman and resembling it in the irregular character of the large
+ashlars and also by reason of the salients and reentrant angles which
+enabled its defenders to prevent the walls being successfully scaled,
+it presents an interesting problem.
+
+Commanding as it does the entrance to the valley of Torontoy,
+Salapunco may have been built by some ancient chief to enable him
+to levy tribute on all who passed. My first impression was that
+the fortress was placed here, at the end of the temperate zone,
+to defend the valleys of Urubamba and Ollantaytambo against savage
+enemies coming up from the forests of the Amazon. On the other hand,
+it is possible that Salapunco was built by the tribes occupying the
+fastnesses of Uilcapampa as an outpost to defend them against enemies
+coming down the valley from the direction of Ollantaytambo. They could
+easily have held it against a considerable force, for it is powerfully
+built and constructed with skill. Supplies from the plantations of
+Torontoy, lower down the river, might have reached it along the path
+which antedated the present government road. Salapunco may have been
+occupied by the troops of the Inca Manco when he established himself
+in Uiticos and ruled over Uilcapampa. He could hardly, however,
+have built a megalithic work of this kind. It is more likely that
+he would have destroyed the narrow trails than have attempted to
+hold the fort against the soldiers of Pizarro. Furthermore, its
+style and character seem to date it with the well-known megalithic
+structures of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo. This makes it seem all the
+more extraordinary that Salapunco could ever have been built as a
+defense against Ollantaytambo, unless it was built by folk who once
+occupied Cuzco and who later found a retreat in the canyons below here.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Grosvenor Glacier and Mt. Salcantay
+------
+
+
+When we first visited Salapunco no megalithic remains had been
+reported as far down the valley as this. It never occurred to us that,
+in hunting for the remains of such comparatively recent structures as
+the Inca Manco had the force and time to build, we were to discover
+remains of a far more remote past. Yet we were soon to find ruins
+enough to explain why such a fortress as Salapunco might possibly
+have been built so as to defend Uilcapampa against Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco and not those well-known Inca cities against the savages of
+the Amazon jungles.
+
+Passing Salapunco, we skirted granite cliffs and precipices and entered
+a most interesting region, where we were surprised and charmed by the
+extent of the ancient terraces, their length and height, the presence
+of many Inca ruins, the beauty of the deep, narrow valleys, and the
+grandeur of the snow-clad mountains which towered above them. Across
+the river, near Qquente, on top of a series of terraces, we saw the
+extensive ruins of Patallacta (pata = height or terrace; llacta =
+town or city), an Inca town of great importance. It was not known to
+Raimondi or Paz Soldan, but is indicated on Wiener's map, although he
+does not appear to have visited it. We have been unable to find any
+reference to it in the chronicles. We spent several months here in
+1915 excavating and determining the character of the ruins. In another
+volume I hope to tell more of the antiquities of this region. At
+present it must suffice to remark that our explorations near Patallacta
+disclosed no "white rock over a spring of water." None of the place
+names in this vicinity fit in with the accounts of Uiticos. Their
+identity remains a puzzle, although the symmetry of the buildings,
+their architectural idiosyncrasies such as niches, stone roof-pegs,
+bar-holds, and eye-bonders, indicate an Inca origin. At what date these
+towns and villages flourished, who built them, why they were deserted,
+we do not yet know; and the Indians who live hereabouts are ignorant,
+or silent, as to their history.
+
+At Torontoy, the end of the cultivated temperate valley, we found
+another group of interesting ruins, possibly once the residence of
+an Inca chief. In a cave near by we secured some mummies. The ancient
+wrappings had been consumed by the natives in an effort to smoke out
+the vampire bats that lived in the cave. On the opposite side of the
+river are extensive terraces and above them, on a hilltop, other
+ruins first visited by Messrs. Tucker and Hendriksen in 1911. One
+of their Indian bearers, attempting to ford the rapids here with a
+large surveying instrument, was carried off his feet, swept away by
+the strong current, and drowned before help could reach him.
+
+Near Torontoy is a densely wooded valley called the Pampa Ccahua. In
+1915 rumors of Andean or "spectacled" bears having been seen here and
+of damage having been done by them to some of the higher crops, led
+us to go and investigate. We found no bears, but at an elevation of
+12,000 feet were some very old trees, heavily covered with flowering
+moss not hitherto known to science. Above them I was so fortunate as
+to find a wild potato plant, the source from which the early Peruvians
+first developed many varieties of what we incorrectly call the Irish
+potato. The tubers were as large as peas.
+
+Mr. Heller found here a strange little cousin of the kangaroo, a near
+relative of the coenolestes. It turned out to be new to science. To
+find a new genus of mammalian quadrupeds was an event which delighted
+Mr. Heller far more than shooting a dozen bears. [8]
+
+Torontoy is at the beginning of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba,
+and such a canyon! The river "road" runs recklessly up and down
+rock stairways, blasts its way beneath overhanging precipices, spans
+chasms on frail bridges propped on rustic brackets against granite
+cliffs. Under dense forests, wherever the encroaching precipices
+permitted it, the land between them and the river was once terraced
+and cultivated. We found ourselves unexpectedly in a veritable
+wonderland. Emotions came thick and fast. We marveled at the exquisite
+pains with which the ancient folk had rescued incredibly narrow strips
+of arable land from the tumbling rapids. How could they ever have
+managed to build a retaining wall of heavy stones along the very edge
+of the dangerous river, which it is death to attempt to cross! On one
+sightly bend near a foaming waterfall some Inca chief built a temple,
+whose walls tantalize the traveler. He must pass by within pistol shot
+of the interesting ruins, unable to ford the intervening rapids. High
+up on the side of the canyon, five thousand feet above this temple,
+are the ruins of Corihuayrachina (kori = "gold"; huayara = "wind";
+huayrachina = "a threshing-floor where winnowing takes place." Possibly
+this was an ancient gold mine of the Incas. Half a mile above us on
+another steep slope, some modern pioneer had recently cleared the
+jungle from a fine series of ancient artificial terraces.
+
+On the afternoon of July 23d we reached a hut called "La Maquina,"
+where travelers frequently stop for the night. The name comes from the
+presence here of some large iron wheels, parts of a "machine" destined
+never to overcome the difficulties of being transported all the way to
+a sugar estate in the lower valley, and years ago left here to rust in
+the jungle. There was little fodder, and there was no good place for
+us to pitch our camp, so we pushed on over the very difficult road,
+which had been carved out of the face of a great granite cliff. Part
+of the cliff had slid off into the river and the breach thus made in
+the road had been repaired by means of a frail-looking rustic bridge
+built on a bracket composed of rough logs, branches, and reeds,
+tied together and surmounted by a few inches of earth and pebbles
+to make it seem sufficiently safe to the cautious cargo mules who
+picked their way gingerly across it. No wonder "the machine" rested
+where it did and gave its name to that part of the valley.
+
+Dusk falls early in this deep canyon, the sides of which are
+considerably over a mile in height. It was almost dark when we passed
+a little sandy plain two or three acres in extent, which in this land
+of steep mountains is called a pampa. Were the dwellers on the pampas
+of Argentina--where a railroad can go for 250 miles in a straight
+line, except for the curvature of the earth--to see this little bit
+of flood-plain called Mandor Pampa, they would think some one had been
+joking or else grossly misusing a word which means to them illimitable
+space with not a hill in sight. However, to the ancient dwellers in
+this valley, where level land was so scarce that it was worth while
+to build high stone-faced terraces so as to enable two rows of corn
+to grow where none grew before, any little natural breathing space
+in the bottom of the canyon is called a pampa.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Road Between Maquina and Mandor Pampa Near Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+We passed an ill-kept, grass-thatched hut, turned off the road through
+a tiny clearing, and made our camp at the edge of the river Urubamba
+on a sandy beach. Opposite us, beyond the huge granite boulders
+which interfered with the progress of the surging stream, was a steep
+mountain clothed with thick jungle. It was an ideal spot for a camp,
+near the road and yet secluded. Our actions, however, aroused the
+suspicions of the owner of the hut, Melchor Arteaga, who leases the
+lands of Mandor Pampa. He was anxious to know why we did not stay at
+his hut like respectable travelers. Our gendarme, Sergeant Carrasco,
+reassured him. They had quite a long conversation. When Arteaga learned
+that we were interested in the architectural remains of the Incas, he
+said there were some very good ruins in this vicinity--in fact, some
+excellent ones on top of the opposite mountain, called Huayna Picchu,
+and also on a ridge called Machu Picchu. These were the very places
+Charles Wiener heard of at Ollantaytambo in 1875 and had been unable to
+reach. The story of my experiences on the following day will be found
+in a later chapter. Suffice it to say at this point that the ruins
+of Huayna Picchu turned out to be of very little importance, while
+those of Machu Picchu, familiar to readers of the "National Geographic
+Magazine," are as interesting as any ever found in the Andes.
+
+When I first saw the remarkable citadel of Machu Picchu perched on
+a narrow ridge two thousand feet above the river, I wondered if it
+could be the place to which that old soldier, Baltasar de Ocampo,
+a member of Captain Garcia's expedition, was referring when he said:
+"The Inca Tupac Amaru was there in the fortress of Pitcos [Uiticos],
+which is on a very high mountain, whence the view commanded a great
+part of the province of Uilcapampa. Here there was an extensive level
+space, with very sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well
+as the ordinary ones, being of marble, elaborately carved." Could
+it be that "Picchu" was the modern variant of "Pitcos"? To be sure,
+the white granite of which the temples and palaces of Machu Picchu
+are constructed might easily pass for marble. The difficulty about
+fitting Ocampo's description to Machu Picchu, however, was that there
+was no difference between the lintels of the doors and the walls
+themselves. Furthermore, there is no "white rock over a spring of
+water" which Calancha says was "near Uiticos." There is no Pucyura
+in this neighborhood. In fact, the canyon of the Urubamba does not
+satisfy the geographical requirements of Uiticos. Although containing
+ruins of surpassing interest, Machu Picchu did not represent that
+last Inca capital for which we were searching. We had not yet found
+Manco's palace.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Search Continued
+
+Machu Picchu is on the border-line between the temperate zone and the
+tropics. Camping near the bridge of San Miguel, below the ruins, both
+Mr. Heller and Mr. Cook found interesting evidences of this fact in
+the flora and fauna. From the point of view of historical geography,
+Mr. Cook's most important discovery was the presence here of huilca,
+a tree which does not grow in cold climates. The Quichua dictionaries
+tell us huilca is a "medicine, a purgative." An infusion made from
+the seeds of the tree is used as an enema. I am indebted to Mr. Cook
+for calling my attention to two articles by Mr. W. E. Safford in
+which it is also shown that from seeds of the huilca a powder is
+prepared, sometimes called cohoba. This powder, says Mr. Safford, is a
+narcotic snuff "inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated
+tube." "All writers unite in declaring that it induced a kind of
+intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were
+regarded by the natives as supernatural. While under its influence
+the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication
+with unseen powers, and their incoherent mutterings were regarded as
+prophecies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the
+physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the
+person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched." Mr. Safford quotes
+Las Casas as saying: "It was an interesting spectacle to witness how
+they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony and
+while he was engaged all remained silent .... When he had snuffed up
+the powder through his nostrils, he remained silent for a while with
+his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then
+he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must
+have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God;
+after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this
+they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said
+to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and
+begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them
+his vision, saying that the Cemi [spirits] had spoken to him and had
+predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born,
+or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors,
+and other things which might come to his imagination, all disturbed
+with that intoxication." [9]
+
+Clearly, from the point of view of priests and soothsayers, the place
+where huilca was first found and used in their incantations would be
+important. It is not strange to find therefore that the Inca name of
+this river was Uilca-mayu: the "huilca river." The pampa on this river
+where the trees grew would likely receive the name Uilca pampa. If it
+became an important city, then the surrounding region might be named
+Uilcapampa after it. This seems to me to be the most probable origin
+of the name of the province. Anyhow it is worth noting the fact that
+denizens of Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, coming down the river in search
+of this highly prized narcotic, must have found the first trees not
+far from Machu Picchu.
+
+Leaving the ruins of Machu Picchu for later investigation, we now
+pushed on down the Urubamba Valley, crossed the bridge of San Miguel,
+passed the house of Senor Lizarraga, first of modern Peruvians to
+write his name on the granite walls of Machu Picchu, and came to the
+sugar-cane fields of Huadquina. We had now left the temperate zone
+and entered the tropics.
+
+At Huadquina we were so fortunate as to find that the proprietress of
+the plantation, Senora Carmen Vargas, and her children, were spending
+the season here. During the rainy winter months they live in Cuzco,
+but when summer brings fine weather they come to Huadquina to enjoy
+the free-and-easy life of the country. They made us welcome, not
+only with that hospitality to passing travelers which is common
+to sugar estates all over the world, but gave us real assistance
+in our explorations. Senora Carmen's estate covers more than
+two hundred square miles. Huadquina is a splendid example of the
+ancient patriarchal system. The Indians who come from other parts of
+Peru to work on the plantation enjoy perquisites and wages unknown
+elsewhere. Those whose home is on the estate regard Senora Carmen with
+an affectionate reverence which she well deserves. All are welcome to
+bring her their troubles. The system goes back to the days when the
+spiritual, moral, and material welfare of the Indians was entrusted
+in encomienda to the lords of the repartimiento or allotted territory.
+
+Huadquina once belonged to the Jesuits. They planted the first sugar
+cane and established the mill. After their expulsion from the Spanish
+colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Huadquina was bought
+by a Peruvian. It was first described in geographical literature by
+the Count de Sartiges, who stayed here for several weeks in 1834 when
+on his way to Choqquequirau. He says that the owner of Huadquina "is
+perhaps the only landed proprietor in the entire world who possesses
+on his estates all the products of the four parts of the globe. In
+the different regions of his domain he has wool, hides, horsehair,
+potatoes, wheat, corn, sugar, coffee, chocolate, coca, many mines of
+silver-bearing lead, and placers of gold." Truly a royal principality.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Huadquina
+------
+
+
+Incidentally it is interesting to note that although Sartiges was
+an enthusiastic explorer, eager to visit undescribed Inca ruins,
+he makes no mention whatever of Machu Picchu. Yet from Huadquina
+one can reach Machu Picchu on foot in half a day without crossing
+the Urubamba River. Apparently the ruins were unknown to his hosts
+in 1834. They were equally unknown to our kind hosts in 1911. They
+scarcely believed the story I told them of the beauty and extent of
+the Inca edifices. [10] When my photographs were developed, however,
+and they saw with their own eyes the marvelous stonework of the
+principal temples, Senora Carmen and her family were struck dumb
+with wonder and astonishment. They could not understand how it was
+possible that they should have passed so close to Machu Picchu every
+year of their lives since the river road was opened without knowing
+what was there. They had seen a single little building on the crest
+of the ridge, but supposed that it was an isolated tower of no great
+interest or importance. Their neighbor, Lizarraga, near the bridge
+of San Miguel, had reported the presence of the ruins which he first
+visited in 1904, but, like our friends in Cuzco, they had paid little
+attention to his stories. We were soon to have a demonstration of
+the causes of such skepticism.
+
+Our new friends read with interest my copy of those paragraphs of
+Calaucha's "Chronicle" which referred to the location of the last Inca
+capital. Learning that we were anxious to discover Uiticos, a place of
+which they had never heard, they ordered the most intelligent tenants
+on the estate to come in and be questioned. The best informed of all
+was a sturdy mestizo, a trusted foreman, who said that in a little
+valley called Ccllumayu, a few hours' journey down the Urubamba, there
+were "important ruins" which had been seen by some of Senora Carmen's
+Indians. Even more interesting and thrilling was his statement that on
+a ridge up the Salcantay Valley was a place called Yurak Rumi (yurak =
+"white"; rumi = "stone") where some very interesting ruins had been
+found by his workmen when cutting trees for firewood. We all became
+excited over this, for among the paragraphs which I had copied from
+Calancha's "Chronicle" was the statement that "close to Uiticos" is the
+"white stone of the aforesaid house of the Sun which is called Yurak
+Rumi." Our hosts assured us that this must be the place, since no
+one hereabouts had ever heard of any other Yurak Rumi. The foreman,
+on being closely questioned, said that he had seen the ruins once or
+twice, that he had also been up the Urubamba Valley and seen the great
+ruins at Ollantaytambo, and that those which he had seen at Yurak Rumi
+were "as good as those at Ollantaytambo." Here was a definite statement
+made by an eyewitness. Apparently we were about to see that interesting
+rock where the last Incas worshiped. However, the foreman said that
+the trail thither was at present impassable, although a small gang of
+Indians could open it in less than a week. Our hosts, excited by the
+pictures we had shown them of Machu Picchu, and now believing that
+even finer ruins might be found on their own property, immediately
+gave orders to have the path to Yurak Rumi cleared for our benefit.
+
+While this was being done, Senora Carmen's son, the manager of the
+plantation, offered to accompany us himself to Ccllumayu, where other
+"important ruins" had been found, which could be reached in a few
+hours without cutting any new trails. Acting on his assurance that we
+should not need tent or cots, we left our camping outfit behind and
+followed him to a small valley on the south side of the Urubamba. We
+found Ccllumayu to consist of two huts in a small clearing. Densely
+wooded slopes rose on all sides. The manager requested two of
+the Indian tenants to act as guides. With them, we plunged into
+the thick jungle and spent a long and fatiguing day searching in
+vain for ruins. That night the manager returned to Huadquina, but
+Professor Foote and I preferred to remain in Ccllumayu and prosecute
+a more vigorous search on the next day. We shared a little thatched
+hut with our Indian hosts and a score of fat cuys (guinea pigs), the
+chief source of the Ccllumayu meat supply. The hut was built of rough
+wattles which admitted plenty of fresh air and gave us comfortable
+ventilation. Primitive little sleeping-platforms, also of wattles,
+constructed for the needs of short, stocky Indians, kept us from
+being overrun by inquisitive cuys, but could hardly be called as
+comfortable as our own folding cots which we had left at Huadquina.
+
+The next day our guides were able to point out in the woods a few
+piles of stones, the foundations of oval or circular huts which
+probably were built by some primitive savage tribe in prehistoric
+times. Nothing further could be found here of ruins, "important"
+or otherwise, although we spent three days at Ccllumayu. Such was
+our first disillusionment.
+
+On our return to Huadquina, we learned that the trail to Yurak Rumi
+would be ready "in a day or two." In the meantime our hosts became much
+interested in Professor Foote's collection of insects. They brought
+an unnamed scorpion and informed us that an orange orchard surrounded
+by high walls in a secluded place back of the house was "a great
+place for spiders." We found that their statement was not exaggerated
+and immediately engaged in an enthusiastic spider hunt. When these
+Huadquina spiders were studied at the Harvard Museum of Comparative
+Zooelogy, Dr. Chamberlain found among them the representatives of four
+new genera and nineteen species hitherto unknown to science. As a
+reward of merit, he gave Professor Foote's name to the scorpion!
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins of Yurak Rumi near Huadquina. Probably an Inca Storehouse, well
+ventilated and well drained. Drawn by A. H. Bumstead from measurements
+and photographs by Hiram Bingham and H. W. Foote.
+------
+
+
+Finally the trail to Yurak Rumi was reported finished. It was with
+feelings of keen anticipation that I started out with the foreman
+to see those ruins which he had just revisited and now declared were
+"better than those of Ollantaytambo." It was to be presumed that in the
+pride of discovery he might have exaggerated their importance. Still it
+never entered my head what I was actually to find. After several hours
+spent in clearing away the dense forest growth which surrounded the
+walls I learned that this Yurak Rumi consisted of the ruins of a single
+little rectangular Inca storehouse. No effort had been made at beauty
+of construction. The walls were of rough, unfashioned stones laid in
+clay. The building was without a doorway, although it had several small
+windows and a series of ventilating shafts under the house. The lintels
+of the windows and of the small apertures leading into the subterranean
+shafts were of stone. There were no windows on the sunny north side
+or on the ends, but there were four on the south side through which
+it would have been possible to secure access to the stores of maize,
+potatoes, or other provisions placed here for safe-keeping. It
+will be recalled that the Incas maintained an extensive system of
+public storehouses, not only in the centers of population, but also
+at strategic points on the principal trails. Yurak Rumi is on top of
+the ridge between the Salcantay and Huadquina valleys, probably on an
+ancient road which crossed the province of Uilcapampa. As such it was
+interesting; but to compare it with Ollantaytambo, as the foreman had
+done, was to liken a cottage to a palace or a mouse to an elephant. It
+seems incredible that anybody having actually seen both places could
+have thought for a moment that one was "as good as the other." To be
+sure, the foreman was not a trained observer and his interest in Inca
+buildings was probably of the slightest. Yet the ruins of Ollantaytambo
+are so well known and so impressive that even the most casual traveler
+is struck by them and the natives themselves are enormously proud
+of them. The real cause of the foreman's inaccuracy was probably his
+desire to please. To give an answer which will satisfy the questioner
+is a common trait in Peru as well as in many other parts of the
+world. Anyhow, the lessons of the past few days were not lost on
+us. We now understood the skepticism which had prevailed regarding
+Lizarraga's discoveries. It is small wonder that the occasional
+stories about Machu Picchu which had drifted into Cuzco had never
+elicited any enthusiasm nor even provoked investigation on the part
+of those professors and students in the University of Cuzco who were
+interested in visiting the remains of Inca civilization. They knew
+only too well the fondness of their countrymen for exaggeration and
+their inability to report facts accurately.
+
+Obviously, we had not yet found Uiticos. So, bidding farewell to
+Senora Carmen, we crossed the Urubamba on the bridge of Colpani and
+proceeded down the valley past the mouth of the Lucumayo and the
+road from Panticalla, to the hamlet of Chauillay, where the Urubamba
+is joined by the Vilcabamba River. [11] Both rivers are restricted
+here to narrow gorges, through which their waters rush and roar on
+their way to the lower valley. A few rods from Chauillay was a fine
+bridge. The natives call it Chuquichaca! Steel and iron have superseded
+the old suspension bridge of huge cables made of vegetable fiber, with
+its narrow roadway of wattles supported by a network of vines. Yet
+here it was that in 1572 the military force sent by the viceroy,
+Francisco de Toledo, under the command of General Martin Hurtado and
+Captain Garcia, found the forces of the young Inca drawn up to defend
+Uiticos. It will be remembered that after a brief preliminary fire
+the forces of Tupac Amaru were routed without having destroyed the
+bridge and thus Captain Garcia was enabled to accomplish that which
+had proved too much for the famous Gonzalo Pizarro. Our inspection of
+the surroundings showed that Captain Garcia's companion, Baltasar de
+Ocampo, was correct when he said that the occupation of the bridge
+of Chuquichaca "was a measure of no small importance for the royal
+force." It certainly would have caused the Spaniards "great trouble"
+if they had had to rebuild it.
+
+We might now have proceeded to follow Garcia's tracks up the Vilcabamba
+had we not been anxious to see the proprietor of the plantation of
+Santa Ana, Don Pedro Duque, reputed to be the wisest and ablest man
+in this whole province. We felt he would be able to offer us advice of
+prime importance in our search. So leaving the bridge of Chuquichaca,
+we continued down the Urubamba River which here meanders through a
+broad, fertile valley, green with tropical plantations. We passed
+groves of bananas and oranges, waving fields of green sugar cane, the
+hospitable dwellings of prosperous planters, and the huts of Indians
+fortunate enough to dwell in this tropical "Garden of Eden." The day
+was hot and thirst-provoking, so I stopped near some large orange trees
+loaded with ripe fruit and asked the Indian proprietress to sell me
+ten cents' worth. In exchange for the tiny silver real she dragged out
+a sack containing more than fifty oranges! I was fain to request her
+to permit us to take only as many as our pockets could hold; but she
+seemed so surprised and pained, we had to fill our saddle-bags as well.
+
+At the end of the day we crossed the Urubamba River on a fine
+steel bridge and found ourselves in the prosperous little town of
+Quillabamba, the provincial capital. Its main street was lined with
+well-filled shops, evidence of the fact that this is one of the
+principal gateways to the Peruvian rubber country which, with the
+high price of rubber then prevailing, 1911, was the scene of unusual
+activity. Passing through Quillabamba and up a slight hill beyond
+it, we came to the long colonnades of the celebrated sugar estate of
+Santa Ana founded by the Jesuits, where all explorers who have passed
+this way since the days of Charles Wiener have been entertained. He
+says that he was received here "with a thousand signs of friendship"
+("mille temoignages d'amitie"). We were received the same way. Even
+in a region where we had repeatedly received valuable assistance from
+government officials and generous hospitality from private individuals,
+our reception at Santa Ana stands out as particularly delightful.
+
+Don Pedro Duque took great interest in enabling us to get all possible
+information about the little-known region into which we proposed
+to penetrate. Born in Colombia, but long resident in Peru, he was
+a gentleman of the old school, keenly interested, not only in the
+administration and economic progress of his plantation, but also in
+the intellectual movements of the outside world. He entered with zest
+into our historical-geographical studies. The name Uiticos was new
+to him, but after reading over with us our extracts from the Spanish
+chronicles he was sure that he could help us find it. And help us he
+did. Santa Ana is less than thirteen degrees south of the equator;
+the elevation is barely 2000 feet; the "winter" nights are cool;
+but the heat in the middle of the day is intense. Nevertheless,
+our host was so energetic that as a result of his efforts a number
+of the best-informed residents were brought to the conferences at
+the great plantation house. They told all they knew of the towns and
+valleys where the last four Incas had found a refuge, but that was
+not much. They all agreed that "if only Senor Lopez Torres were alive
+he could have been of great service" to us, as "he had prospected
+for mines and rubber in those parts more than any one else, and had
+once seen some Inca ruins in the forest!" Of Uiticos and Chuquipalpa
+and most of the places mentioned in the chronicles, none of Don
+Pedro's friends had ever heard. It was all rather discouraging,
+until one day, by the greatest good fortune, there arrived at Santa
+Ana another friend of Don Pedro's, the teniente gobernador of the
+village of Lucma in the valley of Vilcabamba--a crusty old fellow
+named Evaristo Mogrovejo. His brother, Pio Mogrovejo, had been a
+member of the party of energetic Peruvians who, in 1884, had searched
+for buried treasure at Choqquequirau and had left their names on
+its walls. Evaristo Mogrovejo could understand searching for buried
+treasure, but he was totally unable otherwise to comprehend our desire
+to find the ruins of the places mentioned by Father Calancha and the
+contemporaries of Captain Garcia. Had we first met Mogrovejo in Lucma
+he would undoubtedly have received us with suspicion and done nothing
+to further our quest. Fortunately for us, his official superior was
+the sub-prefect of the province of Convencion, lived at Quillabamba
+near Santa Ana, and was a friend of Don Pedro's. The sub-prefect had
+received orders from his own official superior, the prefect of Cuzco,
+to take a personal interest in our undertaking, and accordingly gave
+particular orders to Mogrovejo to see to it that we were given every
+facility for finding the ancient ruins and identifying the places
+of historic interest. Although Mogrovejo declined to risk his skin
+in the savage wilderness of Conservidayoc, he carried out his orders
+faithfully and was ultimately of great assistance to us.
+
+Extremely gratified with the result of our conferences in Santa
+Ana, yet reluctant to leave the delightful hospitality and charming
+conversation of our gracious host, we decided to go at once to Lucma,
+taking the road on the southwest side of the Urubamba and using
+the route followed by the pack animals which carry the precious
+cargoes of coca and aguardiente from Santa Ana to Ollantaytambo and
+Cuzco. Thanks to Don Pedro's energy, we made an excellent start;
+not one of those meant-to-be-early but really late-in-the-morning
+departures so customary in the Andes.
+
+We passed through a region which originally had been heavily forested,
+had long since been cleared, and was now covered with bushes and
+second growth. Near the roadside I noticed a considerable number of
+land shells grouped on the under-side of overhanging rocks. As a boy
+in the Hawaiian Islands I had spent too many Saturdays collecting
+those beautiful and fascinating mollusks, which usually prefer the
+trees of upland valleys, to enable me to resist the temptation of
+gathering a large number of such as could easily be secured. None of
+the snails were moving. The dry season appears to be their resting
+period. Some weeks later Professor Foote and I passed through Maras
+and were interested to notice thousands of land shells, mostly white in
+color, on small bushes, where they seemed to be quietly sleeping. They
+were fairly "glued to their resting places"; clustered so closely in
+some cases as to give the stems of the bushes a ghostly appearance.
+
+Our present objective was the valley of the river Vilcabamba. So
+far as we have been able to learn, only one other explorer had
+preceded us--the distinguished scientist Raimondi. His map of the
+Vilcabamba is fairly accurate. He reports the presence here of
+mines and minerals, but with the exception of an "abandoned tampu"
+at Maracnyoc ("the place which possesses a millstone"), he makes no
+mention of any ruins. Accordingly, although it seemed from the story
+of Baltasar de Ocampo and Captain Garcia's other contemporaries that
+we were now entering the valley of Uiticos, it was with feel-hags of
+considerable uncertainty that we proceeded on our quest. It may seem
+strange that we should have been in any doubt. Yet before our visit
+nearly all the Peruvian historians and geographers except Don Carlos
+Romero still believed that when the Inca Manco fled from Pizarro he
+took up his residence at Choqquequirau in the Apurimac Valley. The
+word choqquequirau means "cradle of gold" and this lent color to the
+legend that Manco had carried off with him from Cuzco great quantities
+of gold utensils and much treasure, which he deposited in his new
+capital. Raimondi, knowing that Manco had "retired to Uilcapampa,"
+visited both the present villages of Vilcabamba and Pucyura and
+saw nothing of any ruins. He was satisfied that Choqquequirau was
+Manco's refuge because it was far enough from Pucyura to answer the
+requirements of Calancha that it was "two or three days' journey"
+from Uilcapampa to Puquiura.
+
+A new road had recently been built along the river bank by the owner
+of the sugar estate at Paltaybamba, to enable his pack animals to
+travel more rapidly. Much of it had to be carved out of the face
+of a solid rock precipice and in places it pierces the cliffs in
+a series of little tunnels. My gendarme missed this road and took
+the steep old trail over the cliffs. As Ocampo said in his story of
+Captain Garcia's expedition, "the road was narrow in the ascent with
+forest on the fight, and on the left a ravine of great depth." We
+reached Paltaybamba about dusk. The owner, Senor Jose S. Pancorbo,
+was absent, attending to the affairs of a rubber estate in the jungles
+of the river San Miguel. The plantation of Paltaybamba occupies the
+best lands in the lower Vilcabamba Valley, but lying, as it does,
+well off the main highway, visitors are rare and our arrival was
+the occasion for considerable excitement. We were not unexpected,
+however. It was Senor Pancorbo who had assured us in Cuzco that we
+should find ruins near Pucyura and he had told his major-domo to be
+on the look-out for us. We had a long talk with the manager of the
+plantation and his friends that evening. They had heard little of
+any ruins in this vicinity, but repeated one of the stories we had
+heard in Santa Ana, that way off somewhere in the montana there was
+"an Inca city." All agreed that it was a very difficult place to reach;
+and none of them had ever been there. In the morning the manager gave
+us a guide to the next house up the valley, with orders that the man
+at that house should relay us to the next, and so on. These people,
+all tenants of the plantation, obligingly carried out their orders,
+although at considerable inconvenience to themselves.
+
+The Vilcabamba Valley above Paltaybamba is very picturesque. There
+are high mountains on either side, covered with dense jungle and dark
+green foliage, in pleasing contrast to the light green of the fields of
+waving sugar cane. The valley is steep, the road is very winding, and
+the torrent of the Vilcabamba roars loudly, even in July. What it must
+be like in February, the rainy season, we could only surmise. About
+two leagues above Paltaybamba, at or near the spot called by Raimondi
+"Maracnyoc," an "abandoned tampu," we came to some old stone walls,
+the ruins of a place now called Huayara or "Hoyara." I believe them to
+be the ruins of the first Spanish settlement in this region, a place
+referred to by Ocampo, who says that the fugitives of Tupac Amaru's
+army were "brought back to the valley of Hoyara," where they were
+"settled in a large village, and a city of Spaniards was founded
+.... This city was founded on an extensive plain near a river, with
+an admirable climate. From the river channels of water were taken for
+the service of the city, the water being very good." The water here
+is excellent, far better than any in the Cuzco Basin. On the plain
+near the river are some of the last cane fields of the plantation
+of Paltaybamba. "Hoyara" was abandoned after the discovery of gold
+mines several leagues farther up the valley, and the Spanish "city"
+was moved to the village now called Vilcabamba.
+
+Our next stop was at Lucma, the home of Teniente Gobernador
+Mogrovejo. The village of Lucma is an irregular cluster of about thirty
+thatched-roofed huts. It enjoys a moderate amount of prosperity due to
+the fact of its being located near one of the gateways to the interior,
+the pass to the rubber estates in the San Miguel Valley. Here are
+"houses of refreshment" and two shops, the only ones in the region. One
+can buy cotton cloth, sugar, canned goods and candles. A picturesque
+belfry and a small church, old and somewhat out of repair, crown the
+small hill back of the village. There is little level land, but the
+slopes are gentle, and permit a considerable amount of agriculture.
+
+There was no evidence of extensive terracing. Maize and alfalfa seemed
+to be the principal crops. Evaristo Mogrovejo lived on the little plaza
+around which the houses of the more important people were grouped. He
+had just returned from Santa Ana by the way of Idma, using a much
+worse trail than that over which we had come, but one which enabled
+him to avoid passing through Paltaybamba, with whose proprietor he
+was not on good terms. He told us stories of misadventures which had
+happened to travelers at the gates of Paltaybamba, stories highly
+reminiscent of feudal days in Europe, when provincial barons were
+accustomed to lay tribute on all who passed.
+
+We offered to pay Mogrovejo a gratificacion of a sol, or Peruvian
+silver dollar, for every ruin to which he would take us, and double
+that amount if the locality should prove to contain particularly
+interesting ruins. This aroused all his business instincts. He
+summoned his alcaldes and other well-informed Indians to appear and be
+interviewed. They told us there were "many ruins" hereabouts! Being
+a practical man himself, Mogrovejo had never taken any interest in
+ruins. Now he saw the chance not only to make money out of the ancient
+sites, but also to gain official favor by carrying out with unexampled
+vigor the orders of his superior, the sub-prefect of Quillabamba. So
+he exerted himself to the utmost in our behalf.
+
+The next day we were guided up a ravine to the top of the ridge back
+of Lucma. This ridge divides the upper from the lower Vilcabamba. On
+all sides the hills rose several thousand feet above us. In places
+they were covered with forest growth, chiefly above the cloud line,
+where daily moisture encourages vegetation. In some of the forests on
+the more gentle slopes recent clearings gave evidence of enterprise
+on the part of the present inhabitants of the valley. After an hour's
+climb we reached what were unquestionably the ruins of Inca structures,
+on an artificial terrace which commands a magnificent view far down
+toward Paltaybamba and the bridge of Chuquichaca, as well as in the
+opposite direction. The contemporaries of Captain Garcia speak of a
+number of forts or pucaras which had to be stormed and captured before
+Tupac Amaru could be taken prisoner. This was probably one of those
+"fortresses." Its strategic position and the ease with which it could
+be defended point to such an interpretation. Nevertheless this ruin
+did not fit the "fortress of Pitcos," nor the "House of the Sun"
+near the "white rock over the spring." It is called Incahuaracana,
+"the place where the Inca shoots with a sling."
+
+Incahuaracana consists of two typical Inca edifices--one of two
+rooms, about 70 by 20 feet, and the other, very long and narrow,
+150 by 11 feet. The walls, of unhewn stone laid in clay, were not
+particularly well built and resemble in many respects the ruins at
+Choqquequirau. The rooms of the principal house are without windows,
+although each has three front doors and is lined with niches, four
+or five on a side. The long, narrow building was divided into three
+rooms, and had several front doors. A force of two hundred Indian
+soldiers could have slept in these houses without unusual crowding.
+
+We left Lucma the next day, forded the Vilcabamba River and soon
+had an uninterrupted view up the valley to a high, truncated hill,
+its top partly covered with a scrubby growth of trees and bushes,
+its sides steep and rocky. We were told that the name of the hill was
+"Rosaspata," a word of modern hybrid origin--pata being Quichua for
+"hill," while rosas is the Spanish word for "roses." Mogrovejo said
+his Indians told him that on the "Hill of Roses" there were more ruins.
+
+At the foot of the hill, and across the river, is the village of
+Pucyura. When Raimondi was here in 1865 it was but a "wretched hamlet
+with a paltry chapel." To-day it is more prosperous. There is a large
+public school here, to which children come from villages many miles
+away. So crowded is the school that in fine weather the children
+sit on benches out of doors. The boys all go barefooted. The girls
+wear high boots. I once saw them reciting a geography lesson, but I
+doubt if even the teacher knew whether or not this was the site of
+the first school in this whole region. For it was to "Puquiura" that
+Friar Marcos came in 1566. Perhaps he built the "mezquina capilla"
+which Raimondi scorned. If this were the "Puquiura" of Friar Marcos,
+then Uiticos must be near by, for he and Friar Diego walked with
+their famous procession of converts from "Puquiura" to the House of
+the Sun and the "white rock" which was "close to Uiticos."
+
+Crossing the Vilcabamba on a footbridge that afternoon, we came
+immediately upon some old ruins that were not Incaic. Examination
+showed that they were apparently the remains of a very crude Spanish
+crushing mill, obviously intended to pulverize gold-bearing quartz on a
+considerable scale. Perhaps this was the place referred to by Ocampo,
+who says that the Inca Titu Cusi attended masses said by his friend
+Friar Diego in a chapel which is "near my houses and on my own lands,
+in the mining district of Puquiura, close to the ore-crushing mill of
+Don Christoval de Albornoz, Precentor that was of the Cuzco Cathedral."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Pucyura and the Hill of Rosaspata in the Vilcabamba Valley
+------
+
+
+One of the millstones is five feet in diameter and more than a foot
+thick. It lay near a huge, flat rock of white granite, hollowed
+out so as to enable the millstone to be rolled slowly around in a
+hollow trough. There was also a very large Indian mortar and pestle,
+heavy enough to need the services of four men to work it. The mortar
+was merely the hollowed-out top of a large boulder which projected
+a few inches above the surface of the ground. The pestle, four feet
+in diameter, was of the characteristic rocking-stone shape used from
+time immemorial by the Indians of the highlands for crushing maize or
+potatoes. Since no other ruins of a Spanish quartz-crushing plant have
+been found in this vicinity, it is probable that this once belonged
+to Don Christoval de Albornoz.
+
+Near the mill the Tincochaca River joins the Vilcabamba from the
+southeast. Crossing this on a footbridge, I followed Mogrovejo to an
+old and very dilapidated structure in the saddle of the hill on the
+south side of Rosaspata. They called the place Uncapampa, or Inca
+pampa. It is probably one of the forts stormed by Captain Garcia
+and his men in 1571. The ruins represent a single house, 166 feet
+long by 33 feet wide. If the house had partitions they long since
+disappeared. There were six doorways in front, none on the ends or
+in the rear walls. The ruins resembled those of Incahuaracana, near
+Lucma. The walls had originally been built of rough stones laid in
+clay. The general finish was extremely rough. The few niches, all
+at one end of the structure, were irregular, about two feet in width
+and a little more than this in height. The one corner of the building
+which was still standing had a height of about ten feet. Two hundred
+Inca soldiers could have slept here also.
+
+Leaving Uncapampa and following my guides, I climbed up the ridge and
+followed a path along its west side to the top of Rosaspata. Passing
+some ruins much overgrown and of a primitive character, I soon found
+myself on a pleasant pampa near the top of the mountain. The view
+from here commands "a great part of the province of Uilcapampa." It
+is remarkably extensive on all sides; to the north and south are
+snow-capped mountains, to the east and west, deep verdure-clad valleys.
+
+Furthermore, on the north side of the pampa is an extensive level
+space with a very sumptuous and majestic building "erected with great
+skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, the principal as well as
+the ordinary ones," being of white granite elaborately cut. At last
+we had found a place which seemed to meet most of the requirements
+of Ocampo's description of the "fortress of Pitcos." To be sure it
+was not of "marble," and the lintels of the doors were not "carved,"
+in our sense of the word. They were, however, beautifully finished,
+as may be seen from the illustrations, and the white granite might
+easily pass for marble. If only we could find in this vicinity that
+Temple of the Sun which Calancha said was "near" Uiticos, all doubts
+would be at an end.
+
+That night we stayed at Tincochaca, in the hut of an Indian friend of
+Mogrovejo. As usual we made inquiries. Imagine our feelings when in
+response to the oft-repeated question he said that in a neighboring
+valley there was a great white rock over a spring of water! If his
+story should prove to be true our quest for Uiticos was over. It
+behooved us to make a very careful study of what we had found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Fortress of Uiticos and the House of the Sun
+
+When the viceroy, Toledo, determined to conquer that last stronghold of
+the Incas where for thirty-five years they had defied the supreme
+power of Spain, he offered a thousand dollars a year as a pension
+to the soldier who would capture Tupac Amaru. Captain Garcia
+earned the pension, but failed to receive it; the "manana habit"
+was already strong in the days of Philip II. So the doughty captain
+filed a collection of testimonials with Philip's Royal Council of
+the Indies. Among these is his own statement of what happened on the
+campaign against Tupac Amaru. In this he says: "and having arrived
+at the principal fortress, Guay-napucara ["the young fortress"],
+which the Incas had fortified, we found it defended by the Prince
+Philipe Quispetutio, a son of the Inca Titu Cusi, with his captains
+and soldiers. It is on a high eminence surrounded with rugged crags and
+jungles, very dangerous to ascend and almost impregnable. Nevertheless,
+with my aforesaid company of soldiers I went up and gained the
+fortress, but only with the greatest possible labor and danger. Thus
+we gained the province of Uilcapampa." The viceroy himself says this
+important victory was due to Captain Garcia's skill and courage in
+storming the heights of Guaynapucara, "on Saint John the Baptist's day,
+in 1572."
+
+The "Hill of Roses" is indeed "a high eminence surrounded with rugged
+crags." The side of easiest approach is protected by a splendid, long
+wall, built so carefully as not to leave a single toe-hold for active
+besiegers. The barracks at Uncapampa could have furnished a contingent
+to make an attack on that side very dangerous. The hill is steep on
+all sides, and it would have been extremely easy for a small force
+to have defended it. It was undoubtedly "almost impregnable." This
+was the feature Captain Garcia was most likely to remember.
+
+On the very summit of the hill are the ruins of a partly enclosed
+compound consisting of thirteen or fourteen houses arranged so as to
+form a rough square, with one large and several small courtyards. The
+outside dimensions of the compound are about 160 feet by 145 feet. The
+builders showed the familiar Inca sense of symmetry in arranging
+the houses, Due to the wanton destruction of many buildings by the
+natives in their efforts at treasure-hunting, the walls have been so
+pulled down that it is impossible to get the exact dimensions of the
+buildings. In only one of them could we be sure that there had been
+any niches.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Principal Doorway of the Long Palace at Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Another Doorway in the Ruins of Rosaspata
+------
+
+
+Most interesting of all is the structure which caught the attention
+of Ocampo and remained fixed in his memory. Enough remains of this
+building to give a good idea of its former grandeur. It was indeed a
+fit residence for a royal Inca, an exile from Cuzco. It is 245 feet by
+43 feet. There were no windows, but it was lighted by thirty doorways,
+fifteen in front and the same in back. It contained ten large rooms,
+besides three hallways running from front to rear. The walls were built
+rather hastily and are not noteworthy, but the principal entrances,
+namely, those leading to each hall, are particularly well made; not,
+to be sure, of "marble" as Ocampo said--there is no marble in the
+province--but of finely cut ashlars of white granite. The lintels
+of the principal doorways, as well as of the ordinary ones, are
+also of solid blocks of white granite, the largest being as much as
+eight feet in length. The doorways are better than any other ruins in
+Uilcapampa except those of Machu Picchu, thus justifying the mention
+of them made by Ocampo, who lived near here and had time to become
+thoroughly familiar with their appearance. Unfortunately, a very
+small portion of the edifice was still standing. Most of the rear
+doors had been filled up with ashlars, in order to make a continuous
+fence. Other walls had been built from the ruins, to keep cattle out
+of the cultivated pampa. Rosaspata is at an elevation which places it
+on the borderland between the cold grazing country, with its root crops
+and sublimated pigweeds, and the temperate zone where maize flourishes.
+
+On the south side of the hilltop, opposite the long palace, is the ruin
+of a single structure, 78 feet long and 35 feet wide, containing doors
+on both sides, no niches and no evidence of careful workmanship. It
+was probably a barracks for a company of soldiers.
+
+The intervening "pampa" might have been the scene of those games
+of bowls and quoits, which were played by the Spanish refugees who
+fled from the wrath of Gonzalo Pizarro and found refuge with the Inca
+Manco. Here may have occurred that fatal game when one of the players
+lost his temper and killed his royal host.
+
+Our excavations in 1915 yielded a mass of rough potsherds, a few Inca
+whirl-bobs and bronze shawl pins, and also a number of iron articles of
+European origin, heavily rusted--horseshoe nails, a buckle, a pair of
+scissors, several bridle or saddle ornaments, and three Jew's-harps. My
+first thought was that modern Peruvians must have lived here at one
+time, although the necessity of carrying all water supplies up the hill
+would make this unlikely. Furthermore, the presence here of artifacts
+of European origin does not of itself point to such a conclusion. In
+the first place, we know that Manco was accustomed to make raids
+on Spanish travelers between Cuzco and Lima. He might very easily
+have brought back with him a Spanish bridle. In the second place the
+musical instruments may have belonged to the refugees, who might have
+enjoyed whiling away their exile with melancholy twanging. In the
+third place the retainers of the Inca probably visited the Spanish
+market in Cuzco, where there would have been displayed at times a
+considerable assortment of goods of European manufacture. Finally
+Rodriguez de Figueroa speaks expressly of two pairs of scissors he
+brought as a present to Titu Cusi. That no such array of European
+artifacts has been turned up in the excavations of other important
+sites in the province of Uilcapampa would seem to indicate that they
+were abandoned before the Spanish Conquest or else were occupied by
+natives who had no means of accumulating such treasures.
+
+Thanks to Ocampo's description of the fortress which Tupac Amaru was
+occupying in 1572 there is no doubt that this was the palace of the
+last Inca. Was it also the capital of his brothers, Titu Cusi and Sayri
+Tupac, and his father, Manco? It is astonishing how few details we have
+by which the Uiticos of Manco may be identified. His contemporaries
+are strangely silent. When he left Cuzco and sought refuge "in the
+remote fastnesses of the Andes," there was a Spanish soldier, Cieza
+de Leon, in the armies of Pizarro who had a genius for seeing and
+hearing interesting things and writing them down, and who tried to
+interview as many members of the royal family as he could;--Manco
+had thirteen brothers. Ciezo de Leon says he was much disappointed
+not to be able to talk with Manco himself and his sons, but they had
+"retired into the provinces of Uiticos, which are in the most retired
+part of those regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the Andes." [12]
+The Spanish refugees who died as the result of the murder of Manco
+may not have known how to write. Anyhow, so far as we can learn they
+left no accounts from which any one could identify his residence.
+
+Titu Cusi gives no definite clue, but the activities of Friar Marcos
+and Friar Diego, who came to be his spiritual advisers, are fully
+described by Calancha. It will be remembered that Calancha remarks that
+"close to Uiticos in a village called Chuquipalpa, is a House of the
+Sun and in it a white stone over a spring of water." Our guide had
+told us there was such a place close to the hill of Rosaspata.
+
+On the day after making the first studies of the "Hill of Roses," I
+followed the impatient Mogrovejo--whose object was not to study ruins
+but to earn dollars for finding them--and went over the hill on its
+northeast side to the Valley of Los Andenes ("the Terraces"). Here,
+sure enough, was a large, white granite boulder, flattened on top,
+which had a carved seat or platform on its northern side. Its west
+side covered a cave in which were several niches. This cave had been
+walled in on one side. When Mogrovejo and the Indian guide said there
+was a manantial de agua ("spring of water") near by, I became greatly
+interested. On investigation, however, the" spring" turned out to
+be nothing but part of a small irrigating ditch. (Manantial means
+"spring"; it also means "running water"). But the rock was not "over
+the water." Although this was undoubtedly one of those huacas, or
+sacred boulders, selected by the Incas as the visible representations
+of the founders of a tribe and thus was an important accessory to
+ancestor worship, it was not the Yurak Rumi for which we were looking.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Northeast Face of Yurak Rumi
+------
+
+
+Leaving the boulder and the ruins of what possibly had been the house
+of its attendant priest, we followed the little water course past a
+large number of very handsomely built agricultural terraces, the first
+we had seen since leaving Machu Picchu and the most important ones in
+the valley. So scarce are andenes in this region and so noteworthy were
+these in particular that this vale has been named after them. They were
+probably built under the direction of Manco. Near them are a number of
+carved boulders, huacas. One had an intihuatana, or sundial nubbin,
+on it; another was carved in the shape of a saddle. Continuing, we
+followed a trickling stream through thick woods until we suddenly
+arrived at an open place called nusta Isppana. Here before us was a
+great white rock over a spring. Our guides had not misled us. Beneath
+the trees were the ruins of an Inca temple, flanking and partly
+enclosing the gigantic granite boulder, one end of which overhung a
+small pool of running water. When we learned that the present name
+of this immediate vicinity is Chuquipalta our happiness was complete.
+
+It was late on the afternoon of August 9, 1911, when I first saw this
+remarkable shrine. Densely wooded hills rose on every side. There was
+not a hut to be seen; scarcely a sound to be heard. It was an ideal
+place for practicing the mystic ceremonies of an ancient cult. The
+remarkable aspect of this great boulder and the dark pool beneath its
+shadow had caused this to become a place of worship. Here, without
+doubt, was "the principal mochadero of those forested mountains." It is
+still venerated by the Indians of the vicinity. At last we had found
+the place where, in the days of Titu Cusi, the Inca priests faced the
+east, greeted the rising sun, "extended their hands toward it," and
+"threw kisses to it," "a ceremony of the most profound resignation and
+reverence." We may imagine the sun priests, clad in their resplendent
+robes of office, standing on the top of the rock at the edge of
+its steepest side, their faces lit up with the rosy light of the
+early morning, awaiting the moment when the Great Divinity should
+appear above the eastern hills and receive their adoration. As it
+rose they saluted it and cried: "O Sun! Thou who art in peace and
+safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health
+and safety. O Sun! Thou who hast said let there be Cuzco and Tampu,
+grant that these children may conquer all other people. We beseech
+thee that thy children the Incas may be always conquerors, since it
+is for this that thou hast created them."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Plan of the Ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Nusta Isppana Formerly
+Yurak Rumi in Chuquipalpa Near Uiticos
+------
+
+
+It was during Titu Cusi's reign that Friars Marcos and Diego marched
+over here with their converts from Puquiura, each carrying a stick of
+firewood. Calancha says the Indians worshiped the water as a divine
+thing, that the Devil had at times shown himself in the water. Since
+the surface of the little pool, as one gazes at it, does not reflect
+the sky, but only the overhanging, dark, mossy rock, the water looks
+black and forbidding, even to unsuperstitious Yankees. It is easy to
+believe that simple-minded Indian worshipers in this secluded spot
+could readily believe that they actually saw the Devil appearing
+"as a visible manifestation" in the water. Indians came from the most
+sequestered villages of the dense forests to worship here and to offer
+gifts and sacrifices. Nevertheless, the Augustinian monks here raised
+the standard of the cross, recited their orisons, and piled firewood
+all about the rock and temple. Exorcising the Devil and calling him
+by all the vile names they could think of, the friars commanded him
+never to return. Setting fire to the pile, they burned up the temple,
+scorched the rock, making a powerful impression on the Indians and
+causing the poor Devil to flee, "roaring in a fury." "The cruel Devil
+never more returned to the rock nor to this district." Whether the
+roaring which they heard was that of the Devil or of the flames we
+can only conjecture. Whether the conflagration temporarily dried up
+the swamp or interfered with the arrangements of the water supply so
+that the pool disappeared for the time being and gave the Devil no
+chance to appear in the water, where he had formerly been accustomed
+to show himself, is also a matter for speculation.
+
+The buildings of the House of the Sun are in a very ruinous state,
+but the rock itself, with its curious carvings, is well preserved
+notwithstanding the great conflagration of 1570. Its length is
+fifty-two feet, its width thirty feet, and its height above the present
+level of the water, twenty-five feet. On the west side of the rock are
+seats and large steps or platforms. It was customary to kill llamas at
+these holy huacas. On top of the rock is a flattened place which may
+have been used for such sacrifices. From it runs a little crack in
+the boulder, which has been artificially enlarged and may have been
+intended to carry off the blood of the victim killed on top of the
+rock. It is still used for occult ceremonies of obscure origin which
+are quietly practiced here by the more superstitious Indian women of
+the valley, possibly in memory of the nusta or Inca princess for whom
+the shrine is named.
+
+On the south side of the monolith are several large platforms and four
+or five small seats which have been cut in the rock. Great care was
+exercised in cutting out the platforms. The edges are very nearly
+square, level, and straight. The east side of the rock projects
+over the spring. Two seats have been carved immediately above the
+water. On the north side there are no seats. Near the water, steps
+have been carved. There is one flight of three and another of seven
+steps. Above them the rock has been flattened artificially and carved
+into a very bold relief. There are ten projecting square stones,
+like those usually called intihuatana or "places to which the sun
+is tied." In one line are seven; one is slightly apart from the six
+others. The other three are arranged in a triangular position above
+the seven. It is significant that these stones are on the northeast
+face of the rock, where they are exposed to the rising sun and cause
+striking shadows at sunrise.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Carved Seats and Platforms of Nusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Two of the Seven Seats Near the Spring Under the Great White Rock
+------
+
+
+Our excavations yielded no artifacts whatever and only a handful of
+very rough old potsherds of uncertain origin. The running water under
+the rock was clear and appeared to be a spring, but when we drained
+the swamp which adjoins the great rock on its northeastern side, we
+found that the spring was a little higher up the hill and that the
+water ran through the dark pool. We also found that what looked like
+a stone culvert on the borders of the little pool proved to be the
+top of the back of a row of seven or eight very fine stone seats. The
+platform on which the seats rested and the seats themselves are parts
+of three or four large rocks nicely fitted together. Some of the
+seats are under the black shadows of the overhanging rock. Since the
+pool was an object of fear and mystery the seats were probably used
+only by priests or sorcerers. It would have been a splendid place to
+practice divination. No doubt the devils "roared."
+
+All our expeditions in the ancient province of Uilcapampa have
+failed to disclose the presence of any other "white rock over a
+spring of water" surrounded by the ruins of a possible "House of
+the Sun." Consequently it seems reasonable to adopt the following
+conclusions: First, nusta Isppana is the Yurak Rumi of Father
+Calancha. The Chuquipalta of to-day is the place to which he refers
+as Chuquipalpa. Second, Uiticos, "close to" this shrine, was once
+the name of the present valley of Vilcabamba between Tincochaca and
+Lucma. This is the "Viticos" of Cieza de Leon, a contemporary of Manco,
+who says that it was to the province of Viticos that Manco determined
+to retire when he rebelled against Pizarro, and that "having reached
+Viticos with a great quantity of treasure collected from various
+parts, together with his women and retinue, the king, Manco Inca,
+established himself in the strongest place he could find, whence he
+sallied forth many times and in many directions and disturbed those
+parts which were quiet, to do what harm he could to the Spaniards,
+whom he considered as cruel enemies." Third, the "strongest place"
+of Cieza, the Guaynapucara of Garcia, was Rosaspata, referred to by
+Ocampo as "the fortress of Pitcos," where, he says, "there was a level
+space with majestic buildings," the most noteworthy feature of which
+was that they had two kinds of doors and both kinds had white stone
+lintels. Fourth, the modern village of Pucyura in the valley of the
+river Vilcabamba is the Puquiura of Father Calancha, the site of the
+first mission church in this region, as assumed by Raimondi, although
+he was disappointed in the insignificance of the "wretched little
+village." The remains of the old quartz-crushing plant in Tincochaca,
+which has already been noted, the distance from the "House of the Sun,"
+not too great for the religious procession, and the location of Pucyura
+near the fortress, all point to the correctness of this conclusion.
+
+Finally, Calancha says that Friar Ortiz, after he had secured
+permission from Titu Cusi to establish the second missionary station
+in Uilcapampa, selected "the town of Huarancalla, which was populous
+and well located in the midst of a number of other little towns and
+villages. There was a distance of two or three days' journey from
+one convent to the other. Leaving Friar Marcos in Puquiura, Friar
+Diego went to his new establishment, and in a short time built a
+church." There is no "Huarancalla" to-day, nor any tradition of any,
+but in Mapillo, a pleasant valley at an elevation of about 10,000
+feet, in the temperate zone where the crops with which the Incas
+were familiar might have been raised, near pastures where llamas and
+alpacas could have flourished, is a place called Huarancalque. The
+valley is populous and contains a number of little towns and
+villages. Furthermore, Huarancalque is two or three days' journey
+from Pucyura and is on the road which the Indians of this region
+now use in going to Ayacucho. This was undoubtedly the route used by
+Manco in his raids on Spanish caravans. The Mapillo flows into the
+Apurimac near the mouth of the river Pampas. Not far up the Pampas is
+the important bridge between Bom-bon and Ocros, which Mr. Hay and I
+crossed in 1909 on our way from Cuzco to Lima. The city of Ayacucho was
+founded by Pizarro, a day's journey from this bridge. The necessity
+for the Spanish caravans to cross the river Pampas at this point
+made it easy for Manco's foraging expeditions to reach them by sudden
+marches from Uiticos down the Mapillo River by way of Huarancalque,
+which is probably the "Huarancalla" of Calancha's "Chronicles." He
+must have had rafts or canoes on which to cross the Apurimac, which
+is here very wide and deep. In the valleys between Huarancalque and
+Lucma, Manco was cut off from central Peru by the Apurimac and its
+magnificent canyon, which in many places has a depth of over two
+miles. He was cut off from Cuzco by the inhospitable snow fields and
+glaciers of Salcantay, Soray, and the adjacent ridges, even though
+they are only fifty miles from Cuzco. Frequently all the passes are
+completely snow-blocked. Fatalities have been known even in recent
+years. In this mountainous province Manco could be sure of finding
+not only security from his Spanish enemies, but any climate that he
+desired and an abundance of food for his followers. There seems to
+be no reason to doubt that the retired region around the modern town
+of Pucyura in the upper Vilcabamba Valley was once called Uiticos.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Vilcabamba
+
+Although the refuge of Manco is frequently spoken of as Uiticos
+by the contemporary writers, the word Vilcabamba, or Uilcapampa,
+is used even more often. In fact Garcilasso, the chief historian of
+the Incas, himself the son of an Inca princess, does not mention
+Uiticos. Vilcabamba was the common name of the province. Father
+Calancha says it was a very large area, "covering fourteen degrees of
+longitude," about seven hundred miles wide. It included many savage
+tribes "of the far interior" who acknowledged the supremacy of the
+Incas and brought tribute to Manco and his sons. "The Manaries and
+the Pilcosones came a hundred and two hundred leagues" to visit the
+Inca in Uiticos.
+
+The name, Vilcabamba, is also applied repeatedly to a town. Titu Cusi
+says he lived there many years during his youth. Calancha says it
+was "two days' journey from Puquiura." Raimondi thought it must be
+Choqquequirau. Captain Garcia's soldiers, however, speak of it as
+being down in the warm valleys of the montana, the present rubber
+country. On the other hand the only place which bears this name on
+the maps of Peru is near the source of the Vilcabamba River, not more
+than three or four leagues from Pucyura. We determined to visit it.
+
+We found the town to lie on the edge of bleak upland pastures, 11,750
+feet above the sea. Instead of Inca walls or ruins Vilcabamba has
+threescore solidly built Spanish houses. At the time of our visit they
+were mostly empty, although their roofs, of unusually heavy thatch,
+seemed to be in good repair. We stayed at the house of the gobernador,
+Manuel Condore. The nights were bitterly cold and we should have been
+most uncomfortable in a tent.
+
+The gobernador said that the reason the town was deserted was that most
+of the people were now attending to their chacras, or little farms,
+and looking after their herds of sheep and cattle in the neighboring
+valleys. He said that only at special festival times, such as the
+annual visit of the priest, who celebrates mass in the church here,
+once a year, are the buildings fully occupied. In the latter part
+of the sixteenth century, gold mines were discovered in the adjacent
+mountains and the capital of the Spanish province of Vilcabamba was
+transferred from Hoyara to this place. Its official name, Condore
+said, is still San Francisco de la Victoria de Vilcabamba, and as
+such it occurs on most of the early maps of Peru. The solidity of
+the stone houses was due to the prosperity of the gold diggers. The
+present air of desolation and absence of population is probably due
+to the decay of that industry.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Nusta Isppana
+------
+
+
+The church is large. Near it, and slightly apart from the building,
+is a picturesque stone belfry with three old Spanish bells. Condore
+said that the church was built at least three hundred years ago. It
+is probably the very structure whose construction was carefully
+supervised by Ocampo. In the negotiations for permission to move
+the municipality of San Francisco de la Victoria from Hoyara to the
+neighborhood of the mines, Ocampo, then one of the chief settlers,
+went to Cuzco as agent of the interested parties, to take the matter
+up with the viceroy. Ocampo's story is in part as follows:
+
+"The change of site appeared convenient for the service of God our
+Lord and of his Majesty, and for the increase of his royal fifths,
+as well as beneficial to the inhabitants of the said city. Having
+examined the capitulations and reasons, the said Don Luis de Velasco
+[the viceroy] granted the licence to move the city to where it is
+now founded, ordering that it should have the title and name of the
+city of San Francisco of the Victory of Uilcapampa, which was its
+first name. By this change of site I, the said Baltasar de Ocampo,
+performed a great service to God our Lord and his Majesty. Through my
+care, industry and solicitude, a very good church was built, with its
+principal chapel and great doors." We found the walls to be heavy,
+massive, and well buttressed, the doors to be unusually large and
+the whole to show considerable "industry and solicitude."
+
+The site was called "Onccoy, where the Spaniards who first discovered
+this land found the flocks and herds." Modern Vilcabamba is on grassy
+slopes, well suited for flocks and herds. On the steeper slopes
+potatoes are still raised, although the valley itself is given up
+to-day almost entirely to pasture lands. We saw horses, cattle, and
+sheep in abundance where the Incas must have pastured their llamas
+and alpacas. In the rocky cliffs near by are remains of the mines
+begun in Ocampo's day. There is little doubt that this was Onccoy,
+although that name is now no longer used here.
+
+We met at the gobernador's an old Indian who admitted that an Inca had
+once lived on Rosaspata Hill. Of all the scores of persons whom we
+interviewed through the courtesy of the intelligent planters of the
+region or through the customary assistance of government officials,
+this Indian was the only one to make such an admission. Even he denied
+having heard of "Uiticos" or any of its variations. If we were indeed
+in the country of Manco and his sons, why should no one be familiar
+with that name?
+
+Perhaps, after all, it is not surprising. The Indians of the highlands
+have now for so many generations been neglected by their rulers
+and brutalized by being allowed to drink all the alcohol they can
+purchase and to assimilate all the cocaine they can secure, through
+the constant chewing of coca leaves, that they have lost much if not
+all of their racial self-respect. It is the educated mestizos of the
+principal modern cities of Peru who, tracing their descent not only
+from the Spanish soldiers of the Conquest, but also from the blood
+of the race which was conquered, take pride in the achievements of
+the Incas and are endeavoring to preserve the remains of the wonderful
+civilization of their native ancestors. Until quite recently Vilcabamba
+was an unknown land to most of the Peruvians, even those who live in
+the city of Cuzco. Had the capital of the last four Incas been in a
+region whose climate appealed to Europeans, whose natural resources
+were sufficient to support a large population, and whose roads made
+transportation no more difficult than in most parts of the Andes,
+it would have been occupied from the days of Captain Garcia to the
+present by Spanish-speaking mestizos, who might have been interested
+in preserving the name of the ancient Inca capital and the traditions
+connected with it.
+
+After the mines which attracted Ocampo and his friends "petered
+out," or else, with the primitive tools of the sixteenth century,
+ceased to yield adequate returns, the Spaniards lost interest in that
+remote region. The rude trails which connected Pucyura with Cuzco and
+civilization were at best dangerous and difficult. They were veritably
+impassable during a large part of the year even to people accustomed
+to Andean "roads."
+
+The possibility of raising sugar cane and coca between Huadquina and
+Santa Ana attracted a few Spanish-speaking people to live in the lower
+Urubamba Valley, notwithstanding the difficult transportation over
+the passes near Mts. Salcantay and Veronica; but there was nothing
+to lead any one to visit the upper Vilcabamba Valley or to desire
+to make it a place of residence. And until Senor Pancorbo opened
+the road to Lucma, Pucyura was extremely difficult of access. Nine
+generations of Indians lived and died in the province of Uilcapampa
+between the time of Tupac Amaru and the arrival of the first modern
+explorers. The great stone buildings constructed on the "Hill of
+Roses" in the days of Manco and his sons were allowed to fall into
+ruin. Their roofs decayed and disappeared. The names of those who
+once lived here were known to fewer and fewer of the natives. The
+Indians themselves had no desire to relate the story of the various
+forts and palaces to their Spanish landlords, nor had the latter any
+interest in hearing such tales. It was not until the renaissance of
+historical and geographical curiosity, in the nineteenth century, that
+it occurred to any one to look for Manco's capital. When Raimondi,
+the first scientist to penetrate Vilcabamba, reached Pucyura, no one
+thought to tell him that on the hilltop opposite the village once
+lived the last of the Incas and that the ruins of their palaces were
+still there, hidden underneath a thick growth of trees and vines.
+
+A Spanish document of 1598 says the first town of "San Francisco
+de la Victoria de Vilcabamba" was in the "valley of Viticos." The
+town's long name became shortened to Vilcabamba. Then the river which
+flowed past was called the Vilcabamba, and is so marked on Raimondi's
+map. Uiticos had long since passed from the memory of man.
+
+Furthermore, the fact that we saw no llamas or alpacas in the upland
+pastures, but only domestic animals of European origin, would also
+seem to indicate that for some reason or other this region had been
+abandoned by the Indians themselves. It is difficult to believe that
+if the Indians had inhabited these valleys continuously from Inca
+times to the present we should not have found at least a few of the
+indigenous American camels here. By itself, such an occurrence would
+hardly seem worth a remark, but taken in connection with the loss of
+traditions regarding Uiticos, it would seem to indicate that there
+must have been quite a long period of time in which no persons of
+consequence lived in this vicinity.
+
+We are told by the historians of the colonial period that the mining
+operations of the first Spanish settlers were fatal to at least
+a million Indians. It is quite probable that the introduction of
+ordinary European contagious diseases, such as measles, chicken pox,
+and smallpox, may have had a great deal to do with the destruction
+of a large proportion of those unfortunates whose untimely deaths
+were attributed by historians to the very cruel practices of the
+early Spanish miners and treasure seekers. Both causes undoubtedly
+contributed to the result. There seems to be no question that the
+population diminished enormously in early colonial days. If this is
+true, the remaining population would naturally have sought regions
+where the conditions of existence and human intercourse were less
+severe and rigorous than in the valleys of Uiticos and Uilcapampa.
+
+The students and travelers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
+centuries, including such a careful observer as Bandelier, are of
+the opinion that the present-day population in the Andes of Peru
+and Bolivia is about as great as that at the time of the Conquest. In
+other words, with the decay of early colonial mining and the consequent
+disappearance of bad living conditions and forced labor at the mines,
+also with the rise of partial immunity to European diseases, and
+the more comfortable conditions of existence which have followed the
+coming of Peruvian independence, it is reasonable to suppose that the
+number of highland Indians has increased. With this increase has come
+a consequent crowding in certain localities. There would be a natural
+tendency to seek less crowded regions, even at the expense of using
+difficult mountain trails. This would lead to their occupying as remote
+and inaccessible a region as the ancient province of Uilcapampa. It
+is probable that after the gold mines ceased to pay, and before the
+demand for rubber caused the San Miguel Valley to be appropriated by
+the white man, there was a period of nearly three hundred years when
+no one of education or of intelligence superior to the ordinary Indian
+shepherd lived anywhere near Pucyura or Lucma. The adobe houses of
+these modern villages look fairly modern. They may have been built
+in the nineteenth century.
+
+Such a theory would account for the very small amount of information
+prevailing in Peru regarding the region where we had been privileged
+to find so many ruins. This ignorance led the Peruvian geographers
+Raimondi and Paz Soldan to conclude that Choqquequirau, the only ruins
+reported between the Apurimac and the Urubamba, must have been the
+capital of the Incas who took refuge there. It also makes it seem
+more reasonable that the existence of Rosaspata and nusta Isppana
+should not have been known to Peruvian geographers and historians,
+or even to the government officials who lived in the adjacent villages.
+
+We felt sure we had found Uiticos; nevertheless it was quite
+apparent that we had not yet found all the places which were called
+Vilcabamba. Examination of the writers of the sixteenth century
+shows that there may have been three places bearing that name;
+one spoken of by Calancha as Vilcabamba Viejo ("the old"), another
+also so called by Ocampo, and a third founded by the Spaniards,
+namely, the town we were now in. The story of the first is given in
+Calancha's account of the trials and tribulations of Friar Marcos
+and the martyrdom of Friar Diego Ortiz. The chronicler tells with
+considerable detail of their visit to "Vilcabamba Viejo." It was
+after the monks had already founded their religious establishment
+at Puquiura that they learned of the existence of this important
+religious center. They urged Titu Cusi to permit them to visit
+it. For a long time he refused. Its whereabouts remained unknown to
+them, but its strategic position as a religious stronghold led them
+to continue their demands. Finally, either to rid himself of their
+importunities or because he imagined the undertaking might be made
+amusing, he yielded to their requests and bade them prepare for the
+journey. Calancha says that the Inca himself accompanied the two
+friars, with a number of his captains and chieftains, taking them
+from Puquiura over a very rough and rugged road. The Inca, however,
+did not suffer from the character of the trail because, like the
+Roman generals of old, he was borne comfortably along in a litter by
+servants accustomed to this duty. The unfortunate missionaries were
+obliged to go on foot. The wet, rocky trail soon demoralized their
+footgear. When they came to a particularly bad place in the road,
+"Ungacacha," the trail went for some distance through water. The
+monks were forced to wade. The water was very cold. The Inca and his
+chieftains were amused to see how the friars were hampered by their
+monastic garments while passing through the water. However, the monks
+persevered, greatly desiring to reach their goal, "on account of its
+being the largest city in which was the University of Idolatry, where
+lived the teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination." If
+one may judge by the name of the place, Uilcapampa, the wizards and
+sorcerers were probably aided by the powerful effects of the ancient
+snuff made from huilca seeds. After a three days' journey over very
+rough country, the monks arrived at their destination. Yet even then
+Titu Cusi was unwilling that they should live in the city, but ordered
+that the monks be given a dwelling outside, so that they might not
+witness the ceremonies and ancient rites which were practiced by the
+Inca and his captains and priests.
+
+Nothing is said about the appearance of "Vilcabamba Viejo" and it
+is doubtful whether the monks were ever allowed to see the city,
+although they reached its vicinity. Here they stayed for three weeks
+and kept up their preaching and teaching. During their stay Titu Cusi,
+who had not wished to bring them here, got his revenge by annoying
+them in various ways. He was particularly anxious to make them break
+their vows of celibacy. Calancha says that after consultation with
+his priests and soothsayers Titu Cusi selected as tempters the most
+beautiful Indian women, including some individuals of the Yungas who
+were unusually attractive. It is possible that these women, who lived
+at the "University of Idolatry" in "Vilcabamba Viejo," were "Virgins of
+the Sun," who were under the orders of the Inca and his high priests
+and were selected from the fairest daughters of the empire. It is
+also evident that "Vilcabamba Viejo" was so constructed that the
+monks could be kept for three weeks in its vicinity without being
+able to see what was going on in the city or to describe the kinds of
+"abominations" which were practiced there, as they did those at the
+white rock of Chuquipalta. As will be shown later, it is possible
+that this Vilcabamba, referred to in Calancha's story as "Vilcabamba
+Viejo," was on the slopes of the mountain now called Machu Picchu.
+
+In the meantime it was necessary to pursue the hunt for the ruins
+of Vilcabamba called "the old" by Ocampo, to distinguish it from
+the Spanish town of that name which he had helped to found after
+the capture of Tupac Amaru, and referred to merely as Vilcabamba by
+Captain Garcia and his companions in their accounts of the campaign.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Conservidayoc
+
+When Don Pedro Duque of Santa Aria was helping us to identify places
+mentioned in Calancha and Ocampo, the references to "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+or Old Uilcapampa, were supposed by two of his informants to point
+to a place called Conservidayoc. Don Pedro told us that in 1902 Lopez
+Torres, who had traveled much in the montana looking for rubber trees,
+reported the discovery there of the ruins of an Inca city. All of Don
+Pedro's friends assured us that Conservidayoc was a terrible place
+to reach. "No one now living had been there." "It was inhabited by
+savage Indians who would not let strangers enter their villages."
+
+When we reached Paltaybamba, Senor Pancorbo's manager confirmed what
+we had heard. He said further that an individual named Saavedra lived
+at Conservidayoc and undoubtedly knew all about the ruins, but was
+very averse to receiving visitors. Saavedra's house was extremely
+difficult to find. "No one had been there recently and returned
+alive." Opinions differed as to how far away it was.
+
+Several days later, while Professor Foote and I were studying the ruins
+near Rosaspata, Senor Pancorbo, returning from his rubber estate in
+the San Miguel Valley and learning at Lucma of our presence near by,
+took great pains to find us and see how we were progressing. When he
+learned of our intention to search for the ruins of Conservidayoc,
+he asked us to desist from the attempt. He said Saavedra was "a very
+powerful man having many Indians under his control and living in
+grand state, with fifty servants, and not at all desirous of being
+visited by anybody." The Indians were "of the Campa tribe, very wild
+and extremely savage. They use poisoned arrows and are very hostile
+to strangers." Admitting that he had heard there were Inca ruins near
+Saavedra's station, Senor Pancorbo still begged us not to risk our
+lives by going to look for them.
+
+By this time our curiosity was thoroughly aroused. We were familiar
+with the current stories regarding the habits of savage tribes who
+lived in the montana and whose services were in great demand as rubber
+gatherers. We had even heard that Indians did not particularly like
+to work for Senor Pancorbo, who was an energetic, ambitious man,
+anxious to achieve many things, results which required more laborers
+than could easily be obtained. We could readily believe there might
+possibly be Indians at Conservidayoc who had escaped from the rubber
+estate of San Miguel. Undoubtedly, Senor Pancorbo's own life would
+have been at the mercy of their poisoned arrows. All over the Amazon
+Basin the exigencies of rubber gatherers had caused tribes visited
+with impunity by the explorers of the nineteenth century to become so
+savage and revengeful as to lead them to kill all white men at sight.
+
+Professor Foote and I considered the matter in all its aspects. We
+finally came to the conclusion that in view of the specific reports
+regarding the presence of Inca ruins at Conservidayoc we could not
+afford to follow the advice of the friendly planter. We must at least
+make an effort to reach them, meanwhile taking every precaution to
+avoid arousing the enmity of the powerful Saavedra and his savage
+retainers.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Quispi Cusi Testifying about Inca Ruins
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+One of our Bearers Crossing the Pampaconas River
+------
+
+
+On the day following our arrival at the town of Vilcabamba, the
+gobernador, Condore, taking counsel with his chief assistant, had
+summoned the wisest Indians living in the vicinity, including a
+very picturesque old fellow whose name, Quispi Cusi, was strongly
+reminiscent of the days of Titu Cusi. It was explained to him
+that this was a very solemn occasion and that an official inquiry
+was in progress. He took off his hat--but not his knitted cap--and
+endeavored to the best of his ability to answer our questions about
+the surrounding country. It was he who said that the Inca Tupac
+Amaru once lived at Rosaspata. He had never heard of Uilcapampa
+Viejo, but he admitted that there were ruins in the montana near
+Conservidayoc. Other Indians were questioned by Condore. Several had
+heard of the ruins of Conservidayoc, but, apparently, none of them,
+nor any one in the village, had actually seen the ruins or visited
+their immediate vicinity. They all agreed that Saavedra's place was
+"at least four days' hard journey on foot in the montana beyond
+Pampaconas." No village of that name appeared on any map of Peru,
+although it is frequently mentioned in the documents of the sixteenth
+century. Rodriguez de Figueroa, who came to seek an audience with
+Titu Cusi about 1565, says that he met Titu Cusi at a place called
+Banbaconas. He says further that the Inca came there from somewhere
+down in the dense forests of the montana and presented him with a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts--products of a warm region.
+
+We had brought with us the large sheets of Raimondi's invaluable map
+which covered this locality. We also had the new map of South Peru and
+North Bolivia which had just been published by the Royal Geographical
+Society and gave a summary of all available information. The
+Indians said that Conservidayoc lay in a westerly direction from
+Vilcabamba, yet on Raimondi's map all of the rivers which rise in
+the mountains west of the town are short affluents of the Apurimac
+and flow southwest. We wondered whether the stories about ruins at
+Conservidayoc would turn out to be as barren of foundation as those
+we had heard from the trustworthy foreman at Huadquina. One of our
+informants said the Inca city was called Espiritu Pampa, or the "Pampa
+of Ghosts." Would the ruins turn out to be "ghosts"? Would they vanish
+on the arrival of white men with cameras and steel measuring tapes?
+
+No one at Vilcabamba had seen the ruins, but they said that at
+the village of Pampaconas, "about five leagues from here," there
+were Indians who had actually been to Conservidayoc. Our supplies
+were getting low. There were no shops nearer than Lucma; no food
+was obtainable from the natives. Accordingly, notwithstanding the
+protestations of the hospitable gobernador, we decided to start
+immediately for Conservidayoc.
+
+At the end of a long day's march up the Vilcabamba Valley, Professor
+Foote, with his accustomed skill, was preparing the evening meal and we
+were both looking forward with satisfaction to enjoying large cups of
+our favorite beverage. Several years ago, when traveling on muleback
+across the great plateau of southern Bolivia, I had learned the value
+of sweet, hot tea as a stimulant and bracer in the high Andes. At
+first astonished to see how much tea the Indian arrieros drank, I
+learned from sad experience that it was far better than cold water,
+which often brings on mountain-sickness. This particular evening,
+one swallow of the hot tea caused consternation. It was the most
+horrible stuff imaginable. Examination showed small, oily particles
+floating on the surface. Further investigation led to the discovery
+that one of our arrieros had that day placed our can of kerosene on
+top of one of the loads. The tin became leaky and the kerosene had
+dripped down into a food box. A cloth bag of granulated sugar had
+eagerly absorbed all the oil it could. There was no remedy but to
+throw away half of our supply. As I have said, the longer one works
+in the Andes the more desirable does sugar become and the more one
+seems to crave it. Yet we were unable to procure any here.
+
+After the usual delays, caused in part by the difficulty of catching
+our mules, which had taken advantage of our historical investigations
+to stray far up the mountain pastures, we finally set out from the
+boundaries of known topography, headed for "Conservidayoc," a vague
+place surrounded with mystery; a land of hostile savages, albeit said
+to possess the ruins of an Inca town.
+
+Our first day's journey was to Pampaconas. Here and in its vicinity the
+gobernador told us he could procure guides and the half-dozen carriers
+whose services we should require for the jungle trail where mules could
+not be used. As the Indians hereabouts were averse to penetrating
+the wilds of Conservidayoc and were also likely to be extremely
+alarmed at the sight of men in uniform, the two gendarmes who were
+now accompanying us were instructed to delay their departure for a few
+hours and not to reach Pampaconas with our pack train until dusk. The
+gobernador said that if the Indians of Pampaconas caught sight of any
+brass buttons coming over the hills they would hide so effectively
+that it would be impossible to secure any carriers. Apparently this
+was due in part to that love of freedom which had led them to abandon
+the more comfortable towns for a frontier village where landlords
+could not call on them for forced labor. Consequently, before the
+arrival of any such striking manifestations of official authority as
+our gendarmes, the gobernador and his friend Mogrovejo proposed to
+put in the day craftily commandeering the services of a half-dozen
+sturdy Indians. Their methods will be described presently.
+
+Leaving modern Vilcabamba, we crossed the flat, marshy bottom of an
+old glaciated valley, in which one of our mules got thoroughly mired
+while searching for the succulent grasses which cover the treacherous
+bog. Fording the Vilcabamba River, which here is only a tiny brook,
+we climbed out of the valley and turned westward. On the mountains
+above us were vestiges of several abandoned mines. It was their
+discovery in 1572 or thereabouts which brought Ocampo and the first
+Spanish settlers to this valley. Raimondi says that he found here
+cobalt, nickel, silver-bearing copper ore, and lead sulphide. He
+does not mention any gold-bearing quartz. It may have been exhausted
+long before his day. As to the other minerals, the difficulties of
+transportation are so great that it is not likely that mining will
+be renewed here for many years to come.
+
+At the top of the pass we turned to look back and saw a long chain
+of snow-capped mountains towering above and behind the town of
+Vilcabamba. We searched in vain for them on our maps. Raimondi,
+followed by the Royal Geographical Society, did not leave room
+enough for such a range to exist between the rivers Apurimac and
+Urubamba. Mr. Hendriksen determined our longitude to be 73 deg. west,
+and our latitude to be 13 deg. 8' south. Yet according to the latest map
+of this region, published in the preceding year, this was the very
+position of the river Apurimac itself, near its junction with the river
+Pampas. We ought to have been swimming "the Great Speaker." Actually
+we were on top of a lofty mountain pass surrounded by high peaks and
+glaciers. The mystery was finally solved by Mr. Bumstead in 1912, when
+he determined the Apurimac and the Urubamba to be thirty miles farther
+apart than any one had supposed. His surveys opened an unexplored
+region, 1500 square miles in extent, whose very existence had not been
+guessed before 1911. It proved to be one of the largest undescribed
+glaciated areas in South America. Yet it is less than a hundred miles
+from Cuzco, the chief city in the Peruvian Andes, and the site of a
+university for more than three centuries. That Uilcapampa could so
+long defy investigation and exploration shows better than anything
+else how wisely Manco had selected his refuge. It is indeed a veritable
+labyrinth of snow-clad peaks, unknown glaciers, and trackless canyons.
+
+Looking west, we saw in front of us a great wilderness of deep green
+valleys and forest-clad slopes. We supposed from our maps that we were
+now looking down into the basin of the Apurimac. As a matter of fact,
+we were on the rim of the valley of the hitherto uncharted Pampaconas,
+a branch of the Cosireni, one of the affluents of the Urubamba. Instead
+of being the Apurimac Basin, what we saw was another unexplored region
+which drained into the Urubamba!
+
+At the time, however, we did not know where we were, but understood
+from Condore that somewhere far down in the montana below us was
+Conservidayoc, the sequestered domain of Saavedra and his savage
+Indians. It seemed less likely than ever that the Incas could have
+built a town so far away from the climate and food to which they were
+accustomed. The "road" was now so bad that only with the greatest
+difficulty could we coax our sure-footed mules to follow it. Once we
+had to dismount, as the path led down a long, steep, rocky stairway
+of ancient origin. At last, rounding a hill, we came in sight of a
+lonesome little hut perched on a shoulder of the mountain. In front of
+it, seated in the sun on mats, were two women shelling corn. As soon as
+they saw the gobernador approaching, they stopped their work and began
+to prepare lunch. It was about eleven o'clock and they did not need to
+be told that Senor Condore and his friends had not had anything but a
+cup of coffee since the night before. In order to meet the emergency
+of unexpected guests they killed four or five squealing cuys (guinea
+pigs), usually to be found scurrying about the mud floor of the huts
+of mountain Indians. Before long the savory odor of roast cuy, well
+basted, and cooked-to-a-turn on primitive spits, whetted our appetites.
+
+In the eastern United States one sees guinea pigs only as pets or
+laboratory victims; never as an article of food. In spite of the
+celebrated dogma that "Pigs is Pigs," this form of "pork" has never
+found its way to our kitchens, even though these "pigs" live on a
+very clean, vegetable diet. Incidentally guinea pigs do not come
+from Guinea and are in no way related to pigs--Mr. Ellis Parker
+Butler to the contrary notwithstanding! They belong rather to the
+same family as rabbits and Belgian hares and have long been a highly
+prized article of food in the Andes of Peru. The wild species are
+of a grayish brown color, which enables them to escape observation
+in their natural habitat. The domestic varieties, which one sees
+in the huts of the Indians, are piebald, black, white, and tawny,
+varying from one another in color as much as do the llamas, which
+were also domesticated by the same race of people thousands of years
+ago. Although Anglo-Saxon "folkways," as Professor Sumner would say,
+permit us to eat and enjoy long-eared rabbits, we draw the line at
+short-eared rabbits, yet they were bred to be eaten.
+
+I am willing to admit that this was the first time that I had ever
+knowingly tasted their delicate flesh, although once in the capital
+of Bolivia I thought the hotel kitchen had a diminishing supply! Had
+I not been very hungry, I might never have known how delicious a roast
+guinea pig can be. The meat is not unlike squab. To the Indians whose
+supply of animal food is small, whose fowls are treasured for their
+eggs, and whose thin sheep are more valuable as wool bearers than as
+mutton, the succulent guinea pig, "most prolific of mammals," as was
+discovered by Mr. Butler's hero, is a highly valued article of food,
+reserved for special occasions. The North American housewife keeps a
+few tins of sardines and cans of preserves on hand for emergencies. Her
+sister in the Andes similarly relies on fat little cuys.
+
+After lunch, Condore and Mogrovejo divided the extensive rolling
+countryside between them and each rode quietly from one lonesome farm
+to another, looking for men to engage as bearers. When they were
+so fortunate as to find the man of the house at home or working in
+his little chacra they greeted him pleasantly. When he came forward
+to shake hands, in the usual Indian manner, a silver dollar was
+un-suspectingly slipped into the palm of his right hand and he was
+informed that he had accepted pay for services which must now be
+performed. It seemed hard, but this was the only way in which it was
+possible to secure carriers.
+
+During Inca times the Indians never received pay for their labor. A
+paternal government saw to it that they were properly fed and clothed
+and either given abundant opportunity to provide for their own
+necessities or else permitted to draw on official stores. In colonial
+days a more greedy and less paternal government took advantage of
+the ancient system and enforced it without taking pains to see that
+it should not cause suffering. Then, for generations, thoughtless
+landlords, backed by local authority, forced the Indians to work
+without suitably recompensing them at the end of their labors or
+even pretending to carry out promises and wage agreements. The peons
+learned that it was unwise to perform any labor without first having
+received a considerable portion of their pay. When once they accepted
+money, however, their own custom and the law of the land provided
+that they must carry out their obligations. Failure to do so meant
+legal punishment.
+
+Consequently, when an unfortunate Pampaconas Indian found he had a
+dollar in his hand, he bemoaned his fate, but realized that service
+was inevitable. In vain did he plead that he was "busy," that his
+"crops needed attention," that his "family could not spare him," that
+"he lacked food for a journey." Condore and Mogrovejo were accustomed
+to all varieties of excuses. They succeeded in "engaging" half a dozen
+carriers. Before dark we reached the village of Pampaconas, a few small
+huts scattered over grassy hillsides, at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
+
+In the notes of one of the military advisers of Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo is a reference to Pampaconas as a "high, cold place." This
+is correct. Nevertheless, I doubt if the present village is the
+Pampaconas mentioned in the documents of Garcia's day as being "an
+important town of the Incas." There are no ruins hereabouts. The huts
+of Pampaconas were newly built of stone and mud, and thatched with
+grass. They were occupied by a group of sturdy mountain Indians,
+who enjoyed unusual freedom from official or other interference
+and a good place in which to raise sheep and cultivate potatoes,
+on the very edge of the dense forest. We found that there was some
+excitement in the village because on the previous night a jaguar,
+or possibly a cougar, had come out of the forest, attacked, killed,
+and dragged off one of the village ponies.
+
+We were conducted to the dwelling of a stocky, well-built Indian named
+Guzman, the most reliable man in the village, who had been selected
+to be the head of the party of carriers that was to accompany us to
+Conservidayoc. Guzman had some Spanish blood in his veins, although
+he did not boast of it. With his wife and six children he occupied
+one of the best huts. A fire in one corner frequently filled it with
+acrid smoke. It was very small and had no windows. At one end was a
+loft where family treasures could be kept dry and reasonably safe from
+molestation. Piles of sheep skins were arranged for visitors to sit
+upon. Three or four rude niches in the walls served in lieu of shelves
+and tables. The floor of well-trodden clay was damp. Three mongrel
+dogs and a flea-bitten cat were welcome to share the narrow space
+with the family and their visitors. A dozen hogs entered stealthily
+and tried to avoid attention by putting a muffler on involuntary
+grunts. They did not succeed and were violently ejected by a boy with
+a whip; only to return again and again, each time to be driven out
+as before, squealing loudly. Notwithstanding these interruptions,
+we carried on a most interesting conversation with Guzman. He had
+been to Conservidayoc and had himself actually seen ruins at Espiritu
+Pampa. At last the mythical "Pampa of Ghosts" began to take on in
+our minds an aspect of reality, even though we were careful to remind
+ourselves that another very trustworthy man had said he had seen ruins
+"finer than Ollantaytambo" near Huadquina. Guzman did not seem to dread
+Conservidayoc as much as the other Indians, only one of whom had ever
+been there. To cheer them up we purchased a fat sheep, for which we
+paid fifty cents. Guzman immediately butchered it in preparation for
+the journey. Although it was August and the middle of the dry season,
+rain began to fall early in the afternoon. Sergeant Carrasco arrived
+after dark with our pack animals, but, missing the trail as he neared
+Guzman's place, one of the mules stepped into a bog and was extracted
+only with considerable difficulty.
+
+We decided to pitch our small pyramidal tent on a fairly well-drained
+bit of turf not far from Guzman's little hut. In the evening, after
+we had had a long talk with the Indians, we came back through the
+rain to our comfortable little tent, only to hear various and sundry
+grunts emerging therefrom. We found that during our absence a large
+sow and six fat young pigs, unable to settle down comfortably at the
+Guzman hearth, had decided that our tent was much the driest available
+place on the mountain side and that our blankets made a particularly
+attractive bed. They had considerable difficulty in getting out of
+the small door as fast as they wished. Nevertheless, the pouring rain
+and the memory of comfortable blankets caused the pigs to return
+at intervals. As we were starting to enjoy our first nap, Guzman,
+with hospitable intent, sent us two bowls of steaming soup, which at
+first glance seemed to contain various sizes of white macaroni--a dish
+of which one of us was particularly fond. The white hollow cylinders
+proved to be extraordinarily tough, not the usual kind of macaroni. As
+a matter of fact, we learned that the evening meal which Guzman's
+wife had prepared for her guests was made chiefly of sheep's entrails!
+
+Rain continued without intermission during the whole of a very
+cold and dreary night. Our tent, which had never been wet before,
+leaked badly; the only part which seemed to be thoroughly waterproof
+was the floor. As day dawned we found ourselves to be lying in
+puddles of water. Everything was soaked. Furthermore, rain was still
+failing. While we were discussing the situation and wondering what
+we should cook for breakfast, the faithful Guzman heard our voices
+and immediately sent us two more bowls of hot soup, which were this
+time more welcome, even though among the bountiful corn, beans, and
+potatoes we came unexpectedly upon fragments of the teeth and jaws
+of the sheep. Evidently in Pampaconas nothing is wasted.
+
+We were anxious to make an early start for Conservidayoc, but it was
+first necessary for our Indians to prepare food for the ten days'
+journey ahead of them. Guzman's wife, and I suppose the wives of our
+other carriers, spent the morning grinding chuno (frozen potatoes)
+with a rocking stone pestle on a flat stone mortar, and parching or
+toasting large quantities of sweet corn in a terra-cotta olla. With
+chuno and tostado, the body of the sheep, and a small quantity of coca
+leaves, the Indians professed themselves to be perfectly contented. Of
+our own provisions we had so small a quantity that we were unable
+to spare any. However, it is doubtful whether the Indians would have
+liked them as much as the food to which they had long been accustomed.
+
+Toward noon, all the Indian carriers but one having arrived, and the
+rain having partly subsided, we started for Conservidayoc. We were told
+that it would be possible to use the mules for this day's journey. San
+Fernando, our first stop, was "seven leagues" away, far down in the
+densely wooded Pampaconas Valley. Leaving the village we climbed up the
+mountain back of Guzman's hut and followed a faint trail by a dangerous
+and precarious route along the crest of the ridge. The rains had not
+improved the path. Our saddle mules were of little use. We had to
+go nearly all the way on foot. Owing to cold rain and mist we could
+see but little of the deep canyon which opened below us, and into
+which we now began to descend through the clouds by a very steep,
+zigzag path, four thousand feet to a hot tropical valley. Below the
+clouds we found ourselves near a small abandoned clearing. Passing
+this and fording little streams, we went along a very narrow path,
+across steep slopes, on which maize had been planted. Finally we
+came to another little clearing and two extremely primitive little
+shanties, mere shelters not deserving to be called huts; and this
+was San Fernando, the end of the mule trail. There was scarcely room
+enough in them for our six carriers. It was with great difficulty we
+found and cleared a place for our tent, although its floor was only
+seven feet square. There was no really flat land at all.
+
+At 8:30 P.M. August 13, 1911, while lying on the ground in our tent,
+I noticed an earthquake. It was felt also by the Indians in the
+near-by shelter, who from force of habit rushed out of their frail
+structure and made a great disturbance, crying out that there was a
+temblor. Even had their little thatched roof fallen upon them, as it
+might have done during the stormy night which followed, they were in
+no danger; but, being accustomed to the stone walls and red tiled roofs
+of mountain villages where earthquakes sometimes do very serious harm,
+they were greatly excited. The motion seemed to me to be like a slight
+shuffle from west to east, lasting three or four seconds, a gentle
+rocking back and forth, with eight or ten vibrations. Several weeks
+later, near Huadquina, we happened to stop at the Colpani telegraph
+office. The operator said he had felt two shocks on August 13th--one
+at five o'clock, which had shaken the books off his table and knocked
+over a box of insulators standing along a wall which ran north and
+south. He said the shock which I had felt was the lighter of the two.
+
+During the night it rained hard, but our tent was now adjusting itself
+to the "dry season" and we were more comfortable. Furthermore, camping
+out at 10,000 feet above sea level is very different from camping
+at 6000 feet. This elevation, similar to that of the bridge of San
+Miguel, below Machu Picchu, is on the lower edge of the temperate
+zone and the beginning of the torrid tropics. Sugar cane, peppers,
+bananas, and grenadillas grow here as well as maize, squashes, and
+sweet potatoes. None of these things will grow at Pampaconas. The
+Indians who raise sheep and white potatoes in that cold region come
+to San Fernando to make chacras or small clearings. The three or
+four natives whom we found here were so alarmed by the sight of
+brass buttons that they disappeared during the night rather than
+take the chance of having a silver dollar pressed into their hands
+in the morning! From San Fernando, we sent one of our gendarmes back
+to Pampaconas with the mules. Our carriers were good for about fifty
+pounds apiece.
+
+Half an hour's walk brought us to Vista Alegre, another little clearing
+on an alluvial fan in the bend of the river. The soil here seemed to be
+very rich. In the chacra we saw corn stalks eighteen feet in height,
+near a gigantic tree almost completely enveloped in the embrace of
+a mato-palo, or parasitic fig tree. This clearing certainly deserves
+its name, for it commands a "charming view" of the green Pampaconas
+Valley. Opposite us rose abruptly a heavily forested mountain,
+whose summit was lost in the clouds a mile above. To circumvent
+this mountain the river had been flowing in a westerly direction;
+now it gradually turned to the northward. Again we were mystified;
+for, by Raimondi's map, it should have gone southward.
+
+We entered a dense jungle, where the narrow path became more and more
+difficult for our carriers. Crawling over rocks, under branches, along
+slippery little cliffs, on steps which had been cut in earth or rock,
+over a trail which not even dogs could follow unassisted, slowly we
+made our way down the valley. Owing to the heat, humidity, and the
+frequent showers, it was mid-afternoon before we reached another little
+clearing called Pacaypata. Here, on a hillside nearly a thousand feet
+above the river, our men decided to spend the night in a tiny little
+shelter six feet long and five feet wide. Professor Foote and I had
+to dig a shelf out of the steep hillside in order to pitch our tent.
+
+The next morning, not being detained by the vagaries of a mule train,
+we made an early start. As we followed the faint little trail across
+the gulches tributary to the river Pampaconas, we had to negotiate
+several unusually steep descents and ascents. The bearers suffered
+from the heat. They found it more and more difficult to carry their
+loads. Twice we had to cross the rapids of the river on primitive
+bridges which consisted only of a few little logs lashed together
+and resting on slippery boulders.
+
+By one o'clock we found ourselves on a small plain (ele. 4500 ft.) in
+dense woods surrounded by tree ferns, vines, and tangled thickets,
+through which it was impossible to see for more than a few feet. Here
+Guzman told us we must stop and rest a while, as we were now in the
+territory of los salvajes, the savage Indians who acknowledged only the
+rule of Saavedra and resented all intrusion. Guzman did not seem to be
+particularly afraid, but said that we ought to send ahead one of our
+carriers, to warn the savages that we were coming on a friendly mission
+and were not in search of rubber gatherers; otherwise they might attack
+us, or run away and disappear into the jungle. He said we should never
+be able to find the ruins without their help. The carrier who was
+selected to go ahead did not relish his task. Leaving his pack behind,
+he proceeded very quietly and cautiously along the trail and was lost
+to view almost immediately. There followed an exciting half-hour while
+we waited, wondering what attitude the savages would take toward us,
+and trying to picture to ourselves the mighty potentate, Saavedra,
+who had been described as sitting in the midst of savage luxury,
+"surrounded by fifty servants," and directing his myrmidons to
+checkmate our desires to visit the Inca city on the "pampa of ghosts."
+
+Suddenly, we were startled by the crackling of twigs and the sound
+of a man running. We instinctively held our rifles a little tighter
+in readiness for whatever might befall--when there burst out of the
+woods a pleasant-faced young Peruvian, quite conventionally clad,
+who had come in haste from Saavedra, his father, to extend to us
+a most cordial welcome! It seemed scarcely credible, but a glance
+at his face showed that there was no ambush in store for us. It was
+with a sigh of relief that we realized there was to be no shower of
+poisoned arrows from the impenetrable thickets. Gathering up our packs,
+we continued along the jungle trail, through woods which gradually
+became higher, deeper, and darker, until presently we saw sunlight
+ahead and, to our intense astonishment, the bright green of waving
+sugar cane. A few moments of walking through the cane fields found
+us at a large comfortable hut, welcomed very simply and modestly by
+Saavedra himself. A more pleasant and peaceable little man it was
+never my good fortune to meet. We looked furtively around for his
+fifty savage servants, but all we saw was his good-natured Indian
+wife, three or four small children, and a wild-eyed maid-of-all-work,
+evidently the only savage present. Saavedra said some called this place
+"Jesus Maria" because they were so surprised when they saw it.
+
+It is difficult to describe our feelings as we accepted Saavedra's
+invitation to make ourselves at home, and sat down to an abundant meal
+of boiled chicken, rice, and sweet cassava (manioc). Saavedra gave us
+to understand that we were not only most welcome to anything he had,
+but that he would do everything to enable us to see the ruins, which
+were, it seemed, at Espiritu Pampa, some distance farther down the
+valley, to be reached only by a hard trail passable for barefooted
+savages, but scarcely available for us unless we chose to go a
+good part of the distance on hands and knees. The next day, while
+our carriers were engaged in clearing this trail, Professor Foote
+collected a large number of insects, including eight new species of
+moths and butterflies.
+
+I inspected Saavedra's plantation. The soil having lain fallow for
+centuries, and being rich in humus, had produced more sugar cane than
+he could grind. In addition to this, he had bananas, coffee trees,
+sweet potatoes, tobacco, and peanuts. Instead of being "a very powerful
+chief having many Indians under his control"--a kind of "Pooh-Bah"--he
+was merely a pioneer. In the utter wilderness, far from any neighbors,
+surrounded by dense forests and a few savages, he had established
+his home. He was not an Indian potentate, but only a frontiersman,
+soft-spoken and energetic, an ingenious carpenter and mechanic,
+a modest Peruvian of the best type.
+
+Owing to the scarcity of arable land he was obliged to cultivate
+such pampas as he could find--one an alluvial fan near his house,
+another a natural terrace near the river. Back of the house was
+a thatched shelter under which he had constructed a little sugar
+mill. It had a pair of hardwood rollers, each capable of being turned,
+with much creaking and cracking, by a large, rustic wheel made of
+roughly hewn timbers fastened together with wooden pins and lashed
+with thongs, worked by hand and foot power. Since Saavedra had been
+unable to coax any pack animals over the trail to Conservidayoc he
+was obliged to depend entirely on his own limited strength and that
+of his active son, aided by the uncertain and irregular services of
+such savages as wished to work for sugar, trinkets, or other trade
+articles. Sometimes the savages seemed to enjoy the fun of climbing
+on the great creaking treadwheel, as though it were a game. At other
+times they would disappear in the woods.
+
+Near the mill were some interesting large pots which Saavedra was using
+in the process of boiling the juice and making crude sugar. He said he
+had found the pots in the jungle not far away. They had been made by
+the Incas. Four of them were of the familiar aryballus type. Another
+was of a closely related form, having a wide mouth, pointed base,
+single incised, conventionalized, animal-head nubbin attached to the
+shoulder, and band-shaped handles attached vertically below the median
+line. Although capable of holding more than ten gallons, this huge
+pot was intended to be carried on the back and shoulders by means of a
+rope passing through the handles and around the nubbin. Saavedra said
+that he had found near his house several bottle-shaped cists lined
+with stones, with a flat stone on top--evidently ancient graves. The
+bones had entirely disappeared. The cover of one of the graves had
+been pierced; the hole covered with a thin sheet of beaten silver. He
+had also found a few stone implements and two or three small bronze
+Inca axes.
+
+On the pampa, below his house, Saavedra had constructed with infinite
+labor another sugar mill. It seemed strange that he should have taken
+the trouble to make two mills; but when one remembered that he had no
+pack animals and was usually obliged to bring the cane to the mill on
+his own back and the back of his son, one realized that it was easier,
+while the cane was growing, to construct a new mill near the cane
+field than to have to carry the heavy bundles of ripe cane up the
+hill. He said his hardest task was to get money with which to send
+his children to school in Cuzco and to pay his taxes. The only way in
+which he could get any cash was by making chancaca, crude brown sugar,
+and carrying it on his back, fifty pounds at a time, three hard days'
+journey on foot up the mountain to Pampaconas or Vilcabamba, six or
+seven thousand feet above his little plantation. He said he could
+usually sell such a load for five soles, equivalent to two dollars
+and a half! His was certainly a hard lot, but he did not complain,
+although he smilingly admitted that it was very difficult to keep
+the trail open, since the jungle grew so fast and the floods in the
+river continually washed away his little rustic bridges. His chief
+regret was that as the result of a recent revolution, with which he
+had had nothing to do, the government had decreed that all firearms
+should be turned in, and so he had lost the one thing he needed to
+enable him to get fresh meat in the forest.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Saavedra and his Inca Pottery
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Inca Gable at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+In the clearing near the house we were interested to see a large
+turkey-like bird, the pava de la montana, glossy black, its most
+striking feature a high, coral red comb. Although completely at
+liberty, it seemed to be thoroughly domesticated. It would make an
+attractive bird for introduction into our Southern States.
+
+Saavedra gave us some very black leaves of native tobacco, which he
+had cured. An inveterate smoker who tried it in his pipe said it was
+without exception the strongest stuff he ever had encountered!
+
+So interested did I become in talking with Saavedra, seeing his
+plantation, and marveling that he should be worried about taxes and
+have to obey regulations in regard to firearms, I had almost forgotten
+about the wild Indians. Suddenly our carriers ran toward the house
+in a great flurry of excitement, shouting that there was a "savage"
+in the bushes near by. The "wild man" was very timid, but curiosity
+finally got the better of fear and he summoned up sufficient courage
+to accept Saavedra's urgent invitation that he come out and meet
+us. He proved to be a miserable specimen, suffering from a very bad
+cold in his head. It has been my good fortune at one time or another
+to meet primitive folk in various parts of America and the Pacific,
+but this man was by far the dirtiest and most wretched savage that
+I have ever seen.
+
+He was dressed in a long, filthy tunic which came nearly to his
+ankles. It was made of a large square of coarsely woven cotton cloth,
+with a hole in the middle for his head. The sides were stitched up,
+leaving holes for the arms. His hair was long, unkempt, and matted. He
+had small, deep-set eyes, cadaverous cheeks, thick lips, and a large
+mouth. His big toes were unusually long and prehensile. Slung over one
+shoulder he carried a small knapsack made of coarse fiber net. Around
+his neck hung what at first sight seemed to be a necklace composed
+of a dozen stout cords securely knotted together. Although I did not
+see it in use, I was given to understand that when climbing trees,
+he used this stout loop to fasten his ankles together and thus secure
+a tighter grip for his feet.
+
+By evening two other savages had come in; a young married man and
+his little sister. Both had bad colds. Saavedra told us that these
+Indians were Pichanguerras, a subdivision of the Campa tribe. Saavedra
+and his son spoke a little of their language, which sounded to our
+unaccustomed ears like a succession of low grunts, breathings, and
+gutturals. It was pieced out by signs. The long tunics worn by the
+men indicated that they had one or more wives. Before marrying they
+wear very scanty attire--nothing more than a few rags hanging over one
+shoulder and tied about the waist. The long tunic, a comfortable enough
+garment to wear during the cold nights, and their only covering, must
+impede their progress in the jungle; yet they live partly by hunting,
+using bows and arrows. We learned that these Pichanguerras had run
+away from the rubber country in the lower valleys; that they found it
+uncomfortably cold at this altitude, 4500 feet, but preferred freedom
+in the higher valleys to serfdom on a rubber estate.
+
+Saavedra said that he had named his plantation Conservidayoc, because
+it was in truth "a spot where one may be preserved from harm." Such
+was the home of the potentate from whose abode "no one had been known
+to return alive."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+The Pampa of Ghosts
+
+Two days later we left Conservidayoc for Espiritu Pampa by the trail
+which Saavedra's son and our Pampaconas Indians had been clearing. We
+emerged from the thickets near a promontory where there was a fine
+view down the valley and particularly of a heavily wooded alluvial fan
+just below us. In it were two or three small clearings and the little
+oval huts of the savages of Espiritu Pampa, the "Pampa of Ghosts."
+
+On top of the promontory was the ruin of a small, rectangular building
+of rough stone, once probably an Inca watch-tower. From here to
+Espiritu Pampa our trail followed an ancient stone stairway, about
+four feet in width and nearly a third of a mile long. It was built of
+uncut stones. Possibly it was the work of those soldiers whose chief
+duty it was to watch from the top of the promontory and who used their
+spare time making roads. We arrived at the principal clearing just as
+a heavy thunder-shower began. The huts were empty. Obviously their
+occupants had seen us coming and had disappeared in the jungle. We
+hesitated to enter the home of a savage without an invitation, but the
+terrific downpour overcame our scruples, if not our nervousness. The
+hut had a steeply pitched roof. Its sides were made of small logs
+driven endwise into the ground and fastened together with vines. A
+small fire had been burning on the ground. Near the embers were two
+old black ollas of Inca origin.
+
+In the little chacra, cassava, coca, and sweet potatoes were growing in
+haphazard fashion among charred and fallen tree trunks; a typical milpa
+farm. In the clearing were the ruins of eighteen or twenty circular
+houses arranged in an irregular group. We wondered if this could be the
+"Inca city" which Lopez Torres had reported. Among the ruins we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery. There was nothing Incaic about
+the buildings. One was rectangular and one was spade-shaped, but all
+the rest were round. The buildings varied in diameter from fifteen to
+twenty feet. Each had but a single opening. The walls had tumbled down,
+but gave no evidence of careful construction. Not far away, in woods
+which had not yet been cleared by the savages, we found other circular
+walls. They were still standing to a height of about four feet. If
+the savages have extended their milpa clearings since our visit, the
+falling trees have probably spoiled these walls by now. The ancient
+village probably belonged to a tribe which acknowledged allegiance to
+the Incas, but the architecture of the buildings gave no indication
+of their having been constructed by the Incas themselves. We began
+to wonder whether the "Pampa of Ghosts" really had anything important
+in store for us. Undoubtedly this alluvial fan had been highly prized
+in this country of terribly steep hills. It must have been inhabited,
+off and on, for many centuries. Yet this was not an "Inca city."
+
+While we were wondering whether the Incas themselves ever lived here,
+there suddenly appeared the naked figure of a sturdy young savage,
+armed with a stout bow and long arrows, and wearing a fillet of
+bamboo. He had been hunting and showed us a bird he had shot. Soon
+afterwards there came the two adult savages we had met at Saavedra's,
+accompanied by a cross-eyed friend, all wearing long tunics. They
+offered to guide us to other ruins. It was very difficult for us to
+follow their rapid pace. Half an hour's scramble through the jungle
+brought us to a pampa or natural terrace on the banks of a little
+tributary of the Pampaconas. They called it Eromboni. Here we found
+several old artificial terraces and the rough foundations of a long,
+rectangular building 192 feet by 24 feet. It might have had twenty-four
+doors, twelve in front and twelve in back, each three and a half
+feet wide. No lintels were in evidence. The walls were only a foot
+high. There was very little building material in sight. Apparently
+the structure had never been completed. Near by was a typical Inca
+fountain with three stone spouts, or conduits. Two hundred yards
+beyond the water-carrier's rendezvous, hidden behind a curtain of
+hanging vines and thickets so dense we could not see more than a few
+feet in any direction, the savages showed us the ruins of a group of
+stone houses whose walls were still standing in fine condition.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Ruins in the Jungles of Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+One of the buildings was rounded at one end. Another, standing by
+itself at the south end of a little pampa, had neither doors nor
+windows. It was rectangular. Its four or five niches were arranged
+with unique irregularity. Furthermore, they were two feet deep, an
+unusual dimension. Probably this was a storehouse. On the east side
+of the pampa was a structure, 120 feet long by 21 feet wide, divided
+into five rooms of unequal size. The walls were of rough stones
+laid in adobe. Like some of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo,
+the lintels of the doors were made of three or four narrow uncut
+ashlars. Some rooms had niches. On the north side of the pampa
+was another rectangular building. On the west side was the edge of
+a stone-faced terrace. Below it was a partly enclosed fountain or
+bathhouse, with a stone spout and a stone-lined basin. The shapes of
+the houses, their general arrangement, the niches, stone roof-pegs
+and lintels, all point to Inca builders. In the buildings we picked
+up several fragments of Inca pottery.
+
+Equally interesting and very puzzling were half a dozen crude Spanish
+roofing tiles, baked red. All the pieces and fragments we could find
+would not have covered four square feet. They were of widely different
+sizes, as though some one had been experimenting. Perhaps an Inca who
+had seen the new red tiled roofs of Cuzco had tried to reproduce them
+here in the jungle, but without success.
+
+At dusk we all returned to Espiritu Pampa. Our faces, hands,
+and clothes had been torn by the jungle; our feet were weary and
+sore. Nevertheless the day's work had been very satisfactory and
+we prepared to enjoy a good night's rest. Alas, we were doomed to
+disappointment. During the day some one had brought to the hut eight
+tame but noisy macaws. Furthermore, our savage helpers determined
+to make the night hideous with cries, tom-toms, and drums, either to
+discourage the visits of hostile Indians or jaguars, or for the purpose
+of exorcising the demons brought by the white men, or else to cheer
+up their families, who were undoubtedly hiding in the jungle near by.
+
+The next day the savages and our carriers continued to clear away as
+much as possible of the tangled growth near the best ruins. In this
+process, to the intense surprise not only of ourselves, but also of
+the savages, they discovered, just below the "bathhouse" where we had
+stood the day before, the well-preserved ruins of two buildings of
+superior construction, well fitted with stone-pegs and numerous niches,
+very symmetrically arranged. These houses stood by themselves on a
+little artificial terrace. Fragments of characteristic Inca pottery
+were found on the floor, including pieces of a large aryballus.
+
+Nothing gives a better idea of the density of the jungle than the
+fact that the savages themselves had often been within five feet of
+these fine walls without being aware of their existence.
+
+Encouraged by this important discovery of the most characteristic
+Inca ruins found in the valley, we continued the search, but all that
+any one was able to find was a carefully built stone bridge over a
+brook. Saavedra's son questioned the savages carefully. They said
+they knew of no other antiquities. Who built the stone buildings of
+Espiritu Pampa and Eromboni Pampa? Was this the "Vilcabamba Viejo"
+of Father Calancha, that "University of Idolatry where lived the
+teachers who were wizards and masters of abomination," the place to
+which Friar Marcos and Friar Diego went with so much suffering? Was
+there formerly on this trail a place called Ungacacha where the
+monks had to wade, and amused Titu Cusi by the way they handled their
+monastic robes in the water? They called it a "three days' journey
+over rough country." Another reference in Father Calancha speaks
+of Puquiura as being "two long days' journey from Vilcabamba." It
+took us five days to go from Espiritu Pampa to Pucyura, although
+Indians, unencumbered by burdens, and spurred on by necessity,
+might do it in three. It is possible to fit some other details of
+the story into this locality, although there is no place on the road
+called Ungacacha. Nevertheless it does not seem to me reasonable to
+suppose that the priests and Virgins of the Sun (the personnel of the
+"University of Idolatry") who fled from cold Cuzco with Manco and
+were established by him somewhere in the fastnesses of Uilcapampa
+would have cared to live in the hot valley of Espiritu Pampa. The
+difference in climate is as great as that between Scotland and Egypt,
+or New York and Havana. They would not have found in Espiritu Pampa
+the food which they liked. Furthermore, they could have found the
+seclusion and safety which they craved just as well in several other
+parts of the province, particularly at Machu Picchu, together with a
+cool, bracing climate and food-stuffs more nearly resembling those to
+which they were accustomed. Finally Calancha says "Vilcabamba the Old"
+was "the largest city" in the province, a term far more applicable
+to Machu Picchu or even to Choqquequirau than to Espiritu Pampa.
+
+On the other hand there seems to be no doubt that Espiritu Pampa in
+the montana does meet the requirements of the place called Vilcabamba
+by the companions of Captain Garcia. They speak of it as the town
+and valley to which Tupac Amaru, the last Inca, escaped after his
+forces lost the "young fortress" of Uiticos. Ocampo, doubtless wishing
+to emphasize the difference between it and his own metropolis, the
+Spanish town of Vilcabamba, calls the refuge of Tupac "Vilcabamba
+the old." Ocampo's new "Vilcabamba" was not in existence when Friar
+Marcos and Friar Diego lived in this province. If Calancha wrote
+his chronicles from their notes, the term "old" would not apply to
+Espiritu Pampa, but to an older Vilcabamba than either of the places
+known to Ocampo.
+
+The ruins are of late Inca pattern, not of a kind which would have
+required a long period to build. The unfinished building may have
+been under construction during the latter part of the reign of Titu
+Cusi. It was Titu Cusi's desire that Rodriguez de Figueroa should meet
+him at Pampaconas. The Inca evidently came from a Vilcabamba down in
+the montana, and, as has been said, brought Rodriguez a present of a
+macaw and two hampers of peanuts, articles of trade still common at
+Conservidayoc. There appears to me every reason to believe that the
+ruins of Espiritu Pampa are those of one of the favorite residences
+of this Inca--the very Vilcabamba, in fact, where he spent his boyhood
+and from which he journeyed to meet Rodriguez in 1565. [13]
+
+In 1572, when Captain Garcia took up the pursuit of Tupac Amaru
+after the victory of Vilcabamba, the Inca fled "inland toward the
+valley of Sima-ponte ... to the country of the Manaries Indians,
+a warlike tribe and his friends, where balsas and canoes were posted
+to save him and enable him to escape." There is now no valley in this
+vicinity called Simaponte, so far as we have been able to discover. The
+Manaries Indians are said to have lived on the banks of the lower
+Urubamba. In order to reach their country Tupac Amaru probably went
+down the Pampaconas from Espiritu Pampa. From the "Pampa of Ghosts"
+to canoe navigation would have been but a short journey. Evidently
+his friends who helped him to escape were canoe-men. Captain Garcia
+gives an account of the pursuit of Tupac Amaru in which he says that,
+not deterred by the dangers of the jungle or the river, he constructed
+five rafts on which he put some of his soldiers and, accompanying them
+himself, went down the rapids, escaping death many times by swimming,
+until he arrived at a place called Momori, only to find that the Inca,
+learning of his approach, had gone farther into the woods. Nothing
+daunted, Garcia followed him, although he and his men now had to go
+on foot and barefooted, with hardly anything to eat, most of their
+provisions having been lost in the river, until they finally caught
+Tupac and his friends; a tragic ending to a terrible chase, hard on
+the white man and fatal for the Incas.
+
+It was with great regret that I was now unable to follow the Pampaconas
+River to its junction with the Urubamba. It seemed possible that the
+Pampaconas might be known as the Sirialo, or the Cori-beni, both of
+which were believed by Dr. Bowman's canoe-men to rise in the mountains
+of Vilcabamba. It was not, however, until the summer of 1915 that we
+were able definitely to learn that the Pampaconas was really a branch
+of the Cosireni. It seems likely that the Cosireni was once called the
+"Sima-ponte." Whether the Comberciato is the "Momori" is hard to say.
+
+To be the next to follow in the footsteps of Tupac Amaru and Captain
+Garcia was the privilege of Messrs. Heller, Ford, and Maynard. They
+found that the unpleasant features had not been exaggerated. They were
+tormented by insects and great quantities of ants--a small red ant
+found on tree trunks, and a large black one, about an inch in length,
+frequently seen among the leaves on the ground. The bite of the red
+ant caused a stinging and burning for about fifteen minutes. One of
+their carriers who was bitten in the foot by a black ant suffered
+intense pain for a number of hours. Not only his foot, but also
+his leg and hip were affected. The savages were both fishermen and
+hunters; the fish being taken with nets, the game killed with bows
+and arrows. Peccaries were shot from a blind made of palm leaves a
+few feet from a runway. Fishing brought rather meager results. Three
+Indians fished all night and caught only one fish, a perch weighing
+about four pounds.
+
+The temperature was so high that candles could easily be tied in
+knots. Excessive humidity caused all leather articles to become blue
+with mould. Clouds of flies and mosquitoes increased the likelihood
+of spreading communicable jungle fevers.
+
+The river Comberciato was reached by Mr. Heller at a point not more
+than a league from its junction with the Urubamba. The lower course
+of the Comberciato is not considered dangerous to canoe navigation,
+but the valley is much narrower than the Cosireni. The width of
+the river is about 150 feet and its volume is twice that of the
+Cosireni. The climate is very trying. The nights are hot. Insect
+pests are numerous. Mr. Heller found that "the forest was filled with
+annoying, though sting-less, bees which persisted in attempting to
+roost on the countenance of any human being available." On the banks
+of the Comberciato he found several families of savages. All the men
+were keen hunters and fishermen. Their weapons consisted of powerful
+bows made from the wood of a small palm and long arrows made of reeds
+and finished with feathers arranged in a spiral.
+
+Monkeys were abundant. Specimens of six distinct genera were found,
+including the large red howler, inert and easily located by its deep,
+roaring bellow which can be heard for a distance of several miles;
+the giant black spider monkey, very alert, and, when frightened, fairly
+flying through the branches at astonishing speed; and a woolly monkey,
+black in color, and very intelligent in expression, frequently tamed
+by the savages, who "enjoy having them as pets but are not averse to
+eating them when food is scarce." "The flesh of monkeys is greatly
+appreciated by these Indians, who preserved what they did not require
+for immediate needs by drying it over the smoke of a wood fire."
+
+On the Cosireni Mr. Maynard noticed that one of his Indian guides
+carried a package, wrapped in leaves, which on being opened proved to
+contain forty or fifty large hairless grubs or caterpillars. The man
+finally bit their heads off and threw the bodies into a small bag,
+saying that the grubs were considered a great delicacy by the savages.
+
+The Indians we met at Espiritu Pampa closely resembled those
+seen in the lower valley. All our savages were bareheaded and
+barefooted. They live so much in the shelter of the jungle that hats
+are not necessary. Sandals or shoes would only make it harder to
+use the slippery little trails. They had seen no strangers penetrate
+this valley for about ten years, and at first kept their wives and
+children well secluded. Later, when Messrs. Hendriksen and Tucker
+were sent here to determine the astronomical position of Espiritu
+Pampa, the savages permitted Mr. Tucker to take photographs of their
+families. Perhaps it is doubtful whether they knew just what he was
+doing. At all events they did not run away and hide.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Men at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Campa Women and Children at Espiritu Pampa
+------
+
+
+All the men and older boys wore white fillets of bamboo. The married
+men had smeared paint on their faces, and one of them was wearing the
+characteristic lip ornament of the Campas. Some of the children wore
+no clothing at all. Two of the wives wore long tunics like the men. One
+of them had a truly savage face, daubed with paint. She wore no fillet,
+had the best tunic, and wore a handsome necklace made of seeds and the
+skins of small birds of brilliant plumage, a work of art which must
+have cost infinite pains and the loss of not a few arrows. All the
+women carried babies in little hammocks slung over the shoulder. One
+little girl, not more than six years old, was carrying on her back a
+child of two, in a hammock supported from her head by a tump-line. It
+will be remembered that forest Indians nearly always use tump-lines
+so as to allow their hands free play. One of the wives was fairer
+than the others and looked as though she might have had a Spanish
+ancestor. The most savage-looking of the women was very scantily clad,
+wore a necklace of seeds, a white lip ornament, and a few rags tied
+around her waist. All her children were naked. The children of the
+woman with the handsome necklace were clothed in pieces of old tunics,
+and one of them, evidently her mother's favorite, was decorated with
+bird skins and a necklace made from the teeth of monkeys.
+
+Such were the people among whom Tupac Amaru took refuge when he fled
+from Vilcabamba. Whether he partook of such a delicacy as monkey
+meat, which all Amazonian Indians relish, but which is not eaten by
+the highlanders, may be doubted. Garcilasso speaks of Tupac Amaru's
+preferring to entrust himself to the hands of the Spaniards "rather
+than to perish of famine." His Indian allies lived perfectly well in
+a region where monkeys abound. It is doubtful whether they would ever
+have permitted Captain Garcia to capture the Inca had they been able
+to furnish Tupac with such food as he was accustomed to.
+
+At all events our investigations seem to point to the probability of
+this valley having been an important part of the domain of the last
+Incas. It would have been pleasant to prolong our studies, but the
+carriers were anxious to return to Pampaconas. Although they did not
+have to eat monkey meat, they were afraid of the savages and nervous
+as to what use the latter might some day make of the powerful bows
+and long arrows.
+
+At Conservidayoc Saavedra kindly took the trouble to make some sugar
+for us. He poured the syrup in oblong moulds cut in a row along the
+side of a big log of hard wood. In some of the moulds his son placed
+handfuls of nicely roasted peanuts. The result was a confection or
+"emergency ration" which we greatly enjoyed on our return journey.
+
+At San Fernando we met the pack mules. The next day, in the midst
+of continuing torrential tropical downpours, we climbed out of
+the hot valley to the cold heights of Pampaconas. We were soaked
+with perspiration and drenched with rain. Snow had been falling
+above the village; our teeth chattered like castanets. Professor
+Foote immediately commandeered Mrs. Guzman's fire and filled our
+tea kettle. It may be doubted whether a more wretched, cold, wet,
+and bedraggled party ever arrived at Guzman's hut; certainly nothing
+ever tasted better than that steaming hot sweet tea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+The Story of Tampu-tocco, a Lost City of the First Incas
+
+It will be remembered that while on the search for the capital of the
+last Incas we had found several groups of ruins which we could not
+fit entirely into the story of Manco and his sons. The most important
+of these was Machu Picchu. Many of its buildings are far older than
+the ruins of Rosaspata and Espiritu Pampa. To understand just what we
+may have found at Machu Picchu it is now necessary to tell the story
+of a celebrated city, whose name, Tampu-tocco, was not used even at
+the time of the Spanish Conquest as the cognomen of any of the Inca
+towns then in existence. I must draw the reader's attention far away
+from the period when Pizarro and Manco, Toledo and Tupac Amaru were
+the protagonists, back to events which occurred nearly seven hundred
+years before their day. The last Incas ruled in Uiticos between 1536
+and 1572. The last Amautas flourished about 800 A.D.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Amautas had been ruling the Peruvian highlands for about sixty
+generations, when, as has been told in Chapter VI, invaders came
+from the south and east. The Amautas had built up a wonderful
+civilization. Many of the agricultural and engineering feats which
+we ordinarily assign to the Incas were really achievements of the
+Amautas. The last of the Amautas was Pachacuti VI, who was killed by
+an arrow on the battle-field of La Raya. The historian Montesinos,
+whose work on the antiquities of Peru has recently been translated
+for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. P. A. Means, of Harvard University,
+tells us that the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body to
+"Tampu-tocco." This, says the historian, was "a healthy place" where
+there was a cave in which they hid the Amauta's body. Cuzco, the
+finest and most important of all their cities, was sacked. General
+anarchy prevailed throughout the ancient empire. The good old days
+of peace and plenty disappeared before the invader. The glory of the
+old empire was destroyed, not to return for several centuries. In
+these dark ages, resembling those of European medieval times which
+followed the Germanic migrations and the fall of the Roman Empire,
+Peru was split up into a large number of small independent units. Each
+district chose its own ruler and carried on depredations against
+its neighbors. The effects of this may still be seen in the ruins of
+small fortresses found guarding the way into isolated Andean valleys.
+
+Montesinos says that those who were most loyal to the Amautas
+were few in number and not strong enough to oppose their enemies
+successfully. Some of them, probably the principal priests,
+wise men, and chiefs of the ancient regime, built a new city at
+"Tampu-tocco." Here they kept alive the memory of the Amautas and
+lived in such a relatively civilized manner as to draw to them,
+little by little, those who wished to be safe from the prevailing
+chaos and disorder and the tyranny of the independent chiefs or
+"robber barons." In their new capital, they elected a king, Titi
+Truaman Quicho.
+
+The survivors of the old regime enjoyed living at Tampu-tocco,
+because there never have been any earthquakes, plagues, or tremblings
+there. Furthermore, if fortune should turn against their new young
+king, Titi Truaman, and he should be killed, they could bury him
+in a very sacred place, namely, the cave where they hid the body of
+Pachacuti VI.
+
+Fortune was kind to the founders of the new kingdom. They had chosen
+an excellent place of refuge where they were not disturbed. To their
+ruler, the king of Tampu-tocco, and to his successors nothing worth
+recording happened for centuries. During this period several of the
+kings wished to establish themselves in ancient Cuzco, where the great
+Amautas had reigned, but for one reason or another were obliged to
+forego their ambitions.
+
+One of the most enlightened rulers of Tampu-tocco was a king called
+Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII. In his day people began to write on
+the leaves of trees. He sent messengers to the various parts of the
+highlands, asking the tribes to stop worshiping idols and animals,
+to cease practicing evil customs which had grown up since the fall
+of the Amautas, and to return to the ways of their ancestors. He
+met with little encouragement. On the contrary, his ambassadors were
+killed and little or no change took place. Discouraged by the failure
+of his attempts at reformation and desirous of learning its cause,
+Tupac Cauri was told by his soothsayers that the matter which most
+displeased the gods was the invention of writing. Thereupon he forbade
+anybody to practice writing, under penalty of death. This mandate was
+observed with such strictness that the ancient folk never again used
+letters. Instead, they used quipus, strings and knots. It was supposed
+that the gods were appeased, and every one breathed easier. No one
+realized how near the Peruvians as a race had come to taking a most
+momentous step.
+
+This curious and interesting tradition relates to an event supposed
+to have occurred many centuries before the Spanish Conquest. We
+have no ocular evidence to support it. The skeptic may brush it
+aside as a story intended to appeal to the vanity of persons with
+Inca blood in their veins; yet it is not told by the half-caste
+Garcilasso, who wanted Europeans to admire his maternal ancestors
+and wrote his book accordingly, but is in the pages of that careful
+investigator Montesinos, a pure-blooded Spaniard. As a matter of fact,
+to students of Sumner's "Folkways," the story rings true. Some young
+fellow, brighter than the rest, developed a system of ideographs
+which he scratched on broad, smooth leaves. It worked. People were
+beginning to adopt it. The conservative priests of Tampu-tocco did
+not like it. There was danger lest some of the precious secrets,
+heretofore handed down orally to the neophytes, might become public
+property. Nevertheless, the invention was so useful that it began to
+spread. There followed some extremely unlucky event--the ambassadors
+were killed, the king's plans miscarried. What more natural than
+that the newly discovered ideographs should be blamed for it? As a
+result, the king of Tampu-tocco, instigated thereto by the priests,
+determined to abolish this new thing. Its usefulness had not yet
+been firmly established. In fact it was inconvenient; the leaves
+withered, dried, and cracked, or blew away, and the writings were
+lost. Had the new invention been permitted to exist a little longer,
+some one would have commenced to scratch ideographs on rocks. Then it
+would have persisted. The rulers and priests, however, found that the
+important records of tribute and taxes could be kept perfectly well
+by means of the quipus. And the "job" of those whose duty it was to
+remember what each string stood for was assured. After all there is
+nothing unusual about Montesinos' story. One has only to look at the
+history of Spain itself to realize that royal bigotry and priestly
+intolerance have often crushed new ideas and kept great nations from
+making important advances.
+
+Montesinos says further that Tupac Cauri established in Tampu-tocco
+a kind of university where boys were taught the use of quipus, the
+method of counting and the significance of the different colored
+strings, while their fathers and older brothers were trained in
+military exercises--in other words, practiced with the sling, the
+bolas and the war-club; perhaps also with bows and arrows. Around the
+name of Tupac Cauri, or Pachacuti VII, as he wished to be called,
+is gathered the story of various intellectual movements which took
+place in Tampu-tocco. Finally, there came a time when the skill and
+military efficiency of the little kingdom rose to a high plane. The
+ruler and his councilors, bearing in mind the tradition of their
+ancestors who centuries before had dwelt in Cuzco, again determined to
+make the attempt to reestablish themselves there. An earthquake, which
+ruined many buildings in Cuzco, caused rivers to change their courses,
+destroyed towns, and was followed by the outbreak of a disastrous
+epidemic. The chiefs were obliged to give up their plans, although
+in healthy Tampu-tocco there was no pestilence. Their kingdom became
+more and more crowded. Every available square yard of arable land was
+terraced and cultivated. The men were intelligent, well organized,
+and accustomed to discipline, but they could not raise enough food
+for their families; so, about 1300 A.D., they were forced to secure
+arable land by conquest, under the leadership of the energetic ruler
+of the day. His name was Manco Ccapac, generally called the first Inca,
+the ruler for whom the Manco of 1536 was named.
+
+There are many stories of the rise of the first Inca. When he had grown
+to man's estate, he assembled his people to see how he could secure new
+lands for them. After consultation with his brothers, he determined
+to set out with them "toward the hill over which the sun rose," as
+we are informed by Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, an Indian who was
+a descendant of a long line of Incas, whose great-grandparents lived
+in the time of the Spanish Conquest, and who wrote an account of the
+antiquities of Peru in 1620. He gives the history of the Incas as it
+was handed down to the descendants of the former rulers of Peru. In
+it we read that Manco Ccapac and his brothers finally succeeded in
+reaching Cuzco and settled there. With the return of the descendants
+of the Amautas to Cuzco there ended the glory of Tampu-tocco. Manco
+married his own sister in order that he might not lose caste and that
+no other family be elevated by this marriage to be on an equality with
+his. He made good laws, conquered many provinces, and is regarded
+as the founder of the Inca dynasty. The highlanders came under his
+sway and brought him rich presents. The Inca, as Manco Ccapac now
+came to be known, was recognized as the most powerful chief, the most
+valiant fighter, and the most lucky warrior in the Andes. His captains
+and soldiers were brave, well disciplined, and well armed. All his
+affairs prospered greatly. "Afterward he ordered works to be executed
+at the place of his birth, consisting of a masonry wall with three
+windows, which were emblems of the house of his fathers whence he
+descended. The first window was called Tampu-tocco." I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Best Inca Wall at Maucallacta, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Caves of Puma Urco, near Paccaritampu
+------
+
+
+The Spaniards who asked about Tampu-tocco were told that it was at or
+near Paccaritampu, a small town eight or ten miles south of Cuzco. I
+learned that ruins are very scarce in its vicinity. There are none in
+the town. The most important are the ruins of Maucallacta, an Inca
+village, a few miles away. Near it I found a rocky hill consisting
+of several crags and large rocks, the surface of one of which is
+carved into platforms and two sleeping pumas. It is called Puma
+Urco. Beneath the rocks are some caves. I was told they had recently
+been used by political refugees. There is enough about the caves and
+the characteristics of the ruins near Paccaritampu to lend color to the
+story told to the early Spaniards. Nevertheless, it would seem as if
+Tampu-tocco must have been a place more remote from Cuzco and better
+defended by Nature from any attacks on that side. How else would it
+have been possible for the disorganized remnant of Pachacuti VI's army
+to have taken refuge there and set up an independent kingdom in the
+face of the warlike invaders from the south? A few men might have hid
+in the caves of Puma Urco, but Paccaritampu is not a natural citadel.
+
+The surrounding region is not difficult of access. There are no
+precipices between here and the Cuzco Basin. There are no natural
+defenses against such an invading force as captured the capital of
+the Amautas. Furthermore, tampu means "a place of temporary abode,"
+or "a tavern," or "an improved piece of ground" or "farm far from a
+town"; tocco means "window." There is an old tavern at Maucallacta
+near Paccaritampu, but there are no windows in the building to
+justify the name of "window tavern" or "place of temporary abode"
+(or "farm far from a town") "noted for its windows." There is nothing
+of a "masonry wall with three windows" corresponding to Salcamayhua's
+description of Manco Ccapac's memorial at his birthplace. The word
+"Tampu-tocco" does not occur on any map I have been able to consult,
+nor is it in the exhaustive gazetteer of Peru compiled by Paz Soldan.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Machu Picchu
+
+It was in July, 1911, that we first entered that marvelous canyon of
+the Urubamba, where the river escapes from the cold regions near Cuzco
+by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. From Torontoy
+to Colpani the road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the
+majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling
+beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of
+the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maul. In the variety of its charms and the
+power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare
+with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more
+than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite
+rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening,
+roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and
+tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the
+mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onward
+by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning
+and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height. Above all,
+there is the fascination of finding here and there under the swaying
+vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged masonry of
+a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering romance
+of the ancient builders who ages ago sought refuge in a region which
+appears to have been expressly designed by Nature as a sanctuary for
+the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give
+expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty. Space forbids
+any attempt to describe in detail the constantly changing panorama,
+the rank tropical foliage, the countless terraces, the towering cliffs,
+the glaciers peeping out between the clouds.
+
+We had camped at a place near the river, called Mandor Pampa. Melchor
+Arteaga, proprietor of the neighboring farm, had told us of ruins at
+Machu Picchu, as was related in Chapter X.
+
+The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered
+and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he
+would show me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb
+for such a wet day. When he found that we were willing to pay him a
+sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage in this vicinity,
+he finally agreed to guide us to the ruins. No one supposed that they
+would be particularly interesting. Accompanied by Sergeant Carrasco
+I left camp at ten o'clock and went some distance upstream. On the
+road we passed a venomous snake which recently had been killed. This
+region has an unpleasant notoriety for being the favorite haunt of
+"vipers." The lance-headed or yellow viper, commonly known as the
+fer-de-lance, a very venomous serpent capable of making considerable
+springs when in pursuit of its prey, is common hereabouts. Later two
+of our mules died from snake-bite.
+
+After a walk of three quarters of an hour the guide left the main road
+and plunged down through the jungle to the bank of the river. Here
+there was a primitive "bridge" which crossed the roaring rapids at
+its narrowest part, where the stream was forced to flow between two
+great boulders. The bridge was made of half a dozen very slender logs,
+some of which were not long enough to span the distance between the
+boulders. They had been spliced and lashed together with vines. Arteaga
+and Carrasco took off their shoes and crept gingerly across, using
+their somewhat prehensile toes to keep from slipping. It was obvious
+that no one could have lived for an instant in the rapids, but would
+immediately have been dashed to pieces against granite boulders. I
+am frank to confess that I got down on hands and knees and crawled
+across, six inches at a time. Even after we reached the other side
+I could not help wondering what would happen to the "bridge" if a
+particularly heavy shower should fall in the valley above. A light
+rain had fallen during the night. The river had risen so that the
+bridge was already threatened by the foaming rapids. It would not
+take much more rain to wash away the bridge entirely. If this should
+happen during the day it might be very awkward. As a matter of fact,
+it did happen a few days later and the next explorers to attempt to
+cross the river at this point found only one slender log remaining.
+
+Leaving the stream, we struggled up the bank through a dense jungle,
+and in a few minutes reached the bottom of a precipitous slope. For
+an hour and twenty minutes we had a hard climb. A good part of the
+distance we went on all fours, sometimes hanging on by the tips
+of our fingers. Here and there, a primitive ladder made from the
+roughly hewn trunk of a small tree was placed in such a way as to
+help one over what might otherwise have proved to be an impassable
+cliff. In another place the slope was covered with slippery grass
+where it was hard to find either handholds or footholds. The guide
+said that there were lots of snakes here. The humidity was great,
+the heat was excessive, and we were not in training.
+
+Shortly after noon we reached a little grass-covered hut where several
+good-natured Indians, pleasantly surprised at our unexpected arrival,
+welcomed us with dripping gourds full of cool, delicious water. Then
+they set before us a few cooked sweet potatoes, called here cumara,
+a Quichua word identical with the Polynesian kumala, as has been
+pointed out by Mr. Cook.
+
+Apart from the wonderful view of the canyon, all we could see from
+our cool shelter was a couple of small grass huts and a few ancient
+stone-faced terraces. Two pleasant Indian farmers, Richarte and
+Alvarez, had chosen this eagle's nest for their home. They said they
+had found plenty of terraces here on which to grow their crops and
+they were usually free from undesirable visitors. They did not speak
+Spanish, but through Sergeant Carrasco I learned that there were more
+ruins "a little farther along." In this country one never can tell
+whether such a report is worthy of credence. "He may have been lying"
+is a good footnote to affix to all hearsay evidence. Accordingly,
+I was not unduly excited, nor in a great hurry to move. The heat
+was still great, the water from the Indian's spring was cool
+and delicious, and the rustic wooden bench, hospitably covered
+immediately after my arrival with a soft, woolen poncho, seemed most
+comfortable. Furthermore, the view was simply enchanting. Tremendous
+green precipices fell away to the white rapids of the Urubamba
+below. Immediately in front, on the north side of the valley, was
+a great granite cliff rising 2000 feet sheer. To the left was the
+solitary peak of Huayna Picchu, surrounded by seemingly inaccessible
+precipices. On all sides were rocky cliffs. Beyond them cloud-capped
+mountains rose thousands of feet above us.
+
+The Indians said there were two paths to the outside world. Of one we
+had already had a taste; the other, they said, was more difficult--a
+perilous path down the face of a rocky precipice on the other side
+of the ridge. It was their only means of egress in the wet season,
+when the bridge over which we had come could not be maintained. I was
+not surprised to learn that they went away from home only "about once
+a month."
+
+Richarte told us that they had been living here four years. It
+seems probable that, owing to its inaccessibility, the canyon had
+been unoccupied for several centuries, but with the completion of
+the new government road settlers began once more to occupy this
+region. In time somebody clambered up the precipices and found on
+the slopes of Machu Picchu, at an elevation of 9000 feet above the
+sea, an abundance of rich soil conveniently situated on artificial
+terraces, in a fine climate. Here the Indians had finally cleared
+off some ruins, burned over a few terraces, and planted crops of
+maize, sweet and white potatoes, sugar cane, beans, peppers, tree
+tomatoes, and gooseberries. At first they appropriated some of the
+ancient houses and replaced the roofs of wood and thatch. They found,
+however, that there were neither springs nor wells near the ancient
+buildings. An ancient aqueduct which had once brought a tiny stream
+to the citadel had long since disappeared beneath the forest, filled
+with earth washed from the upper terraces. So, abandoning the shelter
+of the ruins, the Indians were now enjoying the convenience of living
+near some springs in roughly built thatched huts of their own design.
+
+Without the slightest expectation of finding anything more interesting
+than the stone-faced terraces of which I already had a glimpse, and
+the ruins of two or three stone houses such as we had encountered
+at various places on the road between Ollantaytambo and Torontoy,
+I finally left the cool shade of the pleasant little hut and climbed
+farther up the ridge and around a slight promontory. Arteaga had
+"been here once before," and decided to rest and gossip with Richarte
+and Alvarez in the hut. They sent a small boy with me as a guide.
+
+Hardly had we rounded the promontory when the character of the
+stonework began to improve. A flight of beautifully constructed
+terraces, each two hundred yards long and ten feet high, had then
+recently rescued from the jungle by the Indians. A forest of large
+trees had been chopped down and burned over to make a clearing
+for agricultural purposes. Crossing these terraces, I entered the
+untouched forest beyond, and suddenly found myself in a maze of
+beautiful granite houses! They were covered with trees and moss and
+the growth of centuries, but in the dense shadow, hiding in bamboo
+thickets and tangled vines, could be seen, here and there, walls
+of white granite ashlars most carefully cut and exquisitely fitted
+together. Buildings with windows were frequent. Here at least was a
+"place far from town and conspicuous for its windows."
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Flashlight view of Interior of Cave, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Temple over Cave at Machu Picchu Suggested by the Author as the
+Probable Site of Tampu-Tocco
+------
+
+
+Under a carved rock the little boy showed me a cave beautifully lined
+with the finest cut stone. It was evidently intended to be a Royal
+Mausoleum. On top of this particular boulder a semicircular building
+had been constructed. The wall followed the natural curvature of the
+rock and was keyed to it by one of the finest examples of masonry I
+have ever seen. This beautiful wall, made of carefully matched ashlars
+of pure white granite, especially selected for its fine grain, was the
+work of a master artist. The interior surface of the wall was broken
+by niches and square stone-pegs. The exterior surface was perfectly
+simple and unadorned. The lower courses, of particularly large ashlars,
+gave it a look of solidity. The upper courses, diminishing in size
+toward the top, lent grace and delicacy to the structure. The flowing
+lines, the symmetrical arrangement of the ashlars, and the gradual
+gradation of the courses, combined to produce a wonderful effect,
+softer and more pleasing than that of the marble temples of the
+Old World. Owing to the absence of mortar, there are no ugly spaces
+between the rocks. They might have grown together.
+
+The elusive beauty of this chaste, undecorated surface seems to me
+to be due to the fact that the wall was built under the eye of a
+master mason who knew not the straight edge, the plumb rule, or the
+square. He had no instruments of precision, so he had to depend on
+his eye. He had a good eye, an artistic eye, an eye for symmetry
+and beauty of form. His product received none of the harshness of
+mechanical and mathematical accuracy. The apparently rectangular
+blocks are not really rectangular. The apparently straight lines of
+the courses are not actually straight in the exact sense of that term.
+
+To my astonishment I saw that this wall and its adjoining semicircular
+temple over the cave were as fine as the finest stonework in the
+far-famed Temple of the Sun in Cuzco. Surprise followed surprise in
+bewildering succession. I climbed a marvelous great stairway of large
+granite blocks, walked along a pampa where the Indians had a small
+vegetable garden, and came into a little clearing. Here were the ruins
+of two of the finest structures I have ever seen in Peru. Not only were
+they made of selected blocks of beautifully grained white granite;
+their walls contained ashlars of Cyclopean size, ten feet in length,
+and higher than a man. The sight held me spellbound.
+
+Each building had only three walls and was entirely open on the
+side toward the clearing. The principal temple was lined with
+exquisitely made niches, five high up at each end, and seven on the
+back wall. There were seven courses of ashlars in the end walls. Under
+the seven rear niches was a rectangular block fourteen feet long,
+probably a sacrificial altar. The building did not look as though
+it had ever had a roof. The top course of beautifully smooth ashlars
+was not intended to be covered.
+
+The other temple is on the east side of the pampa. I called it the
+Temple of the Three Windows. Like its neighbor, it is unique among
+Inca ruins. Its eastern wall, overlooking the citadel, is a massive
+stone framework for three conspicuously large windows, obviously too
+large to serve any useful purpose, yet most beautifully made with the
+greatest care and solidity. This was clearly a ceremonial edifice of
+peculiar significance. Nowhere else in Peru, so far as I know, is there
+a similar structure conspicuous as "a masonry wall with three windows."
+
+These ruins have no other name than that of the mountain on the
+slopes of which they are located. Had this place been occupied
+uninterruptedly, like Cuzco and Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu would
+have retained its ancient name, but during the centuries when it
+was abandoned, its name was lost. Examination showed that it was
+essentially a fortified place, a remote fastness protected by natural
+bulwarks, of which man took advantage to create the most impregnable
+stronghold in the Andes. Our subsequent excavations and the clearing
+made in 1912, to be described in a subsequent volume, has shown that
+this was the chief place in Uilcapampa.
+
+It did not take an expert to realize, from the glimpse of Machu
+Picchu on that rainy day in July, 1911, when Sergeant Carrasco and
+I first saw it, that here were most extraordinary and interesting
+ruins. Although the ridge had been partly cleared by the Indians for
+their fields of maize, so much of it was still underneath a thick
+jungle growth--some walls were actually supporting trees ten and
+twelve inches in diameter--that it was impossible to determine just
+what would be found here. As soon as I could get hold of Mr. Tucker,
+who was assisting Mr. Hendriksen, and Mr. Lanius, who had gone down the
+Urubamba with Dr. Bowman, I asked them to make a map of the ruins. I
+knew it would be a difficult undertaking and that it was essential
+for Mr. Tucker to join me in Arequipa not later than the first of
+October for the ascent of Coropuna. With the hearty aid of Richarte
+and Alvarez, the surveyors did better than I expected. In the ten days
+while they were at the ruins they were able to secure data from which
+Mr. Tucker afterwards prepared a map which told better than could
+any words of mine the importance of this site and the necessity for
+further investigation.
+
+With the possible exception of one mining prospector, no one in Cuzco
+had seen the ruins of Machu Picchu or appreciated their importance. No
+one had any realization of what an extraordinary place lay on top of
+the ridge. It had never been visited by any of the planters of the
+lower Urubamba Valley who annually passed over the road which winds
+through the canyon two thousand feet below.
+
+It seems incredible that this citadel, less than three days' journey
+from Cuzco, should have remained so long undescribed by travelers
+and comparatively unknown even to the Peruvians themselves. If the
+conquistadores ever saw this wonderful place, some reference to it
+surely would have been made; yet nothing can be found which clearly
+refers to the ruins of Machu Picchu. Just when it was first seen by a
+Spanish-speaking person is uncertain. When the Count de Sartiges was
+at Huadquina in 1834 he was looking for ruins; yet, although so near,
+he heard of none here. From a crude scrawl on the walls of one of the
+finest buildings, we learned that the ruins were visited in 1902 by
+Lizarraga, lessee of the lands immediately below the bridge of San
+Miguel. This is the earliest local record. Yet some one must have
+visited Machu Picchu long before that; because in 1875, as has been
+said, the French explorer Charles Wiener heard in Ollantaytambo of
+there being ruins at "Huaina-Picchu or Matcho-Picchu." He tried to
+find them. That he failed was due to there being no road through the
+canyon of Torontoy and the necessity of making a wide detour through
+the pass of Panticalla and the Lucumayo Valley, a route which brought
+him to the Urubamba River at the bridge of Chuquichaca, twenty-five
+miles below Machu Picchu.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Exterior of Temple of the Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+Detail of Principal Temple Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+It was not until 1890 that the Peruvian Government, recognizing the
+needs of the enterprising planters who were opening up the lower
+valley of the Urubamba, decided to construct a mule trail along the
+banks of the river through the grand canyon to enable the much-desired
+coca and aguardiente to be shipped from Huadquina, Maranura, and Santa
+Ann to Cuzco more quickly and cheaply than formerly. This road avoids
+the necessity of carrying the precious cargoes over the dangerous
+snowy passes of Mt. Veronica and Mt. Salcantay, so vividly described
+by Raimondi, de Sartiges, and others. The road, however, was very
+expensive, took years to build, and still requires frequent repair. In
+fact, even to-day travel over it is often suspended for several days
+or weeks at a time, following some tremendous avalanche. Yet it was
+this new road which had led Melchor Arteaga to build his hut near
+the arable land at Mandor Pampa, where he could raise food for his
+family and offer rough shelter to passing travelers. It was this
+new road which brought Richarte, Alvarez, and their enterprising
+friends into this little-known region, gave them the opportunity of
+occupying the ancient terraces of Machu Picchu, which had lain fallow
+for centuries, encouraged them to keep open a passable trail over
+the precipices, and made it feasible for us to reach the ruins. It
+was this new road which offered us in 1911 a virgin field between
+Ollantaytambo and Huadquina and enabled us to learn that the Incas,
+or their predecessors, had once lived here in the remote fastnesses of
+the Andes, and had left stone witnesses of the magnificence and beauty
+of their ancient civilization, more interesting and extensive than any
+which have been found since the days of the Spanish Conquest of Peru.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+The Origin of Machu Picchu
+
+Some other day I hope to tell of the work of clearing and excavating
+Machu Picchu, of the life lived by its citizens, and of the ancient
+towns of which it was the most important. At present I must rest
+content with a discussion of its probable identity. Here was a powerful
+citadel tenable against all odds, a stronghold where a mere handful
+of defenders could prevent a great army from taking the place by
+assault. Why should any one have desired to be so secure from capture
+as to have built a fortress in such an inaccessible place?
+
+The builders were not in search of fields. There is so little arable
+land here that every square yard of earth had to be terraced in
+order to provide food for the inhabitants. They were not looking for
+comfort or convenience. Safety was their primary consideration. They
+were sufficiently civilized to practice intensive agriculture,
+sufficiently skillful to equal the best masonry the world has ever
+seen, sufficiently ingenious to make delicate bronzes, and sufficiently
+advanced in art to realize the beauty of simplicity. What could have
+induced such a people to select this remote fastness of the Andes,
+with all its disadvantages, as the site for their capital, unless
+they were fleeing from powerful enemies.
+
+The thought will already have occurred to the reader that the Temple
+of the Three Windows at Machu Picchu fits the words of that native
+writer who had "heard from a child the most ancient traditions and
+histories," including the story already quoted from Sir Clements
+Markham's translation that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca, "ordered
+works to be executed at the place of his birth; consisting of a
+masonry wall with three windows, which were emblems of the house
+of his fathers whence he descended. The first window was called
+'Tampu-tocco.' " Although none of the other chroniclers gives the
+story of the first Inca ordering a memorial wall to be built at the
+place of his birth, they nearly all tell of his having come from a
+place called Tampu-tocco, "an inn or country place remarkable for
+its windows." Sir Clements Markham, in his "Incas of Peru," refers
+to Tampu-tocco as "the hill with the three openings or windows."
+
+The place assigned by all the chroniclers as the location of the
+traditional Tampu-tocco, as has been said, is Paccaritampu, about nine
+miles southwest of Cuzco. Paccaritampu has some interesting ruins and
+caves, but careful examination shows that while there are more than
+three openings to its caves, there are no windows in its buildings. The
+buildings of Machu Picchu, on the other hand, have far more windows
+than any other important ruin in Peru. The climate of Paccaritampu,
+like that of most places in the highlands, is too severe to invite
+or encourage the use of windows. The climate of Machu Picchu is mild,
+consequently the use of windows was natural and agreeable.
+
+So far as I know, there is no place in Peru where the ruins consist of
+anything like a "masonry wall with three windows" of such a ceremonial
+character as is here referred to, except at Machu Picchu. It would
+certainly seem as though the Temple of the Three Windows, the most
+significant structure within the citadel, is the building referred
+to by Pachacuti Yamqui Saleamayhua.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Masonry Wall with Three Windows, Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+The principal difficulty with this theory is that while the
+first meaning of tocco in Holguin's standard Quichua dictionary is
+"ventana" or "window," and while "window" is the only meaning given
+this important word in Markham's revised Quichua dictionary (1908),
+a dictionary compiled from many sources, the second meaning of tocco
+given by Holguin is "alacena," "a cupboard set in a wall." Undoubtedly
+this means what we call, in the ruins of the houses of the Incas, a
+niche. Now the drawings, crude as they are, in Sir Clements Markham's
+translation of the Salcamayhua manuscript, do give the impression
+of niches rather than of windows. Does Tampu-tocco mean a tampu
+remarkable for its niches? At Paccaritampu there do not appear to be
+any particularly fine niches; while at Machu Picchu, on the other hand,
+there are many very beautiful niches, especially in the cave which has
+been referred to as a "Royal Mausoleum." As a matter of fact, nearly
+all the finest ruins of the Incas have excellent niches. Since niches
+were so common a feature of Inca architecture, the chances are that Sir
+Clements is right in translating Salcamayhua as he did and in calling
+Tampu-tocco "the hill with the three openings or windows." In any case
+Machu Picchu fits the story far better than does Paccaritampu. However,
+in view of the fact that the early writers all repeat the story that
+Tampu-tocco was at Paccaritampu, it would be absurd to say that they
+did not know what they were talking about, even though the actual
+remains at or near Paccaritampu do not fit the requirements.
+
+It would be easier to adopt Paccaritampu as the site of Tampu-tocco
+were it not for the legal records of an inquiry made by Toledo at the
+time when he put the last Inca to death. Fifteen Indians, descended
+from those who used to live near Las Salinas, the important salt works
+near Cuzco, on being questioned, agreed that they had heard their
+fathers and grandfathers repeat the tradition that when the first Inca,
+Manco Ccapac, captured their lands, he came from Tampu-tocco. They did
+not say that the first Inca came from Paccaritampu, which, it seems
+to me, would have been a most natural thing for them to have said if
+this were the general belief of the natives. In addition there is the
+still older testimony of some Indians born before the arrival of the
+first Spaniards, who were examined at a legal investigation in 1570. A
+chief, aged ninety-two, testified that Manco Ccapac came out of a cave
+called Tocco, and that he was lord of the town near that cave. Not
+one of the witnesses stated that Manco Ccapac came from Paccaritampu,
+although it is difficult to imagine why they should not have done
+so if, as the contemporary historians believed, this was really the
+original Tampu-tocco. The chroniclers were willing enough to accept
+the interesting cave near Paccaritampu as the place where Manco
+Ccapac was born, and from which he came to conquer Cuzco. Why were
+the sworn witnesses so reticent? It seems hardly possible that they
+should have forgotten where Tampu-tocco was supposed to have been. Was
+their reticence due to the fact that its actual whereabouts had been
+successfully kept secret? Manco Ccapac's home was that Tampu-tocco
+to which the followers of Pachacuti VI fled with his body after the
+overthrow of the old regime, a very secluded and holy place. Did they
+know it was in the same fastnesses of the Andes to which in the days
+of Pizarro the young Inca Manco had fled from Cuzco? Was this the
+cause of their reticence?
+
+Certainly the requirements of Tampu-tocco are met at Machu Picchu. The
+splendid natural defenses of the Grand Canyon of the Urubamba made it
+an ideal refuge for the descendants of the Amautas during the centuries
+of lawlessness and confusion which succeeded the barbarian invasions
+from the plains to the east and south. The scarcity of violent
+earthquakes and also its healthfulness, both marked characteristics
+of Tampu-tocco, are met at Machu Picchu. It is worth noting that the
+existence of Machu Picchu might easily have been concealed from the
+common people. At the time of the Spanish Conquest its location might
+have been known only to the Inca and his priests.
+
+So, notwithstanding the belief of the historians, I feel it is
+reasonable to conclude that the first name of the ruins at Machu Picchu
+was Tampu-tocco. Here Pachacuti VI was buried; here was the capital of
+the little kingdom where during the centuries between the Amautas and
+the Incas there was kept alive the wisdom, skill, and best traditions
+of the ancient folk who had developed the civilization of Peru.
+
+It is well to remember that the defenses of Cuzco were of little avail
+before the onslaught of the warlike invaders. The great organization
+of farmers and masons, so successful in its ability to perform
+mighty feats of engineering with primitive tools of wood, stone,
+and bronze, had crumbled away before the attacks of savage hordes
+who knew little of the arts of peace. The defeated leaders had to
+choose a region where they might live in safety from their fierce
+enemies. Furthermore, in the environs of Machu Picchu they found
+every variety of climate--valleys so low as to produce the precious
+coca, yucca, and plantain, the fruits and vegetables of the tropics;
+slopes high enough to be suitable for many varieties of maize,
+quinoa, and other cereals, as well as their favorite root crops,
+including both sweet and white potatoes, oca, anu, and ullucu. Here,
+within a few hours' journey, they could find days warm enough to dry
+and cure the coca leaves; nights cold enough to freeze potatoes in
+the approved aboriginal fashion.
+
+Although the amount of arable land which could be made available with
+the most careful terracing was not large enough to support a very
+great population, Machu Picchu offered an impregnable citadel to the
+chiefs and priests and their handful of followers who were obliged
+to flee from the rich plains near Cuzco and the broad, pleasant
+valley of Yucay. Only dire necessity and terror could have forced a
+people which had reached such a stage in engineering, architecture,
+and agriculture, to leave hospitable valleys and tablelands for rugged
+canyons. Certainly there is no part of the Andes less fitted by nature
+to meet the requirements of an agricultural folk, unless their chief
+need was a safe refuge and retreat.
+
+Here the wise remnant of the Amautas ultimately developed great
+ability. In the face of tremendous natural obstacles they utilized
+their ancient craft to wrest a living from the soil. Hemmed in
+between the savages of the Amazon jungles below and their enemies
+on the plateau above, they must have carried on border warfare for
+generations. Aided by the temperate climate in which they lived,
+and the ability to secure a wide variety of food within a few hours'
+climb up or down from their towns and cities, they became a hardy,
+vigorous tribe which in the course of time burst its boundaries, fought
+its way back to the rich Cuzco Valley, overthrew the descendants
+of the ancient invaders and established, with Cuzco as a capital,
+the Empire of the Incas.
+
+After the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, had established himself in Cuzco,
+what more natural than that he should have built a fine temple in
+honor of his ancestors. Ancestor worship was common to the Incas,
+and nothing would have been more reasonable than the construction
+of the Temple of the Three Windows. As the Incas grew in power and
+extended their rule over the ancient empire of the Cuzco Amautas from
+whom they traced their descent, superstitious regard would have led
+them to establish their chief temples and palaces in the city of Cuzco
+itself. There was no longer any necessity to maintain the citadel of
+Tampu-tocco. It was probably deserted, while Cuzco grew and the Inca
+Empire flourished.
+
+As the Incas increased in power they invented various myths to account
+for their origin. One of these traced their ancestry to the islands of
+Lake Titicaca. Finally the very location of Manco Ccapac's birthplace
+was forgotten by the common people--although undoubtedly known to the
+priests and those who preserved the most sacred secrets of the Incas.
+
+Then came Pizarro and the bigoted conquistadores. The native chiefs
+faced the necessity of saving whatever was possible of the ancient
+religion. The Spaniards coveted gold and silver. The most precious
+possessions of the Incas, however, were not images and utensils, but
+the sacred Virgins of the Sun, who, like the Vestal Virgins of Rome,
+were from their earliest childhood trained to the service of the great
+Sun God. Looked at from the standpoint of an agricultural people who
+needed the sun to bring their food crops to fruition and keep them from
+hunger, it was of the utmost importance to placate him with sacrifices
+and secure the good effects of his smiling face. If he delayed his
+coming or kept himself hidden behind the clouds, the maize would mildew
+and the ears would not properly ripen. If he did not shine with his
+accustomed brightness after the harvest, the ears of corn could not be
+properly dried and kept over to the next year. In short, any unusual
+behavior on the part of the sun meant hunger and famine. Consequently
+their most beautiful daughters were consecrated to his service, as
+"Virgins" who lived in the temple and ministered to the wants of
+priests and rulers. Human sacrifice had long since been given up in
+Peru and its place taken by the consecration of these damsels. Some
+of the Virgins of the Sun in Cuzco were captured. Others escaped and
+accompanied Manco into the inaccessible canyons of Uilcapampa.
+
+It will be remembered that Father Calancha relates the trials of the
+first two missionaries in this region, who at the peril of their lives
+urged the Inca to let them visit the "University of Idolatry," at
+"Vilcabamba Viejo," "the largest city" in the province. Machu Picchu
+admirably answers its requirements. Here it would have been very
+easy for the Inca Titu Cusi to have kept the monks in the vicinity
+of the Sacred City for three weeks without their catching a single
+glimpse of its unique temples and remarkable palaces. It would have
+been possible for Titu Cusi to bring Friar Marcos and Friar Diego
+to the village of Intihuatana near San Miguel, at the foot of the
+Machu Picchu cliffs. The sugar planters of the lower Urubamba Valley
+crossed the bridge of San Miguel annually for twenty years in blissful
+ignorance of what lay on top of the ridge above them. So the friars
+might easily have been lodged in huts at the foot of the mountain
+without their being aware of the extent and importance of the Inca
+"university." Apparently they returned to Puquiura with so little
+knowledge of the architectural character of "Vilcabamba Viejo" that
+no description of it could be given their friends, eventually to
+be reported by Calancha. Furthermore, the difficult journey across
+country from Puquiura might easily have taken "three days."
+
+Finally, it appears from Dr. Eaton's studies that the last residents
+of Machu Picchu itself were mostly women. In the burial caves which
+we have found in the region roundabout Machu Picchu the proportion
+of skulls belonging to men is very large. There are many so-called
+"trepanned" skulls. Some of them seem to belong to soldiers injured
+in war by having their skulls crushed in, either with clubs or
+the favorite sling-stones of the Incas. In no case have we found
+more than twenty-five skulls without encountering some "trepanned"
+specimens among them. In striking contrast is the result of the
+excavations at Machu Picchu, where one hundred sixty-four skulls
+were found in the burial caves, yet not one had been "trepanned." Of
+the one hundred thirty-five skeletons whose sex could be accurately
+determined by Dr. Eaton, one hundred nine were females. Furthermore,
+it was in the graves of the females that the finest artifacts were
+found, showing that they were persons of no little importance. Not
+a single representative of the robust male of the warrior type was
+found in the burial caves of Machu Picchu.
+
+Another striking fact brought out by Dr. Eaton is that some of the
+female skeletons represent individuals from the seacoast. This fits in
+with Calancha's statement that Titu Cusi tempted the monks not only
+with beautiful women of the highlands, but also with those who came
+from the tribes of the Yungas, or "warm valleys." The "warm valleys"
+may be those of the rubber country, but Sir Clements Markham thought
+the oases of the coast were meant.
+
+Furthermore, as Mr. Safford has pointed out, among the artifacts
+discovered at Machu Picchu was a "snuffing tube" intended for use with
+the narcotic snuff which was employed by the priests and necromancers
+to induce a hypnotic state. This powder was made from the seeds of
+the tree which the Incas called huilca or uilca, which, as has been
+pointed out in Chapter XI, grows near these ruins. This seems to me
+to furnish additional evidence of the identity of Machu Picchu with
+Calancha's "Vilcabamba."
+
+It cannot be denied that the ruins of Machu Picchu satisfy the
+requirements of "the largest city, in which was the University of
+Idolatry." Until some one can find the ruins of another important place
+within three days' journey of Pucyura which was an important religious
+center and whose skeletal remains are chiefly those of women, I am
+inclined to believe that this was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Calancha,
+just as Espiritu Pampa was the "Vilcabamba Viejo" of Ocampo.
+
+In the interesting account of the last Incas purporting to be by Titu
+Cusi, but actually written in excellent Spanish by Friar Marcos,
+he says that his father, Manco, fleeing from Cuzco went first "to
+Vilcabamba, the head of all that province."
+
+In the "Anales del Peru" Montesinos says that Francisco Pizarro,
+thinking that the Inca Manco wished to make peace with him, tried
+to please the Inca by sending him a present of a very fine pony and
+a mulatto to take care of it. In place of rewarding the messenger,
+the Inca killed both man and beast. When Pizarro was informed of this,
+he took revenge on Manco by cruelly abusing the Inca's favorite wife,
+and putting her to death. She begged of her attendants that "when she
+should be dead they would put her remains in a basket and let it float
+down the Yucay [or Urubamba] River, that the current might take it
+to her husband, the Inca." She must have believed that at that time
+Manco was near this river. Machu Picchu is on its banks. Espiritu
+Pampa is not.
+
+We have already seen how Manco finally established himself at Uiticos,
+where he restored in some degree the fortunes of his house. Surrounded
+by fertile valleys, not too far removed from the great highway which
+the Spaniards were obliged to use in passing from Lima to Cuzco, he
+could readily attack them. At Machu Picchu he would not have been
+so conveniently located for robbing the Spanish caravans nor for
+supplying his followers with arable lands.
+
+There is abundant archeological evidence that the citadel of Machu
+Picchu was at one time occupied by the Incas and partly built by them
+on the ruins of a far older city. Much of the pottery is unquestionably
+of the so-called Cuzco style, used by the last Incas. The more recent
+buildings resemble those structures on the island of Titicaca said to
+have been built by the later Incas. They also resemble the fortress of
+Uiticos, at Rosaspata, built by Manco about 1537. Furthermore, they
+are by far the largest and finest ruins in the mountains of the old
+province of Uilcapampa and represent the place which would naturally
+be spoken of by Titu Cusi as the "head of the province." Espiritu
+Pampa does not satisfy the demands of a place which was so important
+as to give its name to the entire province, to be referred to as
+"the largest city."
+
+It seems quite possible that the inaccessible, forgotten citadel of
+Machu Picchu was the place chosen by Manco as the safest refuge for
+those Virgins of the Sun who had successfully escaped from Cuzco in
+the days of Pizarro. For them and their attendants Manco probably
+built many of the newer buildings and repaired some of the older
+ones. Here they lived out their days, secure in the knowledge that
+no Indians would ever breathe to the conquistadores the secret of
+their sacred refuge.
+
+
+------
+FIGURE
+
+The Gorges, Opening Wide Apart, Reveal Uilcapampa's Granite Citadel,
+the Crown of Inca Land: Machu Picchu
+------
+
+
+When the worship of the sun actually ceased on the heights of Machu
+Picchu no one can tell. That the secret of its existence was so well
+kept is one of the marvels of Andean history. Unless one accepts the
+theories of its identity with "Tampu-tocco" and "Vilcabamba Viejo,"
+there is no clear reference to Machu Picchu until 1875, when Charles
+Wiener heard about it.
+
+Some day we may be able to find a reference in one of the documents
+of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries which will indicate that
+the energetic Viceroy Toledo, or a contemporary of his, knew of
+this marvelous citadel and visited it. Writers like Cieza de Leon
+and Polo de Ondegardo, who were assiduous in collecting information
+about all the holy places of the Incas, give the names of many places
+which as yet we have not been able to identify. Among them we may
+finally recognize the temples of Machu Picchu. On the other hand,
+it seems likely that if any of the Spanish soldiers, priests, or
+other chroniclers had seen this citadel, they would have described
+its chief edifices in unmistakable terms.
+
+Until further light can be thrown on this fascinating problem it
+seems reasonable to conclude that at Machu Picchu we have the ruins of
+Tampu-tocco, the birthplace of the first Inca, Manco Ccapac, and also
+the ruins of a sacred city of the last Incas. Surely this granite
+citadel, which has made such a strong appeal to us on account of
+its striking beauty and the indescribable charm of its surroundings,
+appears to have had a most interesting history. Selected about 800
+A.D. as the safest place of refuge for the last remnants of the
+old regime fleeing from southern invaders, it became the site of the
+capital of a new kingdom, and gave birth to the most remarkable family
+which South America has ever seen. Abandoned, about 1300, when Cuzco
+once more flashed into glory as the capital of the Peruvian Empire,
+it seems to have been again sought out in time of trouble, when in
+1534 another foreign invader arrived--this time from Europe--with a
+burning desire to extinguish all vestiges of the ancient religion. In
+its last state it became the home and refuge of the Virgins of the
+Sun, priestesses of the most humane cult of aboriginal America. Here,
+concealed in a canyon of remarkable grandeur, protected by art and
+nature, these consecrated women gradually passed away, leaving no
+known descendants, nor any records other than the masonry walls
+and artifacts to be described in another volume. Whoever they were,
+whatever name be finally assigned to this site by future historians,
+of this I feel sure--that few romances can ever surpass that of the
+granite citadel on top of the beetling precipices of Machu Picchu,
+the crown of Inca Land.
+
+
+
+
+
+Glossary
+
+Anu: A species of nasturtium with edible roots.
+
+Aryballus: A bottle-shaped vase with pointed bottom.
+
+Azequia: An irrigation ditch or conduit.
+
+Bar-hold: A stone cylinder or pin, let into a gatepost in such a way
+as to permit the gate bar to be tied to it. Sometimes the bar-hold
+is part of one of the ashlars of the gatepost. Bar-holds are usually
+found in the gateway of a compound or group of Inca houses.
+
+Coca: Shrub from which cocaine is extracted. The dried leaves are
+chewed to secure the desired deadening effect of the drug.
+
+Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers engaged in the conquest of America.
+
+Eye-bonder: A narrow, rough ashlar in one end of which a chamfered
+hole has been cut. Usually about 2 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2
+inches thick, it was bonded into the wall of a gable at right angles
+to its slope and flush with its surface. To it the purlins of the roof
+could be fastened. Eye-bonders are also found projecting above the
+lintel of a gateway to a compound. If the "bar-holds" were intended
+to secure the horizontal bar of an important gate, these eye-bonders
+may have been for a vertical bar.
+
+Gobernador: The Spanish-speaking town magistrate. The alcaldes are
+his Indian aids.
+
+Habas beans: Broad beans.
+
+Huaca: A sacred or holy place or thing, sometimes a boulder. Often
+applied to a piece of prehistoric pottery.
+
+Manana: To-morrow, or by and by. The "manana habit" is Spanish-American
+procrastination.
+
+Mestizo: A half-breed of Spanish and Indian ancestry.
+
+Milpa: A word used in Central America for a small farm or clearing. The
+milpa system of agriculture involves clearing the forest by fire,
+destroys valuable humus and forces the farmer to seek new fields
+frequently.
+
+Montana: Jungle, forest. The term usually applied by Peruvians to
+the heavily forested slopes of the Eastern Andean valleys and the
+Amazon Basin.
+
+Oca: Hardy, edible root, related to sheep sorrel.
+
+Quebrada: A gorge or ravine.
+
+Quipu: Knotted, parti-colored strings used by the ancient Peruvians
+to keep records. A mnemonic device.
+
+Roof-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into a gable
+wall and allowed to project 12 or 15 inches on the outside. Used
+in connection with "eye-bonders," the roof-pegs served as points to
+which the roof could be tied down.
+
+Sol: Peruvian silver dollar, worth about two shillings or a little
+less than half a gold dollar.
+
+Sorocho: Mountain-sickness.
+
+Stone-peg: A roughly cylindrical block of stone bonded into the
+walls of a house and projecting 10 or 12 inches on the inside so as
+to permit of its being used as a clothes-peg. Stone-pegs are often
+found alternating with niches and placed on a level with the lintels
+of the niches.
+
+Temblor: A slight earthquake.
+
+Temporales: Small fields of grain which cannot be irrigated and so
+depend on the weather for their moisture.
+
+Teniente gobernador: Administrative officer of a small village
+or hamlet.
+
+Terremoto: A severe earthquake.
+
+Tesoro: Treasure.
+
+Tutu: A hardy variety of white potato not edible in a fresh state,
+used for making chuno, after drying, freezing, and pressing out the
+bitter juices.
+
+Ulluca: An edible root.
+
+Viejo: Old.
+
+
+
+Bibliography of the Peruvian Expeditions of Yale University and the
+National Geographic Society
+
+Thomas Barbour:
+
+Reptiles Collected by Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1912. Proceedings of
+Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, LXV, 505-507, September,
+1913. 1 pl.
+
+(With G. K. Noble:)
+
+Amphibians and Reptiles from Southern Peru Collected by Peruvian
+Expedition of 1914-1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+609-620, 1921.
+
+Hiram Bingham:
+
+The Ruins of Choqquequirau. American Anthropologist, XII, 505-525,
+October, 1910. Illus., 4 pl., map.
+
+Across South America. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1911, xvi,
+405 pp., plates, maps, plans, 8 deg..
+
+Preliminary Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLIV, 20-26, January, 1912.
+
+The Ascent of Coropuna. Harper's Magazine, CXXIV, 489-502, March,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vitcos, The Last Inca Capital. Proceedings of American Antiquarian
+Society, XXII, N.S., 135-196. April, 1912. Illus., plans.
+
+The Discovery of Pre-Historic Human Remains near Cuzco, Peru. American
+Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 297-305, April, 1912. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+A Search for the Last Inca Capital. Harper's Magazine, CXXV, 696-705,
+October, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Discovery of Machu Picchu. Ibid., CXXVI, 709-719, April,
+1913. Illus.
+
+In the Wonderland of Peru. National Geographic Magazine, XXIV, 387-573,
+April, 1913. Illus., maps, plans.
+
+The Investigation of Pre-Historic Human Remains Found near Cuzco in
+1911. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211, 1-2, July, 1913.
+
+The Ruins of Espiritu Pampa, Peru. American Anthropologist, XVI,
+No. 2, 185-199. April-June, 1914. Illus., 1 pl., map.
+
+Along the Uncharted Pampaconas. Harper's Magazine, CXXIX, 452-463,
+August, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Pampaconas River. The Geographical Journal, XLIV, 211-214, August,
+1914. 2 pl., map.
+
+The Story of Machu Picchu. National Geographic Magazine, XXVII,
+172-217, February, 1915. Illus.
+
+Types of Machu Picchu Pottery. American Anthropologist, XVII, 257-271,
+April-June, 1915. Illus., 1 pl.
+
+The Inca Peoples and Their Culture. Proceedings of Nineteenth
+International Congress of Americanists, Washington, D.C., pp. 253-260,
+December, 1915.
+
+Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas. National Geographic
+Magazine, XXIX, 431-473, May, 1916. Illus., 2 maps.
+
+Evidences of Symbolism in the Land of the Incas. The Builder, II,
+No. 12, 361-366, December, 1916. Illus.
+
+(With Dr. George S. Jamieson:)
+
+Lake Parinacochas and the Composition of its Water. American Journal
+of Science, XXXIV, 12-16, July, 1912. Illus.
+
+Isaiah Bowman:
+
+The Geologic Relations of the Cuzco Remains. American Journal of
+Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 306-325, April, 1912. Illus.
+
+A Buried Wall at Cuzco and its Relation to the Question of a Pre-Inca
+Race. Ibid., XXXIV, No. 204, 497-509, December, 1912. Illus.
+
+The Canon of the Urubamba. Bulletin of American Geographical Society,
+XLIV, 881-897, December, 1912. Illus., map.
+
+The Andes of Southern Peru. Geographical Reconnaissance Along the
+Seventy-third Meridian, N.Y., Henry Holt, 1916. xi, 336 pp., plates,
+maps, plans.
+
+Lawrence Bruner:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera
+(Acridiidae--Short Horned Locusts). Proceedings of U.S. National
+Museum, XLIV, 177-187, 1913.
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Addenda to
+the Acridiidae). Ibid., XLV, 585-586, 1913.
+
+A. N. Caudell:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, Orthoptera (Exclusive of
+Acridiidae). Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV, 347-357, 1913.
+
+Ralph V. Chamberlain:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. The Arachnida. Bulletin of
+Museum of Comparative Zooelogy at Harvard College, LX, No. 6, 177-299,
+1916. 25 pl.
+
+Frank M. Chapman:
+
+The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of
+Peru. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 117, 138 pp., 1921. 9 pl., map.
+
+O. F. Cook:
+
+Quichua Names of Sweet Potatoes. Journal of Washington Academy of
+Sciences, VI, No. 4, 86-90, 1916.
+
+Agriculture and Native Vegetation in Peru. Ibid., VI, No. 10, 284-293,
+1916. Illus.
+
+Staircase Farms of the Ancients. National Geographic Magazine, XXIX,
+474-534, May, 1916. Illus.
+
+Foot-Plow Agriculture in Peru. Smithsonian Report for 1918,
+487-491. 4 pl.
+
+Domestication of Animals in Peru. Journal of Heredity, x, 176-181,
+April, 1919. Illus.
+
+(With Alice C. Cook:)
+
+Polar Bear Cacti. Journal of Heredity, Washington, D.C., VIII, 113-120,
+March, 1917. Illus.
+
+William H. Dall:
+
+Some Landshells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham in Peru. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XXXVIII, 177-182, 1911. Illus.
+
+Reports on Landshells Collected in Peru in 1911 by The Yale
+Expedition. Smithsonian Misc. Collections, LIX, No. 14, 12 pp., 1912.
+
+Harrison G. Dyar:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Lepidoptera. Proceedings
+of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 627-649, 1913.
+
+George F. Eaton:
+
+Report on the Remains of Man and Lower Animals from the Vicinity of
+Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXIII, No. 196, 325-333, April,
+1912. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Remains in the Cuzco Gravels. Ibid., XXXVI, No. 211, 3-14,
+July, 1913. Illus.
+
+Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 218,
+141-154, February, 1914. 3 pl.
+
+The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
+Picchu. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, v, 3-96, May,
+1916. Illus., 39 pl., map.
+
+William G. Erving, M.D.:
+
+Medical Report of the Yale Peruvian Expedition. Yale Medical Journal,
+XVIII, 325-335, April, 1912. 6 pl.
+
+Alexander W. Evans:
+
+Hepaticae: Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts
+and Sciences, XVIII, 291-345, April, 1914.
+
+Harry B. Ferris, M.D.:
+
+The Indians of Cuzco and the Apurimac. Memoirs, American
+Anthropological Assoc., III, No. 2, 59-148, 1916. 60 pl.
+
+Anthropological Studies on the Quichua and Machiganga
+Indians. Trans. Conn. Academy Arts and Sciences, XXV, 1-92, April,
+1921. 21 pl., map.
+
+Harry W. Foote:
+
+(With W. H. Buell:)
+
+The Composition, Structure and Hardness of some Peruvian Bronze
+Axes. American Journal of Science, XXXIV, 128-132, August, 1912. Illus.
+
+Herbert E. Gregory:
+
+The Gravels at Cuzco. American Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 211,
+15-29, July, 1913. Illus., map.
+
+The La Paz Gorge. Ibid., XXXVI, 141-150, August, 1913. Illus.
+
+A Geographical Sketch of Titicaca, the Island of the Sun. Bulletin of
+American Geographical Society, XLV, 561-575, August, 1913. 4 pl., map.
+
+Geologic Sketch of Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas. American
+Journal of Science, XXXVI, No. 213, 187-213, September, 1913. Illus.,
+maps.
+
+Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba Fossil Beds. Ibid., XXXVII,
+No. 218, 125-140, February, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Rodadero; A Fault Plane of Unusual Aspect. Ibid., XXXVII, No. 220,
+289-298, April, 1914. Illus.
+
+A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Cuzco Valley. Ibid., XLI, No. 241,
+1-100, January, 1916. Illus., maps.
+
+Osgood Hardy:
+
+Cuzco and Apurimac. Bulletin of American Geographical Society, XLVI,
+No. 7, 500-512, 1914. Illus., map.
+
+The Indians of the Department of Cuzco. American Anthropologist, XXI,
+1-27, January-March, 1919. 9 pl.
+
+Sir Clements Markham:
+
+Mr. Bingham in Vilcapampa, Geographical Journal, XXXVIII, No. 6,
+590-591, Dec. 1911, 1 pl.
+
+C. H. Mathewson:
+
+A Metallographic Description of Some Ancient Peruvian Bronzes from
+Machu Picchu. American Journal of Science, XL, No. 240, 525-602,
+December, 1915. Illus., plates.
+
+P. R. Myers:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Addendum to the
+Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLVII, 361-362, 1914.
+
+S. A. Rohwer:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911--Hymenoptera, Superfamilies
+Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLIV,
+439-454, 1913.
+
+Leonhard Stejneger:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911. Batrachians and
+Reptiles. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, XLV, 541-547, 1913.
+
+Oldfield Thomas:
+
+Report on the Mammalia Collected by Mr. Edmund Heller during Peruvian
+Expedition of 1915. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum, LVIII,
+217-249, 1920. 2 pl.
+
+H. L. Viereck:
+
+Results of Yale Peruvian Expedition of
+1911. Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of U.S. National Museum,
+XLIV, 469-470, 1913.
+
+R. S. Williams:
+
+Peruvian Mosses. Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club, XLIII, 323-334,
+June, 1916. 4 pl.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] Many people have asked me how to pronounce Machu Picchu. Quichua
+words should always be pronounced as nearly as possible as they are
+written. They represent an attempt at phonetic spelling. If the attempt
+is made by a Spanish writer, he is always likely to put a silent
+"h" at the beginning of such words as huilca which is pronounced
+"weel-ka." In the middle of a word "h" is always sounded. Machu
+Picchu is pronounced "Mah'-chew Pick'-chew." Uiticos is pronounced
+"Weet'-ee-kos." Uilcapampa is pronounced "Weel'-ka-pahm-pah." Cuzco is
+"Koos'-koh."
+
+[2] A league, usually about 3 1/3 miles, is really the distance an
+average mule can walk in an hour.
+
+[3] Fernando Montesinos, an ecclesiastical lawyer of the seventeenth
+century, appears to have gone to Peru in 1629 as the follower of
+that well-known viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, whose wife having
+contracted malaria was cured by the use of Peruvian bark or quinine
+and was instrumental in the introduction of this medicine into
+Europe, a fact which has been commemorated in the botanical name
+of the genus cinchona. Montesinos was well educated and appears to
+have given himself over entirely to historical research. He traveled
+extensively in Peru and wrote several books. His history of the Incas
+was spoiled by the introduction, in which, as might have been expected
+of an orthodox lawyer, he contended that Peru was peopled under the
+leadership of Ophir, the great-grandson of Noah! Nevertheless, one
+finds his work to be of great value and the late Sir Clements Markham,
+foremost of English students of Peruvian archeology, was inclined
+to place considerable credence in his statements. His account of
+pre-Hispanic Peru has recently been edited for the Hakluyt Society
+by Mr. Philip A. Means of Harvard University.
+
+[4] Another version of this event is that the quarrel was over a game
+of chess between the Inca and Diego Mendez, another of the refugees,
+who lost his temper and called the Inca a dog. Angered at the tone and
+language of his guest, the Inca gave him a blow with his fist. Diego
+Mendez thereupon drew a dagger and killed him. A totally different
+account from the one obtained by Garcilasso from his informants is
+that in a volume purporting to have been dictated to Friar Marcos by
+Manco's son, Titu Cusi, twenty years after the event. I quote from
+Sir Clements Markham's translation:
+
+"After these Spaniards had been with my Father for several years in
+the said town of Viticos they were one day, with much good fellowship,
+playing at quoits with him; only them, my Father and me, who was then a
+boy [ten years old]. Without having any suspicion, although an Indian
+woman, named Banba, had said that the Spaniards wanted to murder the
+Inca, my Father was playing with them as usual. In this game, just as
+my Father was raising the quoit to throw, they all rushed upon him with
+knives, daggers and some swords. My Father, feeling himself wounded,
+strove to make some defence, but he was one and unarmed, and they were
+seven fully armed; he fell to the ground covered with wounds, and they
+left him for dead. I, being a little boy, and seeing my Father treated
+in this manner, wanted to go where he was to help him. But they turned
+furiously upon me, and hurled a lance which only just failed to kill
+me also. I was terrified and fled amongst some bushes. They looked
+for me, but could not find me. The Spaniards, seeing that my Father
+had ceased to breathe, went out of the gate, in high spirits, saying,
+'Now that we have killed the Inca we have nothing to fear.' But at
+this moment the captain Rimachi Yupanqui arrived with some Antis,
+and presently chased them in such sort that, before they could get
+very far along a difficult road, they were caught and pulled from
+their horses. They all had to suffer very cruel deaths and some were
+burnt. Notwithstanding his wounds my Father lived for three days."
+
+Another version is given by Montesinos in his Anales. It is more like
+Titu Cusi's.
+
+[5] A Spanish derivative from the Quichua mucha, "a kiss." Muchani
+means "to adore, to reverence, to kiss the hands."
+
+[6] Uiticos is probably derived from Uiticuni, meaning "to withdraw
+to a distance."
+
+[7] Described in "Across South America."
+
+[8] On the 1915 Expedition Mr. Heller captured twelve new species
+of mammals, but, as Mr. Oldfield Thomas says: "Of all the novelties,
+by far the most interesting is the new Marsupial .... Members of the
+family were previously known from Colombia and Ecuador." Mr. Heller's
+discovery greatly extends the recent range of the kangaroo family.
+
+[9] Mr. Safford says in his article on the "Identity of Cohoba"
+(Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Sept. 19, 1916):
+"The most remarkable fact connected with Piptadenia peregrina, or
+'tree-tobacco' is that ... the source of its intoxicating properties
+still remains unknown." One of the bifurcated tubes."in the first
+stages of manufacture," was found at Machu Picchu.
+
+[10] See the illustrations in Chapters XVII and XVIII.
+
+[11] Since the historical Uilcapampa is not geographically identical
+with the modern Vilcabamba, the name applied to this river and the old
+Spanish town at its source, I shall distinguish between the two by
+using the correct, official spelling for the river and town, viz.,
+Vilcabamba; and the phonetic spelling, Uilcapampa, for the place
+referred to in the contemporary histories of the Inca Manco.
+
+[12] In those days the term "Andes" appears to have been very limited
+in scope, and was applied only to the high range north of Cuzco where
+lived the tribe called Antis. Their name was given to the range. Its
+culminating point was Mt. Salcantay.
+
+[13] Titu Cusi was an illegitimate son of Manco. His mother was not
+of royal blood and may have been a native of the warm valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Inca Land, by Hiram Bingham
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