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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10478 ***
+
+LORD'S LECTURES
+
+BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II
+
+JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.
+
+BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE,"
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose
+Civilization in his age
+Ancestors of Abram
+His settlement in Haran
+His moral courage
+The call of Abram
+His migrations
+The Canaanites
+Abram in Egypt
+Separation between Abram and Lot
+Melchizedek
+Abram covenants with God
+The mission of the Hebrews
+The faith of Abram
+Its peculiarities
+Trials of faith
+God's covenant with Abram
+The sacrifice of Isaac
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations
+Universality of sacrifice
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?
+Supreme test of his faith
+His obedience to God
+His righteousness
+Supremacy of religious faith
+Abraham's defects
+The most favored of mortals
+The boons he bestowed
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+Early days of Joseph
+Envy of his brethren
+Sale of Joseph
+Its providential results
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt
+The imprisonment of Joseph
+Favor with the king
+Joseph prime minister
+The Shepherd kings
+The service of Joseph to the king
+Famine in Egypt
+Power of Pharaoh
+Power of the priests
+Character of the priests
+Knowledge of the priests
+Teachings of the priests
+Egyptian gods
+Antiquity of sacrifices
+Civilization of Egypt
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge
+Austerity to his brethren
+Grief of Jacob
+Severity of the famine in Canaan
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin
+His continued austerity to his brethren
+Joseph at length reveals himself
+The kindness of Pharaoh
+Israel in Egypt
+Prosperity of the Israelites
+Old age of Jacob
+His blessing to Joseph's sons
+Jacob's predictions
+Death of Jacob
+Death of Joseph
+Character of Joseph
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt
+Rameses the Great
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE
+
+Exalted mission of Moses
+His appearance at a great crisis
+His early advantages and education
+His premature ambition
+His retirement to the wilderness
+Description of the land of Midian
+Studies and meditations of Moses
+The Book of Genesis
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt
+Appearance before Pharaoh
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites
+Their sojourn in the wilderness
+The labors of Moses
+His Moral Code
+Universality of the obligations
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society
+Immortality seemingly ignored
+The possible reason of Moses
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt
+The Civil Code of Moses
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites
+The wisdom of the Civil Code
+Source of the wisdom of Moses
+The divine legation of Moses
+Logical consequences of its denial
+General character of Moses
+His last days
+His influence
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua
+The Judges
+Birth and youth of Samuel
+The Jewish Theocracy
+Eli and his sons
+Samuel called to be judge
+His efforts to rekindle religious life
+The school of the prophets
+The people want a king
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government
+He tells the people the consequences
+Persistency of the Israelites
+Condition of the nation
+Saul privately anointed king
+Clothed with regal power
+Mistakes and wars of Saul
+Spares Agag
+Rebuked by Samuel
+Samuel withdraws into retirement
+Seeks a successor to Saul
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David
+Saul becomes proud and jealous
+His wars with the Philistines
+Great victory at Michmash
+Death of Samuel
+Universal mourning
+His character as Prophet
+His moral greatness
+His transcendent influence
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+David as an historical study
+Early days of David
+His accomplishments
+His connection with Saul
+His love for Jonathan
+Death of Saul
+David becomes king
+Death of Abner
+David generally recognized as king
+Makes Jerusalem his capital
+Alliance with Hiram
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark
+Folly of David's Wife
+Organization of the kingdom
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army
+The court of David
+His polygamy
+War with Moab
+War with the Ammonites
+Conquest of the Edomites
+Bathsheba
+David's shame and repentance
+Edward Irving on David's fall
+Its causes
+Census of the people
+Why this was a folly
+Wickedness of David's children
+Amnon
+Alienation of David's subjects
+The famine in Judah
+Revolt of Sheba
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre
+Troubles and trials of David
+Preparation for building the Temple
+David's wealth
+His premature old age
+Absalom's rebellion and death
+David's final labors
+His character as a man and a monarch
+Why he was a man after God's own heart
+David's services
+His Psalms
+Their mighty influence
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+Early years of Solomon
+His first acts as monarch
+The prosperity of his kingdom
+Glory of Solomon
+His mistakes
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess
+His harem
+Building of the Temple
+Its magnificence
+The treasures accumulated in it
+Its dedication
+The sacrifices in its honor
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals
+The royal palace in Jerusalem
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon
+Excessive taxation of the people
+Forced labor
+Change of habits and pursuits
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury
+His unpopularity
+His latter days of shame
+His death
+Character
+Influence of his reign
+His writings
+Their great value
+The Canticles
+The Proverbs
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes
+Hidden meaning of the book
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom
+His wisdom confirmed by experience
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
+
+Evil days fall on Israel
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves
+Other innovations
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem
+City saved only by immense contribution
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom
+Ruled by bad kings
+Given to idolatry under Ahab
+Influence of Jezebel
+The priests of Baal
+The apostasy of Israel
+The prophet Elijah
+His extraordinary appearance
+Appears before Ahab
+Announces calamities
+Flight of Elijah
+The drought
+The woman of Zarephath
+Shields and feeds Elijah
+He restores her son to life
+Miseries of the drought
+Elijah confronts Ahab
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal
+Triumphs, and slays them
+Elijah promises rain
+The tempest
+Ahab seeks Jezebel
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath
+Second flight of Elijah
+His weakness and fear
+The still small voice
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet
+He becomes the companion of Elijah
+Character and appearance of Elisha
+War between Ahab and Benhadad
+Naboth and his vineyard
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel
+Murder of Naboth
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah
+Despair of Ahab
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat
+Death of Ahab
+Regency of Jezebel
+Ahaziah and Elijah
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead
+Reaction to idolatry
+Jehu
+Death of Jezebel
+Death of Ahaziah
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu
+Extermination of idolatry
+Last days of Elijah
+His translation
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel
+A succession of virtuous princes
+Syrian wars
+The prophet Joel
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah
+Internal decay
+Assyrian conquests
+Tiglath-pilneser
+Fall of Damascus
+Fall of Samaria
+Demoralization of Jerusalem
+Birth of Isaiah
+His exalted character
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib
+Rebels anew
+Renewed invasion of Judah
+Signal deliverance
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah
+His terrible denunciations of sin
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching
+Holding out hope by repentance
+Absence of art in his writings
+National wickedness ending in calamities
+God's moral government
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled
+Woes denounced on Judah
+Fall of Babylon foretold
+Predicted woes of Moab
+Woes denounced on Egypt
+Calamities of Tyre
+General predictions of woe on other nations
+End and purpose of chastisements
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope
+The promised glories of the Chosen People
+Messianic promises
+Exultation of Isaiah
+His catholicity
+The promised reign of peace
+The future glories of the righteous
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world
+Messianic triumphs
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair
+Evil days in which he was born
+National misfortunes predicted
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy
+Renewed study of the Law
+The reforms of Josiah
+The greatness of Josiah
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms
+Necho II. extends his conquests
+Death of Josiah
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah
+Rapid decline of the kingdom
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho
+Shallum succeeds Josiah
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum
+His follies
+Judah's relapse into idolatry
+Neglect of the Sabbath
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity
+His voice unheeded
+His despondency
+Fall of Nineveh
+Defeat and retreat of Necho
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar
+Appears before Jerusalem
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem
+Revolt of the city
+Zedekiah the king temporizes
+Expostulations of Jeremiah
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience
+Second fall of Jerusalem
+The captivity
+Weeping by the river of Babylon
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon
+Condition of Jerusalem
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity
+The Pharisees
+The Sadducees
+Synagogues, their number and popularity
+The Jewish Sanhedrim
+Advance in sacred literature
+Apocryphal Books
+Isolation of the Jews
+Dark age of Jewish history
+Power of the high priests
+The Persian Empire
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire
+Jews at Alexandria
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians
+The Syrian kings
+Antiochus Epiphanes
+His persecution of the Jews
+Helplessness of the Jews
+Sack of Jerusalem
+Desecration of the Temple
+Mattathias
+His piety and bravery
+Revolt of Mattathias
+Slaughter of the Jews
+Death of Mattathias
+His gallant sons
+Judas Maccabaeus
+His military genius
+The Syrian generals
+Wrath of Antiochus
+Desolation of Jerusalem
+Judas defeats the Syrian general
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple
+Fortifies Jerusalem
+The Feast of Dedication
+Renewed hostilities
+Successes of Judas
+Death of Antiochus
+Deliverance of the Jews
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip
+Death of Eleazer
+Bacchides
+Embassy to Rome
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan
+Heroism of Jonathan
+His death by treachery
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon
+Simon's military successes
+His prosperous administration
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus
+The Asmonean princes
+Pompey takes Jerusalem
+Accession of Herod the Great
+He destroys the Asmonean princes
+His prosperous reign
+Foundation of Caesarea
+Latter days of Herod
+Loathsome death of Herod
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Birth and early days of Saul
+His Phariseeism
+His persecution of the Christians
+His wonderful conversion
+His leading idea
+Saul a preacher at Damascus
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem
+Saul in Tarsus
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch
+Description of Antioch
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem
+Labors and discouragements
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer
+Missionary travels of Paul
+Paul converts Timothy
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe
+Return of Paul to Antioch
+Controversy about circumcision
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts
+Paul again visits Jerusalem
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches
+Tact of Paul
+Paul and Luke
+The missionaries at Philippi
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica
+Paul at Athens
+Character of the Athenians
+The success of Paul at Athens
+Paul goes to Corinth
+Paul led before Gallio
+Mistake of Gallio
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians
+Paul at Ephesus
+The Temple of Diana
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
+Popularity of Apollos
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians
+Paul again at Corinth
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans
+The Pauline theology
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
+His cold reception
+His arrest and imprisonment
+The trial of Paul before Felix
+Character of Felix
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix
+Paul's defence before Festus
+Paul appeals to Caesar
+Paul preaches before Agrippa
+His voyage to Italy
+Paul's life at Rome
+Character of Paul
+His magnificent services
+His triumphant death
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+The Wailing Wall of the Jews
+_After the painting by J.L. Gerome_.
+
+Abraham and Hagar
+_After the painting by Adrian van der Werff_.
+
+Joseph Sold by His Brethren.
+_After the painting by H.F. Schopin_.
+
+Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses
+_After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter_.
+
+Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea
+_After the painting by F.A. Bridgman_.
+
+Moses
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome_.
+
+David Kills Goliath
+_After the painting by W.L. Dodge_.
+
+David
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence_.
+
+Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven
+_After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt_.
+
+Isaiah
+_From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo_.
+
+A Sacrifice to Baal
+_After the painting by Henri Motte_.
+
+The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity
+_After the painting by E. Bendeman_.
+
+St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis
+_After the painting by Gebhart Fügel_.
+
+
+
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+
+From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.
+
+When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.
+
+There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. "There is no God!" or "Let there be no God!" has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the _necessary_ progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?
+
+Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the "call." His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.
+
+What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.
+
+So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.
+
+Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.
+
+In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.
+
+Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.
+
+Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, "were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes." The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.
+
+It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.
+
+Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.
+
+Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?
+
+The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.
+
+This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+"From first to last," says Geikie, "the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone."
+
+For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. "If we were asked," says Max Müller, "how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a _special divine revelation_." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.]
+
+If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.
+
+The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.
+
+With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the _Cogito,
+ergo sum_, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.
+
+No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of "father of the faithful,"--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.
+
+As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, "Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?" Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. "Whereby," said he,
+"shall I _know_ that I shall inherit it,"--that is Canaan,--"and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?" Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: "And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee." We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.
+
+A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God "tempted," or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.
+
+Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his "Blood Covenant" to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.]
+
+The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.
+
+Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+"accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead." Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;"
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.
+
+Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.
+
+"And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son," who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, "Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?" yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, "Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice."
+
+There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.
+
+The great interest we feel in Abraham is as "the father of the
+faithful," as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources _is_, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. "Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?"
+
+Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!
+
+With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?
+
+Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+
+No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.
+
+Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+"Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?" But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.
+
+But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!
+
+The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.
+
+The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, "The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!" And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.
+
+The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.
+
+Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.
+
+The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.
+
+This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.
+
+The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.
+
+Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves." Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.
+
+The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.
+
+This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.
+
+The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. "The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation." Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.
+
+How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+_animus mundi_, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.
+
+The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.
+
+The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.
+
+The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.
+
+In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.
+
+Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,
+
+But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.
+
+Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.
+
+So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. "Whence come ye?" he said
+roughly to them. They replied, "From the land of Canaan to buy corn,"
+"Nay," continued he, "ye are spies." "Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies." "Nay," he said, "to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,"--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, "Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not." But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. "If ye be true men," said he, "let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die." There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.
+
+Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+"Joseph is not," cried he, "and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!" Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: "My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave."
+
+Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. "The
+man," said he, "did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you." Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, "If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved," and hurried away his sons.
+
+In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.
+
+Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.
+
+Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. "Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither." And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.
+
+The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. "Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land." And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, "See that ye fall not out by
+the way!"
+
+And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die." The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.
+
+To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.
+
+In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.
+
+Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.
+
+It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.
+
+Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.
+
+When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.
+
+It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.
+
+Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.
+
+If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.
+
+Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.
+
+The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. "Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards." Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.
+
+It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.
+
+In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the "wisdom of
+the Egyptians." He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!
+
+
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+
+1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].
+
+HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.
+
+
+Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a "man
+of God," or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.
+
+He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old régime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, "The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!" And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.
+
+It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+fêted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.
+
+Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those _principia_ which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.
+
+The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, "a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation."
+
+It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.
+
+And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.
+
+Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great _I Am_, "Who am
+I, that _I_ should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice." In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.
+
+Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--"Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey _his_ voice?"--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.
+
+The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.
+
+The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.
+
+Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!
+
+But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.
+
+In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.
+
+The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, "for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation." So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it "the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,"--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+"thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;" thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.
+
+All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.
+
+The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.
+
+It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.
+
+The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.
+
+Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His _personality_ constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.
+
+In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, _because_ he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a _necessary_
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, "There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all." The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.
+
+The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.
+
+I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!
+
+Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.
+
+It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.
+
+We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, "And the Lord spake unto
+Moses"? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he _was_ directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.
+
+And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.
+
+Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.
+
+Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we _wish_ to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are "more advanced," as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.
+
+I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.
+
+Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.
+
+Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.
+
+     "This was the truest warrior
+        That ever buckled sword;
+      This the most gifted poet
+        That ever breathed a word:
+      And never earth's philosopher
+        Traced with his golden pen,
+      On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
+        As he wrote down for men."
+
+At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, "Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!" So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.
+
+     "That was the grandest funeral
+        That ever passed on earth;
+      But no one heard the trampling,
+        Or saw the train go forth,--
+      Perchance the bald old eagle
+        On gray Bethpeor's height,
+      Out of his lonely eyrie
+        Looked on the wondrous sight."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "And had he not high honor--
+        The hillside for a pall--
+      To lie in state, while angels wait
+        With stars for tapers tall;
+      And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
+        Over his bier to wave,
+      And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
+        To lay him in the grave?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "O lonely grave in Moab's land!
+        O dark Bethpeor's hill!
+      Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
+        And teach them to be still!
+      God hath his mysteries of grace,
+        Ways that we cannot tell;
+      He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep
+        Of him he loved so well."
+
+
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+
+1100 B.C.
+
+THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.
+
+
+After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.
+
+Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.
+
+On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, "nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers." The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days "every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes." It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.
+
+The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.
+
+It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.
+
+But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.
+
+The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. "The Theocracy," says Ewald, "by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance."
+
+And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.
+
+The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?
+
+It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. "It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;" for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.
+
+But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first "school of the prophets" was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.
+
+Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?
+
+The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.
+
+When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called "progressive
+leaders," hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.
+
+So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. "And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them." The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.
+
+Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: "This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day."
+
+Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, "Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles." It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.
+
+Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+"Give us a king once more!" and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.
+
+The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.
+
+The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.
+
+Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was "a
+choice young man, and a goodly." He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.
+
+Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was "taken,"--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, "See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!" And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, "God save the
+king!"--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.
+
+Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.
+
+Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. "Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand." Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: "Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king."
+
+Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. "Thou hast done foolishly," he
+said to the King; "for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee." We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.
+
+Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+"utterly destroy" certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and "endure as seeing
+him who is invisible." They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.
+
+Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: "Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry." The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.
+
+Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, "Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou." Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the "Lord's anointed," Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel "came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death." To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.
+
+Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.
+
+Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.
+
+In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. "Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace." It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.
+
+Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. "He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom."
+
+In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.
+
+In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.
+
+Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.
+
+
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+
+1055-1015 B.C.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+
+Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.
+
+The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.
+
+David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.
+
+Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.
+
+It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,[3]--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Footnote 3: Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.]
+
+Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. "Know ye," said David to his intimate friends, "that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes." He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+"Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?" The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.
+
+David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth "came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,"
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.
+
+The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time "David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him." After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.
+
+The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. "And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'"--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.
+
+"One heart alone," says Stanley, "amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love." Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!
+
+David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.
+
+But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.
+
+In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.
+
+It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. "We read," says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, "of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound." Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.
+
+Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. "Be sure your sin will find
+you out," is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. "Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!" What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.
+
+"Nor do we charge ourselves," says Edward Irving, "with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul."
+
+Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.
+
+We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. "O God!" he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, "I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!"
+
+If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?
+
+Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.
+
+In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own "great transgression." God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.
+
+Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.
+
+If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about £390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.
+
+David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. "Thou hast shamed this day," said Joab, "the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well." In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.
+
+The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. "When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?" Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?
+
+It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!" He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. "Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever." And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.
+
+When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.
+
+The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. "In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life," no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called "the sweet singer of Israel."
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! "Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise."
+
+What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.
+
+     Such is the tribute which all nations bring,
+     O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,
+     From distant ages to thy hallowed name,
+     Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!
+     No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,
+     No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.
+     Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,
+     And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.
+     O thou sweet singer of a favored race,
+     What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!
+     How varied and how rich are all thy lays
+     On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!
+     In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys
+     The promised glories of the latter days,
+     When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,
+     And richest blessings all the race shall find.
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+
+THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+ABOUT 993-953 B.C.
+
+
+We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.
+
+Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.
+
+Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.
+
+The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.
+
+But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. "When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,"
+says Stanley, "by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him."
+
+We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.
+
+Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.
+
+The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.
+
+Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.
+
+We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: "The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world." Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.
+
+As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. "And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,"--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, "Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!"
+
+Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should "appear before the Lord" and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?
+
+Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since "he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.
+
+To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+"The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded." A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.
+
+Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.
+
+I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.
+
+The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.
+
+In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.
+
+Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.
+
+Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.
+
+The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. "Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised." How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!
+
+If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.
+
+There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.
+
+In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. "In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity." Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself "the preacher," and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of "fashionable worshippers" or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!
+
+I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. "Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God."
+
+So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.
+
+These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.
+
+The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.
+
+Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.
+
+Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.
+
+Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+"Vanity of vanities" write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!
+
+This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.
+
+
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+
+NINTH CENTURY B.C.
+
+DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.
+
+
+Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--"a sure house." Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.
+
+It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.
+
+Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as "the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin." He says: "The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it."
+
+For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.
+
+These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.
+
+Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.
+
+Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was "a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey." It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.
+
+The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.
+
+On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.
+
+The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their "religion," the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.
+
+The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.
+
+Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as "the Tishbite,"--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: "As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word."
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.
+
+Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.
+
+And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.
+
+The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.
+
+It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: "Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;" and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, "Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand."
+
+This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.
+
+It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.
+
+The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. "Verily, I say unto you," said a
+greater than Elijah, "whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward." Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.
+
+Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who "troubled Israel," Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. "Art thou he who troubleth Israel?" Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: "I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim." He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.
+
+The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. "How long," cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, "halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, _follow_ him; but if Baal be God, then follow _him_." The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.
+
+Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, "O Baal, hear us!" We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. "Cry with a loud voice!" said he, "yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened." And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.
+
+Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: "O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again." Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, "Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!"
+
+Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.
+
+The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+"Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain." And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.
+
+Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: "Go up now, and look
+toward the sea." And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.
+
+Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them." In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.
+
+And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. "It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers." He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.
+
+It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.
+
+But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.
+
+We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: "What doest thou here, Elijah?"
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: "Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal."
+
+Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.
+
+Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+"left all and followed" the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to "the sons of the prophets," among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.
+
+After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.
+
+Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.
+
+After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.
+
+In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. "God forbid," said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, "that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers." Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.
+
+Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.
+
+But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.
+
+Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.
+
+But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+"before all the people." But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: "Thus saith Jehovah!"--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine." The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, "Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!" And
+terrible was the response: "Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat."
+
+When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.
+
+In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.
+
+Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.
+
+The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.
+
+It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.
+
+To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: "Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die." On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: "Why are ye now turned back?" They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: "What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?" They
+answered, "He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins." The king cried, "It is Elijah the Tishbite." Again his enemy
+had found him!
+
+Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. "If I
+am a man of God," said Elijah, "let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty." The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, "O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight." And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, "Go down with him; be not afraid of him." And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.
+
+So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.
+
+With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.
+
+This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, "Is it peace, Jehu?" "Peace!" replied
+Jehu; "what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?" In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, "There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!" An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.
+
+In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: "What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?" "Are there any on my side?" was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. "Throw her down!" ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, "for," said he, "she is a king's
+daughter;" but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.
+
+So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.
+
+It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+"mysterious," because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the "Jehovah" of Elijah and the "Father" of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+"remnant"--of the Hebrew race.
+
+The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.
+
+It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.
+
+Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'"--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, "and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled."
+
+
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+
+PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+
+To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.
+
+Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them "did right in
+the sight of the Lord;" and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.
+
+During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.
+
+The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.
+
+Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: "The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,"--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.
+
+In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, "Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?" But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a "revival of religion" meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that "under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David."
+
+A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.
+
+The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.
+
+Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.
+
+Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--"Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness."
+
+It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.
+
+Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.
+
+The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.
+
+In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove "a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land." The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.
+
+The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.
+
+Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.
+
+The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: "Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+"Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord." The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. "My people," said he, "do not consider." He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. "To what purpose," said he, "is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow."
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.
+
+There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--"Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,"--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+"the living God," who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. "To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint." Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.
+
+Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool."
+
+According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to _them_: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.
+
+I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for "I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;"--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.
+
+The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. "The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,"--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+"Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot." The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. "Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,"--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.
+
+Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.
+
+From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. "Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire." In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.
+
+The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. "Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there." Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.
+
+The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. "It goeth
+before destruction." Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, "Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?" There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.
+
+The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that "every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom." Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. "He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it." And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: "Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance."
+
+It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. "Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth." The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.
+
+Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+"Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation." We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?
+
+Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--"a
+remnant shall return." This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.
+
+Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, "Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." God's mercy is
+past finding out. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!"
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.
+
+Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+"come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots," but he shall be "a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors." Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, "whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever."
+
+Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.
+
+Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors "should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks." Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only "a remnant should
+be saved." Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. "The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it."
+
+In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called "forsaken," but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. "Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land," saith the poet, "wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time."
+
+Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? "Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord."
+
+This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--
+
+     "Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!
+      Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!
+     See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,
+     See future sons and daughters yet unborn!
+     See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,
+     Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!
+     See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,
+     And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!
+     No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,
+     Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;
+     But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,
+     One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze
+     O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine
+     Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!
+     The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,
+     Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;
+     But fixed His word, His saving power remains:
+     Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!"
+
+
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+
+ABOUT 629-580 B.C.
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.
+
+Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: "Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!" Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.
+
+Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. "My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria."
+
+In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.
+
+Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.
+
+Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.
+
+Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by "the words of the book," and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The "high places," on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.
+
+An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having "taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel," even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had "killed the passover" and "sprinkled the blood from
+their hands," each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. "It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole."
+
+After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?" he mournfully exclaims. "Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well." He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.
+
+Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: "What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not." But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.
+
+The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.
+
+The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.
+
+After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.
+
+Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied "smooth things" to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.
+
+In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.
+
+Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.
+
+This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.
+
+Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: "Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence." Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. "Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?" Jehovah replies: "If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor."
+
+Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. "Come," said his enemies to the crowd, "let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him." On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. "O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword."
+
+And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. "And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered." Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.
+
+Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the "scarlet mother." Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. "For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword." And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: "And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies."
+
+We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.
+
+Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abbé Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!
+
+Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. "Cursed
+be the day," he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, "on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?" A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.
+
+Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.
+
+It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.
+
+Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. "Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates."
+
+No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.
+
+On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.
+
+Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.
+
+In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.
+
+One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.
+
+Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.
+
+The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: "Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand." A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. "Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you." The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.
+
+Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: "Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace." On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years." Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: "I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah."
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.
+
+Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+"Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!"
+
+Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But "whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad." Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.
+
+As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.
+
+From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.
+
+
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+
+DIED, 160 B.C.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+
+After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.
+
+But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.
+
+On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the débris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.
+
+Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a "remnant" of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.
+
+A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.
+
+A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.
+
+Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.
+
+Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.
+
+Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.
+
+The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.
+
+Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.
+
+The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.
+
+Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.
+
+Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the "kings of the North" were more
+hostile to the Jews than the "kings of the South." In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.
+
+It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews "the abomination of
+desolation," which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.
+
+Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.
+
+The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. "Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt." Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.
+
+The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.
+
+The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. "Be it far from us," he said, "to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left."
+
+When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.
+
+For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, "Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!" A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.
+
+Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the _éclat_ of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.
+
+The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.
+
+On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called "The Maccabaeus" ("The Hammer," as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.
+
+Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for "victory," said he, "is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength." This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.
+
+King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.
+
+Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.
+
+Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.
+
+Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.
+
+When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.
+
+The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.
+
+Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.
+
+In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.
+
+The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.
+
+The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as "the Maccabees."
+
+This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.
+
+With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.
+
+Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.
+
+Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.
+
+The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, "How is the valiant fallen!" A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.
+
+The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.
+
+Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.
+
+Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.
+
+Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.
+
+With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.
+
+John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.
+
+On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).
+
+Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.
+
+The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.
+
+Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be "born
+king of the Jews." He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.
+
+Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.
+
+Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in "the fulness of
+time," the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+
+DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+
+The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.
+
+Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.
+
+The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.
+
+It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.
+
+Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.
+
+Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.
+
+How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.
+
+Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.
+
+No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.
+
+A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or "church," as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+"Christians," mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.
+
+With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.
+
+In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.
+
+The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.
+
+No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.
+
+From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.
+
+From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.
+
+The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.
+
+At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.
+
+From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.
+
+One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.
+
+On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.
+
+So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as "Apostle to the Gentiles" was
+officially confirmed.
+
+The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.
+
+The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.
+
+The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.
+
+"The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia," crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.
+
+After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.
+
+So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.
+
+While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.
+
+The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. "As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge."
+
+Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.
+
+Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.
+
+When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: "If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters." He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio "flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;" for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.
+
+While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.
+
+The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to "have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus," showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.
+
+Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.
+
+Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.
+
+But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--"more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,"--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, "killed all the day long," carrying about him wherever he
+went "the deadness of the crucified Christ."
+
+Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.
+
+Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, "the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,"--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.
+
+Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: "Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches."
+
+It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.
+
+I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.
+
+I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.
+
+The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--"the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,"--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, "You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses." There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.
+
+Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, "Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!" And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.
+
+On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.
+
+Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.
+
+Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+"Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go." Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.
+
+In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!" When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar." Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.
+
+The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.
+
+The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his "beloved physician" and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.[4] But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.
+
+[Footnote 4: There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in "the extremity of the West" (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.]
+
+At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.
+
+But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.
+
+Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the "Rock" which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.
+
+As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: "I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10478 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: iso-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+LORD'S LECTURES
+
+BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II
+
+JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.
+
+BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE,"
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose
+Civilization in his age
+Ancestors of Abram
+His settlement in Haran
+His moral courage
+The call of Abram
+His migrations
+The Canaanites
+Abram in Egypt
+Separation between Abram and Lot
+Melchizedek
+Abram covenants with God
+The mission of the Hebrews
+The faith of Abram
+Its peculiarities
+Trials of faith
+God's covenant with Abram
+The sacrifice of Isaac
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations
+Universality of sacrifice
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?
+Supreme test of his faith
+His obedience to God
+His righteousness
+Supremacy of religious faith
+Abraham's defects
+The most favored of mortals
+The boons he bestowed
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+Early days of Joseph
+Envy of his brethren
+Sale of Joseph
+Its providential results
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt
+The imprisonment of Joseph
+Favor with the king
+Joseph prime minister
+The Shepherd kings
+The service of Joseph to the king
+Famine in Egypt
+Power of Pharaoh
+Power of the priests
+Character of the priests
+Knowledge of the priests
+Teachings of the priests
+Egyptian gods
+Antiquity of sacrifices
+Civilization of Egypt
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge
+Austerity to his brethren
+Grief of Jacob
+Severity of the famine in Canaan
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin
+His continued austerity to his brethren
+Joseph at length reveals himself
+The kindness of Pharaoh
+Israel in Egypt
+Prosperity of the Israelites
+Old age of Jacob
+His blessing to Joseph's sons
+Jacob's predictions
+Death of Jacob
+Death of Joseph
+Character of Joseph
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt
+Rameses the Great
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE
+
+Exalted mission of Moses
+His appearance at a great crisis
+His early advantages and education
+His premature ambition
+His retirement to the wilderness
+Description of the land of Midian
+Studies and meditations of Moses
+The Book of Genesis
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt
+Appearance before Pharaoh
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites
+Their sojourn in the wilderness
+The labors of Moses
+His Moral Code
+Universality of the obligations
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society
+Immortality seemingly ignored
+The possible reason of Moses
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt
+The Civil Code of Moses
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites
+The wisdom of the Civil Code
+Source of the wisdom of Moses
+The divine legation of Moses
+Logical consequences of its denial
+General character of Moses
+His last days
+His influence
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua
+The Judges
+Birth and youth of Samuel
+The Jewish Theocracy
+Eli and his sons
+Samuel called to be judge
+His efforts to rekindle religious life
+The school of the prophets
+The people want a king
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government
+He tells the people the consequences
+Persistency of the Israelites
+Condition of the nation
+Saul privately anointed king
+Clothed with regal power
+Mistakes and wars of Saul
+Spares Agag
+Rebuked by Samuel
+Samuel withdraws into retirement
+Seeks a successor to Saul
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David
+Saul becomes proud and jealous
+His wars with the Philistines
+Great victory at Michmash
+Death of Samuel
+Universal mourning
+His character as Prophet
+His moral greatness
+His transcendent influence
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+David as an historical study
+Early days of David
+His accomplishments
+His connection with Saul
+His love for Jonathan
+Death of Saul
+David becomes king
+Death of Abner
+David generally recognized as king
+Makes Jerusalem his capital
+Alliance with Hiram
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark
+Folly of David's Wife
+Organization of the kingdom
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army
+The court of David
+His polygamy
+War with Moab
+War with the Ammonites
+Conquest of the Edomites
+Bathsheba
+David's shame and repentance
+Edward Irving on David's fall
+Its causes
+Census of the people
+Why this was a folly
+Wickedness of David's children
+Amnon
+Alienation of David's subjects
+The famine in Judah
+Revolt of Sheba
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre
+Troubles and trials of David
+Preparation for building the Temple
+David's wealth
+His premature old age
+Absalom's rebellion and death
+David's final labors
+His character as a man and a monarch
+Why he was a man after God's own heart
+David's services
+His Psalms
+Their mighty influence
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+Early years of Solomon
+His first acts as monarch
+The prosperity of his kingdom
+Glory of Solomon
+His mistakes
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess
+His harem
+Building of the Temple
+Its magnificence
+The treasures accumulated in it
+Its dedication
+The sacrifices in its honor
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals
+The royal palace in Jerusalem
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon
+Excessive taxation of the people
+Forced labor
+Change of habits and pursuits
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury
+His unpopularity
+His latter days of shame
+His death
+Character
+Influence of his reign
+His writings
+Their great value
+The Canticles
+The Proverbs
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes
+Hidden meaning of the book
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom
+His wisdom confirmed by experience
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
+
+Evil days fall on Israel
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves
+Other innovations
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem
+City saved only by immense contribution
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom
+Ruled by bad kings
+Given to idolatry under Ahab
+Influence of Jezebel
+The priests of Baal
+The apostasy of Israel
+The prophet Elijah
+His extraordinary appearance
+Appears before Ahab
+Announces calamities
+Flight of Elijah
+The drought
+The woman of Zarephath
+Shields and feeds Elijah
+He restores her son to life
+Miseries of the drought
+Elijah confronts Ahab
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal
+Triumphs, and slays them
+Elijah promises rain
+The tempest
+Ahab seeks Jezebel
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath
+Second flight of Elijah
+His weakness and fear
+The still small voice
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet
+He becomes the companion of Elijah
+Character and appearance of Elisha
+War between Ahab and Benhadad
+Naboth and his vineyard
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel
+Murder of Naboth
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah
+Despair of Ahab
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat
+Death of Ahab
+Regency of Jezebel
+Ahaziah and Elijah
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead
+Reaction to idolatry
+Jehu
+Death of Jezebel
+Death of Ahaziah
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu
+Extermination of idolatry
+Last days of Elijah
+His translation
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel
+A succession of virtuous princes
+Syrian wars
+The prophet Joel
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah
+Internal decay
+Assyrian conquests
+Tiglath-pilneser
+Fall of Damascus
+Fall of Samaria
+Demoralization of Jerusalem
+Birth of Isaiah
+His exalted character
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib
+Rebels anew
+Renewed invasion of Judah
+Signal deliverance
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah
+His terrible denunciations of sin
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching
+Holding out hope by repentance
+Absence of art in his writings
+National wickedness ending in calamities
+God's moral government
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled
+Woes denounced on Judah
+Fall of Babylon foretold
+Predicted woes of Moab
+Woes denounced on Egypt
+Calamities of Tyre
+General predictions of woe on other nations
+End and purpose of chastisements
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope
+The promised glories of the Chosen People
+Messianic promises
+Exultation of Isaiah
+His catholicity
+The promised reign of peace
+The future glories of the righteous
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world
+Messianic triumphs
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair
+Evil days in which he was born
+National misfortunes predicted
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy
+Renewed study of the Law
+The reforms of Josiah
+The greatness of Josiah
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms
+Necho II. extends his conquests
+Death of Josiah
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah
+Rapid decline of the kingdom
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho
+Shallum succeeds Josiah
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum
+His follies
+Judah's relapse into idolatry
+Neglect of the Sabbath
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity
+His voice unheeded
+His despondency
+Fall of Nineveh
+Defeat and retreat of Necho
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar
+Appears before Jerusalem
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem
+Revolt of the city
+Zedekiah the king temporizes
+Expostulations of Jeremiah
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience
+Second fall of Jerusalem
+The captivity
+Weeping by the river of Babylon
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon
+Condition of Jerusalem
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity
+The Pharisees
+The Sadducees
+Synagogues, their number and popularity
+The Jewish Sanhedrim
+Advance in sacred literature
+Apocryphal Books
+Isolation of the Jews
+Dark age of Jewish history
+Power of the high priests
+The Persian Empire
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire
+Jews at Alexandria
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians
+The Syrian kings
+Antiochus Epiphanes
+His persecution of the Jews
+Helplessness of the Jews
+Sack of Jerusalem
+Desecration of the Temple
+Mattathias
+His piety and bravery
+Revolt of Mattathias
+Slaughter of the Jews
+Death of Mattathias
+His gallant sons
+Judas Maccabaeus
+His military genius
+The Syrian generals
+Wrath of Antiochus
+Desolation of Jerusalem
+Judas defeats the Syrian general
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple
+Fortifies Jerusalem
+The Feast of Dedication
+Renewed hostilities
+Successes of Judas
+Death of Antiochus
+Deliverance of the Jews
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip
+Death of Eleazer
+Bacchides
+Embassy to Rome
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan
+Heroism of Jonathan
+His death by treachery
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon
+Simon's military successes
+His prosperous administration
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus
+The Asmonean princes
+Pompey takes Jerusalem
+Accession of Herod the Great
+He destroys the Asmonean princes
+His prosperous reign
+Foundation of Caesarea
+Latter days of Herod
+Loathsome death of Herod
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Birth and early days of Saul
+His Phariseeism
+His persecution of the Christians
+His wonderful conversion
+His leading idea
+Saul a preacher at Damascus
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem
+Saul in Tarsus
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch
+Description of Antioch
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem
+Labors and discouragements
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer
+Missionary travels of Paul
+Paul converts Timothy
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe
+Return of Paul to Antioch
+Controversy about circumcision
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts
+Paul again visits Jerusalem
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches
+Tact of Paul
+Paul and Luke
+The missionaries at Philippi
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica
+Paul at Athens
+Character of the Athenians
+The success of Paul at Athens
+Paul goes to Corinth
+Paul led before Gallio
+Mistake of Gallio
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians
+Paul at Ephesus
+The Temple of Diana
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
+Popularity of Apollos
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians
+Paul again at Corinth
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans
+The Pauline theology
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
+His cold reception
+His arrest and imprisonment
+The trial of Paul before Felix
+Character of Felix
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix
+Paul's defence before Festus
+Paul appeals to Caesar
+Paul preaches before Agrippa
+His voyage to Italy
+Paul's life at Rome
+Character of Paul
+His magnificent services
+His triumphant death
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+The Wailing Wall of the Jews
+_After the painting by J.L. Gerome_.
+
+Abraham and Hagar
+_After the painting by Adrian van der Werff_.
+
+Joseph Sold by His Brethren.
+_After the painting by H.F. Schopin_.
+
+Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses
+_After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter_.
+
+Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea
+_After the painting by F.A. Bridgman_.
+
+Moses
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome_.
+
+David Kills Goliath
+_After the painting by W.L. Dodge_.
+
+David
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence_.
+
+Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven
+_After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt_.
+
+Isaiah
+_From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo_.
+
+A Sacrifice to Baal
+_After the painting by Henri Motte_.
+
+The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity
+_After the painting by E. Bendeman_.
+
+St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis
+_After the painting by Gebhart Fügel_.
+
+
+
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+
+From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.
+
+When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.
+
+There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. "There is no God!" or "Let there be no God!" has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the _necessary_ progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?
+
+Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the "call." His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.
+
+What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.
+
+So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.
+
+Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.
+
+In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.
+
+Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.
+
+Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, "were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes." The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.
+
+It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.
+
+Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.
+
+Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?
+
+The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.
+
+This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+"From first to last," says Geikie, "the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone."
+
+For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. "If we were asked," says Max Müller, "how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a _special divine revelation_." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.]
+
+If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.
+
+The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.
+
+With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the _Cogito,
+ergo sum_, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.
+
+No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of "father of the faithful,"--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.
+
+As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, "Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?" Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. "Whereby," said he,
+"shall I _know_ that I shall inherit it,"--that is Canaan,--"and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?" Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: "And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee." We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.
+
+A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God "tempted," or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.
+
+Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his "Blood Covenant" to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.]
+
+The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.
+
+Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+"accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead." Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;"
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.
+
+Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.
+
+"And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son," who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, "Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?" yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, "Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice."
+
+There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.
+
+The great interest we feel in Abraham is as "the father of the
+faithful," as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources _is_, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. "Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?"
+
+Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!
+
+With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?
+
+Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+
+No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.
+
+Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+"Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?" But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.
+
+But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!
+
+The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.
+
+The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, "The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!" And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.
+
+The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.
+
+Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.
+
+The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.
+
+This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.
+
+The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.
+
+Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves." Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.
+
+The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.
+
+This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.
+
+The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. "The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation." Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.
+
+How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+_animus mundi_, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.
+
+The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.
+
+The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.
+
+The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.
+
+In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.
+
+Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,
+
+But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.
+
+Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.
+
+So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. "Whence come ye?" he said
+roughly to them. They replied, "From the land of Canaan to buy corn,"
+"Nay," continued he, "ye are spies." "Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies." "Nay," he said, "to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,"--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, "Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not." But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. "If ye be true men," said he, "let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die." There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.
+
+Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+"Joseph is not," cried he, "and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!" Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: "My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave."
+
+Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. "The
+man," said he, "did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you." Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, "If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved," and hurried away his sons.
+
+In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.
+
+Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.
+
+Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. "Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither." And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.
+
+The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. "Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land." And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, "See that ye fall not out by
+the way!"
+
+And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die." The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.
+
+To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.
+
+In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.
+
+Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.
+
+It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.
+
+Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.
+
+When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.
+
+It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.
+
+Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.
+
+If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.
+
+Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.
+
+The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. "Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards." Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.
+
+It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.
+
+In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the "wisdom of
+the Egyptians." He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!
+
+
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+
+1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].
+
+HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.
+
+
+Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a "man
+of God," or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.
+
+He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old régime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, "The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!" And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.
+
+It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+fêted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.
+
+Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those _principia_ which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.
+
+The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, "a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation."
+
+It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.
+
+And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.
+
+Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great _I Am_, "Who am
+I, that _I_ should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice." In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.
+
+Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--"Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey _his_ voice?"--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.
+
+The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.
+
+The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.
+
+Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!
+
+But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.
+
+In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.
+
+The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, "for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation." So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it "the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,"--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+"thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;" thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.
+
+All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.
+
+The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.
+
+It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.
+
+The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.
+
+Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His _personality_ constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.
+
+In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, _because_ he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a _necessary_
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, "There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all." The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.
+
+The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.
+
+I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!
+
+Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.
+
+It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.
+
+We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, "And the Lord spake unto
+Moses"? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he _was_ directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.
+
+And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.
+
+Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.
+
+Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we _wish_ to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are "more advanced," as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.
+
+I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.
+
+Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.
+
+Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.
+
+     "This was the truest warrior
+        That ever buckled sword;
+      This the most gifted poet
+        That ever breathed a word:
+      And never earth's philosopher
+        Traced with his golden pen,
+      On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
+        As he wrote down for men."
+
+At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, "Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!" So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.
+
+     "That was the grandest funeral
+        That ever passed on earth;
+      But no one heard the trampling,
+        Or saw the train go forth,--
+      Perchance the bald old eagle
+        On gray Bethpeor's height,
+      Out of his lonely eyrie
+        Looked on the wondrous sight."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "And had he not high honor--
+        The hillside for a pall--
+      To lie in state, while angels wait
+        With stars for tapers tall;
+      And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
+        Over his bier to wave,
+      And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
+        To lay him in the grave?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "O lonely grave in Moab's land!
+        O dark Bethpeor's hill!
+      Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
+        And teach them to be still!
+      God hath his mysteries of grace,
+        Ways that we cannot tell;
+      He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep
+        Of him he loved so well."
+
+
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+
+1100 B.C.
+
+THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.
+
+
+After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.
+
+Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.
+
+On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, "nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers." The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days "every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes." It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.
+
+The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.
+
+It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.
+
+But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.
+
+The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. "The Theocracy," says Ewald, "by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance."
+
+And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.
+
+The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?
+
+It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. "It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;" for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.
+
+But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first "school of the prophets" was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.
+
+Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?
+
+The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.
+
+When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called "progressive
+leaders," hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.
+
+So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. "And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them." The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.
+
+Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: "This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day."
+
+Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, "Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles." It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.
+
+Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+"Give us a king once more!" and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.
+
+The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.
+
+The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.
+
+Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was "a
+choice young man, and a goodly." He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.
+
+Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was "taken,"--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, "See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!" And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, "God save the
+king!"--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.
+
+Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.
+
+Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. "Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand." Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: "Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king."
+
+Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. "Thou hast done foolishly," he
+said to the King; "for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee." We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.
+
+Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+"utterly destroy" certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and "endure as seeing
+him who is invisible." They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.
+
+Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: "Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry." The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.
+
+Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, "Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou." Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the "Lord's anointed," Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel "came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death." To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.
+
+Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.
+
+Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.
+
+In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. "Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace." It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.
+
+Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. "He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom."
+
+In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.
+
+In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.
+
+Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.
+
+
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+
+1055-1015 B.C.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+
+Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.
+
+The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.
+
+David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.
+
+Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.
+
+It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,[3]--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Footnote 3: Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.]
+
+Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. "Know ye," said David to his intimate friends, "that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes." He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+"Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?" The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.
+
+David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth "came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,"
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.
+
+The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time "David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him." After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.
+
+The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. "And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'"--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.
+
+"One heart alone," says Stanley, "amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love." Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!
+
+David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.
+
+But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.
+
+In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.
+
+It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. "We read," says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, "of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound." Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.
+
+Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. "Be sure your sin will find
+you out," is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. "Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!" What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.
+
+"Nor do we charge ourselves," says Edward Irving, "with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul."
+
+Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.
+
+We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. "O God!" he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, "I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!"
+
+If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?
+
+Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.
+
+In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own "great transgression." God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.
+
+Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.
+
+If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about £390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.
+
+David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. "Thou hast shamed this day," said Joab, "the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well." In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.
+
+The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. "When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?" Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?
+
+It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!" He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. "Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever." And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.
+
+When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.
+
+The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. "In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life," no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called "the sweet singer of Israel."
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! "Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise."
+
+What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.
+
+     Such is the tribute which all nations bring,
+     O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,
+     From distant ages to thy hallowed name,
+     Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!
+     No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,
+     No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.
+     Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,
+     And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.
+     O thou sweet singer of a favored race,
+     What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!
+     How varied and how rich are all thy lays
+     On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!
+     In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys
+     The promised glories of the latter days,
+     When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,
+     And richest blessings all the race shall find.
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+
+THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+ABOUT 993-953 B.C.
+
+
+We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.
+
+Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.
+
+Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.
+
+The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.
+
+But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. "When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,"
+says Stanley, "by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him."
+
+We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.
+
+Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.
+
+The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.
+
+Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.
+
+We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: "The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world." Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.
+
+As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. "And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,"--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, "Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!"
+
+Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should "appear before the Lord" and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?
+
+Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since "he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.
+
+To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+"The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded." A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.
+
+Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.
+
+I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.
+
+The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.
+
+In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.
+
+Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.
+
+Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.
+
+The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. "Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised." How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!
+
+If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.
+
+There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.
+
+In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. "In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity." Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself "the preacher," and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of "fashionable worshippers" or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!
+
+I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. "Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God."
+
+So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.
+
+These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.
+
+The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.
+
+Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.
+
+Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.
+
+Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+"Vanity of vanities" write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!
+
+This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.
+
+
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+
+NINTH CENTURY B.C.
+
+DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.
+
+
+Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--"a sure house." Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.
+
+It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.
+
+Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as "the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin." He says: "The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it."
+
+For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.
+
+These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.
+
+Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.
+
+Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was "a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey." It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.
+
+The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.
+
+On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.
+
+The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their "religion," the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.
+
+The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.
+
+Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as "the Tishbite,"--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: "As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word."
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.
+
+Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.
+
+And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.
+
+The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.
+
+It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: "Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;" and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, "Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand."
+
+This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.
+
+It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.
+
+The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. "Verily, I say unto you," said a
+greater than Elijah, "whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward." Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.
+
+Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who "troubled Israel," Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. "Art thou he who troubleth Israel?" Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: "I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim." He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.
+
+The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. "How long," cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, "halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, _follow_ him; but if Baal be God, then follow _him_." The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.
+
+Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, "O Baal, hear us!" We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. "Cry with a loud voice!" said he, "yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened." And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.
+
+Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: "O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again." Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, "Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!"
+
+Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.
+
+The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+"Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain." And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.
+
+Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: "Go up now, and look
+toward the sea." And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.
+
+Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them." In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.
+
+And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. "It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers." He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.
+
+It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.
+
+But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.
+
+We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: "What doest thou here, Elijah?"
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: "Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal."
+
+Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.
+
+Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+"left all and followed" the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to "the sons of the prophets," among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.
+
+After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.
+
+Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.
+
+After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.
+
+In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. "God forbid," said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, "that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers." Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.
+
+Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.
+
+But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.
+
+Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.
+
+But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+"before all the people." But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: "Thus saith Jehovah!"--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine." The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, "Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!" And
+terrible was the response: "Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat."
+
+When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.
+
+In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.
+
+Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.
+
+The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.
+
+It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.
+
+To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: "Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die." On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: "Why are ye now turned back?" They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: "What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?" They
+answered, "He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins." The king cried, "It is Elijah the Tishbite." Again his enemy
+had found him!
+
+Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. "If I
+am a man of God," said Elijah, "let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty." The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, "O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight." And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, "Go down with him; be not afraid of him." And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.
+
+So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.
+
+With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.
+
+This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, "Is it peace, Jehu?" "Peace!" replied
+Jehu; "what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?" In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, "There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!" An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.
+
+In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: "What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?" "Are there any on my side?" was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. "Throw her down!" ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, "for," said he, "she is a king's
+daughter;" but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.
+
+So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.
+
+It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+"mysterious," because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the "Jehovah" of Elijah and the "Father" of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+"remnant"--of the Hebrew race.
+
+The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.
+
+It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.
+
+Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'"--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, "and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled."
+
+
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+
+PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+
+To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.
+
+Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them "did right in
+the sight of the Lord;" and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.
+
+During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.
+
+The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.
+
+Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: "The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,"--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.
+
+In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, "Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?" But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a "revival of religion" meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that "under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David."
+
+A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.
+
+The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.
+
+Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.
+
+Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--"Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness."
+
+It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.
+
+Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.
+
+The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.
+
+In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove "a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land." The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.
+
+The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.
+
+Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.
+
+The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: "Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+"Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord." The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. "My people," said he, "do not consider." He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. "To what purpose," said he, "is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow."
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.
+
+There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--"Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,"--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+"the living God," who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. "To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint." Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.
+
+Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool."
+
+According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to _them_: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.
+
+I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for "I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;"--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.
+
+The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. "The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,"--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+"Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot." The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. "Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,"--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.
+
+Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.
+
+From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. "Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire." In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.
+
+The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. "Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there." Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.
+
+The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. "It goeth
+before destruction." Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, "Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?" There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.
+
+The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that "every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom." Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. "He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it." And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: "Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance."
+
+It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. "Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth." The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.
+
+Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+"Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation." We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?
+
+Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--"a
+remnant shall return." This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.
+
+Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, "Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." God's mercy is
+past finding out. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!"
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.
+
+Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+"come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots," but he shall be "a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors." Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, "whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever."
+
+Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.
+
+Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors "should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks." Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only "a remnant should
+be saved." Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. "The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it."
+
+In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called "forsaken," but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. "Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land," saith the poet, "wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time."
+
+Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? "Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord."
+
+This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--
+
+     "Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!
+      Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!
+     See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,
+     See future sons and daughters yet unborn!
+     See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,
+     Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!
+     See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,
+     And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!
+     No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,
+     Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;
+     But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,
+     One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze
+     O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine
+     Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!
+     The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,
+     Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;
+     But fixed His word, His saving power remains:
+     Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!"
+
+
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+
+ABOUT 629-580 B.C.
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.
+
+Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: "Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!" Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.
+
+Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. "My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria."
+
+In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.
+
+Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.
+
+Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.
+
+Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by "the words of the book," and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The "high places," on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.
+
+An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having "taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel," even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had "killed the passover" and "sprinkled the blood from
+their hands," each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. "It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole."
+
+After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?" he mournfully exclaims. "Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well." He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.
+
+Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: "What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not." But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.
+
+The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.
+
+The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.
+
+After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.
+
+Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied "smooth things" to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.
+
+In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.
+
+Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.
+
+This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.
+
+Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: "Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence." Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. "Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?" Jehovah replies: "If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor."
+
+Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. "Come," said his enemies to the crowd, "let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him." On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. "O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword."
+
+And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. "And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered." Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.
+
+Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the "scarlet mother." Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. "For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword." And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: "And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies."
+
+We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.
+
+Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abbé Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!
+
+Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. "Cursed
+be the day," he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, "on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?" A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.
+
+Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.
+
+It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.
+
+Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. "Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates."
+
+No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.
+
+On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.
+
+Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.
+
+In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.
+
+One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.
+
+Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.
+
+The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: "Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand." A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. "Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you." The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.
+
+Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: "Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace." On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years." Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: "I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah."
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.
+
+Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+"Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!"
+
+Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But "whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad." Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.
+
+As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.
+
+From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.
+
+
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+
+DIED, 160 B.C.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+
+After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.
+
+But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.
+
+On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the débris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.
+
+Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a "remnant" of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.
+
+A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.
+
+A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.
+
+Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.
+
+Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.
+
+Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.
+
+The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.
+
+Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.
+
+The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.
+
+Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.
+
+Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the "kings of the North" were more
+hostile to the Jews than the "kings of the South." In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.
+
+It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews "the abomination of
+desolation," which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.
+
+Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.
+
+The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. "Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt." Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.
+
+The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.
+
+The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. "Be it far from us," he said, "to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left."
+
+When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.
+
+For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, "Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!" A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.
+
+Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the _éclat_ of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.
+
+The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.
+
+On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called "The Maccabaeus" ("The Hammer," as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.
+
+Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for "victory," said he, "is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength." This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.
+
+King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.
+
+Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.
+
+Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.
+
+Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.
+
+When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.
+
+The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.
+
+Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.
+
+In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.
+
+The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.
+
+The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as "the Maccabees."
+
+This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.
+
+With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.
+
+Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.
+
+Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.
+
+The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, "How is the valiant fallen!" A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.
+
+The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.
+
+Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.
+
+Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.
+
+Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.
+
+With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.
+
+John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.
+
+On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).
+
+Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.
+
+The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.
+
+Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be "born
+king of the Jews." He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.
+
+Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.
+
+Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in "the fulness of
+time," the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+
+DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+
+The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.
+
+Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.
+
+The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.
+
+It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.
+
+Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.
+
+Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.
+
+How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.
+
+Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.
+
+No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.
+
+A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or "church," as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+"Christians," mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.
+
+With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.
+
+In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.
+
+The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.
+
+No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.
+
+From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.
+
+From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.
+
+The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.
+
+At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.
+
+From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.
+
+One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.
+
+On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.
+
+So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as "Apostle to the Gentiles" was
+officially confirmed.
+
+The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.
+
+The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.
+
+The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.
+
+"The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia," crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.
+
+After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.
+
+So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.
+
+While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.
+
+The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. "As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge."
+
+Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.
+
+Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.
+
+When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: "If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters." He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio "flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;" for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.
+
+While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.
+
+The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to "have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus," showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.
+
+Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.
+
+Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.
+
+But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--"more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,"--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, "killed all the day long," carrying about him wherever he
+went "the deadness of the crucified Christ."
+
+Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.
+
+Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, "the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,"--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.
+
+Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: "Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches."
+
+It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.
+
+I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.
+
+I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.
+
+The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--"the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,"--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, "You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses." There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.
+
+Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, "Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!" And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.
+
+On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.
+
+Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.
+
+Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+"Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go." Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.
+
+In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!" When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar." Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.
+
+The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.
+
+The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his "beloved physician" and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.[4] But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.
+
+[Footnote 4: There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in "the extremity of the West" (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.]
+
+At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.
+
+But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.
+
+Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the "Rock" which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.
+
+As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: "I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."
+
+
+
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John Lord</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: iso-8859-1
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II***
+
+</pre>
+<center><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner,<br>
+            and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3></center>
+
+<hr class="full">
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><i>LORD'S LECTURES</i></center>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2>
+
+<h2>BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.</h2>
+
+<center>AUTHOR OF &quot;THE OLD ROMAN WORLD,&quot; &quot;MODERN EUROPE,&quot;
+ETC., ETC.</center>
+<br><br>
+
+<h2>VOLUME II.</h2>
+
+<h2>JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><i><a href="#ABRAHAM.">ABRAHAM</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>RELIGIOUS FAITH.</p>
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations<br>
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose<br>
+Civilization in his age<br>
+Ancestors of Abram<br>
+His settlement in Haran<br>
+His moral courage<br>
+The call of Abram<br>
+His migrations<br>
+The Canaanites<br>
+Abram in Egypt<br>
+Separation between Abram and Lot<br>
+Melchizedek<br>
+Abram covenants with God<br>
+The mission of the Hebrews<br>
+The faith of Abram<br>
+Its peculiarities<br>
+Trials of faith<br>
+God's covenant with Abram<br>
+The sacrifice of Isaac<br>
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations<br>
+Universality of sacrifice<br>
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?<br>
+Supreme test of his faith<br>
+His obedience to God<br>
+His righteousness<br>
+Supremacy of religious faith<br>
+Abraham's defects<br>
+The most favored of mortals<br>
+The boons he bestowed<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JOSEPH.">JOSEPH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAEL IN EGYPT.</p>
+
+Early days of Joseph<br>
+Envy of his brethren<br>
+Sale of Joseph<br>
+Its providential results<br>
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt<br>
+The imprisonment of Joseph<br>
+Favor with the king<br>
+Joseph prime minister<br>
+The Shepherd kings<br>
+The service of Joseph to the king<br>
+Famine in Egypt<br>
+Power of Pharaoh<br>
+Power of the priests<br>
+Character of the priests<br>
+Knowledge of the priests<br>
+Teachings of the priests<br>
+Egyptian gods<br>
+Antiquity of sacrifices<br>
+Civilization of Egypt<br>
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge<br>
+Austerity to his brethren<br>
+Grief of Jacob<br>
+Severity of the famine in Canaan<br>
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin<br>
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin<br>
+His continued austerity to his brethren<br>
+Joseph at length reveals himself<br>
+The kindness of Pharaoh<br>
+Israel in Egypt<br>
+Prosperity of the Israelites<br>
+Old age of Jacob<br>
+His blessing to Joseph's sons<br>
+Jacob's predictions<br>
+Death of Jacob<br>
+Death of Joseph<br>
+Character of Joseph<br>
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt<br>
+Rameses the Great<br>
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt<br>
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#MOSES.">MOSES</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE</p>
+
+Exalted mission of Moses<br>
+His appearance at a great crisis<br>
+His early advantages and education<br>
+His premature ambition<br>
+His retirement to the wilderness<br>
+Description of the land of Midian<br>
+Studies and meditations of Moses<br>
+The Book of Genesis<br>
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt<br>
+Appearance before Pharaoh<br>
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites<br>
+Their sojourn in the wilderness<br>
+The labors of Moses<br>
+His Moral Code<br>
+Universality of the obligations<br>
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments<br>
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws<br>
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society<br>
+Immortality seemingly ignored<br>
+The possible reason of Moses<br>
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt<br>
+The Civil Code of Moses<br>
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites<br>
+The wisdom of the Civil Code<br>
+Source of the wisdom of Moses<br>
+The divine legation of Moses<br>
+Logical consequences of its denial<br>
+General character of Moses<br>
+His last days<br>
+His influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SAMUEL.">SAMUEL</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.</p>
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua<br>
+The Judges<br>
+Birth and youth of Samuel<br>
+The Jewish Theocracy<br>
+Eli and his sons<br>
+Samuel called to be judge<br>
+His efforts to rekindle religious life<br>
+The school of the prophets<br>
+The people want a king<br>
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government<br>
+He tells the people the consequences<br>
+Persistency of the Israelites<br>
+Condition of the nation<br>
+Saul privately anointed king<br>
+Clothed with regal power<br>
+Mistakes and wars of Saul<br>
+Spares Agag<br>
+Rebuked by Samuel<br>
+Samuel withdraws into retirement<br>
+Seeks a successor to Saul<br>
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David<br>
+Saul becomes proud and jealous<br>
+His wars with the Philistines<br>
+Great victory at Michmash<br>
+Death of Samuel<br>
+Universal mourning<br>
+His character as Prophet<br>
+His moral greatness<br>
+His transcendent influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#DAVID.">DAVID</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.</p>
+
+David as an historical study<br>
+Early days of David<br>
+His accomplishments<br>
+His connection with Saul<br>
+His love for Jonathan<br>
+Death of Saul<br>
+David becomes king<br>
+Death of Abner<br>
+David generally recognized as king<br>
+Makes Jerusalem his capital<br>
+Alliance with Hiram<br>
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark<br>
+Folly of David's Wife<br>
+Organization of the kingdom<br>
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army<br>
+The court of David<br>
+His polygamy<br>
+War with Moab<br>
+War with the Ammonites<br>
+Conquest of the Edomites<br>
+Bathsheba<br>
+David's shame and repentance<br>
+Edward Irving on David's fall<br>
+Its causes<br>
+Census of the people<br>
+Why this was a folly<br>
+Wickedness of David's children<br>
+Amnon<br>
+Alienation of David's subjects<br>
+The famine in Judah<br>
+Revolt of Sheba<br>
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre<br>
+Troubles and trials of David<br>
+Preparation for building the Temple<br>
+David's wealth<br>
+His premature old age<br>
+Absalom's rebellion and death<br>
+David's final labors<br>
+His character as a man and a monarch<br>
+Why he was a man after God's own heart<br>
+David's services<br>
+His Psalms<br>
+Their mighty influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SOLOMON.">SOLOMON</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.</p>
+
+Early years of Solomon<br>
+His first acts as monarch<br>
+The prosperity of his kingdom<br>
+Glory of Solomon<br>
+His mistakes<br>
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess<br>
+His harem<br>
+Building of the Temple<br>
+Its magnificence<br>
+The treasures accumulated in it<br>
+Its dedication<br>
+The sacrifices in its honor<br>
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals<br>
+The royal palace in Jerusalem<br>
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon<br>
+Excessive taxation of the people<br>
+Forced labor<br>
+Change of habits and pursuits<br>
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury<br>
+His unpopularity<br>
+His latter days of shame<br>
+His death<br>
+Character<br>
+Influence of his reign<br>
+His writings<br>
+Their great value<br>
+The Canticles<br>
+The Proverbs<br>
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge<br>
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs<br>
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes<br>
+Hidden meaning of the book<br>
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom<br>
+His wisdom confirmed by experience<br>
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#ELIJAH.">ELIJAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.</p>
+
+Evil days fall on Israel<br>
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam<br>
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves<br>
+Other innovations<br>
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem<br>
+City saved only by immense contribution<br>
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom<br>
+Ruled by bad kings<br>
+Given to idolatry under Ahab<br>
+Influence of Jezebel<br>
+The priests of Baal<br>
+The apostasy of Israel<br>
+The prophet Elijah<br>
+His extraordinary appearance<br>
+Appears before Ahab<br>
+Announces calamities<br>
+Flight of Elijah<br>
+The drought<br>
+The woman of Zarephath<br>
+Shields and feeds Elijah<br>
+He restores her son to life<br>
+Miseries of the drought<br>
+Elijah confronts Ahab<br>
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel<br>
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal<br>
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal<br>
+Triumphs, and slays them<br>
+Elijah promises rain<br>
+The tempest<br>
+Ahab seeks Jezebel<br>
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath<br>
+Second flight of Elijah<br>
+His weakness and fear<br>
+The still small voice<br>
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet<br>
+He becomes the companion of Elijah<br>
+Character and appearance of Elisha<br>
+War between Ahab and Benhadad<br>
+Naboth and his vineyard<br>
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab<br>
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel<br>
+Murder of Naboth<br>
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah<br>
+Despair of Ahab<br>
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat<br>
+Death of Ahab<br>
+Regency of Jezebel<br>
+Ahaziah and Elijah<br>
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead<br>
+Reaction to idolatry<br>
+Jehu<br>
+Death of Jezebel<br>
+Death of Ahaziah<br>
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu<br>
+Extermination of idolatry<br>
+Last days of Elijah<br>
+His translation<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#ISAIAH.">ISAIAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>NATIONAL DEGENERACY.</p>
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel<br>
+A succession of virtuous princes<br>
+Syrian wars<br>
+The prophet Joel<br>
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah<br>
+Internal decay<br>
+Assyrian conquests<br>
+Tiglath-pilneser<br>
+Fall of Damascus<br>
+Fall of Samaria<br>
+Demoralization of Jerusalem<br>
+Birth of Isaiah<br>
+His exalted character<br>
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians<br>
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib<br>
+Rebels anew<br>
+Renewed invasion of Judah<br>
+Signal deliverance<br>
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah<br>
+His terrible denunciations of sin<br>
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching<br>
+Holding out hope by repentance<br>
+Absence of art in his writings<br>
+National wickedness ending in calamities<br>
+God's moral government<br>
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled<br>
+Woes denounced on Judah<br>
+Fall of Babylon foretold<br>
+Predicted woes of Moab<br>
+Woes denounced on Egypt<br>
+Calamities of Tyre<br>
+General predictions of woe on other nations<br>
+End and purpose of chastisements<br>
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope<br>
+The promised glories of the Chosen People<br>
+Messianic promises<br>
+Exultation of Isaiah<br>
+His catholicity<br>
+The promised reign of peace<br>
+The future glories of the righteous<br>
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world<br>
+Messianic triumphs<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JEREMIAH.">JEREMIAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>FALL OF JERUSALEM.</p>
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah<br>
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah<br>
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair<br>
+Evil days in which he was born<br>
+National misfortunes predicted<br>
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times<br>
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy<br>
+Renewed study of the Law<br>
+The reforms of Josiah<br>
+The greatness of Josiah<br>
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness<br>
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms<br>
+Necho II. extends his conquests<br>
+Death of Josiah<br>
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah<br>
+Rapid decline of the kingdom<br>
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned<br>
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho<br>
+Shallum succeeds Josiah<br>
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum<br>
+His follies<br>
+Judah's relapse into idolatry<br>
+Neglect of the Sabbath<br>
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity<br>
+His voice unheeded<br>
+His despondency<br>
+Fall of Nineveh<br>
+Defeat and retreat of Necho<br>
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar<br>
+Appears before Jerusalem<br>
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed<br>
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem<br>
+Revolt of the city<br>
+Zedekiah the king temporizes<br>
+Expostulations of Jeremiah<br>
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience<br>
+Second fall of Jerusalem<br>
+The captivity<br>
+Weeping by the river of Babylon<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JUDAS_MACCABAEUS.">JUDAS MACCABAEUS</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.</p>
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon<br>
+Condition of Jerusalem<br>
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry<br>
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity<br>
+The Pharisees<br>
+The Sadducees<br>
+Synagogues, their number and popularity<br>
+The Jewish Sanhedrim<br>
+Advance in sacred literature<br>
+Apocryphal Books<br>
+Isolation of the Jews<br>
+Dark age of Jewish history<br>
+Power of the high priests<br>
+The Persian Empire<br>
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire<br>
+Jews at Alexandria<br>
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians<br>
+The Syrian kings<br>
+Antiochus Epiphanes<br>
+His persecution of the Jews<br>
+Helplessness of the Jews<br>
+Sack of Jerusalem<br>
+Desecration of the Temple<br>
+Mattathias<br>
+His piety and bravery<br>
+Revolt of Mattathias<br>
+Slaughter of the Jews<br>
+Death of Mattathias<br>
+His gallant sons<br>
+Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+His military genius<br>
+The Syrian generals<br>
+Wrath of Antiochus<br>
+Desolation of Jerusalem<br>
+Judas defeats the Syrian general<br>
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple<br>
+Fortifies Jerusalem<br>
+The Feast of Dedication<br>
+Renewed hostilities<br>
+Successes of Judas<br>
+Death of Antiochus<br>
+Deliverance of the Jews<br>
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip<br>
+Death of Eleazer<br>
+Bacchides<br>
+Embassy to Rome<br>
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan<br>
+Heroism of Jonathan<br>
+His death by treachery<br>
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon<br>
+Simon's military successes<br>
+His prosperous administration<br>
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus<br>
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus<br>
+The Asmonean princes<br>
+Pompey takes Jerusalem<br>
+Accession of Herod the Great<br>
+He destroys the Asmonean princes<br>
+His prosperous reign<br>
+Foundation of Caesarea<br>
+Latter days of Herod<br>
+Loathsome death of Herod<br>
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SAINT_PAUL.">SAINT PAUL</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.</p>
+
+Birth and early days of Saul<br>
+His Phariseeism<br>
+His persecution of the Christians<br>
+His wonderful conversion<br>
+His leading idea<br>
+Saul a preacher at Damascus<br>
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem<br>
+Saul in Tarsus<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch<br>
+Description of Antioch<br>
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem<br>
+Labors and discouragements<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus<br>
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer<br>
+Missionary travels of Paul<br>
+Paul converts Timothy<br>
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe<br>
+Return of Paul to Antioch<br>
+Controversy about circumcision<br>
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts<br>
+Paul again visits Jerusalem<br>
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel<br>
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion<br>
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches<br>
+Tact of Paul<br>
+Paul and Luke<br>
+The missionaries at Philippi<br>
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica<br>
+Paul at Athens<br>
+Character of the Athenians<br>
+The success of Paul at Athens<br>
+Paul goes to Corinth<br>
+Paul led before Gallio<br>
+Mistake of Gallio<br>
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians<br>
+Paul at Ephesus<br>
+The Temple of Diana<br>
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus<br>
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians<br>
+Popularity of Apollos<br>
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians<br>
+Paul again at Corinth<br>
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans<br>
+The Pauline theology<br>
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem<br>
+His cold reception<br>
+His arrest and imprisonment<br>
+The trial of Paul before Felix<br>
+Character of Felix<br>
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix<br>
+Paul's defence before Festus<br>
+Paul appeals to Caesar<br>
+Paul preaches before Agrippa<br>
+His voyage to Italy<br>
+Paul's life at Rome<br>
+Character of Paul<br>
+His magnificent services<br>
+His triumphant death<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p><b>VOLUME II.</b></p>
+
+<b>
+<a href="images/Illus0432.jpg">The Wailing Wall of the Jews</a>
+<i>After the painting by J.L. Gerome</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0433.jpg">Abraham and Hagar</a>
+<i>After the painting by Adrian van der Werff</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0434.jpg">Joseph Sold by His Brethren.</a>
+<i>After the painting by H.F. Schopin</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0435.jpg">Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses</a>
+<i>After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0436.jpg">Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea</a>
+<i>After the painting by F.A. Bridgman</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0437.jpg">Moses</a>
+<i>From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0438.jpg">David Kills Goliath</a>
+<i>After the painting by W.L. Dodge</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0439.jpg">David</a>
+<i>From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0440.jpg">Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven</a>
+<i>After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0441.jpg">Isaiah</a>
+<i>From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0442.jpg">A Sacrifice to Baal</a>
+<i>After the painting by Henri Motte</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0443.jpg">The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity</a>
+<i>After the painting by E. Bendeman</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0444.jpg">St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis</a>
+<i>After the painting by Gebhart F&uuml;gel</i>.<br>
+</b>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<h2><a name="ABRAHAM."></a>ABRAHAM.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>RELIGIOUS FAITH.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.</p>
+
+<p>There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. &quot;There is no God!&quot; or &quot;Let there be no God!&quot; has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the <i>necessary</i> progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?</p>
+
+<p>Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the &quot;call.&quot; His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.</p>
+
+<p>What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.</p>
+
+<p>In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, &quot;were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes.&quot; The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.</p>
+
+<p>Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?</p>
+
+<p>The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.</p>
+
+<p>This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+&quot;From first to last,&quot; says Geikie, &quot;the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. &quot;If we were asked,&quot; says Max M&uuml;ller, &quot;how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a <i>special divine revelation</i>.&quot; <a name="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a> Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.
+
+<p>If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.</p>
+
+<p>The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.</p>
+
+<p>With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the <i>Cogito,
+ergo sum</i>, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.</p>
+
+<p>No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of &quot;father of the faithful,&quot;--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.</p>
+
+<p>As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, &quot;Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?&quot; Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. &quot;Whereby,&quot; said he,
+&quot;shall I <i>know</i> that I shall inherit it,&quot;--that is Canaan,--&quot;and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?&quot; Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: &quot;And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee.&quot; We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.</p>
+
+<p>A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God &quot;tempted,&quot; or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.<a name="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2">[2]</a> Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his &quot;Blood Covenant&quot; to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.
+
+<p>The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.</p>
+
+<p>Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+&quot;accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead.&quot; Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is &quot;the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;&quot;
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.</p>
+
+<p>Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son,&quot; who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, &quot;Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?&quot; yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, &quot;Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.</p>
+
+<p>The great interest we feel in Abraham is as &quot;the father of the
+faithful,&quot; as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources <i>is</i>, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. &quot;Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!</p>
+
+<p>With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?</p>
+
+<p>Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JOSEPH."></a>JOSEPH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>ISRAEL IN EGYPT.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+&quot;Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?&quot; But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!</p>
+
+<p>The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.</p>
+
+<p>The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, &quot;The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!&quot; And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.</p>
+
+<p>The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.</p>
+
+<p>This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.</p>
+
+<p>The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.</p>
+
+<p>Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: &quot;Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves.&quot; Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.</p>
+
+<p>The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.</p>
+
+<p>The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. &quot;The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation.&quot; Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.</p>
+
+<p>How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+<i>animus mundi</i>, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.</p>
+
+<p>The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,</p>
+
+<p>But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.</p>
+
+<p>So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. &quot;Whence come ye?&quot; he said
+roughly to them. They replied, &quot;From the land of Canaan to buy corn,&quot;
+&quot;Nay,&quot; continued he, &quot;ye are spies.&quot; &quot;Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies.&quot; &quot;Nay,&quot; he said, &quot;to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,&quot;--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, &quot;Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not.&quot; But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. &quot;If ye be true men,&quot; said he, &quot;let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die.&quot; There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+&quot;Joseph is not,&quot; cried he, &quot;and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!&quot; Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: &quot;My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. &quot;The
+man,&quot; said he, &quot;did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you.&quot; Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, &quot;If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved,&quot; and hurried away his sons.</p>
+
+<p>In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.</p>
+
+<p>Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. &quot;Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither.&quot; And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. &quot;Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land.&quot; And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, &quot;See that ye fall not out by
+the way!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, &quot;It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die.&quot; The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.</p>
+
+<p>To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.</p>
+
+<p>In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.</p>
+
+<p>It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.</p>
+
+<p>Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.</p>
+
+<p>When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.</p>
+
+<p>If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. &quot;Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards.&quot; Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the &quot;wisdom of
+the Egyptians.&quot; He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="MOSES."></a>MOSES.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].</p>
+
+<p>HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a &quot;man
+of God,&quot; or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old r&eacute;gime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, &quot;The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!&quot; And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+f&ecirc;ted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those <i>principia</i> which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.</p>
+
+<p>The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, &quot;a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.</p>
+
+<p>And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.</p>
+
+<p>Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great <i>I Am</i>, &quot;Who am
+I, that <i>I</i> should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice.&quot; In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.</p>
+
+<p>Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--&quot;Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey <i>his</i> voice?&quot;--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.</p>
+
+<p>The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.</p>
+
+<p>The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!</p>
+
+<p>But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.</p>
+
+<p>In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.</p>
+
+<p>The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, &quot;for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation.&quot; So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it &quot;the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,&quot;--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+&quot;thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;&quot; thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.</p>
+
+<p>All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.</p>
+
+<p>The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.</p>
+
+<p>It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.</p>
+
+<p>The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His <i>personality</i> constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, <i>because</i> he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a <i>necessary</i>
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, &quot;There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all.&quot; The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.</p>
+
+<p>The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!</p>
+
+<p>Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.</p>
+
+<p>It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.</p>
+
+<p>We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, &quot;And the Lord spake unto
+Moses&quot;? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he <i>was</i> directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.</p>
+
+<p>Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we <i>wish</i> to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are &quot;more advanced,&quot; as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.</p>
+
+<p>I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;This was the truest warrior<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever buckled sword;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This the most gifted poet<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever breathed a word:<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And never earth's philosopher<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Traced with his golden pen,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On the deathless page, truths half so sage,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; As he wrote down for men.&quot;<br>
+
+<p>At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, &quot;Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!&quot; So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;That was the grandest funeral<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever passed on earth;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; But no one heard the trampling,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Or saw the train go forth,--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Perchance the bald old eagle<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On gray Bethpeor's height,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Out of his lonely eyrie<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Looked on the wondrous sight.&quot;<br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;And had he not high honor--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The hillside for a pall--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To lie in state, while angels wait<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; With stars for tapers tall;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Over his bier to wave,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And God's own hand, in that lonely land,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To lay him in the grave?&quot;<br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;O lonely grave in Moab's land!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; O dark Bethpeor's hill!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Speak to these curious hearts of ours,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And teach them to be still!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; God hath his mysteries of grace,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ways that we cannot tell;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Of him he loved so well.&quot;<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SAMUEL."></a>SAMUEL.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1100 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, &quot;nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers.&quot; The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days &quot;every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes.&quot; It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.</p>
+
+<p>The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.</p>
+
+<p>The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. &quot;The Theocracy,&quot; says Ewald, &quot;by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.</p>
+
+<p>The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?</p>
+
+<p>It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. &quot;It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;&quot; for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.</p>
+
+<p>But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first &quot;school of the prophets&quot; was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?</p>
+
+<p>The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.</p>
+
+<p>When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called &quot;progressive
+leaders,&quot; hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.</p>
+
+<p>So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. &quot;And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them.&quot; The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: &quot;This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, &quot;Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles.&quot; It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+&quot;Give us a king once more!&quot; and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was &quot;a
+choice young man, and a goodly.&quot; He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was &quot;taken,&quot;--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, &quot;See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!&quot; And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, &quot;God save the
+king!&quot;--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.</p>
+
+<p>Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. &quot;Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand.&quot; Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: &quot;Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. &quot;Thou hast done foolishly,&quot; he
+said to the King; &quot;for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee.&quot; We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+&quot;utterly destroy&quot; certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and &quot;endure as seeing
+him who is invisible.&quot; They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: &quot;Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry.&quot; The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, &quot;Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou.&quot; Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the &quot;Lord's anointed,&quot; Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel &quot;came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death.&quot; To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. &quot;Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace.&quot; It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. &quot;He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="DAVID."></a>DAVID.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1055-1015 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.</p>
+
+<p>The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.</p>
+
+<p>David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.</p>
+
+<p>Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,<a name="FNanchor3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3">[3]</a> Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.
+
+<p>Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. &quot;Know ye,&quot; said David to his intimate friends, &quot;that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes.&quot; He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+&quot;Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?&quot; The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth &quot;came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,&quot;
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.</p>
+
+<p>The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time &quot;David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him.&quot; After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.</p>
+
+<p>The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. &quot;And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'&quot;--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;One heart alone,&quot; says Stanley, &quot;amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love.&quot; Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!</p>
+
+<p>David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.</p>
+
+<p>But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.</p>
+
+<p>It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. &quot;We read,&quot; says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, &quot;of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound.&quot; Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.</p>
+
+<p>Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. &quot;Be sure your sin will find
+you out,&quot; is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. &quot;Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!&quot; What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Nor do we charge ourselves,&quot; says Edward Irving, &quot;with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.</p>
+
+<p>We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. &quot;O God!&quot; he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, &quot;I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?</p>
+
+<p>Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.</p>
+
+<p>In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own &quot;great transgression.&quot; God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.</p>
+
+<p>If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about &pound;390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.</p>
+
+<p>David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. &quot;Thou hast shamed this day,&quot; said Joab, &quot;the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well.&quot; In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.</p>
+
+<p>The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. &quot;When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?&quot; Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?</p>
+
+<p>It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. &quot;As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!&quot; He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. &quot;Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever.&quot; And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.</p>
+
+<p>When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.</p>
+
+<p>The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. &quot;In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life,&quot; no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called &quot;the sweet singer of Israel.&quot;
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with &quot;the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God.&quot; As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! &quot;Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Such is the tribute which all nations bring,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From distant ages to thy hallowed name,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O thou sweet singer of a favored race,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;How varied and how rich are all thy lays<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The promised glories of the latter days,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And richest blessings all the race shall find.<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SOLOMON."></a>SOLOMON.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.</p>
+
+<p>ABOUT 993-953 B.C.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.</p>
+
+<p>Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.</p>
+
+<p>But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. &quot;When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,&quot;
+says Stanley, &quot;by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.</p>
+
+<p>Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.</p>
+
+<p>The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.</p>
+
+<p>We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: &quot;The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world.&quot; Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.</p>
+
+<p>As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. &quot;And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,&quot;--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, &quot;Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should &quot;appear before the Lord&quot; and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since &quot;he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.&quot; We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.</p>
+
+<p>To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+&quot;The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded.&quot; A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.</p>
+
+<p>I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.</p>
+
+<p>Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. &quot;Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised.&quot; How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!</p>
+
+<p>If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.</p>
+
+<p>There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.</p>
+
+<p>In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. &quot;In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity.&quot; Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself &quot;the preacher,&quot; and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of &quot;fashionable worshippers&quot; or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!</p>
+
+<p>I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. &quot;Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.</p>
+
+<p>These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.</p>
+
+<p>Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.</p>
+
+<p>Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.</p>
+
+<p>Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+&quot;Vanity of vanities&quot; write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!</p>
+
+<p>This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="ELIJAH."></a>ELIJAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>NINTH CENTURY B.C.</p>
+
+<p>DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--&quot;a sure house.&quot; Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as &quot;the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin.&quot; He says: &quot;The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.</p>
+
+<p>Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.</p>
+
+<p>Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was &quot;a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey.&quot; It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.</p>
+
+<p>The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their &quot;religion,&quot; the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.</p>
+
+<p>Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as &quot;the Tishbite,&quot;--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: &quot;As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word.&quot;
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.</p>
+
+<p>And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.</p>
+
+<p>The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: &quot;Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;&quot; and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, &quot;Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.</p>
+
+<p>The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. &quot;Verily, I say unto you,&quot; said a
+greater than Elijah, &quot;whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward.&quot; Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who &quot;troubled Israel,&quot; Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. &quot;Art thou he who troubleth Israel?&quot; Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: &quot;I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim.&quot; He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.</p>
+
+<p>The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. &quot;How long,&quot; cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, &quot;halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, <i>follow</i> him; but if Baal be God, then follow <i>him</i>.&quot; The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.</p>
+
+<p>Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, &quot;O Baal, hear us!&quot; We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. &quot;Cry with a loud voice!&quot; said he, &quot;yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened.&quot; And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: &quot;O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again.&quot; Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, &quot;Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+&quot;Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain.&quot; And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: &quot;Go up now, and look
+toward the sea.&quot; And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.</p>
+
+<p>Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: &quot;As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them.&quot; In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.</p>
+
+<p>And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. &quot;It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers.&quot; He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.</p>
+
+<p>But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: &quot;What doest thou here, Elijah?&quot;
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: &quot;Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.</p>
+
+<p>Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+&quot;left all and followed&quot; the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to &quot;the sons of the prophets,&quot; among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.</p>
+
+<p>After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.</p>
+
+<p>After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.</p>
+
+<p>In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. &quot;God forbid,&quot; said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, &quot;that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers.&quot; Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.</p>
+
+<p>Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.</p>
+
+<p>But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.</p>
+
+<p>Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.</p>
+
+<p>But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+&quot;before all the people.&quot; But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: &quot;Thus saith Jehovah!&quot;--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: &quot;In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine.&quot; The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, &quot;Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!&quot; And
+terrible was the response: &quot;Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.</p>
+
+<p>To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: &quot;Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die.&quot; On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: &quot;Why are ye now turned back?&quot; They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: &quot;What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?&quot; They
+answered, &quot;He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins.&quot; The king cried, &quot;It is Elijah the Tishbite.&quot; Again his enemy
+had found him!</p>
+
+<p>Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. &quot;If I
+am a man of God,&quot; said Elijah, &quot;let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty.&quot; The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, &quot;O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight.&quot; And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, &quot;Go down with him; be not afraid of him.&quot; And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.</p>
+
+<p>So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.</p>
+
+<p>This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, &quot;Is it peace, Jehu?&quot; &quot;Peace!&quot; replied
+Jehu; &quot;what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?&quot; In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, &quot;There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!&quot; An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: &quot;What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?&quot; &quot;Are there any on my side?&quot; was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. &quot;Throw her down!&quot; ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, &quot;for,&quot; said he, &quot;she is a king's
+daughter;&quot; but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.</p>
+
+<p>So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+&quot;mysterious,&quot; because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the &quot;Jehovah&quot; of Elijah and the &quot;Father&quot; of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+&quot;remnant&quot;--of the Hebrew race.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'&quot;--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, &quot;and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled.&quot;</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="ISAIAH."></a>ISAIAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>NATIONAL DEGENERACY.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them &quot;did right in
+the sight of the Lord;&quot; and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.</p>
+
+<p>During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: &quot;The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,&quot;--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.</p>
+
+<p>In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, &quot;Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?&quot; But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a &quot;revival of religion&quot; meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that &quot;under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.</p>
+
+<p>The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.</p>
+
+<p>Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--&quot;Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.</p>
+
+<p>Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.</p>
+
+<p>The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove &quot;a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land.&quot; The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: &quot;Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.&quot; It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+&quot;Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord.&quot; The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. &quot;My people,&quot; said he, &quot;do not consider.&quot; He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. &quot;To what purpose,&quot; said he, &quot;is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow.&quot;
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.</p>
+
+<p>There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--&quot;Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,&quot;--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+&quot;the living God,&quot; who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. &quot;To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint.&quot; Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. &quot;Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to <i>them</i>: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.</p>
+
+<p>I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for &quot;I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;&quot;--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. &quot;The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,&quot;--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+&quot;Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot.&quot; The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. &quot;Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,&quot;--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.</p>
+
+<p>From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. &quot;Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire.&quot; In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. &quot;Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there.&quot; Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. &quot;It goeth
+before destruction.&quot; Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, &quot;Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?&quot; There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.</p>
+
+<p>The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that &quot;every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom.&quot; Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. &quot;He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it.&quot; And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: &quot;Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. &quot;Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth.&quot; The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+&quot;Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation.&quot; We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--&quot;a
+remnant shall return.&quot; This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, &quot;Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow.&quot; God's mercy is
+past finding out. &quot;Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!&quot;
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.</p>
+
+<p>Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+&quot;come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots,&quot; but he shall be &quot;a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors.&quot; Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, &quot;whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.</p>
+
+<p>Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors &quot;should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks.&quot; Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only &quot;a remnant should
+be saved.&quot; Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. &quot;The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called &quot;forsaken,&quot; but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. &quot;Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land,&quot; saith the poet, &quot;wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? &quot;Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See future sons and daughters yet unborn!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But fixed His word, His saving power remains:<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!&quot;<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JEREMIAH."></a>JEREMIAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>ABOUT 629-580 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: &quot;Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!&quot; Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. &quot;My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by &quot;the words of the book,&quot; and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The &quot;high places,&quot; on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.</p>
+
+<p>An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having &quot;taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel,&quot; even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had &quot;killed the passover&quot; and &quot;sprinkled the blood from
+their hands,&quot; each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. &quot;It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. &quot;Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?&quot; he mournfully exclaims. &quot;Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well.&quot; He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: &quot;What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not.&quot; But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.</p>
+
+<p>The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.</p>
+
+<p>The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied &quot;smooth things&quot; to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.</p>
+
+<p>This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.</p>
+
+<p>Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: &quot;Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence.&quot; Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. &quot;Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?&quot; Jehovah replies: &quot;If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. &quot;Come,&quot; said his enemies to the crowd, &quot;let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him.&quot; On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. &quot;O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. &quot;And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered.&quot; Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the &quot;scarlet mother.&quot; Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. &quot;For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword.&quot; And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: &quot;And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abb&eacute; Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!</p>
+
+<p>Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. &quot;Cursed
+be the day,&quot; he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, &quot;on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?&quot; A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.</p>
+
+<p>Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. &quot;Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.</p>
+
+<p>On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.</p>
+
+<p>In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.</p>
+
+<p>The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: &quot;Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand.&quot; A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. &quot;Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you.&quot; The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: &quot;Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace.&quot; On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+&quot;Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years.&quot; Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: &quot;I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah.&quot;
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.</p>
+
+<p>Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+&quot;Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But &quot;whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad.&quot; Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.</p>
+
+<p>From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JUDAS_MACCABAEUS."></a>JUDAS MACCABAEUS.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>DIED, 160 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.</p>
+
+<p>On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the d&eacute;bris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.</p>
+
+<p>Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a &quot;remnant&quot; of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.</p>
+
+<p>A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.</p>
+
+<p>A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.</p>
+
+<p>The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.</p>
+
+<p>Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the &quot;kings of the North&quot; were more
+hostile to the Jews than the &quot;kings of the South.&quot; In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.</p>
+
+<p>It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews &quot;the abomination of
+desolation,&quot; which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. &quot;Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt.&quot; Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.</p>
+
+<p>The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. &quot;Be it far from us,&quot; he said, &quot;to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.</p>
+
+<p>For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, &quot;Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!&quot; A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.</p>
+
+<p>Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the <i>&eacute;clat</i> of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.</p>
+
+<p>The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called &quot;The Maccabaeus&quot; (&quot;The Hammer,&quot; as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.</p>
+
+<p>Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for &quot;victory,&quot; said he, &quot;is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength.&quot; This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.</p>
+
+<p>King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.</p>
+
+<p>Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.</p>
+
+<p>The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.</p>
+
+<p>Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.</p>
+
+<p>The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as &quot;the Maccabees.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.</p>
+
+<p>With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.</p>
+
+<p>The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, &quot;How is the valiant fallen!&quot; A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.</p>
+
+<p>Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.</p>
+
+<p>Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.</p>
+
+<p>John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.</p>
+
+<p>On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).</p>
+
+<p>Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.</p>
+
+<p>The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be &quot;born
+king of the Jews.&quot; He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.</p>
+
+<p>Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in &quot;the fulness of
+time,&quot; the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SAINT_PAUL."></a>SAINT PAUL.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.</p>
+
+<p>The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.</p>
+
+<p>It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.</p>
+
+<p>Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.</p>
+
+<p>How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.</p>
+
+<p>No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.</p>
+
+<p>A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or &quot;church,&quot; as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+&quot;Christians,&quot; mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.</p>
+
+<p>With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.</p>
+
+<p>The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.</p>
+
+<p>No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.</p>
+
+<p>From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.</p>
+
+<p>The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.</p>
+
+<p>At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.</p>
+
+<p>From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.</p>
+
+<p>One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.</p>
+
+<p>So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as &quot;Apostle to the Gentiles&quot; was
+officially confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.</p>
+
+<p>The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia,&quot; crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.</p>
+
+<p>After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.</p>
+
+<p>So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.</p>
+
+<p>While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.</p>
+
+<p>The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. &quot;As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.</p>
+
+<p>Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.</p>
+
+<p>When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: &quot;If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters.&quot; He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio &quot;flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;&quot; for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.</p>
+
+<p>While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.</p>
+
+<p>The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to &quot;have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus,&quot; showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.</p>
+
+<p>Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.</p>
+
+<p>Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.</p>
+
+<p>But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--&quot;more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,&quot;--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, &quot;killed all the day long,&quot; carrying about him wherever he
+went &quot;the deadness of the crucified Christ.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, &quot;the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,&quot;--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.</p>
+
+<p>Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: &quot;Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.</p>
+
+<p>I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.</p>
+
+<p>The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--&quot;the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,&quot;--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, &quot;You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses.&quot; There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.</p>
+
+<p>Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, &quot;Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!&quot; And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.</p>
+
+<p>On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.</p>
+
+<p>Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.</p>
+
+<p>Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+&quot;Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go.&quot; Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+&quot;Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!&quot; When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, &quot;This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar.&quot; Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.</p>
+
+<p>The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.</p>
+
+<p>The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his &quot;beloved physician&quot; and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.<a name="FNanchor4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4">[4]</a> There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in &quot;the extremity of the West&quot; (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.
+
+<p>At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.</p>
+
+<p>But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.</p>
+
+<p>Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the &quot;Rock&quot; which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.</p>
+
+<p>As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: &quot;I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day.&quot;</p>
+<br>
+<hr class="full">
+<br>
+<br>
+<pre>
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+LORD'S LECTURES
+
+BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II
+
+JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.
+
+BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE,"
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose
+Civilization in his age
+Ancestors of Abram
+His settlement in Haran
+His moral courage
+The call of Abram
+His migrations
+The Canaanites
+Abram in Egypt
+Separation between Abram and Lot
+Melchizedek
+Abram covenants with God
+The mission of the Hebrews
+The faith of Abram
+Its peculiarities
+Trials of faith
+God's covenant with Abram
+The sacrifice of Isaac
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations
+Universality of sacrifice
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?
+Supreme test of his faith
+His obedience to God
+His righteousness
+Supremacy of religious faith
+Abraham's defects
+The most favored of mortals
+The boons he bestowed
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+Early days of Joseph
+Envy of his brethren
+Sale of Joseph
+Its providential results
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt
+The imprisonment of Joseph
+Favor with the king
+Joseph prime minister
+The Shepherd kings
+The service of Joseph to the king
+Famine in Egypt
+Power of Pharaoh
+Power of the priests
+Character of the priests
+Knowledge of the priests
+Teachings of the priests
+Egyptian gods
+Antiquity of sacrifices
+Civilization of Egypt
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge
+Austerity to his brethren
+Grief of Jacob
+Severity of the famine in Canaan
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin
+His continued austerity to his brethren
+Joseph at length reveals himself
+The kindness of Pharaoh
+Israel in Egypt
+Prosperity of the Israelites
+Old age of Jacob
+His blessing to Joseph's sons
+Jacob's predictions
+Death of Jacob
+Death of Joseph
+Character of Joseph
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt
+Rameses the Great
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE
+
+Exalted mission of Moses
+His appearance at a great crisis
+His early advantages and education
+His premature ambition
+His retirement to the wilderness
+Description of the land of Midian
+Studies and meditations of Moses
+The Book of Genesis
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt
+Appearance before Pharaoh
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites
+Their sojourn in the wilderness
+The labors of Moses
+His Moral Code
+Universality of the obligations
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society
+Immortality seemingly ignored
+The possible reason of Moses
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt
+The Civil Code of Moses
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites
+The wisdom of the Civil Code
+Source of the wisdom of Moses
+The divine legation of Moses
+Logical consequences of its denial
+General character of Moses
+His last days
+His influence
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua
+The Judges
+Birth and youth of Samuel
+The Jewish Theocracy
+Eli and his sons
+Samuel called to be judge
+His efforts to rekindle religious life
+The school of the prophets
+The people want a king
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government
+He tells the people the consequences
+Persistency of the Israelites
+Condition of the nation
+Saul privately anointed king
+Clothed with regal power
+Mistakes and wars of Saul
+Spares Agag
+Rebuked by Samuel
+Samuel withdraws into retirement
+Seeks a successor to Saul
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David
+Saul becomes proud and jealous
+His wars with the Philistines
+Great victory at Michmash
+Death of Samuel
+Universal mourning
+His character as Prophet
+His moral greatness
+His transcendent influence
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+David as an historical study
+Early days of David
+His accomplishments
+His connection with Saul
+His love for Jonathan
+Death of Saul
+David becomes king
+Death of Abner
+David generally recognized as king
+Makes Jerusalem his capital
+Alliance with Hiram
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark
+Folly of David's Wife
+Organization of the kingdom
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army
+The court of David
+His polygamy
+War with Moab
+War with the Ammonites
+Conquest of the Edomites
+Bathsheba
+David's shame and repentance
+Edward Irving on David's fall
+Its causes
+Census of the people
+Why this was a folly
+Wickedness of David's children
+Amnon
+Alienation of David's subjects
+The famine in Judah
+Revolt of Sheba
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre
+Troubles and trials of David
+Preparation for building the Temple
+David's wealth
+His premature old age
+Absalom's rebellion and death
+David's final labors
+His character as a man and a monarch
+Why he was a man after God's own heart
+David's services
+His Psalms
+Their mighty influence
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+Early years of Solomon
+His first acts as monarch
+The prosperity of his kingdom
+Glory of Solomon
+His mistakes
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess
+His harem
+Building of the Temple
+Its magnificence
+The treasures accumulated in it
+Its dedication
+The sacrifices in its honor
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals
+The royal palace in Jerusalem
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon
+Excessive taxation of the people
+Forced labor
+Change of habits and pursuits
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury
+His unpopularity
+His latter days of shame
+His death
+Character
+Influence of his reign
+His writings
+Their great value
+The Canticles
+The Proverbs
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes
+Hidden meaning of the book
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom
+His wisdom confirmed by experience
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
+
+Evil days fall on Israel
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves
+Other innovations
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem
+City saved only by immense contribution
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom
+Ruled by bad kings
+Given to idolatry under Ahab
+Influence of Jezebel
+The priests of Baal
+The apostasy of Israel
+The prophet Elijah
+His extraordinary appearance
+Appears before Ahab
+Announces calamities
+Flight of Elijah
+The drought
+The woman of Zarephath
+Shields and feeds Elijah
+He restores her son to life
+Miseries of the drought
+Elijah confronts Ahab
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal
+Triumphs, and slays them
+Elijah promises rain
+The tempest
+Ahab seeks Jezebel
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath
+Second flight of Elijah
+His weakness and fear
+The still small voice
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet
+He becomes the companion of Elijah
+Character and appearance of Elisha
+War between Ahab and Benhadad
+Naboth and his vineyard
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel
+Murder of Naboth
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah
+Despair of Ahab
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat
+Death of Ahab
+Regency of Jezebel
+Ahaziah and Elijah
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead
+Reaction to idolatry
+Jehu
+Death of Jezebel
+Death of Ahaziah
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu
+Extermination of idolatry
+Last days of Elijah
+His translation
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel
+A succession of virtuous princes
+Syrian wars
+The prophet Joel
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah
+Internal decay
+Assyrian conquests
+Tiglath-pilneser
+Fall of Damascus
+Fall of Samaria
+Demoralization of Jerusalem
+Birth of Isaiah
+His exalted character
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib
+Rebels anew
+Renewed invasion of Judah
+Signal deliverance
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah
+His terrible denunciations of sin
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching
+Holding out hope by repentance
+Absence of art in his writings
+National wickedness ending in calamities
+God's moral government
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled
+Woes denounced on Judah
+Fall of Babylon foretold
+Predicted woes of Moab
+Woes denounced on Egypt
+Calamities of Tyre
+General predictions of woe on other nations
+End and purpose of chastisements
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope
+The promised glories of the Chosen People
+Messianic promises
+Exultation of Isaiah
+His catholicity
+The promised reign of peace
+The future glories of the righteous
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world
+Messianic triumphs
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair
+Evil days in which he was born
+National misfortunes predicted
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy
+Renewed study of the Law
+The reforms of Josiah
+The greatness of Josiah
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms
+Necho II. extends his conquests
+Death of Josiah
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah
+Rapid decline of the kingdom
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho
+Shallum succeeds Josiah
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum
+His follies
+Judah's relapse into idolatry
+Neglect of the Sabbath
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity
+His voice unheeded
+His despondency
+Fall of Nineveh
+Defeat and retreat of Necho
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar
+Appears before Jerusalem
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem
+Revolt of the city
+Zedekiah the king temporizes
+Expostulations of Jeremiah
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience
+Second fall of Jerusalem
+The captivity
+Weeping by the river of Babylon
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon
+Condition of Jerusalem
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity
+The Pharisees
+The Sadducees
+Synagogues, their number and popularity
+The Jewish Sanhedrim
+Advance in sacred literature
+Apocryphal Books
+Isolation of the Jews
+Dark age of Jewish history
+Power of the high priests
+The Persian Empire
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire
+Jews at Alexandria
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians
+The Syrian kings
+Antiochus Epiphanes
+His persecution of the Jews
+Helplessness of the Jews
+Sack of Jerusalem
+Desecration of the Temple
+Mattathias
+His piety and bravery
+Revolt of Mattathias
+Slaughter of the Jews
+Death of Mattathias
+His gallant sons
+Judas Maccabaeus
+His military genius
+The Syrian generals
+Wrath of Antiochus
+Desolation of Jerusalem
+Judas defeats the Syrian general
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple
+Fortifies Jerusalem
+The Feast of Dedication
+Renewed hostilities
+Successes of Judas
+Death of Antiochus
+Deliverance of the Jews
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip
+Death of Eleazer
+Bacchides
+Embassy to Rome
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan
+Heroism of Jonathan
+His death by treachery
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon
+Simon's military successes
+His prosperous administration
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus
+The Asmonean princes
+Pompey takes Jerusalem
+Accession of Herod the Great
+He destroys the Asmonean princes
+His prosperous reign
+Foundation of Caesarea
+Latter days of Herod
+Loathsome death of Herod
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Birth and early days of Saul
+His Phariseeism
+His persecution of the Christians
+His wonderful conversion
+His leading idea
+Saul a preacher at Damascus
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem
+Saul in Tarsus
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch
+Description of Antioch
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem
+Labors and discouragements
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer
+Missionary travels of Paul
+Paul converts Timothy
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe
+Return of Paul to Antioch
+Controversy about circumcision
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts
+Paul again visits Jerusalem
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches
+Tact of Paul
+Paul and Luke
+The missionaries at Philippi
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica
+Paul at Athens
+Character of the Athenians
+The success of Paul at Athens
+Paul goes to Corinth
+Paul led before Gallio
+Mistake of Gallio
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians
+Paul at Ephesus
+The Temple of Diana
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
+Popularity of Apollos
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians
+Paul again at Corinth
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans
+The Pauline theology
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
+His cold reception
+His arrest and imprisonment
+The trial of Paul before Felix
+Character of Felix
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix
+Paul's defence before Festus
+Paul appeals to Caesar
+Paul preaches before Agrippa
+His voyage to Italy
+Paul's life at Rome
+Character of Paul
+His magnificent services
+His triumphant death
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+The Wailing Wall of the Jews
+_After the painting by J.L. Gerome_.
+
+Abraham and Hagar
+_After the painting by Adrian van der Werff_.
+
+Joseph Sold by His Brethren.
+_After the painting by H.F. Schopin_.
+
+Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses
+_After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter_.
+
+Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea
+_After the painting by F.A. Bridgman_.
+
+Moses
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome_.
+
+David Kills Goliath
+_After the painting by W.L. Dodge_.
+
+David
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence_.
+
+Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven
+_After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt_.
+
+Isaiah
+_From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo_.
+
+A Sacrifice to Baal
+_After the painting by Henri Motte_.
+
+The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity
+_After the painting by E. Bendeman_.
+
+St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis
+_After the painting by Gebhart Fuegel_.
+
+
+
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+
+From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.
+
+When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.
+
+There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. "There is no God!" or "Let there be no God!" has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the _necessary_ progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?
+
+Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the "call." His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.
+
+What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.
+
+So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.
+
+Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.
+
+In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.
+
+Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.
+
+Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, "were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes." The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.
+
+It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.
+
+Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.
+
+Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?
+
+The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.
+
+This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+"From first to last," says Geikie, "the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone."
+
+For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. "If we were asked," says Max Mueller, "how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a _special divine revelation_." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.]
+
+If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.
+
+The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.
+
+With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the _Cogito,
+ergo sum_, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.
+
+No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of "father of the faithful,"--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.
+
+As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, "Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?" Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. "Whereby," said he,
+"shall I _know_ that I shall inherit it,"--that is Canaan,--"and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?" Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: "And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee." We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.
+
+A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God "tempted," or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.
+
+Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his "Blood Covenant" to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.]
+
+The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.
+
+Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+"accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead." Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;"
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.
+
+Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.
+
+"And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son," who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, "Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?" yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, "Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice."
+
+There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.
+
+The great interest we feel in Abraham is as "the father of the
+faithful," as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources _is_, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. "Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?"
+
+Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!
+
+With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?
+
+Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+
+No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.
+
+Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+"Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?" But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.
+
+But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!
+
+The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.
+
+The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, "The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!" And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.
+
+The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.
+
+Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.
+
+The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.
+
+This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.
+
+The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.
+
+Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves." Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.
+
+The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.
+
+This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.
+
+The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. "The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation." Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.
+
+How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+_animus mundi_, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.
+
+The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.
+
+The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.
+
+The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.
+
+In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.
+
+Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,
+
+But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.
+
+Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.
+
+So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. "Whence come ye?" he said
+roughly to them. They replied, "From the land of Canaan to buy corn,"
+"Nay," continued he, "ye are spies." "Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies." "Nay," he said, "to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,"--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, "Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not." But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. "If ye be true men," said he, "let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die." There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.
+
+Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+"Joseph is not," cried he, "and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!" Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: "My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave."
+
+Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. "The
+man," said he, "did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you." Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, "If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved," and hurried away his sons.
+
+In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.
+
+Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.
+
+Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. "Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither." And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.
+
+The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. "Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land." And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, "See that ye fall not out by
+the way!"
+
+And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die." The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.
+
+To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.
+
+In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.
+
+Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.
+
+It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.
+
+Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.
+
+When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.
+
+It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.
+
+Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.
+
+If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.
+
+Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.
+
+The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. "Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards." Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.
+
+It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.
+
+In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the "wisdom of
+the Egyptians." He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!
+
+
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+
+1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].
+
+HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.
+
+
+Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a "man
+of God," or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.
+
+He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old regime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, "The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!" And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.
+
+It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+feted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.
+
+Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those _principia_ which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.
+
+The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, "a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation."
+
+It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.
+
+And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.
+
+Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great _I Am_, "Who am
+I, that _I_ should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice." In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.
+
+Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--"Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey _his_ voice?"--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.
+
+The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.
+
+The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.
+
+Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!
+
+But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.
+
+In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.
+
+The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, "for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation." So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it "the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,"--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+"thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;" thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.
+
+All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.
+
+The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.
+
+It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.
+
+The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.
+
+Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His _personality_ constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.
+
+In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, _because_ he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a _necessary_
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, "There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all." The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.
+
+The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.
+
+I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!
+
+Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.
+
+It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.
+
+We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, "And the Lord spake unto
+Moses"? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he _was_ directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.
+
+And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.
+
+Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.
+
+Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we _wish_ to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are "more advanced," as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.
+
+I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.
+
+Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.
+
+Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.
+
+     "This was the truest warrior
+        That ever buckled sword;
+      This the most gifted poet
+        That ever breathed a word:
+      And never earth's philosopher
+        Traced with his golden pen,
+      On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
+        As he wrote down for men."
+
+At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, "Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!" So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.
+
+     "That was the grandest funeral
+        That ever passed on earth;
+      But no one heard the trampling,
+        Or saw the train go forth,--
+      Perchance the bald old eagle
+        On gray Bethpeor's height,
+      Out of his lonely eyrie
+        Looked on the wondrous sight."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "And had he not high honor--
+        The hillside for a pall--
+      To lie in state, while angels wait
+        With stars for tapers tall;
+      And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
+        Over his bier to wave,
+      And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
+        To lay him in the grave?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "O lonely grave in Moab's land!
+        O dark Bethpeor's hill!
+      Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
+        And teach them to be still!
+      God hath his mysteries of grace,
+        Ways that we cannot tell;
+      He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep
+        Of him he loved so well."
+
+
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+
+1100 B.C.
+
+THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.
+
+
+After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.
+
+Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.
+
+On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, "nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers." The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days "every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes." It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.
+
+The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.
+
+It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.
+
+But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.
+
+The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. "The Theocracy," says Ewald, "by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance."
+
+And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.
+
+The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?
+
+It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. "It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;" for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.
+
+But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first "school of the prophets" was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.
+
+Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?
+
+The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.
+
+When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called "progressive
+leaders," hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.
+
+So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. "And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them." The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.
+
+Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: "This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day."
+
+Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, "Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles." It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.
+
+Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+"Give us a king once more!" and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.
+
+The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.
+
+The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.
+
+Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was "a
+choice young man, and a goodly." He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.
+
+Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was "taken,"--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, "See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!" And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, "God save the
+king!"--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.
+
+Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.
+
+Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. "Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand." Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: "Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king."
+
+Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. "Thou hast done foolishly," he
+said to the King; "for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee." We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.
+
+Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+"utterly destroy" certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and "endure as seeing
+him who is invisible." They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.
+
+Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: "Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry." The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.
+
+Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, "Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou." Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the "Lord's anointed," Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel "came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death." To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.
+
+Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.
+
+Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.
+
+In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. "Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace." It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.
+
+Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. "He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom."
+
+In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.
+
+In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.
+
+Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.
+
+
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+
+1055-1015 B.C.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+
+Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.
+
+The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.
+
+David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.
+
+Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.
+
+It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,[3]--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Footnote 3: Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.]
+
+Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. "Know ye," said David to his intimate friends, "that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes." He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+"Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?" The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.
+
+David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth "came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,"
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.
+
+The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time "David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him." After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.
+
+The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. "And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'"--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.
+
+"One heart alone," says Stanley, "amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love." Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!
+
+David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.
+
+But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.
+
+In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.
+
+It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. "We read," says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, "of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound." Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.
+
+Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. "Be sure your sin will find
+you out," is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. "Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!" What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.
+
+"Nor do we charge ourselves," says Edward Irving, "with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul."
+
+Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.
+
+We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. "O God!" he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, "I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!"
+
+If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?
+
+Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.
+
+In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own "great transgression." God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.
+
+Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.
+
+If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about L390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.
+
+David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. "Thou hast shamed this day," said Joab, "the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well." In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.
+
+The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. "When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?" Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?
+
+It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!" He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. "Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever." And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.
+
+When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.
+
+The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. "In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life," no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called "the sweet singer of Israel."
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! "Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise."
+
+What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.
+
+     Such is the tribute which all nations bring,
+     O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,
+     From distant ages to thy hallowed name,
+     Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!
+     No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,
+     No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.
+     Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,
+     And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.
+     O thou sweet singer of a favored race,
+     What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!
+     How varied and how rich are all thy lays
+     On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!
+     In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys
+     The promised glories of the latter days,
+     When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,
+     And richest blessings all the race shall find.
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+
+THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+ABOUT 993-953 B.C.
+
+
+We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.
+
+Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.
+
+Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.
+
+The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.
+
+But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. "When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,"
+says Stanley, "by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him."
+
+We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.
+
+Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.
+
+The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.
+
+Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.
+
+We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: "The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world." Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.
+
+As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. "And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,"--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, "Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!"
+
+Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should "appear before the Lord" and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?
+
+Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since "he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.
+
+To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+"The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded." A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.
+
+Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.
+
+I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.
+
+The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.
+
+In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.
+
+Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.
+
+Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.
+
+The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. "Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised." How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!
+
+If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.
+
+There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.
+
+In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. "In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity." Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself "the preacher," and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of "fashionable worshippers" or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!
+
+I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. "Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God."
+
+So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.
+
+These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.
+
+The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.
+
+Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.
+
+Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.
+
+Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+"Vanity of vanities" write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!
+
+This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.
+
+
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+
+NINTH CENTURY B.C.
+
+DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.
+
+
+Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--"a sure house." Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.
+
+It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.
+
+Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as "the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin." He says: "The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it."
+
+For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.
+
+These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.
+
+Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.
+
+Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was "a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey." It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.
+
+The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.
+
+On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.
+
+The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their "religion," the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.
+
+The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.
+
+Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as "the Tishbite,"--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: "As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word."
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.
+
+Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.
+
+And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.
+
+The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.
+
+It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: "Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;" and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, "Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand."
+
+This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.
+
+It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.
+
+The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. "Verily, I say unto you," said a
+greater than Elijah, "whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward." Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.
+
+Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who "troubled Israel," Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. "Art thou he who troubleth Israel?" Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: "I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim." He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.
+
+The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. "How long," cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, "halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, _follow_ him; but if Baal be God, then follow _him_." The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.
+
+Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, "O Baal, hear us!" We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. "Cry with a loud voice!" said he, "yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened." And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.
+
+Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: "O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again." Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, "Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!"
+
+Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.
+
+The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+"Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain." And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.
+
+Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: "Go up now, and look
+toward the sea." And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.
+
+Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them." In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.
+
+And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. "It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers." He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.
+
+It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.
+
+But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.
+
+We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: "What doest thou here, Elijah?"
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: "Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal."
+
+Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.
+
+Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+"left all and followed" the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to "the sons of the prophets," among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.
+
+After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.
+
+Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.
+
+After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.
+
+In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. "God forbid," said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, "that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers." Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.
+
+Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.
+
+But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.
+
+Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.
+
+But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+"before all the people." But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: "Thus saith Jehovah!"--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine." The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, "Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!" And
+terrible was the response: "Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat."
+
+When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.
+
+In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.
+
+Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.
+
+The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.
+
+It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.
+
+To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: "Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die." On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: "Why are ye now turned back?" They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: "What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?" They
+answered, "He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins." The king cried, "It is Elijah the Tishbite." Again his enemy
+had found him!
+
+Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. "If I
+am a man of God," said Elijah, "let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty." The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, "O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight." And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, "Go down with him; be not afraid of him." And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.
+
+So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.
+
+With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.
+
+This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, "Is it peace, Jehu?" "Peace!" replied
+Jehu; "what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?" In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, "There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!" An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.
+
+In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: "What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?" "Are there any on my side?" was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. "Throw her down!" ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, "for," said he, "she is a king's
+daughter;" but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.
+
+So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.
+
+It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+"mysterious," because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the "Jehovah" of Elijah and the "Father" of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+"remnant"--of the Hebrew race.
+
+The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.
+
+It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.
+
+Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'"--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, "and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled."
+
+
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+
+PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+
+To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.
+
+Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them "did right in
+the sight of the Lord;" and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.
+
+During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.
+
+The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.
+
+Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: "The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,"--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.
+
+In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, "Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?" But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a "revival of religion" meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that "under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David."
+
+A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.
+
+The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.
+
+Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.
+
+Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--"Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness."
+
+It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.
+
+Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.
+
+The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.
+
+In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove "a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land." The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.
+
+The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.
+
+Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.
+
+The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: "Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+"Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord." The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. "My people," said he, "do not consider." He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. "To what purpose," said he, "is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow."
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.
+
+There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--"Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,"--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+"the living God," who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. "To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint." Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.
+
+Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool."
+
+According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to _them_: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.
+
+I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for "I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;"--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.
+
+The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. "The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,"--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+"Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot." The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. "Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,"--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.
+
+Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.
+
+From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. "Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire." In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.
+
+The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. "Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there." Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.
+
+The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. "It goeth
+before destruction." Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, "Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?" There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.
+
+The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that "every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom." Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. "He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it." And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: "Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance."
+
+It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. "Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth." The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.
+
+Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+"Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation." We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?
+
+Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--"a
+remnant shall return." This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.
+
+Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, "Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." God's mercy is
+past finding out. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!"
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.
+
+Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+"come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots," but he shall be "a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors." Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, "whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever."
+
+Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.
+
+Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors "should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks." Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only "a remnant should
+be saved." Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. "The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it."
+
+In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called "forsaken," but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. "Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land," saith the poet, "wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time."
+
+Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? "Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord."
+
+This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--
+
+     "Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!
+      Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!
+     See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,
+     See future sons and daughters yet unborn!
+     See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,
+     Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!
+     See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,
+     And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!
+     No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,
+     Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;
+     But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,
+     One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze
+     O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine
+     Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!
+     The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,
+     Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;
+     But fixed His word, His saving power remains:
+     Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!"
+
+
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+
+ABOUT 629-580 B.C.
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.
+
+Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: "Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!" Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.
+
+Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. "My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria."
+
+In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.
+
+Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.
+
+Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.
+
+Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by "the words of the book," and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The "high places," on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.
+
+An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having "taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel," even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had "killed the passover" and "sprinkled the blood from
+their hands," each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. "It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole."
+
+After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?" he mournfully exclaims. "Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well." He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.
+
+Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: "What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not." But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.
+
+The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.
+
+The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.
+
+After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.
+
+Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied "smooth things" to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.
+
+In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.
+
+Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.
+
+This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.
+
+Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: "Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence." Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. "Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?" Jehovah replies: "If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor."
+
+Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. "Come," said his enemies to the crowd, "let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him." On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. "O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword."
+
+And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. "And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered." Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.
+
+Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the "scarlet mother." Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. "For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword." And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: "And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies."
+
+We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.
+
+Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abbe Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!
+
+Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. "Cursed
+be the day," he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, "on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?" A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.
+
+Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.
+
+It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.
+
+Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. "Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates."
+
+No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.
+
+On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.
+
+Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.
+
+In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.
+
+One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.
+
+Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.
+
+The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: "Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand." A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. "Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you." The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.
+
+Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: "Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace." On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years." Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: "I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah."
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.
+
+Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+"Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!"
+
+Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But "whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad." Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.
+
+As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.
+
+From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.
+
+
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+
+DIED, 160 B.C.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+
+After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.
+
+But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.
+
+On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the debris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.
+
+Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a "remnant" of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.
+
+A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.
+
+A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.
+
+Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.
+
+Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.
+
+Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.
+
+The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.
+
+Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.
+
+The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.
+
+Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.
+
+Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the "kings of the North" were more
+hostile to the Jews than the "kings of the South." In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.
+
+It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews "the abomination of
+desolation," which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.
+
+Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.
+
+The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. "Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt." Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.
+
+The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.
+
+The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. "Be it far from us," he said, "to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left."
+
+When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.
+
+For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, "Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!" A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.
+
+Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the _eclat_ of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.
+
+The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.
+
+On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called "The Maccabaeus" ("The Hammer," as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.
+
+Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for "victory," said he, "is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength." This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.
+
+King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.
+
+Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.
+
+Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.
+
+Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.
+
+When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.
+
+The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.
+
+Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.
+
+In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.
+
+The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.
+
+The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as "the Maccabees."
+
+This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.
+
+With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.
+
+Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.
+
+Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.
+
+The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, "How is the valiant fallen!" A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.
+
+The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.
+
+Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.
+
+Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.
+
+Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.
+
+With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.
+
+John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.
+
+On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).
+
+Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.
+
+The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.
+
+Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be "born
+king of the Jews." He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.
+
+Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.
+
+Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in "the fulness of
+time," the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+
+DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+
+The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.
+
+Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.
+
+The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.
+
+It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.
+
+Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.
+
+Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.
+
+How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.
+
+Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.
+
+No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.
+
+A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or "church," as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+"Christians," mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.
+
+With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.
+
+In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.
+
+The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.
+
+No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.
+
+From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.
+
+From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.
+
+The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.
+
+At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.
+
+From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.
+
+One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.
+
+On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.
+
+So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as "Apostle to the Gentiles" was
+officially confirmed.
+
+The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.
+
+The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.
+
+The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.
+
+"The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia," crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.
+
+After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.
+
+So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.
+
+While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.
+
+The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. "As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge."
+
+Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.
+
+Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.
+
+When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: "If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters." He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio "flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;" for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.
+
+While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.
+
+The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to "have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus," showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.
+
+Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.
+
+Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.
+
+But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--"more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,"--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, "killed all the day long," carrying about him wherever he
+went "the deadness of the crucified Christ."
+
+Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.
+
+Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, "the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,"--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.
+
+Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: "Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches."
+
+It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.
+
+I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.
+
+I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.
+
+The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--"the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,"--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, "You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses." There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.
+
+Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, "Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!" And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.
+
+On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.
+
+Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.
+
+Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+"Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go." Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.
+
+In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!" When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar." Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.
+
+The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.
+
+The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his "beloved physician" and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.[4] But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.
+
+[Footnote 4: There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in "the extremity of the West" (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.]
+
+At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.
+
+But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.
+
+Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the "Rock" which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.
+
+As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: "I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
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+eBook #10478 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10478)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: iso-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+LORD'S LECTURES
+
+BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II
+
+JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.
+
+BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE,"
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose
+Civilization in his age
+Ancestors of Abram
+His settlement in Haran
+His moral courage
+The call of Abram
+His migrations
+The Canaanites
+Abram in Egypt
+Separation between Abram and Lot
+Melchizedek
+Abram covenants with God
+The mission of the Hebrews
+The faith of Abram
+Its peculiarities
+Trials of faith
+God's covenant with Abram
+The sacrifice of Isaac
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations
+Universality of sacrifice
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?
+Supreme test of his faith
+His obedience to God
+His righteousness
+Supremacy of religious faith
+Abraham's defects
+The most favored of mortals
+The boons he bestowed
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+Early days of Joseph
+Envy of his brethren
+Sale of Joseph
+Its providential results
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt
+The imprisonment of Joseph
+Favor with the king
+Joseph prime minister
+The Shepherd kings
+The service of Joseph to the king
+Famine in Egypt
+Power of Pharaoh
+Power of the priests
+Character of the priests
+Knowledge of the priests
+Teachings of the priests
+Egyptian gods
+Antiquity of sacrifices
+Civilization of Egypt
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge
+Austerity to his brethren
+Grief of Jacob
+Severity of the famine in Canaan
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin
+His continued austerity to his brethren
+Joseph at length reveals himself
+The kindness of Pharaoh
+Israel in Egypt
+Prosperity of the Israelites
+Old age of Jacob
+His blessing to Joseph's sons
+Jacob's predictions
+Death of Jacob
+Death of Joseph
+Character of Joseph
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt
+Rameses the Great
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE
+
+Exalted mission of Moses
+His appearance at a great crisis
+His early advantages and education
+His premature ambition
+His retirement to the wilderness
+Description of the land of Midian
+Studies and meditations of Moses
+The Book of Genesis
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt
+Appearance before Pharaoh
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites
+Their sojourn in the wilderness
+The labors of Moses
+His Moral Code
+Universality of the obligations
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society
+Immortality seemingly ignored
+The possible reason of Moses
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt
+The Civil Code of Moses
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites
+The wisdom of the Civil Code
+Source of the wisdom of Moses
+The divine legation of Moses
+Logical consequences of its denial
+General character of Moses
+His last days
+His influence
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua
+The Judges
+Birth and youth of Samuel
+The Jewish Theocracy
+Eli and his sons
+Samuel called to be judge
+His efforts to rekindle religious life
+The school of the prophets
+The people want a king
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government
+He tells the people the consequences
+Persistency of the Israelites
+Condition of the nation
+Saul privately anointed king
+Clothed with regal power
+Mistakes and wars of Saul
+Spares Agag
+Rebuked by Samuel
+Samuel withdraws into retirement
+Seeks a successor to Saul
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David
+Saul becomes proud and jealous
+His wars with the Philistines
+Great victory at Michmash
+Death of Samuel
+Universal mourning
+His character as Prophet
+His moral greatness
+His transcendent influence
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+David as an historical study
+Early days of David
+His accomplishments
+His connection with Saul
+His love for Jonathan
+Death of Saul
+David becomes king
+Death of Abner
+David generally recognized as king
+Makes Jerusalem his capital
+Alliance with Hiram
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark
+Folly of David's Wife
+Organization of the kingdom
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army
+The court of David
+His polygamy
+War with Moab
+War with the Ammonites
+Conquest of the Edomites
+Bathsheba
+David's shame and repentance
+Edward Irving on David's fall
+Its causes
+Census of the people
+Why this was a folly
+Wickedness of David's children
+Amnon
+Alienation of David's subjects
+The famine in Judah
+Revolt of Sheba
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre
+Troubles and trials of David
+Preparation for building the Temple
+David's wealth
+His premature old age
+Absalom's rebellion and death
+David's final labors
+His character as a man and a monarch
+Why he was a man after God's own heart
+David's services
+His Psalms
+Their mighty influence
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+Early years of Solomon
+His first acts as monarch
+The prosperity of his kingdom
+Glory of Solomon
+His mistakes
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess
+His harem
+Building of the Temple
+Its magnificence
+The treasures accumulated in it
+Its dedication
+The sacrifices in its honor
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals
+The royal palace in Jerusalem
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon
+Excessive taxation of the people
+Forced labor
+Change of habits and pursuits
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury
+His unpopularity
+His latter days of shame
+His death
+Character
+Influence of his reign
+His writings
+Their great value
+The Canticles
+The Proverbs
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes
+Hidden meaning of the book
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom
+His wisdom confirmed by experience
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
+
+Evil days fall on Israel
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves
+Other innovations
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem
+City saved only by immense contribution
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom
+Ruled by bad kings
+Given to idolatry under Ahab
+Influence of Jezebel
+The priests of Baal
+The apostasy of Israel
+The prophet Elijah
+His extraordinary appearance
+Appears before Ahab
+Announces calamities
+Flight of Elijah
+The drought
+The woman of Zarephath
+Shields and feeds Elijah
+He restores her son to life
+Miseries of the drought
+Elijah confronts Ahab
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal
+Triumphs, and slays them
+Elijah promises rain
+The tempest
+Ahab seeks Jezebel
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath
+Second flight of Elijah
+His weakness and fear
+The still small voice
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet
+He becomes the companion of Elijah
+Character and appearance of Elisha
+War between Ahab and Benhadad
+Naboth and his vineyard
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel
+Murder of Naboth
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah
+Despair of Ahab
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat
+Death of Ahab
+Regency of Jezebel
+Ahaziah and Elijah
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead
+Reaction to idolatry
+Jehu
+Death of Jezebel
+Death of Ahaziah
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu
+Extermination of idolatry
+Last days of Elijah
+His translation
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel
+A succession of virtuous princes
+Syrian wars
+The prophet Joel
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah
+Internal decay
+Assyrian conquests
+Tiglath-pilneser
+Fall of Damascus
+Fall of Samaria
+Demoralization of Jerusalem
+Birth of Isaiah
+His exalted character
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib
+Rebels anew
+Renewed invasion of Judah
+Signal deliverance
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah
+His terrible denunciations of sin
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching
+Holding out hope by repentance
+Absence of art in his writings
+National wickedness ending in calamities
+God's moral government
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled
+Woes denounced on Judah
+Fall of Babylon foretold
+Predicted woes of Moab
+Woes denounced on Egypt
+Calamities of Tyre
+General predictions of woe on other nations
+End and purpose of chastisements
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope
+The promised glories of the Chosen People
+Messianic promises
+Exultation of Isaiah
+His catholicity
+The promised reign of peace
+The future glories of the righteous
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world
+Messianic triumphs
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair
+Evil days in which he was born
+National misfortunes predicted
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy
+Renewed study of the Law
+The reforms of Josiah
+The greatness of Josiah
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms
+Necho II. extends his conquests
+Death of Josiah
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah
+Rapid decline of the kingdom
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho
+Shallum succeeds Josiah
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum
+His follies
+Judah's relapse into idolatry
+Neglect of the Sabbath
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity
+His voice unheeded
+His despondency
+Fall of Nineveh
+Defeat and retreat of Necho
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar
+Appears before Jerusalem
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem
+Revolt of the city
+Zedekiah the king temporizes
+Expostulations of Jeremiah
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience
+Second fall of Jerusalem
+The captivity
+Weeping by the river of Babylon
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon
+Condition of Jerusalem
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity
+The Pharisees
+The Sadducees
+Synagogues, their number and popularity
+The Jewish Sanhedrim
+Advance in sacred literature
+Apocryphal Books
+Isolation of the Jews
+Dark age of Jewish history
+Power of the high priests
+The Persian Empire
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire
+Jews at Alexandria
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians
+The Syrian kings
+Antiochus Epiphanes
+His persecution of the Jews
+Helplessness of the Jews
+Sack of Jerusalem
+Desecration of the Temple
+Mattathias
+His piety and bravery
+Revolt of Mattathias
+Slaughter of the Jews
+Death of Mattathias
+His gallant sons
+Judas Maccabaeus
+His military genius
+The Syrian generals
+Wrath of Antiochus
+Desolation of Jerusalem
+Judas defeats the Syrian general
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple
+Fortifies Jerusalem
+The Feast of Dedication
+Renewed hostilities
+Successes of Judas
+Death of Antiochus
+Deliverance of the Jews
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip
+Death of Eleazer
+Bacchides
+Embassy to Rome
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan
+Heroism of Jonathan
+His death by treachery
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon
+Simon's military successes
+His prosperous administration
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus
+The Asmonean princes
+Pompey takes Jerusalem
+Accession of Herod the Great
+He destroys the Asmonean princes
+His prosperous reign
+Foundation of Caesarea
+Latter days of Herod
+Loathsome death of Herod
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Birth and early days of Saul
+His Phariseeism
+His persecution of the Christians
+His wonderful conversion
+His leading idea
+Saul a preacher at Damascus
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem
+Saul in Tarsus
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch
+Description of Antioch
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem
+Labors and discouragements
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer
+Missionary travels of Paul
+Paul converts Timothy
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe
+Return of Paul to Antioch
+Controversy about circumcision
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts
+Paul again visits Jerusalem
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches
+Tact of Paul
+Paul and Luke
+The missionaries at Philippi
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica
+Paul at Athens
+Character of the Athenians
+The success of Paul at Athens
+Paul goes to Corinth
+Paul led before Gallio
+Mistake of Gallio
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians
+Paul at Ephesus
+The Temple of Diana
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
+Popularity of Apollos
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians
+Paul again at Corinth
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans
+The Pauline theology
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
+His cold reception
+His arrest and imprisonment
+The trial of Paul before Felix
+Character of Felix
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix
+Paul's defence before Festus
+Paul appeals to Caesar
+Paul preaches before Agrippa
+His voyage to Italy
+Paul's life at Rome
+Character of Paul
+His magnificent services
+His triumphant death
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+The Wailing Wall of the Jews
+_After the painting by J.L. Gerome_.
+
+Abraham and Hagar
+_After the painting by Adrian van der Werff_.
+
+Joseph Sold by His Brethren.
+_After the painting by H.F. Schopin_.
+
+Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses
+_After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter_.
+
+Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea
+_After the painting by F.A. Bridgman_.
+
+Moses
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome_.
+
+David Kills Goliath
+_After the painting by W.L. Dodge_.
+
+David
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence_.
+
+Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven
+_After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt_.
+
+Isaiah
+_From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo_.
+
+A Sacrifice to Baal
+_After the painting by Henri Motte_.
+
+The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity
+_After the painting by E. Bendeman_.
+
+St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis
+_After the painting by Gebhart Fügel_.
+
+
+
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+
+From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.
+
+When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.
+
+There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. "There is no God!" or "Let there be no God!" has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the _necessary_ progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?
+
+Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the "call." His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.
+
+What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.
+
+So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.
+
+Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.
+
+In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.
+
+Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.
+
+Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, "were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes." The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.
+
+It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.
+
+Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.
+
+Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?
+
+The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.
+
+This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+"From first to last," says Geikie, "the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone."
+
+For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. "If we were asked," says Max Müller, "how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a _special divine revelation_." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.]
+
+If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.
+
+The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.
+
+With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the _Cogito,
+ergo sum_, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.
+
+No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of "father of the faithful,"--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.
+
+As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, "Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?" Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. "Whereby," said he,
+"shall I _know_ that I shall inherit it,"--that is Canaan,--"and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?" Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: "And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee." We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.
+
+A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God "tempted," or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.
+
+Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his "Blood Covenant" to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.]
+
+The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.
+
+Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+"accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead." Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;"
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.
+
+Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.
+
+"And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son," who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, "Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?" yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, "Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice."
+
+There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.
+
+The great interest we feel in Abraham is as "the father of the
+faithful," as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources _is_, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. "Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?"
+
+Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!
+
+With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?
+
+Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+
+No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.
+
+Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+"Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?" But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.
+
+But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!
+
+The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.
+
+The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, "The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!" And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.
+
+The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.
+
+Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.
+
+The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.
+
+This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.
+
+The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.
+
+Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves." Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.
+
+The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.
+
+This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.
+
+The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. "The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation." Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.
+
+How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+_animus mundi_, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.
+
+The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.
+
+The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.
+
+The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.
+
+In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.
+
+Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,
+
+But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.
+
+Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.
+
+So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. "Whence come ye?" he said
+roughly to them. They replied, "From the land of Canaan to buy corn,"
+"Nay," continued he, "ye are spies." "Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies." "Nay," he said, "to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,"--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, "Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not." But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. "If ye be true men," said he, "let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die." There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.
+
+Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+"Joseph is not," cried he, "and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!" Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: "My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave."
+
+Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. "The
+man," said he, "did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you." Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, "If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved," and hurried away his sons.
+
+In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.
+
+Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.
+
+Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. "Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither." And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.
+
+The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. "Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land." And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, "See that ye fall not out by
+the way!"
+
+And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die." The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.
+
+To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.
+
+In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.
+
+Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.
+
+It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.
+
+Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.
+
+When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.
+
+It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.
+
+Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.
+
+If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.
+
+Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.
+
+The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. "Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards." Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.
+
+It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.
+
+In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the "wisdom of
+the Egyptians." He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!
+
+
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+
+1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].
+
+HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.
+
+
+Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a "man
+of God," or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.
+
+He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old régime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, "The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!" And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.
+
+It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+fêted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.
+
+Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those _principia_ which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.
+
+The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, "a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation."
+
+It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.
+
+And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.
+
+Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great _I Am_, "Who am
+I, that _I_ should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice." In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.
+
+Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--"Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey _his_ voice?"--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.
+
+The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.
+
+The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.
+
+Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!
+
+But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.
+
+In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.
+
+The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, "for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation." So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it "the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,"--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+"thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;" thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.
+
+All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.
+
+The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.
+
+It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.
+
+The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.
+
+Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His _personality_ constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.
+
+In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, _because_ he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a _necessary_
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, "There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all." The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.
+
+The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.
+
+I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!
+
+Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.
+
+It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.
+
+We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, "And the Lord spake unto
+Moses"? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he _was_ directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.
+
+And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.
+
+Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.
+
+Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we _wish_ to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are "more advanced," as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.
+
+I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.
+
+Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.
+
+Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.
+
+     "This was the truest warrior
+        That ever buckled sword;
+      This the most gifted poet
+        That ever breathed a word:
+      And never earth's philosopher
+        Traced with his golden pen,
+      On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
+        As he wrote down for men."
+
+At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, "Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!" So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.
+
+     "That was the grandest funeral
+        That ever passed on earth;
+      But no one heard the trampling,
+        Or saw the train go forth,--
+      Perchance the bald old eagle
+        On gray Bethpeor's height,
+      Out of his lonely eyrie
+        Looked on the wondrous sight."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "And had he not high honor--
+        The hillside for a pall--
+      To lie in state, while angels wait
+        With stars for tapers tall;
+      And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
+        Over his bier to wave,
+      And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
+        To lay him in the grave?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "O lonely grave in Moab's land!
+        O dark Bethpeor's hill!
+      Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
+        And teach them to be still!
+      God hath his mysteries of grace,
+        Ways that we cannot tell;
+      He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep
+        Of him he loved so well."
+
+
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+
+1100 B.C.
+
+THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.
+
+
+After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.
+
+Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.
+
+On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, "nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers." The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days "every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes." It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.
+
+The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.
+
+It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.
+
+But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.
+
+The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. "The Theocracy," says Ewald, "by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance."
+
+And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.
+
+The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?
+
+It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. "It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;" for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.
+
+But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first "school of the prophets" was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.
+
+Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?
+
+The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.
+
+When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called "progressive
+leaders," hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.
+
+So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. "And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them." The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.
+
+Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: "This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day."
+
+Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, "Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles." It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.
+
+Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+"Give us a king once more!" and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.
+
+The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.
+
+The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.
+
+Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was "a
+choice young man, and a goodly." He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.
+
+Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was "taken,"--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, "See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!" And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, "God save the
+king!"--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.
+
+Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.
+
+Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. "Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand." Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: "Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king."
+
+Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. "Thou hast done foolishly," he
+said to the King; "for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee." We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.
+
+Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+"utterly destroy" certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and "endure as seeing
+him who is invisible." They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.
+
+Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: "Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry." The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.
+
+Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, "Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou." Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the "Lord's anointed," Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel "came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death." To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.
+
+Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.
+
+Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.
+
+In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. "Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace." It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.
+
+Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. "He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom."
+
+In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.
+
+In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.
+
+Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.
+
+
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+
+1055-1015 B.C.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+
+Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.
+
+The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.
+
+David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.
+
+Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.
+
+It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,[3]--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Footnote 3: Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.]
+
+Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. "Know ye," said David to his intimate friends, "that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes." He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+"Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?" The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.
+
+David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth "came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,"
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.
+
+The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time "David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him." After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.
+
+The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. "And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'"--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.
+
+"One heart alone," says Stanley, "amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love." Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!
+
+David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.
+
+But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.
+
+In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.
+
+It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. "We read," says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, "of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound." Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.
+
+Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. "Be sure your sin will find
+you out," is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. "Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!" What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.
+
+"Nor do we charge ourselves," says Edward Irving, "with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul."
+
+Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.
+
+We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. "O God!" he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, "I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!"
+
+If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?
+
+Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.
+
+In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own "great transgression." God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.
+
+Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.
+
+If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about £390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.
+
+David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. "Thou hast shamed this day," said Joab, "the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well." In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.
+
+The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. "When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?" Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?
+
+It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!" He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. "Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever." And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.
+
+When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.
+
+The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. "In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life," no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called "the sweet singer of Israel."
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! "Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise."
+
+What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.
+
+     Such is the tribute which all nations bring,
+     O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,
+     From distant ages to thy hallowed name,
+     Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!
+     No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,
+     No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.
+     Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,
+     And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.
+     O thou sweet singer of a favored race,
+     What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!
+     How varied and how rich are all thy lays
+     On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!
+     In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys
+     The promised glories of the latter days,
+     When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,
+     And richest blessings all the race shall find.
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+
+THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+ABOUT 993-953 B.C.
+
+
+We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.
+
+Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.
+
+Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.
+
+The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.
+
+But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. "When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,"
+says Stanley, "by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him."
+
+We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.
+
+Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.
+
+The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.
+
+Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.
+
+We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: "The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world." Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.
+
+As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. "And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,"--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, "Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!"
+
+Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should "appear before the Lord" and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?
+
+Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since "he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.
+
+To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+"The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded." A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.
+
+Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.
+
+I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.
+
+The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.
+
+In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.
+
+Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.
+
+Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.
+
+The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. "Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised." How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!
+
+If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.
+
+There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.
+
+In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. "In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity." Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself "the preacher," and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of "fashionable worshippers" or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!
+
+I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. "Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God."
+
+So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.
+
+These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.
+
+The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.
+
+Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.
+
+Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.
+
+Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+"Vanity of vanities" write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!
+
+This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.
+
+
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+
+NINTH CENTURY B.C.
+
+DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.
+
+
+Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--"a sure house." Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.
+
+It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.
+
+Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as "the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin." He says: "The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it."
+
+For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.
+
+These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.
+
+Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.
+
+Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was "a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey." It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.
+
+The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.
+
+On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.
+
+The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their "religion," the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.
+
+The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.
+
+Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as "the Tishbite,"--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: "As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word."
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.
+
+Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.
+
+And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.
+
+The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.
+
+It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: "Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;" and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, "Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand."
+
+This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.
+
+It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.
+
+The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. "Verily, I say unto you," said a
+greater than Elijah, "whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward." Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.
+
+Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who "troubled Israel," Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. "Art thou he who troubleth Israel?" Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: "I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim." He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.
+
+The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. "How long," cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, "halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, _follow_ him; but if Baal be God, then follow _him_." The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.
+
+Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, "O Baal, hear us!" We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. "Cry with a loud voice!" said he, "yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened." And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.
+
+Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: "O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again." Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, "Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!"
+
+Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.
+
+The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+"Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain." And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.
+
+Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: "Go up now, and look
+toward the sea." And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.
+
+Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them." In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.
+
+And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. "It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers." He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.
+
+It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.
+
+But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.
+
+We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: "What doest thou here, Elijah?"
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: "Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal."
+
+Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.
+
+Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+"left all and followed" the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to "the sons of the prophets," among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.
+
+After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.
+
+Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.
+
+After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.
+
+In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. "God forbid," said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, "that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers." Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.
+
+Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.
+
+But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.
+
+Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.
+
+But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+"before all the people." But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: "Thus saith Jehovah!"--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine." The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, "Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!" And
+terrible was the response: "Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat."
+
+When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.
+
+In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.
+
+Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.
+
+The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.
+
+It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.
+
+To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: "Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die." On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: "Why are ye now turned back?" They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: "What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?" They
+answered, "He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins." The king cried, "It is Elijah the Tishbite." Again his enemy
+had found him!
+
+Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. "If I
+am a man of God," said Elijah, "let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty." The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, "O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight." And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, "Go down with him; be not afraid of him." And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.
+
+So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.
+
+With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.
+
+This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, "Is it peace, Jehu?" "Peace!" replied
+Jehu; "what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?" In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, "There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!" An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.
+
+In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: "What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?" "Are there any on my side?" was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. "Throw her down!" ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, "for," said he, "she is a king's
+daughter;" but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.
+
+So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.
+
+It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+"mysterious," because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the "Jehovah" of Elijah and the "Father" of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+"remnant"--of the Hebrew race.
+
+The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.
+
+It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.
+
+Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'"--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, "and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled."
+
+
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+
+PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+
+To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.
+
+Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them "did right in
+the sight of the Lord;" and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.
+
+During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.
+
+The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.
+
+Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: "The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,"--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.
+
+In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, "Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?" But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a "revival of religion" meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that "under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David."
+
+A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.
+
+The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.
+
+Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.
+
+Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--"Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness."
+
+It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.
+
+Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.
+
+The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.
+
+In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove "a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land." The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.
+
+The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.
+
+Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.
+
+The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: "Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+"Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord." The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. "My people," said he, "do not consider." He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. "To what purpose," said he, "is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow."
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.
+
+There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--"Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,"--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+"the living God," who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. "To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint." Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.
+
+Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool."
+
+According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to _them_: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.
+
+I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for "I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;"--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.
+
+The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. "The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,"--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+"Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot." The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. "Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,"--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.
+
+Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.
+
+From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. "Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire." In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.
+
+The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. "Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there." Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.
+
+The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. "It goeth
+before destruction." Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, "Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?" There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.
+
+The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that "every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom." Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. "He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it." And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: "Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance."
+
+It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. "Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth." The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.
+
+Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+"Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation." We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?
+
+Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--"a
+remnant shall return." This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.
+
+Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, "Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." God's mercy is
+past finding out. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!"
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.
+
+Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+"come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots," but he shall be "a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors." Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, "whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever."
+
+Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.
+
+Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors "should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks." Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only "a remnant should
+be saved." Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. "The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it."
+
+In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called "forsaken," but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. "Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land," saith the poet, "wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time."
+
+Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? "Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord."
+
+This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--
+
+     "Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!
+      Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!
+     See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,
+     See future sons and daughters yet unborn!
+     See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,
+     Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!
+     See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,
+     And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!
+     No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,
+     Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;
+     But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,
+     One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze
+     O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine
+     Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!
+     The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,
+     Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;
+     But fixed His word, His saving power remains:
+     Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!"
+
+
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+
+ABOUT 629-580 B.C.
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.
+
+Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: "Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!" Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.
+
+Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. "My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria."
+
+In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.
+
+Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.
+
+Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.
+
+Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by "the words of the book," and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The "high places," on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.
+
+An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having "taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel," even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had "killed the passover" and "sprinkled the blood from
+their hands," each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. "It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole."
+
+After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?" he mournfully exclaims. "Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well." He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.
+
+Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: "What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not." But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.
+
+The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.
+
+The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.
+
+After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.
+
+Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied "smooth things" to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.
+
+In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.
+
+Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.
+
+This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.
+
+Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: "Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence." Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. "Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?" Jehovah replies: "If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor."
+
+Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. "Come," said his enemies to the crowd, "let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him." On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. "O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword."
+
+And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. "And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered." Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.
+
+Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the "scarlet mother." Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. "For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword." And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: "And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies."
+
+We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.
+
+Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abbé Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!
+
+Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. "Cursed
+be the day," he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, "on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?" A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.
+
+Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.
+
+It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.
+
+Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. "Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates."
+
+No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.
+
+On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.
+
+Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.
+
+In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.
+
+One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.
+
+Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.
+
+The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: "Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand." A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. "Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you." The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.
+
+Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: "Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace." On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years." Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: "I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah."
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.
+
+Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+"Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!"
+
+Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But "whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad." Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.
+
+As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.
+
+From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.
+
+
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+
+DIED, 160 B.C.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+
+After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.
+
+But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.
+
+On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the débris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.
+
+Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a "remnant" of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.
+
+A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.
+
+A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.
+
+Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.
+
+Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.
+
+Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.
+
+The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.
+
+Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.
+
+The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.
+
+Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.
+
+Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the "kings of the North" were more
+hostile to the Jews than the "kings of the South." In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.
+
+It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews "the abomination of
+desolation," which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.
+
+Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.
+
+The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. "Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt." Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.
+
+The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.
+
+The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. "Be it far from us," he said, "to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left."
+
+When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.
+
+For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, "Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!" A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.
+
+Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the _éclat_ of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.
+
+The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.
+
+On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called "The Maccabaeus" ("The Hammer," as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.
+
+Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for "victory," said he, "is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength." This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.
+
+King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.
+
+Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.
+
+Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.
+
+Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.
+
+When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.
+
+The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.
+
+Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.
+
+In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.
+
+The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.
+
+The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as "the Maccabees."
+
+This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.
+
+With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.
+
+Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.
+
+Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.
+
+The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, "How is the valiant fallen!" A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.
+
+The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.
+
+Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.
+
+Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.
+
+Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.
+
+With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.
+
+John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.
+
+On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).
+
+Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.
+
+The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.
+
+Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be "born
+king of the Jews." He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.
+
+Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.
+
+Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in "the fulness of
+time," the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+
+DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+
+The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.
+
+Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.
+
+The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.
+
+It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.
+
+Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.
+
+Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.
+
+How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.
+
+Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.
+
+No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.
+
+A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or "church," as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+"Christians," mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.
+
+With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.
+
+In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.
+
+The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.
+
+No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.
+
+From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.
+
+From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.
+
+The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.
+
+At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.
+
+From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.
+
+One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.
+
+On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.
+
+So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as "Apostle to the Gentiles" was
+officially confirmed.
+
+The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.
+
+The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.
+
+The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.
+
+"The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia," crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.
+
+After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.
+
+So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.
+
+While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.
+
+The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. "As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge."
+
+Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.
+
+Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.
+
+When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: "If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters." He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio "flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;" for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.
+
+While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.
+
+The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to "have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus," showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.
+
+Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.
+
+Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.
+
+But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--"more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,"--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, "killed all the day long," carrying about him wherever he
+went "the deadness of the crucified Christ."
+
+Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.
+
+Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, "the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,"--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.
+
+Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: "Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches."
+
+It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.
+
+I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.
+
+I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.
+
+The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--"the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,"--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, "You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses." There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.
+
+Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, "Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!" And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.
+
+On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.
+
+Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.
+
+Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+"Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go." Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.
+
+In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!" When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar." Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.
+
+The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.
+
+The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his "beloved physician" and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.[4] But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.
+
+[Footnote 4: There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in "the extremity of the West" (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.]
+
+At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.
+
+But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.
+
+Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the "Rock" which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.
+
+As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: "I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."
+
+
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John Lord</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: iso-8859-1
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II***
+
+</pre>
+<center><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner,<br>
+            and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3></center>
+
+<hr class="full">
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><i>LORD'S LECTURES</i></center>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2>
+
+<h2>BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.</h2>
+
+<center>AUTHOR OF &quot;THE OLD ROMAN WORLD,&quot; &quot;MODERN EUROPE,&quot;
+ETC., ETC.</center>
+<br><br>
+
+<h2>VOLUME II.</h2>
+
+<h2>JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><i><a href="#ABRAHAM.">ABRAHAM</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>RELIGIOUS FAITH.</p>
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations<br>
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose<br>
+Civilization in his age<br>
+Ancestors of Abram<br>
+His settlement in Haran<br>
+His moral courage<br>
+The call of Abram<br>
+His migrations<br>
+The Canaanites<br>
+Abram in Egypt<br>
+Separation between Abram and Lot<br>
+Melchizedek<br>
+Abram covenants with God<br>
+The mission of the Hebrews<br>
+The faith of Abram<br>
+Its peculiarities<br>
+Trials of faith<br>
+God's covenant with Abram<br>
+The sacrifice of Isaac<br>
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations<br>
+Universality of sacrifice<br>
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?<br>
+Supreme test of his faith<br>
+His obedience to God<br>
+His righteousness<br>
+Supremacy of religious faith<br>
+Abraham's defects<br>
+The most favored of mortals<br>
+The boons he bestowed<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JOSEPH.">JOSEPH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAEL IN EGYPT.</p>
+
+Early days of Joseph<br>
+Envy of his brethren<br>
+Sale of Joseph<br>
+Its providential results<br>
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt<br>
+The imprisonment of Joseph<br>
+Favor with the king<br>
+Joseph prime minister<br>
+The Shepherd kings<br>
+The service of Joseph to the king<br>
+Famine in Egypt<br>
+Power of Pharaoh<br>
+Power of the priests<br>
+Character of the priests<br>
+Knowledge of the priests<br>
+Teachings of the priests<br>
+Egyptian gods<br>
+Antiquity of sacrifices<br>
+Civilization of Egypt<br>
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge<br>
+Austerity to his brethren<br>
+Grief of Jacob<br>
+Severity of the famine in Canaan<br>
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin<br>
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin<br>
+His continued austerity to his brethren<br>
+Joseph at length reveals himself<br>
+The kindness of Pharaoh<br>
+Israel in Egypt<br>
+Prosperity of the Israelites<br>
+Old age of Jacob<br>
+His blessing to Joseph's sons<br>
+Jacob's predictions<br>
+Death of Jacob<br>
+Death of Joseph<br>
+Character of Joseph<br>
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt<br>
+Rameses the Great<br>
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt<br>
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#MOSES.">MOSES</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE</p>
+
+Exalted mission of Moses<br>
+His appearance at a great crisis<br>
+His early advantages and education<br>
+His premature ambition<br>
+His retirement to the wilderness<br>
+Description of the land of Midian<br>
+Studies and meditations of Moses<br>
+The Book of Genesis<br>
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt<br>
+Appearance before Pharaoh<br>
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites<br>
+Their sojourn in the wilderness<br>
+The labors of Moses<br>
+His Moral Code<br>
+Universality of the obligations<br>
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments<br>
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws<br>
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society<br>
+Immortality seemingly ignored<br>
+The possible reason of Moses<br>
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt<br>
+The Civil Code of Moses<br>
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites<br>
+The wisdom of the Civil Code<br>
+Source of the wisdom of Moses<br>
+The divine legation of Moses<br>
+Logical consequences of its denial<br>
+General character of Moses<br>
+His last days<br>
+His influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SAMUEL.">SAMUEL</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.</p>
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua<br>
+The Judges<br>
+Birth and youth of Samuel<br>
+The Jewish Theocracy<br>
+Eli and his sons<br>
+Samuel called to be judge<br>
+His efforts to rekindle religious life<br>
+The school of the prophets<br>
+The people want a king<br>
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government<br>
+He tells the people the consequences<br>
+Persistency of the Israelites<br>
+Condition of the nation<br>
+Saul privately anointed king<br>
+Clothed with regal power<br>
+Mistakes and wars of Saul<br>
+Spares Agag<br>
+Rebuked by Samuel<br>
+Samuel withdraws into retirement<br>
+Seeks a successor to Saul<br>
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David<br>
+Saul becomes proud and jealous<br>
+His wars with the Philistines<br>
+Great victory at Michmash<br>
+Death of Samuel<br>
+Universal mourning<br>
+His character as Prophet<br>
+His moral greatness<br>
+His transcendent influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#DAVID.">DAVID</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.</p>
+
+David as an historical study<br>
+Early days of David<br>
+His accomplishments<br>
+His connection with Saul<br>
+His love for Jonathan<br>
+Death of Saul<br>
+David becomes king<br>
+Death of Abner<br>
+David generally recognized as king<br>
+Makes Jerusalem his capital<br>
+Alliance with Hiram<br>
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark<br>
+Folly of David's Wife<br>
+Organization of the kingdom<br>
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army<br>
+The court of David<br>
+His polygamy<br>
+War with Moab<br>
+War with the Ammonites<br>
+Conquest of the Edomites<br>
+Bathsheba<br>
+David's shame and repentance<br>
+Edward Irving on David's fall<br>
+Its causes<br>
+Census of the people<br>
+Why this was a folly<br>
+Wickedness of David's children<br>
+Amnon<br>
+Alienation of David's subjects<br>
+The famine in Judah<br>
+Revolt of Sheba<br>
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre<br>
+Troubles and trials of David<br>
+Preparation for building the Temple<br>
+David's wealth<br>
+His premature old age<br>
+Absalom's rebellion and death<br>
+David's final labors<br>
+His character as a man and a monarch<br>
+Why he was a man after God's own heart<br>
+David's services<br>
+His Psalms<br>
+Their mighty influence<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SOLOMON.">SOLOMON</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.</p>
+
+Early years of Solomon<br>
+His first acts as monarch<br>
+The prosperity of his kingdom<br>
+Glory of Solomon<br>
+His mistakes<br>
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess<br>
+His harem<br>
+Building of the Temple<br>
+Its magnificence<br>
+The treasures accumulated in it<br>
+Its dedication<br>
+The sacrifices in its honor<br>
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals<br>
+The royal palace in Jerusalem<br>
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon<br>
+Excessive taxation of the people<br>
+Forced labor<br>
+Change of habits and pursuits<br>
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury<br>
+His unpopularity<br>
+His latter days of shame<br>
+His death<br>
+Character<br>
+Influence of his reign<br>
+His writings<br>
+Their great value<br>
+The Canticles<br>
+The Proverbs<br>
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge<br>
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs<br>
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes<br>
+Hidden meaning of the book<br>
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom<br>
+His wisdom confirmed by experience<br>
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#ELIJAH.">ELIJAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.</p>
+
+Evil days fall on Israel<br>
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam<br>
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves<br>
+Other innovations<br>
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem<br>
+City saved only by immense contribution<br>
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom<br>
+Ruled by bad kings<br>
+Given to idolatry under Ahab<br>
+Influence of Jezebel<br>
+The priests of Baal<br>
+The apostasy of Israel<br>
+The prophet Elijah<br>
+His extraordinary appearance<br>
+Appears before Ahab<br>
+Announces calamities<br>
+Flight of Elijah<br>
+The drought<br>
+The woman of Zarephath<br>
+Shields and feeds Elijah<br>
+He restores her son to life<br>
+Miseries of the drought<br>
+Elijah confronts Ahab<br>
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel<br>
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal<br>
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal<br>
+Triumphs, and slays them<br>
+Elijah promises rain<br>
+The tempest<br>
+Ahab seeks Jezebel<br>
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath<br>
+Second flight of Elijah<br>
+His weakness and fear<br>
+The still small voice<br>
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet<br>
+He becomes the companion of Elijah<br>
+Character and appearance of Elisha<br>
+War between Ahab and Benhadad<br>
+Naboth and his vineyard<br>
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab<br>
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel<br>
+Murder of Naboth<br>
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah<br>
+Despair of Ahab<br>
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat<br>
+Death of Ahab<br>
+Regency of Jezebel<br>
+Ahaziah and Elijah<br>
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead<br>
+Reaction to idolatry<br>
+Jehu<br>
+Death of Jezebel<br>
+Death of Ahaziah<br>
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu<br>
+Extermination of idolatry<br>
+Last days of Elijah<br>
+His translation<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#ISAIAH.">ISAIAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>NATIONAL DEGENERACY.</p>
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel<br>
+A succession of virtuous princes<br>
+Syrian wars<br>
+The prophet Joel<br>
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah<br>
+Internal decay<br>
+Assyrian conquests<br>
+Tiglath-pilneser<br>
+Fall of Damascus<br>
+Fall of Samaria<br>
+Demoralization of Jerusalem<br>
+Birth of Isaiah<br>
+His exalted character<br>
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians<br>
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib<br>
+Rebels anew<br>
+Renewed invasion of Judah<br>
+Signal deliverance<br>
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah<br>
+His terrible denunciations of sin<br>
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching<br>
+Holding out hope by repentance<br>
+Absence of art in his writings<br>
+National wickedness ending in calamities<br>
+God's moral government<br>
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled<br>
+Woes denounced on Judah<br>
+Fall of Babylon foretold<br>
+Predicted woes of Moab<br>
+Woes denounced on Egypt<br>
+Calamities of Tyre<br>
+General predictions of woe on other nations<br>
+End and purpose of chastisements<br>
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope<br>
+The promised glories of the Chosen People<br>
+Messianic promises<br>
+Exultation of Isaiah<br>
+His catholicity<br>
+The promised reign of peace<br>
+The future glories of the righteous<br>
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world<br>
+Messianic triumphs<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JEREMIAH.">JEREMIAH</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>FALL OF JERUSALEM.</p>
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah<br>
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah<br>
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair<br>
+Evil days in which he was born<br>
+National misfortunes predicted<br>
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times<br>
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy<br>
+Renewed study of the Law<br>
+The reforms of Josiah<br>
+The greatness of Josiah<br>
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness<br>
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms<br>
+Necho II. extends his conquests<br>
+Death of Josiah<br>
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah<br>
+Rapid decline of the kingdom<br>
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned<br>
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho<br>
+Shallum succeeds Josiah<br>
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum<br>
+His follies<br>
+Judah's relapse into idolatry<br>
+Neglect of the Sabbath<br>
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity<br>
+His voice unheeded<br>
+His despondency<br>
+Fall of Nineveh<br>
+Defeat and retreat of Necho<br>
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar<br>
+Appears before Jerusalem<br>
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed<br>
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem<br>
+Revolt of the city<br>
+Zedekiah the king temporizes<br>
+Expostulations of Jeremiah<br>
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience<br>
+Second fall of Jerusalem<br>
+The captivity<br>
+Weeping by the river of Babylon<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#JUDAS_MACCABAEUS.">JUDAS MACCABAEUS</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.</p>
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon<br>
+Condition of Jerusalem<br>
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry<br>
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity<br>
+The Pharisees<br>
+The Sadducees<br>
+Synagogues, their number and popularity<br>
+The Jewish Sanhedrim<br>
+Advance in sacred literature<br>
+Apocryphal Books<br>
+Isolation of the Jews<br>
+Dark age of Jewish history<br>
+Power of the high priests<br>
+The Persian Empire<br>
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire<br>
+Jews at Alexandria<br>
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians<br>
+The Syrian kings<br>
+Antiochus Epiphanes<br>
+His persecution of the Jews<br>
+Helplessness of the Jews<br>
+Sack of Jerusalem<br>
+Desecration of the Temple<br>
+Mattathias<br>
+His piety and bravery<br>
+Revolt of Mattathias<br>
+Slaughter of the Jews<br>
+Death of Mattathias<br>
+His gallant sons<br>
+Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+His military genius<br>
+The Syrian generals<br>
+Wrath of Antiochus<br>
+Desolation of Jerusalem<br>
+Judas defeats the Syrian general<br>
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple<br>
+Fortifies Jerusalem<br>
+The Feast of Dedication<br>
+Renewed hostilities<br>
+Successes of Judas<br>
+Death of Antiochus<br>
+Deliverance of the Jews<br>
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip<br>
+Death of Eleazer<br>
+Bacchides<br>
+Embassy to Rome<br>
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus<br>
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan<br>
+Heroism of Jonathan<br>
+His death by treachery<br>
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon<br>
+Simon's military successes<br>
+His prosperous administration<br>
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus<br>
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus<br>
+The Asmonean princes<br>
+Pompey takes Jerusalem<br>
+Accession of Herod the Great<br>
+He destroys the Asmonean princes<br>
+His prosperous reign<br>
+Foundation of Caesarea<br>
+Latter days of Herod<br>
+Loathsome death of Herod<br>
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><i><a href="#SAINT_PAUL.">SAINT PAUL</a></i>.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.</p>
+
+Birth and early days of Saul<br>
+His Phariseeism<br>
+His persecution of the Christians<br>
+His wonderful conversion<br>
+His leading idea<br>
+Saul a preacher at Damascus<br>
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem<br>
+Saul in Tarsus<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch<br>
+Description of Antioch<br>
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem<br>
+Labors and discouragements<br>
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus<br>
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer<br>
+Missionary travels of Paul<br>
+Paul converts Timothy<br>
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe<br>
+Return of Paul to Antioch<br>
+Controversy about circumcision<br>
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts<br>
+Paul again visits Jerusalem<br>
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel<br>
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion<br>
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches<br>
+Tact of Paul<br>
+Paul and Luke<br>
+The missionaries at Philippi<br>
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica<br>
+Paul at Athens<br>
+Character of the Athenians<br>
+The success of Paul at Athens<br>
+Paul goes to Corinth<br>
+Paul led before Gallio<br>
+Mistake of Gallio<br>
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians<br>
+Paul at Ephesus<br>
+The Temple of Diana<br>
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus<br>
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians<br>
+Popularity of Apollos<br>
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians<br>
+Paul again at Corinth<br>
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans<br>
+The Pauline theology<br>
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem<br>
+His cold reception<br>
+His arrest and imprisonment<br>
+The trial of Paul before Felix<br>
+Character of Felix<br>
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix<br>
+Paul's defence before Festus<br>
+Paul appeals to Caesar<br>
+Paul preaches before Agrippa<br>
+His voyage to Italy<br>
+Paul's life at Rome<br>
+Character of Paul<br>
+His magnificent services<br>
+His triumphant death<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p><b>VOLUME II.</b></p>
+
+<b>
+<a href="images/Illus0432.jpg">The Wailing Wall of the Jews</a>
+<i>After the painting by J.L. Gerome</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0433.jpg">Abraham and Hagar</a>
+<i>After the painting by Adrian van der Werff</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0434.jpg">Joseph Sold by His Brethren.</a>
+<i>After the painting by H.F. Schopin</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0435.jpg">Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses</a>
+<i>After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0436.jpg">Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea</a>
+<i>After the painting by F.A. Bridgman</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0437.jpg">Moses</a>
+<i>From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0438.jpg">David Kills Goliath</a>
+<i>After the painting by W.L. Dodge</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0439.jpg">David</a>
+<i>From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0440.jpg">Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven</a>
+<i>After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0441.jpg">Isaiah</a>
+<i>From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0442.jpg">A Sacrifice to Baal</a>
+<i>After the painting by Henri Motte</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0443.jpg">The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity</a>
+<i>After the painting by E. Bendeman</i>.<br>
+
+<a href="images/Illus0444.jpg">St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis</a>
+<i>After the painting by Gebhart F&uuml;gel</i>.<br>
+</b>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2>BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<h2><a name="ABRAHAM."></a>ABRAHAM.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>RELIGIOUS FAITH.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.</p>
+
+<p>There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. &quot;There is no God!&quot; or &quot;Let there be no God!&quot; has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the <i>necessary</i> progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?</p>
+
+<p>Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the &quot;call.&quot; His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.</p>
+
+<p>What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.</p>
+
+<p>In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, &quot;were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes.&quot; The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.</p>
+
+<p>Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?</p>
+
+<p>The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.</p>
+
+<p>This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+&quot;From first to last,&quot; says Geikie, &quot;the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. &quot;If we were asked,&quot; says Max M&uuml;ller, &quot;how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a <i>special divine revelation</i>.&quot; <a name="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a> Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.
+
+<p>If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.</p>
+
+<p>The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.</p>
+
+<p>With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the <i>Cogito,
+ergo sum</i>, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.</p>
+
+<p>No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of &quot;father of the faithful,&quot;--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.</p>
+
+<p>As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, &quot;Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?&quot; Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. &quot;Whereby,&quot; said he,
+&quot;shall I <i>know</i> that I shall inherit it,&quot;--that is Canaan,--&quot;and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?&quot; Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: &quot;And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee.&quot; We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.</p>
+
+<p>A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God &quot;tempted,&quot; or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.<a name="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2">[2]</a> Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his &quot;Blood Covenant&quot; to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.
+
+<p>The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.</p>
+
+<p>Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+&quot;accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead.&quot; Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is &quot;the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;&quot;
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.</p>
+
+<p>Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son,&quot; who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, &quot;Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?&quot; yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, &quot;Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.</p>
+
+<p>The great interest we feel in Abraham is as &quot;the father of the
+faithful,&quot; as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources <i>is</i>, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. &quot;Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!</p>
+
+<p>With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?</p>
+
+<p>Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JOSEPH."></a>JOSEPH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>ISRAEL IN EGYPT.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+&quot;Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?&quot; But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!</p>
+
+<p>The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.</p>
+
+<p>The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, &quot;The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!&quot; And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.</p>
+
+<p>The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.</p>
+
+<p>This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.</p>
+
+<p>The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.</p>
+
+<p>Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: &quot;Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves.&quot; Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.</p>
+
+<p>The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.</p>
+
+<p>The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. &quot;The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation.&quot; Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.</p>
+
+<p>How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+<i>animus mundi</i>, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.</p>
+
+<p>The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,</p>
+
+<p>But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.</p>
+
+<p>So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. &quot;Whence come ye?&quot; he said
+roughly to them. They replied, &quot;From the land of Canaan to buy corn,&quot;
+&quot;Nay,&quot; continued he, &quot;ye are spies.&quot; &quot;Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies.&quot; &quot;Nay,&quot; he said, &quot;to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,&quot;--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, &quot;Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not.&quot; But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. &quot;If ye be true men,&quot; said he, &quot;let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die.&quot; There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+&quot;Joseph is not,&quot; cried he, &quot;and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!&quot; Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: &quot;My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. &quot;The
+man,&quot; said he, &quot;did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you.&quot; Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, &quot;If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved,&quot; and hurried away his sons.</p>
+
+<p>In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.</p>
+
+<p>Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. &quot;Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither.&quot; And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. &quot;Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land.&quot; And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, &quot;See that ye fall not out by
+the way!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, &quot;It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die.&quot; The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.</p>
+
+<p>To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.</p>
+
+<p>In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.</p>
+
+<p>It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.</p>
+
+<p>Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.</p>
+
+<p>When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.</p>
+
+<p>If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. &quot;Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards.&quot; Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the &quot;wisdom of
+the Egyptians.&quot; He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="MOSES."></a>MOSES.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].</p>
+
+<p>HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a &quot;man
+of God,&quot; or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old r&eacute;gime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, &quot;The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!&quot; And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+f&ecirc;ted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those <i>principia</i> which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.</p>
+
+<p>The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, &quot;a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.</p>
+
+<p>And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.</p>
+
+<p>Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great <i>I Am</i>, &quot;Who am
+I, that <i>I</i> should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice.&quot; In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.</p>
+
+<p>Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--&quot;Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey <i>his</i> voice?&quot;--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.</p>
+
+<p>The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.</p>
+
+<p>The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!</p>
+
+<p>But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.</p>
+
+<p>In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.</p>
+
+<p>The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, &quot;for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation.&quot; So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it &quot;the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,&quot;--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+&quot;thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;&quot; thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.</p>
+
+<p>All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.</p>
+
+<p>The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.</p>
+
+<p>It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.</p>
+
+<p>The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His <i>personality</i> constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, <i>because</i> he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a <i>necessary</i>
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, &quot;There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all.&quot; The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.</p>
+
+<p>The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!</p>
+
+<p>Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.</p>
+
+<p>It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.</p>
+
+<p>We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, &quot;And the Lord spake unto
+Moses&quot;? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he <i>was</i> directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.</p>
+
+<p>Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we <i>wish</i> to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are &quot;more advanced,&quot; as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.</p>
+
+<p>I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;This was the truest warrior<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever buckled sword;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This the most gifted poet<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever breathed a word:<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And never earth's philosopher<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Traced with his golden pen,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On the deathless page, truths half so sage,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; As he wrote down for men.&quot;<br>
+
+<p>At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, &quot;Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!&quot; So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;That was the grandest funeral<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; That ever passed on earth;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; But no one heard the trampling,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Or saw the train go forth,--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Perchance the bald old eagle<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On gray Bethpeor's height,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Out of his lonely eyrie<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Looked on the wondrous sight.&quot;<br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;And had he not high honor--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The hillside for a pall--<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To lie in state, while angels wait<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; With stars for tapers tall;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Over his bier to wave,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And God's own hand, in that lonely land,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To lay him in the grave?&quot;<br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;O lonely grave in Moab's land!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; O dark Bethpeor's hill!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Speak to these curious hearts of ours,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And teach them to be still!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; God hath his mysteries of grace,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ways that we cannot tell;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Of him he loved so well.&quot;<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SAMUEL."></a>SAMUEL.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1100 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, &quot;nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers.&quot; The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days &quot;every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes.&quot; It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.</p>
+
+<p>The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.</p>
+
+<p>The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. &quot;The Theocracy,&quot; says Ewald, &quot;by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.</p>
+
+<p>The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?</p>
+
+<p>It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. &quot;It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;&quot; for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.</p>
+
+<p>But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first &quot;school of the prophets&quot; was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?</p>
+
+<p>The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.</p>
+
+<p>When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called &quot;progressive
+leaders,&quot; hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.</p>
+
+<p>So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. &quot;And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them.&quot; The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: &quot;This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, &quot;Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles.&quot; It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+&quot;Give us a king once more!&quot; and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was &quot;a
+choice young man, and a goodly.&quot; He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was &quot;taken,&quot;--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, &quot;See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!&quot; And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, &quot;God save the
+king!&quot;--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.</p>
+
+<p>Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. &quot;Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand.&quot; Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: &quot;Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. &quot;Thou hast done foolishly,&quot; he
+said to the King; &quot;for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee.&quot; We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+&quot;utterly destroy&quot; certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and &quot;endure as seeing
+him who is invisible.&quot; They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: &quot;Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry.&quot; The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, &quot;Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou.&quot; Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the &quot;Lord's anointed,&quot; Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel &quot;came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death.&quot; To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. &quot;Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace.&quot; It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. &quot;He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="DAVID."></a>DAVID.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>1055-1015 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.</p>
+
+<p>The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.</p>
+
+<p>David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.</p>
+
+<p>Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,<a name="FNanchor3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3">[3]</a> Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.
+
+<p>Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. &quot;Know ye,&quot; said David to his intimate friends, &quot;that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes.&quot; He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+&quot;Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?&quot; The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth &quot;came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,&quot;
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.</p>
+
+<p>The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time &quot;David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him.&quot; After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.</p>
+
+<p>The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. &quot;And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'&quot;--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;One heart alone,&quot; says Stanley, &quot;amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love.&quot; Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!</p>
+
+<p>David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.</p>
+
+<p>But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.</p>
+
+<p>It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. &quot;We read,&quot; says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, &quot;of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound.&quot; Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.</p>
+
+<p>Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. &quot;Be sure your sin will find
+you out,&quot; is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. &quot;Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!&quot; What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Nor do we charge ourselves,&quot; says Edward Irving, &quot;with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.</p>
+
+<p>We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. &quot;O God!&quot; he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, &quot;I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?</p>
+
+<p>Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.</p>
+
+<p>In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own &quot;great transgression.&quot; God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.</p>
+
+<p>If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about &pound;390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.</p>
+
+<p>David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. &quot;Thou hast shamed this day,&quot; said Joab, &quot;the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well.&quot; In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.</p>
+
+<p>The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. &quot;When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?&quot; Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?</p>
+
+<p>It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. &quot;As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!&quot; He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. &quot;Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever.&quot; And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.</p>
+
+<p>When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.</p>
+
+<p>The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. &quot;In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life,&quot; no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called &quot;the sweet singer of Israel.&quot;
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with &quot;the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God.&quot; As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! &quot;Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Such is the tribute which all nations bring,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From distant ages to thy hallowed name,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O thou sweet singer of a favored race,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;How varied and how rich are all thy lays<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The promised glories of the latter days,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And richest blessings all the race shall find.<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SOLOMON."></a>SOLOMON.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.</p>
+
+<p>ABOUT 993-953 B.C.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.</p>
+
+<p>Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.</p>
+
+<p>But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. &quot;When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,&quot;
+says Stanley, &quot;by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.</p>
+
+<p>Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.</p>
+
+<p>The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.</p>
+
+<p>We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: &quot;The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world.&quot; Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.</p>
+
+<p>As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. &quot;And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,&quot;--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, &quot;Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should &quot;appear before the Lord&quot; and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since &quot;he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.&quot; We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.</p>
+
+<p>To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+&quot;The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded.&quot; A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.</p>
+
+<p>I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.</p>
+
+<p>Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. &quot;Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised.&quot; How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!</p>
+
+<p>If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.</p>
+
+<p>There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.</p>
+
+<p>In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. &quot;In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity.&quot; Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself &quot;the preacher,&quot; and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of &quot;fashionable worshippers&quot; or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!</p>
+
+<p>I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. &quot;Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.</p>
+
+<p>These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.</p>
+
+<p>Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.</p>
+
+<p>Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.</p>
+
+<p>Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+&quot;Vanity of vanities&quot; write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!</p>
+
+<p>This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="ELIJAH."></a>ELIJAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>NINTH CENTURY B.C.</p>
+
+<p>DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--&quot;a sure house.&quot; Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as &quot;the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin.&quot; He says: &quot;The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.</p>
+
+<p>Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.</p>
+
+<p>Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was &quot;a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey.&quot; It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.</p>
+
+<p>The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their &quot;religion,&quot; the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.</p>
+
+<p>Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as &quot;the Tishbite,&quot;--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: &quot;As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word.&quot;
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.</p>
+
+<p>And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.</p>
+
+<p>The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: &quot;Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;&quot; and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, &quot;Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.</p>
+
+<p>The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. &quot;Verily, I say unto you,&quot; said a
+greater than Elijah, &quot;whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward.&quot; Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who &quot;troubled Israel,&quot; Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. &quot;Art thou he who troubleth Israel?&quot; Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: &quot;I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim.&quot; He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.</p>
+
+<p>The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. &quot;How long,&quot; cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, &quot;halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, <i>follow</i> him; but if Baal be God, then follow <i>him</i>.&quot; The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.</p>
+
+<p>Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, &quot;O Baal, hear us!&quot; We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. &quot;Cry with a loud voice!&quot; said he, &quot;yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened.&quot; And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: &quot;O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again.&quot; Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, &quot;Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+&quot;Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain.&quot; And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: &quot;Go up now, and look
+toward the sea.&quot; And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.</p>
+
+<p>Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: &quot;As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them.&quot; In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.</p>
+
+<p>And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. &quot;It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers.&quot; He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.</p>
+
+<p>But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: &quot;What doest thou here, Elijah?&quot;
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: &quot;Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.</p>
+
+<p>Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+&quot;left all and followed&quot; the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to &quot;the sons of the prophets,&quot; among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.</p>
+
+<p>After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.</p>
+
+<p>After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.</p>
+
+<p>In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. &quot;God forbid,&quot; said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, &quot;that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers.&quot; Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.</p>
+
+<p>Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.</p>
+
+<p>But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.</p>
+
+<p>Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.</p>
+
+<p>But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+&quot;before all the people.&quot; But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: &quot;Thus saith Jehovah!&quot;--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: &quot;In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine.&quot; The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, &quot;Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!&quot; And
+terrible was the response: &quot;Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.</p>
+
+<p>To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: &quot;Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die.&quot; On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: &quot;Why are ye now turned back?&quot; They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: &quot;What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?&quot; They
+answered, &quot;He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins.&quot; The king cried, &quot;It is Elijah the Tishbite.&quot; Again his enemy
+had found him!</p>
+
+<p>Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. &quot;If I
+am a man of God,&quot; said Elijah, &quot;let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty.&quot; The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, &quot;O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight.&quot; And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, &quot;Go down with him; be not afraid of him.&quot; And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.</p>
+
+<p>So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.</p>
+
+<p>This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, &quot;Is it peace, Jehu?&quot; &quot;Peace!&quot; replied
+Jehu; &quot;what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?&quot; In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, &quot;There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!&quot; An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: &quot;What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?&quot; &quot;Are there any on my side?&quot; was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. &quot;Throw her down!&quot; ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, &quot;for,&quot; said he, &quot;she is a king's
+daughter;&quot; but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.</p>
+
+<p>So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+&quot;mysterious,&quot; because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the &quot;Jehovah&quot; of Elijah and the &quot;Father&quot; of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+&quot;remnant&quot;--of the Hebrew race.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.</p>
+
+<p>Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'&quot;--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, &quot;and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled.&quot;</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="ISAIAH."></a>ISAIAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>NATIONAL DEGENERACY.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them &quot;did right in
+the sight of the Lord;&quot; and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.</p>
+
+<p>During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: &quot;The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,&quot;--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.</p>
+
+<p>In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, &quot;Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?&quot; But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a &quot;revival of religion&quot; meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that &quot;under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.</p>
+
+<p>The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.</p>
+
+<p>Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--&quot;Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.</p>
+
+<p>Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.</p>
+
+<p>The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove &quot;a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land.&quot; The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: &quot;Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.&quot; It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+&quot;Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord.&quot; The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. &quot;My people,&quot; said he, &quot;do not consider.&quot; He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. &quot;To what purpose,&quot; said he, &quot;is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow.&quot;
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.</p>
+
+<p>There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--&quot;Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,&quot;--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+&quot;the living God,&quot; who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. &quot;To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint.&quot; Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. &quot;Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to <i>them</i>: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.</p>
+
+<p>I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for &quot;I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;&quot;--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. &quot;The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,&quot;--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+&quot;Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot.&quot; The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. &quot;Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,&quot;--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.</p>
+
+<p>From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. &quot;Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire.&quot; In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. &quot;Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there.&quot; Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.</p>
+
+<p>The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. &quot;It goeth
+before destruction.&quot; Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, &quot;Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?&quot; There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.</p>
+
+<p>The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that &quot;every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom.&quot; Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. &quot;He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it.&quot; And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: &quot;Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. &quot;Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth.&quot; The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+&quot;Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation.&quot; We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--&quot;a
+remnant shall return.&quot; This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.</p>
+
+<p>Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, &quot;Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow.&quot; God's mercy is
+past finding out. &quot;Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!&quot;
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.</p>
+
+<p>Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+&quot;come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots,&quot; but he shall be &quot;a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors.&quot; Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, &quot;whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.</p>
+
+<p>Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors &quot;should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks.&quot; Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only &quot;a remnant should
+be saved.&quot; Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. &quot;The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called &quot;forsaken,&quot; but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. &quot;Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land,&quot; saith the poet, &quot;wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? &quot;Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--</p>
+
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See future sons and daughters yet unborn!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But fixed His word, His saving power remains:<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!&quot;<br>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JEREMIAH."></a>JEREMIAH.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>ABOUT 629-580 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: &quot;Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!&quot; Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. &quot;My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by &quot;the words of the book,&quot; and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The &quot;high places,&quot; on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.</p>
+
+<p>An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having &quot;taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel,&quot; even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had &quot;killed the passover&quot; and &quot;sprinkled the blood from
+their hands,&quot; each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. &quot;It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. &quot;Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?&quot; he mournfully exclaims. &quot;Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well.&quot; He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: &quot;What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not.&quot; But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.</p>
+
+<p>The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.</p>
+
+<p>The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied &quot;smooth things&quot; to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.</p>
+
+<p>This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.</p>
+
+<p>Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: &quot;Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence.&quot; Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. &quot;Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?&quot; Jehovah replies: &quot;If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. &quot;Come,&quot; said his enemies to the crowd, &quot;let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him.&quot; On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. &quot;O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. &quot;And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered.&quot; Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the &quot;scarlet mother.&quot; Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. &quot;For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword.&quot; And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: &quot;And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abb&eacute; Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!</p>
+
+<p>Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. &quot;Cursed
+be the day,&quot; he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, &quot;on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?&quot; A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.</p>
+
+<p>Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. &quot;Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.</p>
+
+<p>On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.</p>
+
+<p>In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.</p>
+
+<p>The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: &quot;Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand.&quot; A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. &quot;Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you.&quot; The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: &quot;Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace.&quot; On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+&quot;Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years.&quot; Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: &quot;I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah.&quot;
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.</p>
+
+<p>Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+&quot;Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But &quot;whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad.&quot; Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.</p>
+
+<p>From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="JUDAS_MACCABAEUS."></a>JUDAS MACCABAEUS.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>DIED, 160 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.</p>
+
+<p>On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the d&eacute;bris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.</p>
+
+<p>Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a &quot;remnant&quot; of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.</p>
+
+<p>A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.</p>
+
+<p>A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.</p>
+
+<p>The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.</p>
+
+<p>Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.</p>
+
+<p>Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the &quot;kings of the North&quot; were more
+hostile to the Jews than the &quot;kings of the South.&quot; In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.</p>
+
+<p>It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews &quot;the abomination of
+desolation,&quot; which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. &quot;Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt.&quot; Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.</p>
+
+<p>The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. &quot;Be it far from us,&quot; he said, &quot;to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.</p>
+
+<p>For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, &quot;Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!&quot; A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.</p>
+
+<p>Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the <i>&eacute;clat</i> of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.</p>
+
+<p>The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called &quot;The Maccabaeus&quot; (&quot;The Hammer,&quot; as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.</p>
+
+<p>Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for &quot;victory,&quot; said he, &quot;is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength.&quot; This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.</p>
+
+<p>King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.</p>
+
+<p>Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.</p>
+
+<p>The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.</p>
+
+<p>Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.</p>
+
+<p>The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as &quot;the Maccabees.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.</p>
+
+<p>With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.</p>
+
+<p>The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, &quot;How is the valiant fallen!&quot; A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.</p>
+
+<p>Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.</p>
+
+<p>Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.</p>
+
+<p>John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.</p>
+
+<p>On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).</p>
+
+<p>Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.</p>
+
+<p>The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be &quot;born
+king of the Jews.&quot; He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.</p>
+
+<p>Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in &quot;the fulness of
+time,&quot; the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<h2><a name="SAINT_PAUL."></a>SAINT PAUL.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p>DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.</p>
+
+<p>The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.</p>
+
+<p>It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.</p>
+
+<p>Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.</p>
+
+<p>How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.</p>
+
+<p>No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.</p>
+
+<p>A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or &quot;church,&quot; as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+&quot;Christians,&quot; mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.</p>
+
+<p>With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.</p>
+
+<p>The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.</p>
+
+<p>No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.</p>
+
+<p>From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.</p>
+
+<p>The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.</p>
+
+<p>At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.</p>
+
+<p>From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.</p>
+
+<p>One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.</p>
+
+<p>So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as &quot;Apostle to the Gentiles&quot; was
+officially confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.</p>
+
+<p>The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia,&quot; crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.</p>
+
+<p>After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.</p>
+
+<p>So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.</p>
+
+<p>While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.</p>
+
+<p>The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. &quot;As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.</p>
+
+<p>Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.</p>
+
+<p>When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: &quot;If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters.&quot; He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio &quot;flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;&quot; for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.</p>
+
+<p>While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.</p>
+
+<p>The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to &quot;have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus,&quot; showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.</p>
+
+<p>Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.</p>
+
+<p>Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.</p>
+
+<p>But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--&quot;more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,&quot;--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, &quot;killed all the day long,&quot; carrying about him wherever he
+went &quot;the deadness of the crucified Christ.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, &quot;the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,&quot;--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.</p>
+
+<p>Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: &quot;Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.</p>
+
+<p>I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.</p>
+
+<p>The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--&quot;the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,&quot;--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, &quot;You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses.&quot; There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.</p>
+
+<p>Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, &quot;Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!&quot; And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.</p>
+
+<p>On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.</p>
+
+<p>Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.</p>
+
+<p>Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+&quot;Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go.&quot; Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+&quot;Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!&quot; When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, &quot;This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar.&quot; Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.</p>
+
+<p>The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.</p>
+
+<p>The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his &quot;beloved physician&quot; and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.<a name="FNanchor4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4">[4]</a> There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in &quot;the extremity of the West&quot; (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.
+
+<p>At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.</p>
+
+<p>But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.</p>
+
+<p>Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the &quot;Rock&quot; which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.</p>
+
+<p>As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: &quot;I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day.&quot;</p>
+<br>
+<hr class="full">
+<br>
+<br>
+<pre>
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Beacon Lights of History, Volume II, by John
+Lord
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Beacon Lights of History, Volume II
+
+Author: John Lord
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2003  [eBook #10478]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Kirschner, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+LORD'S LECTURES
+
+BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME II
+
+JEWISH HEROES AND PROPHETS.
+
+BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE,"
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+Abraham the spiritual father of nations
+General forgetfulness of God when Abraham arose
+Civilization in his age
+Ancestors of Abram
+His settlement in Haran
+His moral courage
+The call of Abram
+His migrations
+The Canaanites
+Abram in Egypt
+Separation between Abram and Lot
+Melchizedek
+Abram covenants with God
+The mission of the Hebrews
+The faith of Abram
+Its peculiarities
+Trials of faith
+God's covenant with Abram
+The sacrifice of Isaac
+Paternal rights among Oriental nations
+Universality of sacrifice
+Had Abram a right to sacrifice Isaac?
+Supreme test of his faith
+His obedience to God
+His righteousness
+Supremacy of religious faith
+Abraham's defects
+The most favored of mortals
+The boons he bestowed
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+Early days of Joseph
+Envy of his brethren
+Sale of Joseph
+Its providential results
+Fortunes of Joseph in Egypt
+The imprisonment of Joseph
+Favor with the king
+Joseph prime minister
+The Shepherd kings
+The service of Joseph to the king
+Famine in Egypt
+Power of Pharaoh
+Power of the priests
+Character of the priests
+Knowledge of the priests
+Teachings of the priests
+Egyptian gods
+Antiquity of sacrifices
+Civilization of Egypt
+Initiation of Joseph in Egyptian knowledge
+Austerity to his brethren
+Grief of Jacob
+Severity of the famine in Canaan
+Jacob allows the departure of Benjamin
+Joseph's partiality to Benjamin
+His continued austerity to his brethren
+Joseph at length reveals himself
+The kindness of Pharaoh
+Israel in Egypt
+Prosperity of the Israelites
+Old age of Jacob
+His blessing to Joseph's sons
+Jacob's predictions
+Death of Jacob
+Death of Joseph
+Character of Joseph
+Condition of the Israelites in Egypt
+Rameses the Great
+Acquisitions of the Israelites in Egypt
+Influence of Egyptian civilization on the Israelites
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+JEWISH JURISPRUDENCE
+
+Exalted mission of Moses
+His appearance at a great crisis
+His early advantages and education
+His premature ambition
+His retirement to the wilderness
+Description of the land of Midian
+Studies and meditations of Moses
+The Book of Genesis
+Call of Moses and return to Egypt
+Appearance before Pharaoh
+Miraculous deliverance of the Israelites
+Their sojourn in the wilderness
+The labors of Moses
+His Moral Code
+Universality of the obligations
+General acceptance of the Ten Commandments
+The foundation of the ritualistic laws
+Utility of ritualism in certain states of society
+Immortality seemingly ignored
+The possible reason of Moses
+Its relation to the religion of Egypt
+The Civil Code of Moses
+Reasons for the isolation of the Israelites
+The wisdom of the Civil Code
+Source of the wisdom of Moses
+The divine legation of Moses
+Logical consequences of its denial
+General character of Moses
+His last days
+His influence
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+ISRAEL UNDER JUDGES.
+
+Condition of the Israelites on the death of Joshua
+The Judges
+Birth and youth of Samuel
+The Jewish Theocracy
+Eli and his sons
+Samuel called to be judge
+His efforts to rekindle religious life
+The school of the prophets
+The people want a king
+Views of Samuel as to a change of government
+He tells the people the consequences
+Persistency of the Israelites
+Condition of the nation
+Saul privately anointed king
+Clothed with regal power
+Mistakes and wars of Saul
+Spares Agag
+Rebuked by Samuel
+Samuel withdraws into retirement
+Seeks a successor to Saul
+Jehovah indicates the selection of David
+Saul becomes proud and jealous
+His wars with the Philistines
+Great victory at Michmash
+Death of Samuel
+Universal mourning
+His character as Prophet
+His moral greatness
+His transcendent influence
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+David as an historical study
+Early days of David
+His accomplishments
+His connection with Saul
+His love for Jonathan
+Death of Saul
+David becomes king
+Death of Abner
+David generally recognized as king
+Makes Jerusalem his capital
+Alliance with Hiram
+Transfer of the Sacred Ark
+Folly of David's Wife
+Organization of the kingdom
+Joab Commander-in-chief of the army
+The court of David
+His polygamy
+War with Moab
+War with the Ammonites
+Conquest of the Edomites
+Bathsheba
+David's shame and repentance
+Edward Irving on David's fall
+Its causes
+Census of the people
+Why this was a folly
+Wickedness of David's children
+Amnon
+Alienation of David's subjects
+The famine in Judah
+Revolt of Sheba
+Adonijah seeks to steal the sceptre
+Troubles and trials of David
+Preparation for building the Temple
+David's wealth
+His premature old age
+Absalom's rebellion and death
+David's final labors
+His character as a man and a monarch
+Why he was a man after God's own heart
+David's services
+His Psalms
+Their mighty influence
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+Early years of Solomon
+His first acts as monarch
+The prosperity of his kingdom
+Glory of Solomon
+His mistakes
+His marriage with an Egyptian princess
+His harem
+Building of the Temple
+Its magnificence
+The treasures accumulated in it
+Its dedication
+The sacrifices in its honor
+Extraordinary celebration of the Festivals
+The royal palace in Jerusalem
+The royal palace on Mount Lebanon
+Excessive taxation of the people
+Forced labor
+Change of habits and pursuits
+Solomon's effeminacy and luxury
+His unpopularity
+His latter days of shame
+His death
+Character
+Influence of his reign
+His writings
+Their great value
+The Canticles
+The Proverbs
+Praises of wisdom and knowledge
+Ecclesiastes contrasted with Proverbs
+Cynicism of Ecclesiastes
+Hidden meaning of the book
+The writing of Solomon rich in moral wisdom
+His wisdom confirmed by experience
+Lessons to be learned by the career of Solomon
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
+
+Evil days fall on Israel
+Division of the kingdom under Rehoboam
+Jeroboam of Israel sets up golden calves
+Other innovations
+Egypt attacks Jerusalem
+City saved only by immense contribution
+Interest centres in the northern kingdom
+Ruled by bad kings
+Given to idolatry under Ahab
+Influence of Jezebel
+The priests of Baal
+The apostasy of Israel
+The prophet Elijah
+His extraordinary appearance
+Appears before Ahab
+Announces calamities
+Flight of Elijah
+The drought
+The woman of Zarephath
+Shields and feeds Elijah
+He restores her son to life
+Miseries of the drought
+Elijah confronts Ahab
+Assembly of the people at Mount Carmel
+Presentation of choice between Jehovah and Baal
+Elijah mocks the priests of Baal
+Triumphs, and slays them
+Elijah promises rain
+The tempest
+Ahab seeks Jezebel
+She threatens Elijah in her wrath
+Second flight of Elijah
+His weakness and fear
+The still small voice
+Selection of Elisha to be prophet
+He becomes the companion of Elijah
+Character and appearance of Elisha
+War between Ahab and Benhadad
+Naboth and his vineyard
+Chagrin and melancholy of Ahab
+Wickedness and cunning of Jezebel
+Murder of Naboth
+Dreadful rebuke of Elijah
+Despair of Ahab
+Athaliah and Jehoshaphat
+Death of Ahab
+Regency of Jezebel
+Ahaziah and Elijah
+Fall of Ramoth-Gilead
+Reaction to idolatry
+Jehu
+Death of Jezebel
+Death of Ahaziah
+The massacres and reforms of Jehu
+Extermination of idolatry
+Last days of Elijah
+His translation
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+Superiority of Judah to Israel
+A succession of virtuous princes
+Syrian wars
+The prophet Joel
+Outward prosperity of the kingdom of Judah
+Internal decay
+Assyrian conquests
+Tiglath-pilneser
+Fall of Damascus
+Fall of Samaria
+Demoralization of Jerusalem
+Birth of Isaiah
+His exalted character
+Invasion of Judah by the Assyrians
+Hezekiah submits to Sennacherib
+Rebels anew
+Renewed invasion of Judah
+Signal deliverance
+The warnings and preaching of Isaiah
+His terrible denunciations of sin
+Retribution the spirit of his preaching
+Holding out hope by repentance
+Absence of art in his writings
+National wickedness ending in calamities
+God's moral government
+Isaiah's predictions fulfilled
+Woes denounced on Judah
+Fall of Babylon foretold
+Predicted woes of Moab
+Woes denounced on Egypt
+Calamities of Tyre
+General predictions of woe on other nations
+End and purpose of chastisements
+Isaiah the Prophet of Hope
+The promised glories of the Chosen People
+Messianic promises
+Exultation of Isaiah
+His catholicity
+The promised reign of peace
+The future glories of the righteous
+Glad tidings declared to the whole world
+Messianic triumphs
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Sadness and greatness of Jeremiah
+Second as a prophet only to Isaiah
+Jeremiah the Prophet of Despair
+Evil days in which he was born
+National misfortunes predicted
+Idolatry the crying sin of the times
+Discovery of the Book of Deuteronomy
+Renewed study of the Law
+The reforms of Josiah
+The greatness of Josiah
+Inability to stem prevailing wickedness
+Incompleteness of Josiah's reforms
+Necho II. extends his conquests
+Death of Josiah
+Lamentations on the death of Josiah
+Rapid decline of the kingdom
+The voice of Jeremiah drowned
+Invasion of Assyria by Necho
+Shallum succeeds Josiah
+Eliakim succeeds Shallum
+His follies
+Judah's relapse into idolatry
+Neglect of the Sabbath
+Jeremiah announces approaching calamity
+His voice unheeded
+His despondency
+Fall of Nineveh
+Defeat and retreat of Necho
+Greatness of Nebuchadnezzar
+Appears before Jerusalem
+Fall of Jerusalem, but destruction delayed
+Folly and infatuation of the people of Jerusalem
+Revolt of the city
+Zedekiah the king temporizes
+Expostulations of Jeremiah
+Nebuchadnezzar loses patience
+Second fall of Jerusalem
+The captivity
+Weeping by the river of Babylon
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+Eventful career of Judas Maccabaeus
+Condition of the Jews after their return from Babylon
+Condition of Jerusalem
+Fanatical hatred of idolatry
+Severe morality of the Jews after the captivity
+The Pharisees
+The Sadducees
+Synagogues, their number and popularity
+The Jewish Sanhedrim
+Advance in sacred literature
+Apocryphal Books
+Isolation of the Jews
+Dark age of Jewish history
+Power of the high priests
+The Persian Empire
+Judaea a province of the Persian Empire
+Jews at Alexandria
+Judaea the battle-ground of Egyptians and Syrians
+The Syrian kings
+Antiochus Epiphanes
+His persecution of the Jews
+Helplessness of the Jews
+Sack of Jerusalem
+Desecration of the Temple
+Mattathias
+His piety and bravery
+Revolt of Mattathias
+Slaughter of the Jews
+Death of Mattathias
+His gallant sons
+Judas Maccabaeus
+His military genius
+The Syrian generals
+Wrath of Antiochus
+Desolation of Jerusalem
+Judas defeats the Syrian general
+Judas cleanses and dedicates the Temple
+Fortifies Jerusalem
+The Feast of Dedication
+Renewed hostilities
+Successes of Judas
+Death of Antiochus
+Deliverance of the Jews
+Rivalry between Lysias and Philip
+Death of Eleazer
+Bacchides
+Embassy to Rome
+Death of Judas Maccabaeus
+Judas succeeded by his brother Jonathan
+Heroism of Jonathan
+His death by treachery
+Jonathan succeeded by his brother Simon
+Simon's military successes
+His prosperous administration
+Succeeded by John Hyrcanus
+The great talents and success of John Hyrcanus
+The Asmonean princes
+Pompey takes Jerusalem
+Accession of Herod the Great
+He destroys the Asmonean princes
+His prosperous reign
+Foundation of Caesarea
+Latter days of Herod
+Loathsome death of Herod
+Birth of Jesus, the Christ
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+Birth and early days of Saul
+His Phariseeism
+His persecution of the Christians
+His wonderful conversion
+His leading idea
+Saul a preacher at Damascus
+Saul's visit to Jerusalem
+Saul in Tarsus
+Saul and Barnabas at Antioch
+Description of Antioch
+Contribution of the churches for Jerusalem
+Saul and Barnabas at Jerusalem
+Labors and discouragements
+Saul and Barnabas at Cyprus
+Saul smites Elymas the sorcerer
+Missionary travels of Paul
+Paul converts Timothy
+Paul at Lystra and Derbe
+Return of Paul to Antioch
+Controversy about circumcision
+Bigotry of the Jewish converts
+Paul again visits Jerusalem
+Paul and Barnabas quarrel
+Paul chooses Silas for a companion
+Paul and Silas visit the infant churches
+Tact of Paul
+Paul and Luke
+The missionaries at Philippi
+Paul and Silas at Thessalonica
+Paul at Athens
+Character of the Athenians
+The success of Paul at Athens
+Paul goes to Corinth
+Paul led before Gallio
+Mistake of Gallio
+Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians
+Paul at Ephesus
+The Temple of Diana
+Excessive labors of Paul at Ephesus
+Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
+Popularity of Apollos
+Second Epistle to the Corinthians
+Paul again at Corinth
+Epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans
+The Pauline theology
+Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
+His cold reception
+His arrest and imprisonment
+The trial of Paul before Felix
+Character of Felix
+Paul kept a prisoner by Felix
+Paul's defence before Festus
+Paul appeals to Caesar
+Paul preaches before Agrippa
+His voyage to Italy
+Paul's life at Rome
+Character of Paul
+His magnificent services
+His triumphant death
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+The Wailing Wall of the Jews
+_After the painting by J.L. Gerome_.
+
+Abraham and Hagar
+_After the painting by Adrian van der Werff_.
+
+Joseph Sold by His Brethren.
+_After the painting by H.F. Schopin_.
+
+Erection of Public Building in the Time of Rameses
+_After the painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter_.
+
+Pharaoh Pursues the Israelites Across the Red Sea
+_After the painting by F.A. Bridgman_.
+
+Moses
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Rome_.
+
+David Kills Goliath
+_After the painting by W.L. Dodge_.
+
+David
+_From the statue by Michael Angelo, Florence_.
+
+Elijah's Sacrifice Consumed by Fire from Heaven
+_After the painting by C.G. Pfannschmidt_.
+
+Isaiah
+_From the fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Michael Angelo_.
+
+A Sacrifice to Baal
+_After the painting by Henri Motte_.
+
+The Jews Led Into Babylonian Captivity
+_After the painting by E. Bendeman_.
+
+St. Paul Preaching at the Foot of the Acropolis
+_After the painting by Gebhart Fuegel_.
+
+
+
+
+
+ABRAHAM.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS FAITH.
+
+
+From a religious point of view, Abraham appears to us, after the lapse
+of nearly four thousand years, as the most august character in history.
+He may not have had the genius and learning of Moses, nor his executive
+ability; but as a religious thinker, inspired to restore faith in the
+world and the worship of the One God, it would be difficult to find a
+man more favored or more successful. He is the spiritual father equally
+of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans, in their warfare with idolatry. In
+this sense, he is the spiritual progenitor of all those nations, tribes,
+and peoples who now acknowledge, or who may hereafter acknowledge, a
+personal God, supreme and eternal in the universe which He created.
+Abraham is the religious father of all those who associate with this
+personal and supreme Deity a providential oversight of this world,--a
+being whom all are required to worship, and alone to worship, as the
+only true God whose right it is to reign, and who does reign, and will
+reign forever and ever over everything that exists, animate or
+inanimate, visible or invisible, known or unknown, in the mighty
+universe of whose glory and grandeur we have such overwhelming yet
+indefinite conceptions.
+
+When Abraham appeared, whether four thousand or five thousand years ago,
+for chronologists differ in their calculations, it would seem that the
+nations then existing had forgotten or ignored this great cardinal and
+fundamental truth, and were more or less given to idolatry, worshipping
+the heavenly bodies, or the forces of Nature, or animals, or heroes, or
+graven images, or their own ancestors. There were but few and feeble
+remains of the primitive revelation,--that is, the faith cherished by
+the patriarchs before the flood, and which it would be natural to
+suppose Noah himself had taught to his children.
+
+There was even then, however, a remarkable material civilization,
+especially in Egypt, Palestine, and Babylon; for some of the pyramids
+had been built, the use of the metals, of weights and measures, and of
+textile fabrics was known. There were also cities and fortresses,
+cornfields and vineyards, agricultural implements and weapons of war,
+commerce and arts, musical instruments, golden vessels, ornaments for
+the person, purple dyes, spices, hand-made pottery, stone-engravings,
+sundials, and glass-work, and even the use of letters, or something
+similar, possibly transmitted from the antediluvian civilization. Even
+the art of printing was almost discovered, as we may infer from the
+stamping of letters on tiles. With all this material progress, however,
+there had been a steady decline in spiritual religion as well as in
+morals,--from which fact we infer that men if left to themselves,
+whatever truth they may receive from ancestors, will, without
+supernatural influences, constantly decline in those virtues on which
+the strength of man is built, and without which the proudest triumphs of
+the intellect avail nothing. The grandest civilization, in its material
+aspects, may coexist with the utmost debasement of morals,--as seen
+among the Greeks and Romans, and in the wicked capitals of modern
+Europe. "There is no God!" or "Let there be no God!" has been the cry in
+all ages of the world, whenever and wherever an impious pride or a low
+morality has defied or silenced conscience. Tell me, ye rationalists and
+agnostics! with your pagan sympathies, what mean ye by laws of
+development, and by the _necessary_ progress of the human race, except
+in the triumphs of that kind of knowledge which is entirely disconnected
+with virtue, and which has proved powerless to prevent the decline and
+fall of nations? Why did not art, science, philosophy, and literature
+save the most lauded nations of the ancient world? Why so rapid a
+degeneracy among people favored not only with a primitive revelation,
+but by splendid triumphs of reason and knowledge? Why did gross
+superstition so speedily obscure the intellect, and infamous vices so
+soon undermine the moral health, if man can elevate himself by his
+unaided strength? Why did error seemingly prove as vital as truth in all
+the varied forms of civilization in the ancient world? Why did even
+tradition fail to keep alive the knowledge of God, at least among
+the people?
+
+Now, among pagans and idolaters Abram (as he was originally called)
+lived until he was seventy-five. His father, Terah, was a descendant of
+Shem, of the eleventh generation, and the original seat of his tribe was
+among the mountains of Southern Armenia, north of Assyria. From thence
+Terah migrated to the plains of Mesopotamia, probably with the desire to
+share the rich pastures of the lowlands, and settled in Ur of the
+Chaldeans. Ur was one of the most ancient of the Chaldean cities and one
+of the most splendid, where arts and sciences were cultivated, where
+astronomers watched the heavens, poets composed hymns, and scribes
+stamped on clay tablets books which, according to Geikie, have in part
+come down to our own times. It was in this pagan city that Abram was
+born, and lived until the "call." His father was a worshipper of the
+tutelary gods of his tribe, of which he was the head; but his idolatry
+was not so degrading as that of the Chaldeans, who belonged to a
+different race from his own, being the descendants of Ham, among whom
+the arts and sciences had made considerable progress,--as was natural,
+since what we call civilization arose, it is generally supposed, in the
+powerful monarchies founded by Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, although
+it is claimed that both China and India were also great empires at this
+period. With the growth of cities and the power of kings idolatry
+increased, and the knowledge of the true God declined. From such
+influences it was necessary that Abram should be removed if he was to
+found a nation with a monotheistic belief. So, in obedience to a call
+from God, he left the city of his birthplace, and went toward the land
+of Canaan and settled in Haran, where he remained until the death of his
+father, who it seems had accompanied him in his wanderings, but was
+probably too infirm to continue the fatiguing journey. Abram, now the
+head of his tribe and doubtless a powerful chieftain, received another
+call, and with it the promise that he should be the founder of a great
+nation, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed.
+
+What was that call, coupled with such a magnificent and cheering
+promise? It was the voice of God commanding Abram to leave country and
+kindred and go to a country utterly unknown to him, not even indicated
+to him, but which in due time should be revealed to him. He is not
+called to repudiate idolatry, but by divine command to go to an unknown
+country. He must have been already a believer in the One Supreme God, or
+he would not have felt the command to be imperative. Unless his belief
+had been monotheistic, we must attribute to him a marvellous genius and
+striking originality of mind, together with an independence of character
+still more remarkable; for it requires not only original genius to soar
+beyond popular superstitions, but also great force of will and lofty
+intrepidity to break away from them,--as when Buddha renounced
+Brahmanism, or Socrates ridiculed the Sophists of Attica. Nothing
+requires more moral courage than the renunciation of a popular and
+generally received religious belief. It was a hard struggle for Luther
+to give up the ideas of the Middle Ages in reference to self-expiation.
+It is exceedingly rare for any one to be emancipated from the tyranny of
+prevailing dogmas.
+
+So, if Abram was not divinely instructed in a way that implies
+supernatural illumination, he must have been the most remarkable sage of
+all antiquity to found a religion never abrogated by succeeding
+revelations, which has lasted from his time to ours, and is to-day
+embraced by so large a part of the human race, including Christians,
+Mohammedans, and Jews. Abram must have been more gifted than the whole
+school of Ionian philosophers united, from Thales downward, since after
+three hundred years of speculation and lofty inquiries they only arrived
+at the truth that the being who controls the universe must be
+intelligent. Even Socrates, Plato, and Cicero--the most gifted men of
+classical antiquity--had very indefinite notions of the unity and
+personality of God, while Abram distinctly recognized this great truth
+even amid universal idolatry and a degrading polytheism.
+
+Yet the Bible recognizes in Abram moral rather than intellectual
+greatness. He was distinguished for his faith, and a faith so exalted
+and pure that it was accounted unto him for righteousness. His faith in
+God was so profound that it was followed by unhesitating obedience to
+God's commands. He was ready to go wherever he was sent, instantly,
+without conditions or remonstrance.
+
+In obedience to the divine voice then, Abram, after the death of his
+father Terah, passed through the land of Canaan unto Sichem, or Shechem,
+afterward a city of Samaria. He then went still farther south, and
+pitched his tent on a mountain having Bethel on the west and Hai on the
+east, and there he built an altar unto the Lord. After this it would
+appear that he proceeded still farther to the south, probably near the
+northern part of Idumaea.
+
+Wherever Abram journeyed he found the Canaanites--descendants of
+Ham--petty tribes or nations, governed by kings no more powerful than
+himself. They are supposed in their invasions to have conquered the
+aboriginal inhabitants, whose remote origin is veiled in impenetrable
+obscurity, but who retained some principles of the primitive religion.
+It is even possible that Melchizedek, the unconquered King of Salem, who
+blessed Abram, belonged to those original people who were of Semitic
+origin. Nevertheless the Canaanites, or Hametic tribes, were at this
+time the dominant inhabitants.
+
+Of these tribes or nations the Sidonians, or Phoenicians, were the most
+powerful. Next to them, according to Ewald, "were three nations living
+toward the South,--the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites; then
+two in the most northerly country conquered by Israel,--the Girgashites
+and the Hivites; then four in Phoenicia; and lastly, the most northern
+of all, the well known kingdom of Hamath on the Orontes." The Jebusites
+occupied the country around Jerusalem; the Amorites also dwelt in the
+mountainous regions, and were warlike and savage, like the ancient
+Highlanders of Scotland. They entrenched themselves in strong castles.
+The Hittites, or children of Heth, were on the contrary peaceful, having
+no fortified cities, but dwelling in the valleys, and living in
+well-ordered communities. The Hivites dwelt in the middle of the
+country, and were also peaceful, having reached a considerable
+civilization, and being in the possession of the most flourishing inland
+cities. The Philistines entered the land at a period subsequent to the
+other Canaanites, probably after Abram, coming it is supposed
+from Crete.
+
+It would appear that Abram was not molested by these various petty
+Canaanitish nations, that he was hospitably received by them, that he
+had pleasant relations with them, and even entered into their battles as
+an ally or protector. Nor did Abram seek to conquer territory. Powerful
+as he was, he was still a pilgrim and a wanderer, journeying with his
+servants and flocks wherever the Lord called him; and hence he excited
+no jealousy and provoked no hostilities. He had not long been settled
+quietly with his flocks and herds before a famine arose in the land, and
+he was forced to seek subsistence in Egypt, then governed by the
+shepherd kings called Hyksos, who had driven the proud native monarch
+reigning at Memphis to the southern part of the kingdom, in the vicinity
+of Thebes. Abram was well received at the court of the Pharaohs, until
+he was detected in a falsehood in regard to his wife, whom he passed as
+his sister. He was then sent away with all that he had, together with
+his nephew Lot.
+
+Returning to the land of Canaan, Abram came to the place where he had
+before pitched his tent, between Bethel and Hai, unto the altar which he
+had some time before erected, and called upon the name of the Lord. But
+the land was not rich enough to support the flocks and herds of both
+Abram and Lot, and there arose a strife between their respective
+herdsmen; so the patriarch and his nephew separated, Lot choosing for
+his residence the fertile plain of the Jordan, and Abram remaining in
+the land of Canaan. It was while sojourning at Bethel that the Lord
+appeared again unto Abram, and promised to him the whole land as a
+future possession of his posterity. After that he removed his tent to
+the plain of Mamre, near or in Hebron, and again erected an altar to
+his God.
+
+Here Abram remained in true patriarchal dignity without further
+migrations, abounding in wealth and power, and able to rescue his nephew
+Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer the King of Elam, and from the other
+Oriental monarchs who joined his forces, pursuing them even to Damascus.
+For this signal act of heroism Abram was blessed by Melchizedek, in the
+name of their common lord the most high God. Who was this Prince of
+Salem? Was he an earthly potentate ruling an unconquered city of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; or was he a mysterious personage, without
+father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning nor
+end of days, nor end of life, but made like unto the Son of God, an
+incarnation of the Deity, to repeat the blessing which the patriarch had
+already received?
+
+The history of Abram until his supreme trial seems principally to have
+been repeated covenants with God, and the promises held out of the
+future greatness of his descendants. The greatness of the Israelitish
+nation, however, was not to be in political ascendancy, nor in great
+attainments in the arts and sciences, nor in cities and fortresses and
+chariots and horses, nor in that outward splendor which would attract
+the gaze of the world, and thus provoke conquests and political
+combinations and grand alliances and colonial settlements, by which the
+capital on Zion's hill would become another Rome, or Tyre, or Carthage,
+or Athens, or Alexandria,--but quite another kind of greatness. It was
+to be moral and spiritual rather than material or intellectual, the
+centre of a new religious life, from which theistic doctrines were to go
+forth and spread for the healing of the nations,--all to culminate, when
+the proper time should come, in the mission of Jesus Christ, and in his
+teachings as narrated and propagated by his disciples.
+
+This was the grand destiny of the Hebrew race; and for the fulfilment of
+this end they were located in a favored country, separated from other
+nations by mountains, deserts, and seas, and yet capable by cultivation
+of sustaining a great population, while they were governed by a polity
+tending to keep them a distinct, isolated, and peculiar people. To the
+descendants of Ham and Japhet were given cities, political power,
+material civilization; but in the tents of Shem religion was to dwell.
+"From first to last," says Geikie, "the intellect of the Hebrew dwelt
+supremely on the matters of his faith. The triumphs of the pencil or the
+chisel he left with contemptuous indifference to Egypt, or Assyria, or
+Greece. Nor had the Jew any such interest in religious philosophy as has
+marked other people. The Aryan nations, both East and West, might throw
+themselves with ardor into those high questions of metaphysics, but he
+contented himself with the utterances of revelation. The world may have
+inherited no advances in political science from the Hebrew, no great
+epic, no school of architecture, no high lessons in philosophy, no wide
+extension of human thought or knowledge in any secular direction; but he
+has given it his religion. To other races we owe the splendid
+inheritance of modern civilization and secular culture, but the
+religious education of mankind has been the gift of the Jew alone."
+
+For this end Abram was called to the land of Canaan. From this point of
+view alone we see the blessing and the promise which were given to him.
+In this light chiefly he became a great benefactor. He gave a religion
+to the world; at least he established its fundamental principle,--the
+worship of the only true God. "If we were asked," says Max Mueller, "how
+it was that Abraham possessed not only the primitive conception of the
+Divinity, as he has revealed himself to all mankind, but passed, through
+the denial of all other gods, to the knowledge of the One God, we are
+content to answer that it was by a _special divine revelation_." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 372.]
+
+If the greatness of the Jewish race was spiritual rather than temporal,
+so the real greatness of Abraham was in his faith. Faith is a sentiment
+or a principle not easily defined. But be it intuition, or induction, or
+deduction,--supported by reason, or without reason,--whatever it is, we
+know what it means.
+
+The faith of Abraham, which Saint Paul so urgently commends, the same in
+substance as his own faith in Jesus Christ, stands out in history as so
+bright and perfect that it is represented as the foundation of religion
+itself, without which it is impossible to please God, and with which one
+is assured of divine favor, with its attendant blessings. If I were to
+analyze it, I should say that it is a perfect trust in God, allied with
+obedience to his commands.
+
+With this sentiment as the supreme rule of life, Abraham is always
+prepared to go wherever the way is indicated. He has no doubts, no
+questionings, no scepticism. He simply adores the Lord Almighty, as the
+object of his supreme worship, and is ready to obey His commands,
+whether he can comprehend the reason of them or not. He needs no
+arguments to confirm his trust or stimulate his obedience. And this is
+faith,--an ultimate principle that no reasonings can shake or
+strengthen. This faith, so sublime and elevated, needs no confirmation,
+and is not made more intelligent by any definitions. If the _Cogito,
+ergo sum_, is an elemental and ultimate principle of philosophy, so the
+faith of Abraham is the fundamental basis of all religion, which is
+weakened rather than strengthened by attempts to define it. All
+definitions of an ultimate principle are vain, since everybody
+understands what is meant by it.
+
+No truly immortal man, no great benefactor, can go through life without
+trials and temptations, either to test his faith or to establish his
+integrity. Even Jesus Christ himself was subjected for forty days to
+the snares of the Devil. Abram was no exception to this moral
+discipline. He had two great trials to pass through before he could earn
+the title of "father of the faithful,"--first, in reference to the
+promise that he should have legitimate children; and secondly, in
+reference to the sacrifice of Isaac.
+
+As to the first, it seemed impossible that Abram should have issue
+through his wife Sarah, she being ninety years of age, and he
+ninety-nine or one hundred. The very idea of so strange a thing caused
+Sarah to laugh incredulously, and it is recorded in the seventeenth
+chapter of Genesis that Abram also fell on his face and laughed, saying
+in his heart, "Shall a son be born unto him that is one hundred years
+old?" Evidently he at first received the promise with some incredulity.
+He could leave Ur of the Chaldees by divine command,--this was an act of
+obedience; but he did not fully believe in what seemed to be against
+natural law, which would be a sort of faith without evidence, blind,
+against reason. He requires some sign from God. "Whereby," said he,
+"shall I _know_ that I shall inherit it,"--that is Canaan,--"and that my
+seed shall be in number as the stars of heaven?" Then followed the
+renewal of the covenant; and, according to the frequent custom of the
+times, when covenants were made between individual men, Abram took a new
+name: "And God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant
+is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall
+thy name be any more Abram [Father of Elevation] but thy name shall be
+Abraham [Father of a Multitude], for a father of many nations have I
+made thee." We observe that the covenant was repeatedly renewed; in
+connection with which was the rite of circumcision, which Abraham and
+his posterity, and even his servants, were required scrupulously to
+observe, and which it would appear he unreluctantly did observe as an
+important condition of the covenant. Why this rite was so imperatively
+commanded we do not know, neither can we understand why it was so
+indissolubly connected with the covenant between God and Abraham. We
+only know that it was piously kept, not only by Abraham himself, but by
+his descendants from generation to generation, and became one of the
+distinctive marks and peculiarities of the Jewish nation,--the sign of
+the promise that in Abraham all the families of the earth should be
+blessed,--a promise fulfilled even in the patriarchal monotheism of
+Arabia, the distant tribes of which, under Mohammed, accepted the One
+Supreme God.
+
+A still more serious test of the faith of Abraham was the sacrifice of
+Isaac, on whose life all his hopes naturally rested. We are told that
+God "tempted," or tested, the obedient faith of Abraham, by suggesting
+to him that it was his duty to sacrifice that only son as a
+burnt-offering, to prove how utterly he trusted the Lord's promise; for
+if Isaac were cut off, where was another legitimate heir to be found?
+Abraham was then one hundred and twenty years old, and his wife was one
+hundred and ten. Moreover, on principles of reason why should such a
+sacrifice be demanded? It was not only apparently against reason, but
+against nature, against every sacred instinct, against humanity, even an
+act of cruelty,--yea, more, a crime, since it was homicide, without any
+seeming necessity. Besides, everybody has a right to his own life,
+unless he has forfeited it by crime against society. Isaac was a gentle,
+harmless, interesting youth of twenty, and what right, by any human
+standard, had Abraham to take his life? It is true that by patriarchal
+customs and laws Isaac belonged to Abraham as much as if he were a slave
+or an animal. He had the Oriental right to do with his son as he
+pleased. The head of a family had not only absolute control over wife
+and children, but the power of life and death. And this absolute power
+was not exercised alone by Semitic races, but also by the Aryan in their
+original settlements, in Greece and Italy, as well as in Northern India.
+All the early institutions of society recognized this paternal right.
+Hence the moral sense of Abraham was not apparently shocked at the
+command of God, since his son was his absolute property. Even Isaac
+made no resistance, since he knew that Abraham had a right to his life.
+
+Moreover, we should remember that sacrifices to all objects of worship
+formed the basis of all the religious rites of the ancient world, in all
+periods of its history. Human sacrifices were offered in India at the
+very period when Abraham was a wanderer in Palestine; and though human
+nature ultimately revolted from this cruelty, the sacrifice of
+substitute-animals continued from generation to generation as oblations
+to the gods, and is still continued by Brahminical priests. In China, in
+Egypt, in Assyria, in Greece, no religious rites were perfected without
+sacrifices. Even in the Mosaic ritual, sacrifices by the priests formed
+no inconsiderable part of worship. Not until the time of Isaiah was it
+said that God took no delight in burnt offerings,--that the real
+sacrifices which He requires are a broken and a contrite heart. Nor were
+the Jews finally emancipated from sacrificial rites until Christ himself
+made his own body an offering for the sins of the world, and in God's
+providence the Romans destroyed their temple and scattered their nation.
+In antiquity there was no objective worship of the Deity without
+sacrificial rites, and when these were omitted or despised there was
+atheism,--as in the case of Buddha, who taught morals rather than
+religion. Perhaps the oldest and most prevalent religious idea of
+antiquity was the necessity of propitiatory sacrifice,--generally of
+animals, though in remotest ages the offering of the fruits of
+the earth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. Trumbull has made a learned and ingenious argument in
+his "Blood Covenant" to show that sacrifices were not to propitiate the
+deity, but to bring about a closer Spiritual union between the soul and
+God; that the blood covenant was a covenant of friendship and love among
+all primitive peoples.]
+
+The inquiry might here arise, whether in our times anything would
+justify a man in committing a homicide on an innocent person. Would he
+not be called a fanatic? If so, we may infer that morality--the proper
+conduct of men as regards one another in social relations--is better
+understood among us than it was among the patriarchs four thousand years
+ago; and hence, that as nations advance in civilization they have a more
+enlightened sense of duty, and practically a higher morality. Men in
+patriarchal times may have committed what we regard as crimes, while
+their ordinary lives were more virtuous than ours. And if so, should we
+not be lenient to immoralities and crimes committed in darker ages, if
+the ordinary current of men's lives was lofty and religious? On this
+principle we should be slow to denounce Christian people who formerly
+held slaves without remorse, when this sin did not shock the age in
+which they lived, and was not discrepant with prevailing ideas as to
+right and wrong. It is clear that in patriarchal times men had,
+according to universally accepted ideas, the power of life and death
+over their families, which it would be absurd and wicked to claim in our
+day, with our increased light as to moral distinctions. Hence, on the
+command of God to slay his son, Abraham had no scruples on the ground of
+morality; that is, he did not feel that it was wrong to take his son's
+life if God commanded him to do so, any more than it would be wrong, if
+required, to slay a slave or an animal, since both were alike his
+property. Had he entertained more enlightened views as to the sacredness
+of life, he might have felt differently. With his views, God's command
+did not clash with his conscience.
+
+Still, the sacrifice of Isaac was a terrible shock to Abraham's paternal
+affection. The anguish of his soul was none the less, whether he had the
+right of life and death or not. He was required to part with the dearest
+thing he had on earth, in whom was bound up his earthly happiness. What
+had he to live for, but Isaac? He doubtless loved this child of his old
+age with exceeding tenderness, devotion, and intensity; and what was
+perhaps still more weighty, in that day of polygamous households, than
+mere paternal affection, with Isaac were identified all the hopes and
+promises which had been held out to Abraham by God himself of becoming
+the father of a mighty and favored race. His affection as a father was
+strained to its utmost tension, but yet more was his faith in being the
+progenitor of offspring that should inherit the land of Canaan.
+Nevertheless, at God's command he was willing to make the sacrifice,
+"accounting that God is able to raise up, even from the dead." Was there
+ever such a supreme act of obedience in the history of our race? Has
+there ever been from his time to ours such a transcendent manifestation
+of faith? By reason Abraham saw the foundation of his hopes utterly
+swept away; and yet his faith towers above reason, and he feels that the
+divine promises in some way will be fulfilled. Did any man of genius
+ever conceive such an illustration of blended piety and obedience? Has
+dramatic poetry ever created such a display of conflicting emotions? Is
+it possible for a human being to transcend so mighty a sacrifice, and
+all by the power of faith? Let those philosophers and theologians who
+aspire to define faith, and vainly try to reconcile it with reason,
+learn modesty and wisdom from the lesson of Abraham, who is its great
+exponent, and be content with the definition of Paul, himself, that it
+is "the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen;"
+that reason was in Abraham's case subordinate to a loftier and grander
+principle,--even a firm conviction, which nothing could shake, of the
+accomplishment of an end against all probabilities and mortal
+calculations, resting solely on a divine promise.
+
+Another remarkable thing about that memorable sacrifice is, that Abraham
+does not expostulate or hesitate, but calmly and resolutely prepares for
+the slaughter of the innocent and unresisting victim, suppressing all
+the while his feelings as a father in obedience and love to the
+Sovereign of heaven and earth, whose will is his supreme law.
+
+"And Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it upon Isaac
+his son," who was compelled as it were to bear his own cross. And he
+took the fire in his hand and a knife, and Isaac said, "Behold the fire
+and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?" yet suffered
+himself to be bound by his father on the altar. And Abraham then
+stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. At this
+supreme moment of his trial, he heard the angel of the Lord calling upon
+him out of heaven and saying, "Abraham! Abraham! lay not thine hand upon
+the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now I know that thou
+fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son from
+me.... And Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold behind him
+was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns; and Abraham went and took
+the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering instead of his son.
+And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham a second time out of
+heaven and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord, for because
+thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only
+son, that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
+multiply thy seed as the stars of the heavens, and as the sand upon the
+seashore, and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed,
+because thou hast obeyed my voice."
+
+There are no more recorded promises to Abraham, no more trials of his
+faith. His righteousness was established, and he was justified before
+God. His subsequent life was that of peace, prosperity, and exaltation.
+He lives to the end in transcendent repose with his family and vast
+possessions. His only remaining solicitude is for a suitable wife for
+Isaac, concerning whom there is nothing remarkable in gifts or fortunes,
+but who maintains the faith of his father, and lives like him in
+patriarchal dignity and opulence.
+
+The great interest we feel in Abraham is as "the father of the
+faithful," as a model of that exalted sentiment which is best defined
+and interpreted by his own trials and experiences; and hence I shall not
+dwell on the well known incidents of his life outside the varied calls
+and promises by which he became the most favored man in human annals. It
+was his faith which made him immortal, and with which his name is
+forever associated. It is his religious faith looming up, after four
+thousand years, for our admiration and veneration which is the true
+subject of our meditation. This, I think, is distinct from our ordinary
+conception of faith, such as a belief in the operation of natural laws,
+in the return of the seasons, in the rewards of virtue, in the assurance
+of prosperity with due regard to the conditions of success. Faith in a
+friend, in a nation's future, in the triumphs of a good cause, in our
+own energies and resources _is_, I grant, necessarily connected with
+reason, with wide observation and experience, with induction, with laws
+of nature and of mind. But religious faith is supreme trust in an unseen
+God and supreme obedience to his commands, without any other exercise of
+reason than the intuitive conviction that what he orders is right
+because he orders it, whether we can fathom his wisdom or not. "Canst
+thou by searching find out Him?"
+
+Yet notwithstanding the exalted faith of Abraham, by which all religious
+faith is tested, an eternal pattern and example for our reverence and
+imitation, the grand old man deceived both Pharaoh and Abimelech, and if
+he did not tell positive lies, he uttered only half truths, for Sarah
+was a half sister; and thus he put expediency and policy above moral
+rectitude,--to be palliated indeed in his case by the desire to
+preserve his wife from pollution. Yet this is the only blot on his
+otherwise reproachless character, marked by so many noble traits that he
+may be regarded as almost perfect. His righteousness was as memorable as
+his faith, living in the fear of God. How noble was his
+disinterestedness in giving to Lot the choice of lands for his family
+and his flocks and his cattle! How brave was he in rescuing his kinsman
+from the hands of conquering kings! How lofty in refusing any
+remuneration for his services! How fervent were his intercessions with
+the Almighty for the preservation of the cities of the plain! How
+hospitable his mode of life, as when he entertained angels unawares! How
+kind he was to Hagar when she had incurred the jealousy of Sarah! How
+serene and dignified and generous he was, the model of courtesy
+and kindness!
+
+With Abraham we associate the supremest happiness which an old man can
+attain unto and enjoy. He was prosperous, rich, powerful, and favored in
+every way; but the chief source of his happiness was the superb
+consciousness that he was to be the progenitor of a mighty and numerous
+progeny, through whom all the nations of the earth should be blessed.
+How far his faith was connected with temporal prosperity we cannot tell.
+Prosperity seems to have been the blessing of the Old Testament, as
+adversity was the blessing of the New. But he was certain of this,--that
+his descendants would possess ultimately the land of Canaan, and would
+be as numerous as the stars of heaven. He was certain that in some
+mysterious way there would come from his race something that would be a
+blessing to mankind. Was it revealed to his exultant soul what this
+blessing should be? Did this old patriarch cast a prophetic eye
+beyond the ages, and see that the promise made to him was spiritual
+rather than material, pertaining to the final triumph of truth and
+righteousness?--that the unity of God, which he taught to Isaac and
+perhaps to Ishmael, was to be upheld by his race alone among prevailing
+idolatries, until the Saviour should come to reveal a new dispensation
+and finally draw all men unto him? Did Abraham fully realize what a
+magnificent nation the Israelites should become,--not merely the rulers
+of western Asia under David and Solomon, but that even after their final
+dispersion they should furnish ministers to kings, scholars to
+universities, and dictators to legislative halls,--an unconquerable
+race, powerful even after the vicissitudes and humiliations of four
+thousand years? Did he realize fully that from his descendants should
+arise the religious teachers of mankind,--not only the prophets and
+sages of the Old Testament, but the apostles and martyrs of the
+New,--planting in every land the seeds of the everlasting gospel, which
+should finally uproot all Brahminical self-expiations, all Buddhistic
+reveries, all the speculations of Greek philosophers, all the countless
+forms of idolatry, polytheism, pantheism, and pharisaism on this earth,
+until every knee should bow, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ
+is Lord, to the glory of God the Father?
+
+Yet such were the boons granted to Abraham, as the reward of faith and
+obedience to the One true God,--the vital principle without which
+religion dies into superstition, with which his descendants were
+inspired not only to nationality and civil coherence, but to the highest
+and noblest teachings the world has received from any people, and by
+which his name is forever linked with the spiritual progress and
+happiness of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+JOSEPH.
+
+
+ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
+
+
+No one in his senses would dream of adding anything to the story of
+Joseph, as narrated in Genesis, whether it came from the pen of Moses or
+from some subsequent writer. It is a masterpiece of historical
+composition, unequalled in any literature sacred or profane, in ancient
+or modern times, for its simplicity, its pathos, its dramatic power, and
+its sustained interest. Nor shall I attempt to paraphrase or re-tell it,
+save by way of annotation and illustration of subjects connected with
+it, having reference to the subsequent development of the Jewish nation
+and character.
+
+Joseph, the great-grandson of Abraham, was born at Haran in Mesopotamia,
+probably during the XVIII. Century B.C., when his father Jacob was in
+the service of Laban the Syrian. There was nothing remarkable in his
+career until he was sold as a slave by his unnatural and jealous
+brothers. He was the favorite son of the patriarch Jacob, by his
+beloved Rachel, being the youngest, except Benjamin, of a large family
+of twelve sons,--a beautiful and promising youth, with qualities which
+peculiarly called out the paternal affections. In the inordinate love
+and partiality of Jacob for this youth he gave to him, by way of
+distinction, a decorated tunic, such as was worn only by the sons of
+princes. The half-brothers of Joseph were filled with envy in view of
+this unwise step on the part of their common father,--a proceeding
+difficult to be reconciled with his politic and crafty nature; and their
+envy ripened into hostility when Joseph, with the frankness of youth,
+narrated his dreams, which signified his future pre-eminence and the
+humiliation of his brothers. Nor were his dreams altogether pleasing to
+his father, who rebuked him with this indignant outburst of feeling:
+"Shall I and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee on
+the earth?" But while the father pondered, the brothers were consumed
+with hatred, for envy is one of the most powerful passions that move the
+human soul, and is malignant in its developments. Strange to say, it is
+most common in large families and among those who pass for friends. We
+do not envy prosperous enemies with the virulence we feel for prosperous
+relatives, who theoretically are our equals. Nor does envy cease until
+inequality has become so great as to make rivalry preposterous: a
+subject does not envy his king, or his generally acknowledged superior.
+Envy may even give place to respect and deference when the object of it
+has achieved fame and conceded power. Relatives who begin with jealousy
+sometimes end as worshippers, but not until extraordinary merit, vast
+wealth, or overtopping influence are universally conceded. Conceive of
+Napoleon's brothers envying the great Emperor, or Webster's the great
+statesman, or Grant's the great general, although the passion may have
+lurked in the bosoms of political rivals and military chieftains.
+
+But one thing certainly extinguishes envy; and that is death. Hence the
+envy of Joseph's brothers, after they had sold him to a caravan of
+Ishmaelite merchants, was succeeded by remorse and shame. Their
+murmurings passed into lies. They could not tell their broken-hearted
+father of their crime; they never told him. Jacob was led to suppose
+that his favorite son was devoured by wild beasts; they added deceit and
+cowardice to a depraved heartlessness, and nearly brought down the gray
+hairs of their father to the grave. No subsequent humiliation or
+punishment could be too severe for such wickedness. Although they were
+destined to become the heads of powerful tribes, even of the chosen
+people of God, these men have incurred the condemnation of all ages. But
+Judah and Reuben do not come in for unlimited censure, since these sons
+of Leah sought to save their brother from a violent death; and
+subsequently in Egypt Judah looms up as a magnanimous character, whom we
+admire almost as much as we do Joseph himself. What can be more eloquent
+than his defence of Benjamin, and his appeal to what seemed to him to be
+an Egyptian potentate!
+
+The sale of Joseph as a slave is one of the most signal instances of the
+providence of God working by natural laws recorded in all history,--more
+marked even than the elevation of Esther and Mordecai. In it we see
+permission of evil and its counteraction,--its conversion into good;
+victory over evil, over conspiracy, treachery, and murderous intent. And
+so marked is this lesson of a superintending Providence over all human
+action, that a wise and good man can see wars and revolutions and
+revolting crimes with almost philosophical complacency, knowing that out
+of destruction proceeds creation; that the wrath of man is always
+overruled; that the love of God is the brightest and clearest and most
+consoling thing in the universe. We cannot interpret history without the
+recognition of this fundamental truth. We cannot be unmoved amid the
+prevalence of evil without this feeling, that God is more powerful than
+all the combined forces of his enemies both on earth and in hell; and
+that no matter what the evil is, it will surely be made to praise Him
+who sitteth in the heavens. This is a sublime revelation of the
+omnipotence and benevolence of a personal God, of his constant oversight
+of the world which he has made.
+
+The protection and elevation of Joseph, seemingly a natural event in
+view of his genius and character, is in some respects a type of that
+great sacrifice by which a sinful world has been redeemed. Little did
+the Jews suspect when they crucified Jesus that he would arise from his
+tomb and overturn the idolatries of nations, and found a religion which
+should go on from conquering to conquer. Little did the gifted Burke see
+in the atrocities of the French Revolution the overturning of a system
+of injustices which for centuries had cried to Heaven for vengeance.
+Still less did the proud and conservative citizens of New England
+recognize in the cruelties of Southern slaveholders a crime which would
+provoke one of the bloodiest wars of modern times, and lead to the
+constitutional and political equality of the whites and blacks. Evil
+appeared to triumph, but ended in the humiliation of millions and the
+enfranchisement of humanity, when the cause of the right seemed utterly
+hopeless. So let every one write upon all walls and houses and chambers,
+upon his conscience and his intellect, "The Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth, and will bring good out of the severest tribulation!" And this
+great truth applies not to nations alone, but to the humblest
+individual, as he bows down in grief or wrath or penitence to
+unlooked-for chastisement,--like Job upon his heap of ashes, or the
+broken-hearted mother when afflicted with disease or poverty, or the
+misconduct or death of children. There is no wisdom, no sound
+philosophy, no religion, and no happiness until this truth is recognized
+in all the changes and relations of life.
+
+The history of Joseph in Egypt in all his varied fortunes is, as I have
+said, a most memorable illustration of this cardinal and fundamental
+truth. A favorite of fortune, he is sold as a slave for less than twenty
+dollars of our money, and is brought to a foreign country,--a land
+oppressed by kings and priests, yet in which is a high civilization, in
+spite of social and political degradation. He is resold to a high
+official of the Egyptian court, probably on account of his beauty and
+intelligence. He rises in the service of this official,--captain of the
+royal guard, or, as the critics tell us, superintendent of the police
+and prisons,--for he has extraordinary abilities and great integrity,
+character as well as natural genius, until he is unjustly accused of a
+meditated crime by a wicked woman. It is evident that Potiphar, his
+master, only half believes in Joseph's guilt, in spite of the
+protestations of his artful and profligate wife, since instead of
+summarily executing him, as Ahasuerus did Haman, he simply sends him to
+a mild and temporary imprisonment in the prison adjacent to his palace.
+Here Joseph wins the favor of his jailers and of his brother prisoners,
+as Paul did nearly two thousand years later, and shows remarkable gifts,
+even to the interpretation of dreams,--a wonderful faculty to
+superstitious people like the Egyptians, and in which he exceeds even
+their magicians and priests. The fame of his rare gifts, the most prized
+in Egypt, reaches at last the ears of Pharaoh, who is troubled by a
+singular dream which no one of his learned men can interpret. The Hebrew
+slave interprets it, and is magnificently rewarded, becoming the prime
+minister of an absolute monarch. The King gives him his signet ring,
+emblem of power, and a collar or chain of gold, the emblem of the
+highest rank; clothes him in a vestment of fine linen, makes him ride in
+his second chariot, and appoints him ruler over the land, second only to
+the King in power and rank. And, further, he gives to him in marriage
+the daughter of the High Priest of On, by which he becomes connected
+with the priesthood.
+
+Joseph deserves all the honor and influence he receives, for he saves
+the kingdom from a great calamity. He predicts seven years of plenty and
+seven years of famine, and points out the remedy. According to
+tradition, the monarch whom he served was Apepi, the last Shepherd
+King, during whose reign slaves were very numerous. The King himself had
+a vast number, as well as the nobles. Foreign slaves were preferred to
+native ones, and wars were carried on for the chief purpose of capturing
+and selling captives.
+
+The sacred narrative says but little of the government of Egypt by a
+Hebrew slave, or of his abilities as a ruler,--virtually supreme in the
+land, since Pharaoh delegates to him his own authority, persuaded both
+of his fidelity and his abilities. It is difficult to understand how
+Joseph arose at a single bound to such dignity and power, under a proud
+and despotic king, and in the face of all the prejudices of the Egyptian
+priesthood and nobility, except through the custom of all Oriental
+despots to gratify the whim of the moment,--like the one who made his
+horse prime minister. But nothing short of transcendent talents and
+transcendent services can account for his retention of office and his
+marked success. Joseph was then thirty years of age, having served
+Potiphar ten years, and spent two or three years in prison.
+
+This all took place, as some now suppose, shortly after 1700 B.C., under
+the dynasty of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who had conquered the
+kingdom about three hundred years before. Their capital was Memphis,
+near the pyramids, which had been erected several centuries earlier by
+the older and native dynasties. Rawlinson supposes that Tanis on the
+delta was the seat of their court. Conquered by the Hyksos, the old
+kings retreated to their other capital, Thebes, and were probably made
+tributary to the conquerors. It was by the earlier and later dynasties
+that the magnificent temples and palaces were built, whose ruins have so
+long been the wonder of travellers. The Shepherd Kings were warlike, and
+led their armies from Scythia,--that land of roving and emigrant
+warriors,--or, as Ewald thinks, from the land of Canaan: Aramaean
+chieftains, who sought the spoil of the richest monarchy in the world.
+Hence there was more affinity between these people and the Hebrews than
+between them and the ancient Egyptians, who were the descendants of Ham.
+Abraham, when he visited Egypt, found it ruled by these Scythian or
+Aramaean warriors, which accounts for the kind and generous treatment he
+received. It is not probable that a monarch of the ancient dynasties
+would have been so courteous to Abraham, or would have elevated Joseph
+to such an exalted rank, for they were jealous of strangers, and hated a
+pastoral people. It was only under the rule of the Hyksos that the
+Hebrews could have been tolerated and encouraged; for as soon as the
+Shepherd Kings were expelled by the Pharaohs who reigned at Thebes, as
+the Moors were expelled from Spain by the old Castilian princes, it
+fared ill with the descendants of Jacob, and they were bitterly and
+cruelly oppressed until the exodus under Moses. Prosperity probably led
+the Hyksos conquerors to that fatal degeneracy which is unfavorable to
+war, while adversity strengthened the souls of the descendants of the
+ancient kings, and enabled them to subdue and drive away their invaders
+and conquerors. And yet the Hyksos could not have ruled Egypt had they
+not adapted themselves to the habits, religion, and prejudices of the
+people they subdued. The Pharaoh who reigned at the time of Joseph
+belonged like his predecessors to the sacerdotal caste, and worshipped
+the gods of the Egyptians. But he was not jealous of the Hebrews, and
+fully appreciated the genius of Joseph.
+
+The wisdom of Joseph as ruler of the land destined to a seven years'
+famine was marked by foresight as well as promptness in action. He
+personally visited the various provinces, advising the people to husband
+their harvests. But as all people are thoughtless and improvident, he
+himself gathered up and stored all the grain which could be spared, and
+in such vast quantities that he ceased to measure it. At last the
+predicted famine came, as the Nile had not risen to its usual height;
+but the royal granaries were full, since all the surplus wheat--about a
+fifth of the annual produce--had been stored away; not purchased by
+Joseph, but exacted as a tax. Nor was this exaction unreasonable in
+view of the emergency. Under the Bourbon kings of France more than one
+half of the produce of the land was taken by the Government and the
+feudal proprietors without compensation, and that not in provision for
+coming national trouble, but for the fattening of the royal purse.
+Joseph exacted only a fifth as a sort of special tax, less than the
+present Italian government exacts from all landowners.
+
+Very soon the famine pressed upon the Egyptian people, for they had no
+corn in reserve; the reserve was in the hands of the government. But
+this reserve Joseph did not deal out gratuitously, as the Roman
+government, under the emperors, dealt out food to the citizens. He made
+the people pay for their bread, and took their money and deposited it in
+the royal treasury. When after two years their money was all spent, it
+was necessary to resort to barter, and cattle were given in exchange for
+corn, by which means the King became possessed of all the personal
+property of his subjects. As famine pressed, the people next surrendered
+their land to avoid starvation,--all but the priests. Pharaoh thus
+became absolute proprietor of the whole country; of money, cattle, and
+land,--an unprecedented surrender, which would have produced a
+wide-spread disaffection and revolt, had it not been that Joseph, after
+the famine was past and the earth yielded its accustomed harvest,
+exacted only one-fifth of the produce of the land for the support of
+the government, which could not be regarded as oppressive. As the King
+thus became absolute proprietor of Egypt by consent of the people, whom
+he had saved from starvation through the wisdom and energy of his prime
+minister, it is probable that later a new division of land took place,
+it being distributed among the people generally in small farms, for
+which they paid as rent a fifth of their produce. The gratitude of the
+people was marked: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
+eyes of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's slaves." Since the time of
+Christ there have been two similar famines recorded,--one in the
+eleventh century, lasting, like Joseph's, seven years; and the other in
+the twelfth century, of which the most distressing details are given,
+even to the extreme desperation of cannibalism. The same cause
+originated both,--the failure of the Nile overflow. Out of the sacred
+river came up for Egypt its fat kine and its lean,--its blessings and
+its curses.
+
+The price exacted by Joseph for the people's salvation made the King
+more absolute than before, since all were thus made dependent on the
+government.
+
+This absolute rule of the kings, however, was somewhat modified by
+ancient customs, and by the vast influence of the priesthood, to which
+the King himself belonged. The priests of Egypt, under all the
+dynasties, formed the most powerful caste ever seen among the nations
+of the earth, if we except the Brahmanical caste of India. At the head
+of it was the King himself, who was chief of the religion and of the
+state. He regulated the sacrifices of the temples, and had the peculiar
+right of offering them to the gods upon grand occasions. He
+superintended the feasts and festivals in honor of the deities. The
+priests enjoyed privileges which extended to their whole family. They
+were exempt from taxes, and possessed one-third of the landed property,
+which was entailed upon them, and of which they could not be deprived.
+Among them there were great distinctions of rank, but the high-priests
+held the most honorable station; they were devoted to the service of the
+presiding deities of the cities in which they lived,--such as the
+worship of Ammon at Thebes, of Phtha at Memphis, and of Ra at On, or
+Heliopolis. One of the principal grades of the priesthood was that of
+prophets, who were particularly versed in all matters pertaining to
+religion. They presided over the temple and the sacred rites, and
+directed the management of the priestly revenues; they bore a
+distinguished part in solemn processions, carrying the holy vase.
+
+The priests not only regulated all spiritual matters and superintended
+the worship of the gods, but they were esteemed for their superior
+knowledge. They acquired an ascendency over the people by their
+supposed understanding of the sacred mysteries, only those priests being
+initiated in the higher secrets of religion who had proved themselves
+virtuous and discerning. "The honor of ascending from the less to the
+greater mysteries was as highly esteemed as it was difficult to obtain.
+The aspirant was required to go through the most severe ordeal, and show
+the greatest moral resignation." Those who aspired to know the
+profoundest secrets, imposed upon themselves duties more severe than
+those required by any other class. It was seldom that the priests were
+objects of scandal; they were reserved and discreet, practising the
+strictest purification of body and mind. Their life was so full of
+minute details that they rarely appeared in public. They thus obtained
+the sincere respect of the people, and ruled by the power of learning
+and sanctity as well as by privilege. They are most censured for
+concealing and withholding knowledge from the people.
+
+How deep and profound was the knowledge of the Egyptian priests it is
+difficult to settle, since it was so carefully guarded. Pythagoras made
+great efforts and sacrifices to be initiated in their higher mysteries;
+but these, it is thought, were withheld, since he was a foreigner. What
+he did learn, however, formed a foundation of what is most valuable in
+Grecian philosophy. Herodotus declares that he knew the mysteries, but
+should not divulge them. Moses was skilled in all the knowledge of the
+sacred schools of Egypt, and perhaps incorporated in his jurisprudence
+some of its most valued truths. Possibly Plato obtained from the
+Egyptian priests his idea of the immortality of the soul, since this was
+one of their doctrines. It is even thought by Wilkinson that they
+believed in the unity, the eternal existence, and invisible power of
+God, but there is no definite knowledge on that point. Ammon, the
+concealed god, seems to have corresponded with the Zeus of the Greeks,
+as Sovereign Lord of Heaven. The priests certainly taught a state of
+future rewards and punishments, for the great doctrine of metempsychosis
+is based upon it,--the transmission of the soul after death into the
+bodies of various animals as an expiation for sin. But however lofty
+were the esoteric doctrines which the more learned of the initiated
+believed, they were carefully concealed from the people, who were deemed
+too ignorant to understand them; and hence the immense difference
+between the priests and people, and the universal prevalence of
+degrading superstitions and the vile polytheism which everywhere
+existed,--even the worship of the powers of Nature in those animals
+which were held sacred. Among all the ancient nations, however
+complicated were their theogonies, and however degraded the forms of
+worship assumed,--of men, or animals, or plants,--it was heat or light
+(the sun as the visible promoter of blessings) which was regarded as the
+_animus mundi_, to be worshipped as the highest manifestation of divine
+power and goodness. The sun, among all the ancient polytheists, was
+worshipped under various names, and was one of the supremest deities.
+The priestly city of On, a sort of university town, was consecrated to
+the worship of Ra, the sun. Baal was the sun-god among the polytheistic
+Canaanites, as Bel was among the Assyrians.
+
+The Egyptian Pantheon, except perhaps that of Rome, was the most
+extensive among the ancient nations, and the most degraded, although
+that people were the most religious as well as superstitious of ancient
+pagans. The worship of the Deity, in some form, was as devout as it was
+universal, however degrading were the rites; and no expense was spared
+in sacrifices to propitiate the favor of the peculiar deity who presided
+over each of the various cities, for almost every city had a different
+deity. Notwithstanding the degrading fetichism--the lowest kind of
+Nature-worship, including the worship of animals--which formed the basis
+of the Egyptian religion, there were traces in it of pure monotheism, as
+in that of Babylonia and of ancient India. The distinguishing
+peculiarity of the Egyptian religion was the adoration of sacred
+animals as emblems of the gods, the chief of which were the bull, the
+cat, and the beetle.
+
+The gods of the Egyptian Pantheon were almost innumerable, since they
+represented every form and power of Nature, and all the passions which
+move the human soul; but the most remarkable of the popular deities was
+Osiris, who was regarded as the personification of good. Isis, the
+consort of Osiris, who with him presided at the judgment of the dead,
+was scarcely less venerated. Set, or Typhon, the brother of Osiris, was
+the personification of evil. Between Osiris and Set, therefore, was
+perpetual antagonism. This belief, divested of names and titles and
+technicalities and fables, seems to have resembled, in this respect, the
+religion of the Persians,--the eternal conflict between good and evil.
+The esoteric doctrines of the priests initiated into the higher
+mysteries probably were the primeval truths, too abstract for the
+ignorant and sensual people to comprehend, and which were represented to
+them in visible forms that appealed to their senses, and which they
+worshipped with degrading rites.
+
+The oldest of all the rites of the ancient pagans was in the form of
+sacrifice, to propitiate the deity. Abraham and Jacob offered
+sacrifices, but without degrading ceremonies, and both abhorred the
+representation of the deity in the form of animals; but there was
+scarcely an animal or reptile in Egypt that the people did not hold
+sacred, in fear or reverence. Moral evil was represented by the serpent,
+showing that something was retained, though in a distorted form, of the
+primitive revelation. The most celebrated forms of animal worship were
+the bulls at Memphis, sacred to Osiris, or, as some think, to the sun;
+the cat to Phtha, and the beetle to Re. The origin of these
+superstitions cannot be traced; they are shrouded in impenetrable
+mystery. All that we know is that they existed from the remotest period
+of which we have cognizance, long before the pyramids were built.
+
+In spite, however, of the despotism of the kings, the privileges of the
+priests, and the degrading superstitions of the people, which introduced
+the most revolting form of religious worship ever seen on earth, there
+was in Egypt a high civilization in comparison with that of other
+nations, dating back to a mythical period. More than two thousand years
+before the Christian era, and six hundred before letters were introduced
+into Greece, one thousand years before the Trojan War, twelve hundred
+years before Buddha, and fifteen hundred years before Rome was founded,
+great architectural works existed in Egypt, the remains of which still
+astonish travellers for their vastness and grandeur. In the time of
+Joseph, before the eighteenth dynasty, there was in Egypt an estimated
+population of seven millions, with twenty thousand cities. The
+civilization of that country four thousand years ago was as high as that
+of the Chinese of the present day; and their literary and scientific
+accomplishments, their proficiency in the industrial and fine arts,
+remain to-day the wonder of history. But one thing is very
+remarkable,--that while there seems to have been no great progress for
+two thousand years, there was not any marked decline, thus indicating
+virtuous habits of life among the great body of the people from
+generation to generation. They were preserved from degeneracy by their
+simple habits and peaceful pursuits. Though the armies of the King
+numbered four hundred thousand men, there were comparatively few wars,
+and these mostly of a defensive character.
+
+Such was the Egypt which Joseph governed with signal ability for more
+than half a century, nearly four thousand years ago,--the mother of
+inventions, the pioneer in literature and science, the home of learned
+men, the teacher of nations, communicating a knowledge which was never
+lost, making the first great stride in the civilization of the world. No
+one knows whether this civilization was indigenous, or derived from
+unknown races, or the remains of a primitive revelation, since it cannot
+be traced beyond Egypt itself, whose early inhabitants were more Asiatic
+than African, and apparently allied with Phoenicians and Assyrians,
+
+But the civilization of Egypt is too extensive a subject to be entered
+upon in this connection. I hope to treat it more at length in subsequent
+volumes. I can only say now that in some things the Egyptians were never
+surpassed. Their architecture, as seen in the pyramids and the ruins of
+temples, was marvellous; while their industrial arts would not be
+disdained even in the 19th century.
+
+Over this fertile, favored, and civilized nation Joseph reigned,--with
+delegated power indeed, but with power that was absolute,--when his
+starving brothers came to Egypt to buy corn, for the famine extended
+probably over western Asia. He is to be viewed, not as a prophet, or
+preacher, or reformer, or even a warrior like Moses, but as a merely
+executive ruler. As the son-in-law of the high-priest of Hieropolis, and
+delegated governor of the land, in the highest favor with the King, and
+himself a priest, it is probable that Joseph was initiated into the
+esoteric wisdom of the priesthood. He was undoubtedly stern, resolute,
+and inflexible in his relations with men, as great executive chieftains
+necessarily must be, whatever their private sympathies and friendships.
+To all appearance he was a born Egyptian, as he spoke the language of
+Egypt, had adopted its habits, and was clothed with the insignia of
+Egyptian power.
+
+So that when the sons of Jacob, who during the years of famine in
+Canaan had come down to Egypt to buy corn, were ushered into his
+presence, and bowed down to him, as had been predicted, he was harsh to
+them, although at once recognizing them. "Whence come ye?" he said
+roughly to them. They replied, "From the land of Canaan to buy corn,"
+"Nay," continued he, "ye are spies." "Not so, my lord, but to buy food
+are thy servants come. We are all one man's sons; we are true men; thy
+servants are not spies." "Nay," he said, "to see the nakedness of the
+land are ye come,"--for famine also prevailed in Egypt, and its governor
+naturally would not wish its weakness to be known, for fear of a hostile
+invasion. They replied, "Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of
+one man in the land of Canaan; the youngest is this day with our father,
+and one is not." But Joseph still persisted that they were spies, and
+put them in prison for three days; after which he demanded as the
+condition of their release that the younger brother should also appear
+before him. "If ye be true men," said he, "let one of your brothers be
+bound in the house of your prison, while you carry corn for the famine
+of your house; but bring your youngest brother unto me, and ye shall not
+die." There was apparently no alternative but to perish, or to bring
+Benjamin into Egypt; and the sons of Jacob were compelled to accept the
+condition.
+
+Then their consciences were moved, and they saw a punishment for their
+crime in selling Joseph fifteen years before. Even Reuben accused them,
+and in the very presence of Joseph reminded them of their unnatural
+cruelty, not supposing that he understood them, since Joseph had spoken
+through an interpreter. This was too much for the stern governor; he
+turned aside and wept, but speedily returned and took from them Simeon
+and bound him before their eyes, and retained him for a surety. Then he
+caused their sacks to be filled with corn, putting also their money
+therein, and gave them in addition food for their return journey. But as
+one of them on that journey opened his sack to give his ass provender,
+he espied the money; and they were all filled with fear at this
+unlooked-for incident. They made haste to reach their home and report
+the strange intelligence to their father, including the demand for the
+appearance of Benjamin, which filled him with the most violent grief.
+"Joseph is not," cried he, "and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin
+away!" Reuben here expostulated with frantic eloquence. Jacob, however,
+persisted: "My son shall not go down with you; if mischief befall him,
+ye will bring down my gray hairs in sorrow to the grave."
+
+Meanwhile the famine pressed, as Joseph knew full well it would, and
+Jacob's family had eaten all their corn, and it became necessary to get
+a new supply from Egypt. But Judah refused to go without Benjamin. "The
+man," said he, "did solemnly protest unto us, saying, Ye shall not see
+my face, except your brother be with you." Then Jacob upbraided Judah
+for revealing the number and condition of his family; but Judah excused
+himself on account of the searching cross-examination of the austere
+governor which no one could resist, and persisted in the absolute
+necessity of Benjamin's appearance in Egypt, unless they all should
+yield to starvation. Moreover, he promised to be surety for his brother,
+that no harm should come to him. Jacob at last saw the necessity of
+allowing Benjamin to go, and reluctantly gave his consent; but in order
+to appease the terrible man of Egypt he ordered his sons to take with
+them a present of spices and balm and almonds, luxuries then in great
+demand, and a double amount of money in their sacks to repay what they
+had received. Then in pious resignation he said, "If I am bereaved of my
+children, I am bereaved," and hurried away his sons.
+
+In due time they all safely arrived in Egypt, and with Benjamin stood
+before Joseph, and made obeisance, and then excused themselves to
+Joseph's steward, because of the money which had been returned in their
+sacks. The steward encouraged them, and brought Simeon to them, and led
+them into Joseph's house, where a feast was prepared by his orders.
+With great difficulty Joseph restrained his feelings at the sight of
+Benjamin, who was his own full brother, but asked kindly about the
+father. At last his pent-up affections gave way, and he sought his
+chamber and wept there in secret. He then sat down to the banquet with
+his attendants at a separate table,--for the Egyptian would not eat with
+foreigners,--still unrevealed to his brethren, but showed his partiality
+to Benjamin by sending him a mess five times greater than to the rest.
+They marvelled greatly that they were seated at the table according to
+their seniority, and questioned among themselves how the austere
+governor could know the ages of strangers.
+
+Not yet did Joseph declare himself. His brothers were not yet
+sufficiently humbled; a severe trial was still in store for them. As
+before, he ordered his steward to fill the sacks as full as they could
+carry, with every man's money in them, for he would not take his
+father's money; and further ordered that his silver drinking-cup should
+be put in Benjamin's sack. The brothers had scarcely left the city when
+they were overtaken by the steward on a charge of theft, and upbraided
+for stealing the silver cup. Of course they felt their innocence and
+protested it; but it was of no avail, although they declared that if the
+cup should be found in any one of their sacks, he in whose sack it
+might be should die for the offence. The steward took them at their
+word, proceeded to search the sacks, and lo! what was their surprise and
+grief to see that the cup was found in Benjamin's sack! They rent their
+clothes in utter despair, and returned to the city. Joseph received them
+austerely, and declared that Benjamin should be retained in Egypt as his
+servant, or slave. Then Judah, forgetting in whose presence he was, cast
+aside all fear, and made the most eloquent and plaintive speech recorded
+in the Bible, offering to remain in Benjamin's place as a slave, for how
+could he face his father, who would surely die of grief at the loss of
+his favorite child.
+
+Joseph could refrain his feelings no longer. He made every attendant
+leave his presence, and then declared himself to his brothers, whom God
+had sent to Egypt to be the means of saving their lives. The brothers,
+conscience stricken and ashamed, completely humbled and afraid, could
+not answer his questions. Then Joseph tenderly, in their own language,
+begged them to come near, and explained to them that it was not they who
+sent him to Egypt, but God, to work out a great deliverance to their
+posterity, and to be a father to Pharaoh himself, inasmuch as the famine
+was to continue five years longer. "Haste ye, and go up to my father,
+and say unto him that God hath made me lord of all Egypt: come down
+unto me, and thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen near unto me, thou
+and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks and thy
+herds, and all that thou hast, and there will I nourish thee. And ye
+shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt, and of all that ye have
+seen; and ye shall haste, and bring down my father hither." And he fell
+on Benjamin's neck and wept, and kissed all his brothers. They then
+talked with him without further reserve.
+
+The news that Joseph's brethren had come to Egypt pleased Pharaoh, so
+grateful was the King for the preservation of his kingdom. He could not
+do enough for such a benefactor. "Say to thy brethren, lade your beasts
+and go, and take your father and your households, and come unto me; and
+I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat
+of the land." And the King commanded them to take his wagons to
+transport their families and goods. Joseph also gave to each one of them
+changes of raiment, and to Benjamin three hundred pieces of silver and
+five changes of raiment, and ten asses laden with the good things of
+Egypt for their father, and ten she-asses laden with corn. As they
+departed, he archly said unto them, "See that ye fall not out by
+the way!"
+
+And when they arrived at Canaan, and told their father all that had
+happened and all that they had seen, he fainted. The news was too good
+to be true; he would not believe them. But when he saw the wagons his
+spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough. Joseph my son is yet alive.
+I will go and see him before I die." The old man is again young in
+spirit. He is for going immediately; he could leap,--yea, fly.
+
+To Egypt, then, Israel with his sons and his cattle and all his wealth
+hastened. His sons are astonished at the providence of God, so clearly
+and impressively demonstrated on their behalf. The reconciliation of the
+family is complete. All envy is buried in the unbounded prosperity of
+Joseph. He is now too great for envy. He is to be venerated as the
+instrument of God in saving his father's house and the land of Egypt.
+They all now bow down to him, father and sons alike, and the only strife
+now is who shall render him the most honor. He is the pride and glory of
+his family, as he is of the land of Egypt, and of the household
+of Pharaoh.
+
+In the hospitality of the King, and his absence of jealousy of the
+nomadic people whom he settled in the most fertile of his provinces, we
+see additional confirmation of the fact that he was one of the Shepherd
+Kings. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time seems to have affiliated with the
+Israelites as natural friends,--to assist him in case of war. All the
+souls that came into Egypt with Jacob were seventy in number, although
+some historians think there was a much larger number. Rawlinson
+estimates it at two thousand, and Dean Payne Smith at three thousand.
+
+Jacob was one hundred and thirty years of age when he came to dwell in
+the land of Goshen, and he lived seventeen years in Egypt. When he died,
+Joseph was about fifty years old, and was still in power.
+
+It was the dying wish of the old patriarch to be buried with his
+fathers, and he made Joseph promise to carry his bones to the land of
+Canaan and bury them in the sepulchre which Abraham had bought,--even
+the cave of Machpelah.
+
+Before Jacob died, Joseph brought his two sons to him to receive his
+blessing,--Manasseh and Ephraim, born in Egypt, whose grandfather was
+the high-priest of On, the city of the sun. As Manasseh was the oldest,
+he placed him at the right hand of Jacob, but the old man wittingly and
+designedly laid his right hand on Ephraim, which displeased Joseph. But
+Jacob, without giving his reason, persisted. While he prophesied that
+Manasseh should be great, Ephraim he said should be greater,--verified
+in the fact that the tribe of Ephraim was the largest of all the tribes,
+and the most powerful until the captivity. It was nearly as large as all
+the rest together, although in the time of Moses the tribe of Manasseh
+had become more numerous. We cannot penetrate the reason why Ephraim
+the younger son was preferred to the older, any more than why Jacob was
+preferred to Esau. After Jacob had blessed the sons of Joseph, he called
+his other sons around his dying bed to predict the future of their
+descendants. Reuben the oldest was told that he would not excel, because
+he had loved his father's concubine and committed a grievous sin. Simeon
+and Levi were the most active in seeking to compass the death of Joseph,
+and a curse was sent upon them. Judah was exalted above them all, for he
+had sought to save Joseph, and was eloquent in pleading for
+Benjamin,--the most magnanimous of the sons. So from him it was
+predicted that the sceptre should not depart from his house until Shiloh
+should come,--the Messiah, to whose appearance all the patriarchs
+looked. And all that Jacob predicted about his sons to their remote
+descendants came to pass; but the highest blessing was accorded to
+Joseph, as was realized in the future ascendency of Ephraim.
+
+When Jacob had made an end of his blessings and predictions he gathered
+up his feet into his bed and gave up the ghost, and Joseph caused him to
+be embalmed, as was the custom in Egypt. When the days of public
+mourning were over (seventy days), Joseph obtained leave from Pharaoh to
+absent himself from the kingdom and his government, to bury his father
+according to his wish. And he departed in great pomp, with chariots and
+horses, together with his brothers and a great number, and deposited the
+remains of Jacob in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where Abraham
+himself was buried, and then returned to his duties in Egypt.
+
+It is not mentioned in the Scriptures how long Joseph retained his power
+as prime minister of Pharaoh, but probably until a new dynasty succeeded
+the throne,--the eighteenth as it is supposed, for we are told that a
+new king arose who knew not Joseph. He lived to be one hundred and ten
+years of age, and when he died his body was embalmed and placed in a
+sarcophagus, and ultimately was carried to Canaan and buried with his
+fathers, according to the oath or promise he exacted of his brothers.
+His last recorded words were a prediction that God would bring the
+children of Israel out of Egypt to the land which he sware unto Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob. On his deathbed he becomes, like his father, a
+prophet. He had foretold his own future elevation when only a youth of
+seventeen, though only in the form of a dream, the full purport of which
+he did not comprehend; as an old man, about to die, he predicts the
+greatest blessing which could happen to his kindred,--their restoration
+to the land promised unto Abraham.
+
+Joseph is one of the most interesting characters of the Bible, one of
+the most fortunate, and one of the most faultless. He resisted the most
+powerful temptations, and there is no recorded act which sullies his
+memory. Although most of his life was spent among idolaters, and he
+married a pagan woman, he retained his allegiance to the God of his
+fathers. He ever felt that he was a stranger in a strange land, although
+its supreme governor, and looked to Canaan as the future and beloved
+home of his family and race. He regarded his residence in Egypt only as
+a means of preserving the lives of his kindred, and himself as an
+instrument to benefit both his family and the country which he ruled.
+His life was one of extraordinary usefulness. He had great executive
+talents, which he exercised for the good of others. Though stern and
+even hard in his official duties, he had unquenchable natural
+affections. His heart went out to his old father, his brother Benjamin,
+and to all his kindred with inexpressible tenderness. He was as free
+from guile as he was from false pride. In giving instructions to his
+brothers how they should appear before the King, and what they should
+say when questioned as to their occupations, he advised the utmost
+frankness,--to say that they were shepherds, although the occupation of
+a shepherd was an abomination to an Egyptian. He had exceeding tact in
+confronting the prejudices of the King and the priesthood. He took no
+pains to conceal his birth and lineage in the most aristocratic country
+of the world. Considering that he was only second in power and dignity
+to an absolute monarch, his life was unostentatious and his
+habits simple.
+
+If we seek a parallel to him among modern statesmen, he most resembles
+Colbert as the minister of Louis XIV.; or Prince Metternich, who in
+great simplicity ruled Continental Europe for a quarter of a century.
+
+Nothing is said of his palaces, or pleasures, or wealth. He had not the
+austere and unbending pride of Mordecai, whose career as an instrument
+of Providence for the welfare of his countrymen was as remarkable as
+Joseph's. He was more like Daniel in his private life than any of those
+Jews who have arisen to great power in foreign lands, though he had not
+Daniel's exalted piety or prophetic gifts. He was faithful to the
+interests of his sovereign, and greatly increased the royal authority.
+He got possession of the whole property of the nation for the benefit of
+his master, but exacted only a fifth part of the produce of the land for
+the support of the government. He was a priest of a grossly polytheistic
+religion, but acknowledged only the One Supreme God, whose instrument he
+felt himself to be. His services to the state were transcendent, but his
+supremest mission was to preserve the Hebrew nation.
+
+The condition of the Israelites in Egypt after the death of Joseph, and
+during the period of their sojourn, it is difficult to determine. There
+is a doubt among the critics as to the length of this sojourn,--the
+Bible in several places asserting that it lasted four hundred and thirty
+years, which, if true, would bring the Exodus to the end of the
+nineteenth dynasty. Some suppose that the residence in Egypt was only
+two hundred and fifteen years. The territory assigned to the Israelites
+was a small one, and hence must have been densely populated, if, as it
+is reckoned, two millions of people left the country under the
+leadership of Moses and Aaron. It is supposed that the reigning
+sovereign at that time was Menephtah, successor of Rameses II. It is,
+then, the great Rameses, who was the king from whom Moses fled,--the
+most distinguished of all the Egyptian monarchs as warrior and builder
+of monuments. He was the second king of the eighteenth dynasty, and
+reigned in conjunction with his father Seti for sixty years. Among his
+principal works was the completion of the city of Rameses (Raamses, or
+Tanis, or Zoan), one of the principal cities of Egypt, begun by his
+father and made a royal residence. He also, it appears from the
+monuments, built Pithon and other important towns, by the forced labor
+of the Israelites. Rameses and Pithon were called treasure-cities, the
+site of the latter having been lately discovered, to the east of Tanis.
+They were located in the midst of a fertile country, now dreary and
+desolate, which was the object of great panegyric. An Egyptian poet,
+quoted by Dr. Charles S. Robinson, paints the vicinity of Zoan, where
+Pharaoh resided at the time of the Exodus, as full of loveliness and
+fertility. "Her fields are verdant with excellent herbage; her bowers
+bloom with garlands; her pools are prolific in fish; and in the ponds
+are ducks. Each garden is perfumed with the smell of honey; the
+granaries are full of wheat and barley; vegetables and reeds and herbs
+are growing in the parks; flowers and nosegays are in the houses;
+lemons, citrons, and figs are in the orchards." Such was the field of
+Zoan in ancient times, near Rameses, which the Israelites had built
+without straw to make their bricks, and from which place they set out
+for the general rendezvous at Succoth, under Moses. It will be noted
+that if Rameses, or Tanis, was the residence of the court when Moses
+made his demands on Menephtah, it was in the midst of the settlements of
+the Israelites, in the land of Goshen, which the last of the Shepherd
+Kings had assigned to them.
+
+It is impossible to tell what advance in civilization was made by the
+Israelites in consequence of their sojourn in Egypt; but they must have
+learned many useful arts, and many principles of jurisprudence, and
+acquired a better knowledge of agriculture. They learned to be patient
+under oppression and wrong, to be frugal and industrious in their
+habits, and obedient to the voice of their leaders. But unfortunately
+they acquired a love of idolatrous worship, which they did not lose
+until their captivity in Babylon. The golden calves of the wilderness
+were another form of the worship of the sacred bulls of Memphis. They
+were easily led to worship the sun under the Egyptian and Canaanitish
+names. Had the children of Israel remained in the promised land, in the
+early part of their history, they would probably have perished by
+famine, or have been absorbed by their powerful Canaanitish neighbors.
+In Egypt they were well fed, rapidly increased in number, and became a
+nation to be feared even while in bondage. In the land of Canaan they
+would have been only a pastoral or nomadic people, unable to defend
+themselves in war, and unacquainted with the use of military weapons.
+They might have been exterminated, without constant miracles and
+perpetual supernatural aid,--which is not the order of Providence.
+
+In Egypt, it is true, the Israelites lost their political independence;
+but even under slavery there is much to be learned from civilized
+masters. How rapid and marvellous the progress of the African races in
+the Southern States in their two hundred years of bondage! When before
+in the history of the world has there been such a progress among mere
+barbarians, with fetichism for their native religion? Races have
+advanced in every element of civilization, and in those virtues which
+give permanent strength to character, under all the benumbing and
+degrading influences of slavery, while nations with wealth, freedom, and
+prosperity have declined and perished. The slavery of the Israelites in
+Egypt may have been a blessing in disguise, from which they emerged when
+they were able to take care of themselves. Moses led them out of
+bondage; but Moses also incorporated in his institutions the "wisdom of
+the Egyptians." He was indeed inspired to declare certain fundamental
+truths, but he also taught the lessons of experience which a great
+nation had acquired by two thousand years of prosperity. Who can tell,
+who can measure, the civilization which the Israelites must have carried
+out of Egypt, with the wealth of which they despoiled their masters?
+Where else at that period could they have found such teachers? The
+Persians at that time were shepherds like themselves in Canaan, the
+Assyrians were hunters, and the Greeks had no historical existence. Only
+the discipline of forty years in the wilderness, under Moses, was
+necessary to make them a nation of conquerors, for they had already
+learned the arts of agriculture, and knew how to protect themselves in
+walled cities. A nomadic people were they no longer, as in the time of
+Jacob, but small farmers, who had learned to irrigate their barren hills
+and till their fertile valleys; and they became a powerful though
+peaceful nation, unconquered by invaders for a thousand years, and
+unconquerable for all time in their traditions, habits, and mental
+characteristics. From one man--the patriarch Jacob--did this great
+nation rise, and did not lose its national unity and independence until
+from the tribe of Judah a deliverer arose who redeemed the human race.
+Surely, how favored was Joseph, in being the instrument under Providence
+of preserving this nation in its infancy, and placing its people in a
+rich and fertile country where they could grow and multiply, and learn
+principles of civilization which would make them a permanent power in
+the progress of humanity!
+
+
+
+
+MOSES.
+
+
+1571-1451 B.C. [USHER].
+
+HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE.
+
+
+Among the great actors in the world's history must surely be presented
+the man who gave the first recorded impulse to civilization, and who is
+the most august character of antiquity. I think Moses and his
+legislation should be considered from the standpoint of the Scriptures
+rather than from that of science and criticism. It is very true that the
+legislation and ritualism we have been accustomed to ascribe to Moses
+are thought by many great modern critics, including Ewald, to be the
+work of writers whose names are unknown, in the time of Hezekiah and
+even later, as Jewish literature was developed. But I remain unconvinced
+by the modern theories, plausible as they are, and weighty as is their
+authority; and hence I have presented the greatest man in the history of
+the Jews as our fathers regarded him, and as the Bible represents him.
+Nor is there any subject which bears more directly on the elemental
+principles of theological belief and practical morality, or is more
+closely connected with the progress of modern religious and social
+thought, than a consideration of the Mosaic writings. Whether as a "man
+of God," or as a meditative sage, or as a sacred historian, or as an
+inspired prophet, or as an heroic liberator and leader of a favored
+nation, or as a profound and original legislator, Moses alike stands out
+as a wonderful man, not to the eyes of Jews merely, but to all
+enlightened nations and ages. He was evidently raised up for a
+remarkable and exalted mission,--not only to deliver a debased and
+superstitious people from bondage, but to impress his mind and character
+upon them and upon all other nations, and to link his name with the
+progress of the human race.
+
+He arose at a great crisis, when a new dynasty reigned in Egypt,--not
+friendly, as the preceding one had been, to the children of Israel; but
+a dynasty which had expelled the Shepherd Kings, and looked with fear
+and jealousy upon this alien race, already powerful, in sympathy with
+the old regime, located in the most fertile sections of the land, and
+acquainted not merely with agriculture, but with the arts of the
+Egyptians,--a population of over two millions of souls; so that the
+reigning monarch, probably a son of the Sesostris of the Greeks,
+bitterly exclaimed to his courtiers, "The children of Israel are more
+and mightier than we!" And the consequence of this jealousy was a
+persecution based on the elemental principle of all persecution,--that
+of fear blended with envy, carried out with remorseless severity; for in
+case of war (and the new dynasty scarcely felt secure on the throne) it
+was feared the Hebrews might side with enemies. So the new Pharaoh
+(Rameses II., as is thought by Rawlinson) attempted to crush their
+spirit by hard toils and unjust exactions. And as they still continued
+to multiply, there came forth the dreadful edict that every male child
+of the Hebrews should be destroyed as soon as born.
+
+It was then that Moses, descended from a family of the tribe of Levi,
+was born,--1571 B.C., according to Usher. I need not relate in detail
+the beautiful story of his concealment for three months by his mother
+Jochebed, his exposure in a basket of papyrus on the banks of the Nile,
+his rescue by the daughter of Pharaoh, at that time regent of the
+kingdom in the absence of her father,--or, as Wilberforce thinks, the
+wife of the king of Lower Egypt,--his adoption by this powerful
+princess, his education in the royal household among those learned
+priests to whose caste even the King belonged. Moses himself, a great
+master of historical composition, has in six verses told that story,
+with singular pathos and beauty; yet he directly relates nothing further
+of his life until, at the age of forty, he killed an Egyptian overseer
+who was smiting one of his oppressed brethren, and buried him in the
+sands,--thereby showing that he was indignant at injustice, or clung in
+his heart to his race of slaves. But what a history might have been
+written of those forty years of luxury, study, power, and honor!--since
+Josephus speaks of his successful and brilliant exploits as a conqueror
+of the Ethiopians. What a career did the son of the Hebrew bondwoman
+probably lead in the palaces of Memphis, sitting at the monarch's table,
+feted as a conqueror, adopted as grandson and perhaps as heir, a
+proficient in all the learning and arts of the most civilized nation of
+the earth, enrolled in the college of priests, discoursing with the most
+accomplished of his peers on the wonders of magical enchantment, the
+hidden meaning of religious rites, and even the being and attributes of
+a Supreme God,--the esoteric wisdom from which even a Pythagoras drew
+his inspiration; possibly tasting, with generals and nobles, all the
+pleasures of sin. But whether in pleasure or honor, the soul of Moses,
+fortified by the maternal instructions of his early days,--for his
+mother was doubtless a good as well as a brave woman,--soars beyond his
+circumstances, and he seeks to avenge the wrongs of his brethren. Not
+wisely, however, for he slays a government official, and is forced to
+flee,--a necessity which we can hardly comprehend in view of his rank
+and power, unless it revealed all at once to the astonished king his
+Hebrew birth, and his dangerous sympathies with an oppressed people, the
+act showing that he may have sought, in his earnest soul, to break their
+intolerable bonds.
+
+Certainly Moses aspires prematurely to be a deliverer. He is not yet
+prepared for such a mighty task. He is too impulsive and inexperienced.
+It must need be that he pass through a period of preparation, learn
+patience, mature his knowledge, and gain moral force, which preparation
+could be best made in severe contemplation; for it is in retirement and
+study that great men forge the weapons which demolish principalities and
+powers, and master those _principia_ which are the foundation of thrones
+and empires. So he retires to the deserts of Midian, among a scattered
+pastoral people, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and is received by
+Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose flocks he tends, and whose daughter
+he marries.
+
+The land of Midian, to which he fled, is not fertile like Egypt, nor
+rich in unnumbered monuments of pride and splendor, with pyramids for
+mausoleums, and colossal statues to perpetuate kingly memories. It is
+not scented with flowers and variegated with landscapes of beauty and
+fertility, but is for the most part, with here and there a patch of
+verdure, a land of utter barrenness and dreariness, and, as Hamilton
+paints it, "a great and terrible wilderness, where no soft features
+mitigated the unbroken horror, but dark and brown ridges, red peaks like
+pyramids of fire; no rounded hillocks or soft mountain curves, but
+monstrous and misshapen cliffs, rising tier above tier, and serrated for
+miles into rugged grandeur, and grooved by the winter torrents cutting
+into the veins of the fiery rock: a land dreary and desolate, yet
+sublime in its boldness and ruggedness,--a labyrinth of wild and blasted
+mountains, a terrific and howling desolation."
+
+It is here that Moses seeks safety, and finds it in the home of a
+priest, where his affections may be cultivated, and where he may indulge
+in lofty speculations and commune with the Elohim whom he adores;
+isolated yet social, active in body but more active in mind, still fresh
+in all the learning of the schools of Egypt, and wise in all the
+experiences of forty years. And the result of his studies and
+inspirations was, it is supposed, the book of Genesis, in which he
+narrates more important events, and reveals more lofty truths than all
+the historians of Greece unfolded in their collective volumes,--a marvel
+of historic art, a model of composition, an immortal work of genius, the
+oldest and the greatest written history of which we have record.
+
+And surely what poetry, pathos, and eloquence, what simplicity and
+beauty, what rich and varied lessons of human experience, what treasures
+of moral wisdom, are revealed in that little book! How sublimely the
+poet-prophet narrates the misery of the Fall, and the promised glories
+of the Restoration! How concisely the historian compresses the incidents
+of patriarchal life, the rise of empires, the fall of cities, the
+certitudes of faith, of friendship, and of love! All that is vital in
+the history of thousands of years is condensed into a few chapters,--not
+dry and barren annals, but descriptions of character, and the unfolding
+of emotions and sensibilities, and insight into those principles of
+moral government which indicate a superintending Power, creating faith
+in a world of sin, and consolation amid the wreck of matter.
+
+Thus when forty more years are passed in study, in literary composition,
+in religious meditation, and active duties, in sight of grand and barren
+mountains, amid affections and simplicities,--years which must have
+familiarized him with every road and cattle-drive and sheep-track, every
+hill and peak, every wady and watercourse, every timber-belt and oasis
+in the Sinaitic wilderness, through which his providentially trained
+military instincts were to safely conduct a vast multitude,--Moses,
+still strong and laborious, is fitted for his exalted mission as a
+deliverer. And now he is directly called by the voice of God himself,
+amid the wonders of the burning bush,--Him whom, thus far, he had, like
+Abraham, adored as the Elohim, the God Almighty, but whom henceforth he
+recognizes as Jehovah (Jahveh) in His special relations to the Jewish
+nation, rather than as the general Deity who unites the attributes
+ascribed to Him as the ruler of the universe. Moses quakes before that
+awful voice out of the midst of the bush, which commissions him to
+deliver his brethren. He is no longer bold, impetuous, impatient, but
+timid and modest. Long study and retirement from the busy haunts of men
+have made him self-distrustful. He replies to the great _I Am_, "Who am
+I, that _I_ should bring forth the Children of Israel out of Egypt?
+Behold, I am not eloquent; they will not believe me, nor hearken to my
+voice." In spite of the miracle of the rod, Moses obeys reluctantly, and
+Aaron, his elder brother, is appointed as his spokesman.
+
+Armed with the mysterious wonder-working rod, at length Moses and Aaron,
+as representatives of the Jewish people, appear in the presence of
+Pharaoh, and in the name of Jehovah request permission for Israel to go
+and hold a feast in the wilderness. They do not demand emancipation or
+emigration, which would of course be denied. I cannot dwell on the
+haughty scepticism and obdurate hardness of the King--"Who is Jehovah,
+that I should obey _his_ voice?"--the renewed persecution of the
+Hebrews, the successive plagues and calamities sent upon Egypt, which
+the magicians could not explain, and the final extorted and unwilling
+consent of Pharaoh to permit Israel to worship the God of Moses in the
+wilderness, lest greater evils should befall him than the destruction of
+the first-born throughout the land.
+
+The deliverance of a nation of slaves is at last, it would seem,
+miraculously effected; and then begins the third period of the life of
+Moses, as the leader and governor of these superstitious, sensual,
+idolatrous, degraded slaves. Then begin the real labors and trials of
+Moses; for the people murmur, and are consumed with fears as soon as
+they have crossed the sea, and find themselves in the wilderness. And
+their unbelief and impatience are scarcely lessened by the tremendous
+miracle of the submersion of the pursuing host, and all successive
+miracles,--the mysterious manna, the pillar of cloud and of fire, the
+smitten rock at Horeb, and the still more impressive and awful
+wonders of Sinai.
+
+The guidance of the Israelites during these forty years in the
+wilderness is marked by transcendent ability on the part of Moses, and
+by the most disgraceful conduct on the part of the Israelites. They are
+forgetful of mercies, ungrateful, rebellious, childish in their
+hankerings for a country where they had been more oppressed than Spartan
+Helots, idolatrous, and superstitious. They murmur for flesh to eat;
+they make golden calves to worship; they seek a new leader when Moses is
+longer on the Mount than they expect. When any new danger threatens they
+lay the blame on Moses; they even foolishly regret that they had not
+died in Egypt.
+
+Obviously such a people were not fit for freedom, or even for the
+conquest of the promised land. They were as timid and cowardly as they
+were rebellious. Even the picked men sent out to explore Canaan, with
+the exception of Caleb and Joshua, reported nations of giants impossible
+to subdue. A new generation must arise, disciplined by forty years'
+experience, made hardy and strong by exposure and suffering. Yet what
+nation, in the world's history, ever improved so much in forty years?
+What ruler ever did so much for a people in a single reign? This abject
+race of slaves in forty years was transformed into a nation of valiant
+warriors, made subject to law and familiar with the fundamental
+principles of civilization. What a marvellous change, effected by the
+genius and wisdom of one man, in communion with Almighty power!
+
+But the distinguishing labor of Moses during these forty years, by which
+he linked his name with all subsequent ages, and became the greatest
+benefactor of mind the world has seen until Christ, was his system of
+Jurisprudence. It is this which especially demands our notice, and hence
+will form the main subject of this lecture.
+
+In reviewing the Mosaic legislation, we notice both those ordinances
+which are based on immutable truth for the rule of all nations to the
+end of time, and those prescribed for the peculiar situation and
+exigencies of the Jews as a theocratic state, isolated from
+other nations.
+
+The moral code of Moses, by far the most important and universally
+accepted, rests on the fundamental principles of theology and morality.
+How lofty, how impressive, how solemn this code! How it appeals at once
+to the consciousness of all minds in every age and nation, producing
+convictions that no sophistry can weaken, binding the conscience with
+irresistible and terrific bonds,--those immortal Ten Commandments,
+engraven on the two tables of stone, and preserved in the holy and
+innermost sanctuary of the Jews, yet reappearing in all their
+literature, accepted and reaffirmed by Christ, entering into the
+religious system of every nation that has received them, and forming the
+cardinal principles of all theological belief! Yet it was by Moses that
+these Commandments came. He is the first, the favored man, commissioned
+by God to declare to the world, clearly and authoritatively, His supreme
+power and majesty, whom alone all nations and tribes and people are to
+worship to remotest generations. In it he fearfully exposes the sin of
+idolatry, to which all nations are prone,--the one sin which the
+Almighty visits with such dreadful penalties, since this involves, and
+implies logically, rebellion against Him, the supreme ruler of the
+universe, and disloyalty to Him as a personal sovereign, in whatever
+form this idolatry may appear, whether in graven images of tutelary
+deities, or in the worship of Nature (ever blind and indefinite), or in
+the exaltation of self, in the varied search for pleasure, ambition, or
+wealth, to which the debased soul bows down with grovelling instincts,
+and in the pursuit of which the soul forgets its higher destiny and its
+paramount obligations. Moses is the first to expose with terrific force
+and solemn earnestness this universal tendency to the oblivion of the
+One God amid the temptations, the pleasures, and the glories of the
+world, and the certain displeasure of the universal sovereign which must
+follow, as seen in the fall of empires and the misery of individuals
+from his time to ours, the uniform doom of people and nations, whatever
+the special form of idolatry, whenever it reaches a peculiar fulness and
+development,--the ultimate law of all decline and ruin, from which there
+is no escape, "for the Lord God is a jealous God, visiting the
+iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth
+generation." So sacred and awful is this controlling Deity, that it is
+made a cardinal sin even to utter His name in vain, in levity or
+blasphemy. In order also to keep Him before the minds of men, a day is
+especially appointed--one in seven--which it is the bounden duty as well
+as privilege of all generations to keep with peculiar sanctity,--a day
+of rest from labor as well as of adoration; an entirely new institution,
+which no Pagan nation, and no other ancient nation, ever recognized.
+After thus laying solemn injunctions upon all men to render supreme
+allegiance to this personal God,--for we can find no better word,
+although Matthew Arnold calls it "the Power which maketh for
+righteousness,"--Moses presents the duties of men to each other, chiefly
+those which pertain to the abstaining from injuries they are most
+tempted to commit, extending to the innermost feelings of the heart, for
+"thou shalt not covet anything which is thy neighbor's;" thus covering,
+in a few sentences, the primal obligations of mankind to God and to
+society, afterward expanded by a greater teacher into the more
+comprehensive law of Love, which is to bind together mortals on earth,
+as it binds together immortals in heaven.
+
+All Christian nations have accepted these Ten Commandments, even
+Mohammedan nations, as appealing to the universal conscience,--not a
+mere Jewish code, but a primary law, susceptible of boundless
+obligation, never to be abrogated; a direct injunction of the Almighty
+to the end of time.
+
+The Ten Commandments seem to be the foundation of the subsequent and
+more minute code which Moses gave to the Jews; and it is interesting to
+see how its great principles have entered, more or less, into the laws
+of Christian nations from the decline of the Roman Empire, into the
+Theodosian code, the laws of Charlemagne, of Ina, of Alfred, and
+especially into the institutions of the Puritans, and of all other sects
+and parties wherever the Bible is studied and revered. They seem to be
+designed not merely for Jews, but for Gentiles also, since there is no
+escape from their obligation. They may seem severe in some of their
+applications, but never unjust; and as long as the world endures, the
+relations between man and man are to be settled on lofty moral grounds.
+An elevated morality is the professed aim of all enlightened lawgivers;
+and the prosperity of nations is built upon it, for it is righteousness
+which exalteth them. Culture is desirable; but the welfare of nations is
+based on morals rather than on aesthetics. On this point Moses, or even
+Epictetus, is a greater authority than Goethe. All the ordinances of
+Moses tend to this end. They are the publication of natural
+religion,--that God is a rewarder of virtuous actions, and punishes
+wicked deeds. Moses, from first to last, insists imperatively on the
+doctrine of personal responsibility to God, which doctrine is the
+logical sequence of belief in Him as the moral governor of the world.
+And in enforcing this cardinal truth he is dogmatic and dictatorial, as
+a prophet and ambassador of the Most High should be.
+
+It is a waste of time to use arguments in the teaching of the primal
+principles which appeal to consciousness; and I am not certain but that
+elaborate and metaphysical reasoning on the nature and attributes of God
+weakens rather than strengthens the belief in Him, since He is a power
+made known by revelation, and received and accepted by the soul at once,
+if received at all. Among the earliest noticeable corruptions of the
+Church was the introduction of Greek philosophy to harmonize and
+reconcile with it the truths of the gospel, which to a certain class
+ever have been, and ever will be, foolishness. The speculations and
+metaphysics of theologians, I verily believe, have done more harm than
+good,--from Athanasius to Jonathan Edwards,--whenever they have brought
+the aid of finite reason to support the ultimate truths declared by an
+infinite and almighty mind. Moses does not reason, nor speculate, nor
+refine; he affirms, and appeals to the law written on the heart,--to the
+consciousness of mankind. What he declares to be duties are not even to
+be discussed. They are to be obeyed with unhesitating obedience, since
+no discussion or argument can make them clearer or more imperative. The
+obligation to obey them is seen and felt at once, as soon as they are
+declared. What he says in regard to the relations of master and servant;
+to injuries inflicted on the body; to the respect due to parents; to the
+protection of the widow, the fatherless, and the unfortunate; to
+delicacy in the treatment of women; to unjust judgments; to bribery and
+corruption; to revenge, hatred, and covetousness; to falsehood and
+tale-bearing; to unchastity, theft, murder, and adultery,--can never be
+gainsaid, and would have been accepted by Roman jurists as readily as by
+modern legislators; yea, they would not be disputed by savages, if they
+acknowledged a God at all. The elevated morality of the ethical code of
+Moses is its most striking feature, since it appeals to the universal
+heart, and does not conflict with some of the ethical teachings of those
+great lights of the Pagan world to whose consciousness God has been
+revealed. Moses differs from them only in the completion and scope and
+elevation of his system, and in its freedom from the puerilities and
+superstitions which they blended with their truths, and from which he
+was emancipated by inspiration. Brahma and Confucius and Socrates taught
+some great truths which Moses would accept, but they taught errors
+likewise. He taught no errors, though he permitted some sins which in
+the beginning did not exist,--such, for instance, as polygamy. Christ
+came not to destroy his law, but to fulfil it and complete it. In two
+things especially, how emphatic his teaching and how permanent his
+influence!--in respect to the observance of the Sabbath and the
+relations of the sexes. To him, more than to any man in the world's
+history, do we owe the elevation of woman, and the sanctity and blessing
+of a day of rest. In the awful sacredness of the person, and in the
+regular resort to the sanctuary of God, we see his immortal authority
+and his permanent influence.
+
+The other laws which Moses promulgated are more special and minute, and
+seem to be intended to preserve the Jews from idolatry, the peculiar sin
+of the surrounding nations; and also, more directly, to keep alive the
+recognition of a theocratic government.
+
+Thus the ceremonial or ritualistic law--an important part of the Mosaic
+Code--constantly points to Jehovah as the King of the Jews, as well as
+their Supreme Deity, for whose worship the rites and ceremonies are
+devised with great minuteness, to keep His _personality_ constantly
+before their minds. Moreover, all their rites and ceremonies were
+typical and emblematical of the promised Saviour who was to arise; in a
+more emphatic sense their King, and not merely their own Messiah, but
+the Redeemer of the whole race, who should reign finally as King of
+kings and Lord of lords. And hence these rites and sacrifices, typical
+of Him who should offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the
+world, are not supposed to be binding on other nations after the great
+sacrifice has been made, and the law of Moses has been fulfilled by
+Jesus and the new dispensation has been established. We see a
+complicated and imposing service, with psalms and hymns, and beautiful
+robes, and smoking altars,--all that could inspire awe and reverence. We
+behold a blazing tabernacle of gold and silver and precious woods and
+gorgeous tapestries, with inner and secret recesses to contain the ark
+and the tables of stone, the mysterious rod, the urn of manna, the book
+of the covenant, the golden throne over-canopied by cherubs with
+outstretched wings, and the mercy-seat for the Shekinah who sat between
+the cherubim. The sacred and costly vessels, the candlesticks of pure
+and beaten gold, the lamps, the brazen sea, the embroidered vestments of
+the priests, the breastplate of precious stones, the golden chains, the
+emblematic rings, the ephods and mitres and girdles, the various altars
+for sacrifice, the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, meat-offerings, and
+sin-offerings, the consecrated cakes and animals for sacrifice, the
+rites for cleansing leprosy and all uncleanliness, the grand atonements
+and solemn fasts and festivals,--all were calculated to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious people. The rites and ceremonies of the
+Jews were so attractive that they made up for all other amusements and
+spectacles; they answered the purpose of the Gothic churches and
+cathedrals of Europe in the Middle Ages, when these were the chief
+attractions of the period. There is nothing absurd in ritualism among
+ignorant and superstitious people, who are ever most easily impressed
+through their senses and imagination. It was the wisdom of the Middle
+Ages,--the device of popes and bishops and abbots to attract and
+influence the people. But ritualism--useful in certain ages and
+circumstances, certainly in its most imposing forms, if I may say
+it--does not seem to be one of the peculiarities of enlightened ages;
+even the ritualism of the wilderness lost much of its hold upon the Jews
+themselves after their captivity, and still more when Greek and Roman
+civilization had penetrated to Jerusalem. The people who listened to
+Peter and Paul could no longer be moved by imposing rites, even as the
+European nations--under the preaching of Luther, Knox, and Latimer--lost
+all relish for the ceremonies of the Middle Ages. What, then, are we to
+think of the revival of observances which lost their force three hundred
+years ago, unless connected with artistic music? It is music which
+vitalizes ritualistic worship in our times, as it did in the times of
+David and Solomon. The vitality of the Jewish ritual, when the nation
+had emerged from barbarism, was in its connections with a magnificent
+psalmody. The Psalms of David appeal to the heart and not to the senses.
+The ritualism of the wilderness appealed to the senses and not to the
+heart; and this was necessary when the people had scarcely emerged from
+barbarism, even as it was deemed necessary amid the turbulence and
+ignorance of the tenth century.
+
+In the ritualism which Moses established there was the absence of
+everything which would recall the superstitions and rites, or even the
+doctrines, of the Egyptians. In view of this, we account partially for
+the almost studied reticence in respect to a future state, upon which
+hinged many of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship. It would have been
+difficult for Moses to have recognized the future state, in the
+degrading ignorance and sensualism of the Jews, without associating with
+it the tutelary deities of the Egyptians and all the absurdities
+connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which consigned the
+victims of future punishment to enter the forms of disgusting and
+hideous animals, thereby blending with the sublime doctrine of a future
+state the most degrading superstitions. Bishop Warburton seizes on the
+silence of Moses respecting a future state to prove, by a learned yet
+sophistical argument, his divine legation, _because_ he ignored what so
+essentially entered into the religion of Egypt. But whether Moses
+purposely ignored this great truth for fear it would be perverted, or
+because it was a part of the Egyptian economy which he wished his people
+to forget, still it is also possible that this doctrine of immortality
+was so deeply engraved on the minds of the people that there was no need
+to recognize it while giving a system of ritualistic observances. The
+comparative silence of the Old Testament concerning immortality is one
+of its most impressive mysteries. However dimly shadowed by Job and
+David and Isaiah, it seems to have been brought to light only by the
+gospel. There is more in the writings of Plato and Cicero about
+immortality than in the whole of the Old Testament, And this fact is so
+remarkable, that some trace to the sages of Greece and Egypt the
+doctrine itself, as ordinarily understood; that is, a _necessary_
+existence of the soul after death. And they fortify themselves with
+those declarations of the apostles which represent a happy immortality
+as the special gift of God,--not a necessary existence, but given only
+to those who obey his laws. If immortality be not a gift, but a
+necessary existence, as Socrates supposed, it seems strange that heathen
+philosophers should have speculated more profoundly than the patriarchs
+of the East on this mysterious subject. We cannot suppose that Plato was
+more profoundly instructed on such a subject than Abraham and Moses. It
+is to be noted, however, that God seems to have chosen different
+races for various missions in the education of his children. As
+Saint Paul puts it, "There are diversities of gifts, but the same
+Spirit,... diversities of workings, but the same God who worketh in
+all." The Hebrew genius was that of discerning and declaring moral and
+spiritual truth; while that of the Greeks was essentially philosophic
+and speculative, searching into the reasons and causes of existing
+phenomena. And it is possible, after all, that the loftiest of the Greek
+philosophers derived their opinions from those who had been admitted to
+the secret schools of Egypt, where it is probable that the traditions of
+primitive ages were preserved, and only communicated to a chosen few;
+for the ancient schools were esoteric and not popular. The great masters
+of knowledge believed one thing and the people another. The popular
+religion was always held in contempt by the wise in all countries,
+although upheld by them in external rites and emblems and sacrifices,
+from patriotic purposes. The last act of Socrates was to sacrifice a
+cock to Esculapius, with a different meaning from that which was
+understood by the people.
+
+The social and civil code of Moses seems to have had primary reference
+to the necessary isolation of the Jews, to keep them from the
+abominations of other nations, and especially idolatry, and even to make
+them repulsive and disagreeable to foreigners, in order to keep them a
+peculiar people. The Jew wore an uncouth dress. When he visited
+strangers he abstained from their customs, and even meats. When a
+stranger visited the Jew he was compelled to submit to Jewish
+restraints. So that the Jew ever seems uncourteous, narrow, obstinate,
+and grotesque: even as others appeared to him to be pagan and unclean.
+Moses lays down laws best calculated to keep the nation separated and
+esoteric; but there is marvellous wisdom in those which were directed to
+the development of national resources and general prosperity in an
+isolated state. The nation was made strong for defence, not for
+aggression. It must depend upon its militia, and not on horses and
+chariots, which are designed for distant expeditions, for the pomp of
+kings, for offensive war, and military aggrandizement. The legislation
+of Moses recognized the peaceful virtues rather than the
+warlike,--agricultural industry, the network of trades and professions,
+manufacturing skill, production, not waste and destruction. He
+discouraged commerce, not because it was in itself demoralizing, but
+because it brought the Jews too much in contact with corrupt nations.
+And he closely defined political power, and divided it among different
+magistrates, instituting a wise balance which would do credit to modern
+legislation. He gave dignity to the people by making them the ultimate
+source of authority, next to the authority of God. He instituted
+legislative assemblies to discuss peace and war, and elect the great
+officers of state. While he made the Church support the State, and the
+State the Church, yet he separated civil power from the religious, as
+Calvin did at Geneva. The functions of the priest and the functions of
+the magistrate were made forever distinct,--a radical change from the
+polity of Egypt, where kings were priests, and priests were civil rulers
+as well as a literary class; a predominating power to whom all vital
+interests were intrusted. The kingly power among the Jews was checked
+and hedged by other powers, so that an overgrown tyranny was difficult
+and unusual. But above all kingly and priestly power was the power of
+the Invisible King, to whom the judges and monarchs and supreme
+magistrates were responsible, as simply His delegates and vicegerents.
+Upon Him alone the Jews were to rely in all crises of danger; in Him
+alone was help. And it is remarkable that whenever Jewish rulers relied
+on chariots and horses and foreign allies, they were delivered into the
+hands of their enemies. It was only when they fell back upon the
+protecting arms of their Eternal Lord that they were rescued and saved.
+The mightiest monarch ruled only with delegated powers from Him; and it
+was the memorable loyalty of David to his King which kept him on the
+throne, as it was self-reliance--the exhibition of independent
+power--which caused the sceptre to depart from Saul.
+
+I cannot dwell on the humanity and wisdom which marked the social
+economy of the Jews, as given by Moses,--in the treatment of slaves
+(emancipated every fifty years), in the sanctity of human life, in the
+liberation of debtors every seven years, in kindness to the poor (who
+were allowed to glean the fields), in the education of the people, in
+the division of inherited property, in the inalienation of paternal
+inheritances, in the discouragement of all luxury and extravagance, in
+those regulations which made disproportionate fortunes difficult, the
+vast accumulation of which was one of the main causes of the decline of
+the Roman Empire, and is now one of the most threatening evils of modern
+civilization. All the civil and social laws of the Jewish commonwealth
+tended to the elevation of woman and the cultivation of domestic life.
+What virtues were gradually developed among those sensual slaves whom
+Moses led through the desert! In what ancient nation were seen such
+respect to parents, such fidelity to husbands, such charming delights of
+home, such beautiful simplicities, such ardent loves, such glorious
+friendships, such regard to the happiness of others!
+
+Such, in brief, was the great work which Moses performed, the marvellous
+legislation which he gave to the Israelites, involving principles
+accepted by the Christian world in every age of its history. Now,
+whence had this man this wisdom? Was it the result of his studies and
+reflections and experiences, or was it a wisdom supernaturally taught
+him by the Almighty? On the solution of this inquiry into the divine
+legation of Moses hang momentous issues. It is too grand and important
+an inquiry to be disregarded by any one who studies the writings of
+Moses; it is too suggestive a subject to be passed over even in a
+literary discourse, for this age is grappling with it in most earnest
+struggles. No matter whether or not Moses was gifted in a most
+extraordinary degree to write his code. Nobody doubts his transcendent
+genius; nobody doubts his wonderful preparation. If any uninspired man
+could have written it, doubtless it was he. It was the most learned and
+accomplished of the apostles who was selected to be the expounder of the
+gospel among the Gentiles; so it was the ablest man born among the Jews
+who was chosen to give them a national polity. Nor does it detract from
+his fame as a man of genius that he did not originate the most profound
+of his declarations. It was fame enough to be the oracle and prophet of
+Jehovah. I would not dishonor the source of all wisdom, even to magnify
+the abilities of a great man, fond as critics are of exalting the wisdom
+of Moses as a triumph of human genius. It is natural to worship
+strength, human or divine. We adore mind; we glorify oracles. But
+neither written history nor philosophy will support the work of Moses as
+a wonder of mere human intellect, without ignoring the declarations of
+Moses himself and the settled belief of all Christian ages.
+
+It is not my object to make an argument in defence of the divine
+legation of Moses; nor is it my design to reply to the learned
+criticisms of those who doubt or deny his statements. I would not run
+a-tilt against modern science, which may hereafter explain and accept
+what it now rejects. Science--whether physical or metaphysical--has its
+great truths, and so has Revelation; the realm of each is distinct while
+yet their processes are incomplete: and it is the hope and firm belief
+of many God-fearing scientists that the patient, reverent searching of
+to-day into God's works, of matter and of mind, as it collects the
+myriad facts and classifies them into such orderly sequences as indicate
+the laws of their being, will confirm to men's reason their faith in the
+revealed Word. Certainly this is a consummation devoutly to be wished. I
+am not scientist enough to judge of its probability, but it is within my
+province to present a few deductions which can be fairly drawn from the
+denial of the inspiration of the Mosaic Code. I wish to show to what
+conclusions this denial logically leads.
+
+We must remember that Moses himself most distinctly and most
+emphatically affirms his own divine legation; for is not almost every
+chapter prefaced with these remarkable words, "And the Lord spake unto
+Moses"? Jehovah himself, in some incomprehensible way, amid the
+lightnings and the wonders of the sacred Mount, communicated His wisdom.
+Now, if we disbelieve this direct and impressive affirmation made by
+Moses,--that Jehovah directed him what to say to the people he was
+called to govern,--why should we believe his other statements, which
+involve supernatural agency or influence pertaining to the early history
+of the race? Where, then, is his authority? What is it worth? He has
+indeed no authority at all, except so far as his statements harmonize
+with our own definite knowledge, and perhaps with scientific
+speculations. We then make our own reason and knowledge, not the
+declarations of Moses, the ultimate authority. As a divine oracle to us,
+his voice is silent; ay, his august voice is drowned by the discordant
+and contradictory opinions that are ever blended with the speculations
+of the schools. He tells us, in language of the most impressive
+simplicity and grandeur, that he _was_ directly instructed and
+commissioned by Jehovah to communicate moral truths,--truths, we should
+remember, which no one before him is known to have uttered, and truths
+so important that the prosperity of nations is identified with them, and
+will be so identified as long as men shall speculate and dream. If we
+deny this testimony, then his narration of other facts, which we accept,
+is not to be fully credited; like other ancient histories, it may be and
+it may not be true,--but there is no certainty. However we may interpret
+his detailed narration of the genesis of our world and our
+race,--whether as chronicle or as symbolic poem,--its central theme and
+thought, the direct creative agency of Jehovah, which it was his
+privilege to announce, stands forth clear and unmistakable. Yet if we
+deny the supernaturalism of the code, we may also deny the
+supernaturalism of the creation, in so far as both rest on the
+authority of Moses.
+
+And, further, if Moses was not inspired directly from God to write his
+code, then it follows that he--a man pre-eminent for wisdom, piety, and
+knowledge--was an impostor, or at least, like Mohammed and George Fox, a
+self-deceived and visionary man, since he himself affirms his divine
+legation, and traces to the direct agency of Jehovah not merely his
+code, but even the various deliverances of the Israelites. And not only
+was Moses mistaken, but the Jewish nation, and Christ and the apostles,
+and the greatest lights of the Church from Augustine to Bossuet.
+
+Hence it follows necessarily that all the miracles by which the divine
+legation of Moses is supported and credited, have no firm foundation,
+and a belief in them is superstitious,--as indeed it is in all other
+miracles recorded in the Scriptures, since they rest on testimony no
+more firmly believed than that believed by Christ and the apostles
+respecting Moses. Sweep away his authority as an inspiration, and you
+undermine the whole authority of the Bible; you bring it down to the
+level of all other books; you make it valuable only as a thesaurus of
+interesting stories and impressive moral truths, which we accept as we
+do all other kinds of knowledge, leaving us free to reject what we
+cannot understand or appreciate, or even what we dislike.
+
+Then what follows? Is it not the rejection of many of the most precious
+revelations of the Bible, to which we _wish_ to cling, and without a
+belief in which there would be the old despair of Paganism, the dreary
+unsettlement of all religious opinions, even a disbelief in an
+intelligent First Cause of the universe, certainly of a personal
+God,--and thus a gradual drifting away to the dismal shores of that
+godless Epicureanism which Socrates derided, and Paul and Augustine
+combated? Do you ask for a confirmation of the truths thus deduced from
+the denial of the supernaturalism of the Mosaic Code? I ask you to look
+around. I call no names; I invoke no theological hatreds; I seek to
+inflame no prejudices. I appeal to facts as incontrovertible as the
+phenomena of the heavens. I stand on the platform of truth itself,
+which we all seek to know and are proud to confess. Look to the
+developments of modern thought, to some of the speculations of modern
+science, to the spirit which animates much of our popular literature,
+not in our country but in all countries, even in the schools of the
+prophets and among men who are "more advanced," as they think, in
+learning, and if you do not see a tendency to the revival of an
+attractive but exploded philosophy,--the philosophy of Democritus; the
+philosophy of Epicurus,--then I am in an error as to the signs of the
+times. But if I am correct in this position,--if scepticism, or
+rationalism, or pantheism, or even science, in the audacity of its
+denials, or all these combined, are in conflict with the supernaturalism
+which shines and glows in every book of the Bible, and are bringing back
+for our acceptance what our fathers scorned,--then we must be allowed to
+show the practical results, the results on life, which of necessity
+followed the triumph of the speculative opinions of the popular idols of
+the ancient world in the realm of thought. Oh, what a life was that!
+what a poor exchange for the certitudes of faith and the simplicities of
+patriarchal times! I do not know whether an Epicurean philosophy grows
+out of an Epicurean life, or the life from the philosophy; but both are
+indissolubly and logically connected. The triumph of one is the triumph
+of the other, and the triumph of both is equally pointed out in the
+writings of Paul as a degeneracy, a misfortune,--yea, a sin to be wiped
+out only by the destruction of nations, or some terrible and unexpected
+catastrophe, and the obscuration of all that is glorious and proud among
+the works of men.
+
+I make these, as I conceive, necessary digressions, because a discourse
+on Moses would be pointless without them; at best only a survey of that
+marvellous and favored legislator from the standpoint of secular
+history. I would not pull him down from the lofty pedestal whence he has
+given laws to all successive generations; a man, indeed, but shrouded in
+those awful mysteries which the great soul of Michael Angelo loved to
+ponder, and which gave to his creations the power of supernal majesty.
+
+Thus did Moses, instructed by God,--for this is the great fact revealed
+in his testimony,--lead the inconstant Israelites through a forty years'
+pilgrimage, securing their veneration to the last. Thus did he keep them
+from the idolatries for which they hankered, and preserved among them
+allegiance to an invisible King. Thus did he impress his own mind and
+character upon them, and shape their institutions with matchless wisdom.
+Thus did he give them a system of laws--moral, ceremonial, and
+civil--which kept them a powerful and peculiar people for more than a
+thousand years, and secured a prosperity which culminated in the
+glorious reigns of David and Solomon and a political power unsurpassed
+in Western Asia, to see which the Queen of Sheba came from the uttermost
+part of the earth,--nay, more, which first formulated for that little
+corner of the world principles and precepts concerning the relations of
+men to God and to one another which have been an inspiration to all
+mankind for thousands of years.
+
+Thus did this good and great man fulfil his task and deliver his
+message, with no other drawbacks on his part than occasional bursts of
+anger at the unparalleled folly and wickedness of his people. What
+disinterestedness marks his whole career, from the time when he flies
+from Pharaoh to the appointment of his successor, relinquishing without
+regret the virtual government of Egypt, accepting cheerfully the
+austerities and privations of the land of Midian, never elevating his
+own family to power, never complaining in his herculean tasks! With what
+eloquence does he plead for his people when the anger of the Lord is
+kindled against them, ever regarding them as mere children who know no
+self-control! How patient he is in the performance of his duties,
+accepting counsel from Jethro and listening to the voice of Aaron! With
+what stern and awful majesty does he lay down the law! What inspiration
+gilds his features as he descends the Mount with the Tables in his
+hands! How terrible he is amid the thunders and lightnings of Sinai, at
+the rock of Horeb, at the dances around the golden calf, at the
+rebellion of Korah and Dathan, at the waters of Meribah, at the burning
+of Nadab and Abihu! How efficient he is in the administration of
+justice, in the assemblies of the people, in the great councils of
+rulers and princes, and in all the crises of the State; and yet how
+gentle, forgiving, tender, and accessible! How sad he is when the people
+weary of manna and seek flesh to eat! How nobly does he plead with the
+king of Edom for a passage through his territories! How humbly does he
+call on God for help amid perplexing cares! Never was a man armed with
+such authority so patient and so self-distrustful. Never was so
+experienced and learned a man so little conscious of his greatness.
+
+     "This was the truest warrior
+        That ever buckled sword;
+      This the most gifted poet
+        That ever breathed a word:
+      And never earth's philosopher
+        Traced with his golden pen,
+      On the deathless page, truths half so sage,
+        As he wrote down for men."
+
+At length--at one hundred and twenty years of age, with undimmed eye and
+unabated strength, after having done more for his nation and for
+posterity than any ruler or king in the world's history, and won a fame
+which shall last through all the generations of men, growing brighter
+and brighter as his vast labors and genius are appreciated--the time
+comes to lay down his burdens. So he assembles together the princes and
+elders of Israel, recapitulates his laws, enumerates the mercies of the
+God to whom he has ever been loyal, and gives his final instructions. He
+appoints Joshua as his successor, adds words of encouragement to the
+people, whom he so fervently loves, sings his final song, and ascends
+the mountain above the plains of Moab, from which he is permitted to
+see, but not to enter, the promised land; not pensive and sad like
+Godfrey, because he cannot enter Jerusalem, but full of joyous visions
+of the future glories of his nation, and breaking out in the language of
+exultation, "Who is like unto thee, O people saved by Jehovah, the
+shield of thy help and the sword of thy excellency!" So Moses, the like
+of whom no prophet has since arisen (except that later One whom he
+himself foretold), the greatest man in Jewish annals, passes away from
+mortal sight, and Jehovah buries him in a valley of the land of Moab,
+and no man knoweth his sepulchre until this day.
+
+     "That was the grandest funeral
+        That ever passed on earth;
+      But no one heard the trampling,
+        Or saw the train go forth,--
+      Perchance the bald old eagle
+        On gray Bethpeor's height,
+      Out of his lonely eyrie
+        Looked on the wondrous sight."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "And had he not high honor--
+        The hillside for a pall--
+      To lie in state, while angels wait
+        With stars for tapers tall;
+      And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes,
+        Over his bier to wave,
+      And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
+        To lay him in the grave?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "O lonely grave in Moab's land!
+        O dark Bethpeor's hill!
+      Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
+        And teach them to be still!
+      God hath his mysteries of grace,
+        Ways that we cannot tell;
+      He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep
+        Of him he loved so well."
+
+
+
+
+SAMUEL.
+
+
+1100 B.C.
+
+THE HEBREW THEOCRACY, UNDER JUDGES.
+
+
+After Moses, and until David arose, it would be difficult to select any
+man who rendered greater services to the Israelitish nation than Samuel.
+He does not stand out in history as a man of dazzling intellectual
+qualities; but during a long life he efficiently labored to give to the
+nation political unity and power, and to reclaim it from idolatries. He
+was both a political and moral reformer,--an organizer of new forces, a
+man of great executive ability, a judge and a prophet. He made no
+mistakes, and committed no crimes. In view of his wisdom and sanctity it
+is evident that he would have adorned the office of high-priest; but as
+he did not belong to the family of Aaron, this great dignity could not
+be conferred on him. His character was reproachless. He was, indeed, one
+of the best men that ever lived, universally revered while living, and
+equally mourned when he died. He ruled the nation in a great crisis, and
+his influence was irresistible, because favored alike by God and man.
+
+Samuel lived in one of the most tumultuous and unsettled periods of
+Jewish history, when the nation was in a transition state from anarchy
+to law, from political slavery to national independence. When he
+appeared, there was no settled government; the surrounding nations were
+still unconquered, and had reduced the Israelites to humiliating
+dependence. Deliverers had arisen occasionally from the time of
+Joshua,--like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson,--but their victories were
+not decisive or permanent. Midianites, Amorites, and Philistines
+successively oppressed Israel, from generation to generation; they even
+succeeded in taking away their weapons of war. Resistance to this
+tyranny was apparently hopeless, and the nation would have sunk into
+despair but for occasional providential aid. The sacred ark was for a
+time in the hands of enemies, and Shiloh, the religious capital,--abode
+of the tabernacle and the ark,--had been burned. Every smith's forge
+where a sword or a spear-head could be rudely made was shut up, and the
+people were forced to go to the forges of their oppressors to get even
+their ploughshares sharpened.
+
+On the death of Joshua (about 1350 B.C.), who had succeeded Moses and
+led the Israelites into Canaan, "nearly the whole of the sea-coast, all
+the strongholds in the rich plain of Esdraelon, and, in the heart of
+the country, the invincible fortress of Jebus [later site of Jerusalem],
+were still in the hands of the unbelievers." The conquest therefore was
+yet imperfect, like that of the Christianized Saxons in the time of
+Alfred over the pagan Danes in England. The times were full of peril and
+fear. They developed the military energies of the Israelites, but bred
+license, robbery, and crime,--a wild spirit of personal independence
+unfavorable to law and order. In those days "every man did that which
+was right in his own eyes." It was a period of utter disorder, anarchy,
+and lawlessness, like the condition of Germany and Italy in the Middle
+Ages. The persons who bore rule permanently were the princes or heads of
+the several tribes, the judges, and the high-priest; and in that
+primitive state of society these dignitaries rode on asses, and lived in
+tents. The virtues of the people were rough, and their habits warlike.
+Their great men were fighters. Samson was a sort of Hercules, and
+Jephthah an Idomeneus,--a lawless freebooter. The house of Micah was
+like a feudal castle; the Benjamite war was like the strife of Highland
+clans. Jael was a Hebrew Boadicea; Gideon, at the head of his three
+hundred men, might have been a hero of mediaeval romance.
+
+The saddest thing among these social and political evils was a great
+decline of religious life. The priesthood was disgraced by the
+prevailing vices of the times. The Mosaic rites may have been
+technically observed, but the officiating priests were sensual and
+worldly, while gross darkness covered the land. The high-priests
+exercised but a feeble influence; and even Eli could not, or did not,
+restrain the glaring immoralities of his own sons. In those evil days
+there were no revelations from Jehovah, and there was no divine vision
+among the prophets. Never did a nation have greater need of a deliverer.
+
+It was then that Samuel arose, and he first appears as a pious boy,
+consecrated to priestly duties by a remarkable mother. His childhood was
+passed in the sacred tent of Shiloh, as an attendant, or servant, of the
+aged high-priest, or what would be called by the Catholic Church an
+acolyte. He belonged to the great tribe of Ephraim, being the son of
+Elkanah, of whom nothing is worthy of notice except that he was a
+polygamist. His mother Hannah (or Anna), however, was a Hebrew Saint
+Theresa, almost a Nazarite in her asceticism and a prophetess in her
+gifts; her song of thanksgiving on the birth of Samuel, for a special
+answer to her prayer, is one of the most beautiful remains of Hebrew
+poetry. From his infancy Samuel was especially dedicated to the service
+of God. He was not a priest, since he did not belong to the priestly
+caste; but the Lord was with him, and raised him up to be more than
+priest,--even a prophet and a judge. When a mere child, it was he who
+declared to Eli the ruin of his house, since he had not restrained the
+wickedness and cruelty of his sons. From that time the prophetic
+character of Samuel was established, and his influence constantly
+increased until he became the foremost man of his nation, second to no
+one in power and dignity since the time of Moses.
+
+But there is not much recorded of him until twenty years after the death
+of Eli, who lived to be ninety. It was during this period that the
+Philistines had carried away the sacred ark from Shiloh, and had overrun
+the country and oppressed the Hebrews, who it seems had fallen into
+idolatry, worshipping Ashtaroth and other strange gods. It was Samuel,
+already recognized as a great prophet and judge, who aroused the nation
+from its idolatry and delivered it from the hand of the Philistines at
+Mizpeh, where a great battle was fought, so that these terrible foes
+were subdued, and came no more into the borders of Israel during the
+days of Samuel; and all the cities they had taken, from Ekron unto Gath,
+were restored. The subjection of the Philistines was followed by the
+undisputed rule of Samuel, under the name of Judge, during his life,
+even after the consecration of Saul.
+
+The Israelitish Judge seems to have been a sort of dictator, called to
+power by the will of the people in times of great emergency and peril,
+as among the Romans. "The Theocracy," says Ewald, "by pronouncing any
+human ruler unnecessary as a permanent element of the State, lapsed into
+anarchy and weakness. When a nation is without a government strong
+enough to repress lawlessness within and to protect from foes without,
+the whole people very soon divides once more into the two ranks of
+master and servant. In Deborah's songs all Israel, so far as lay in her
+circle of vision, was divided into princes and people. Hence the nation
+consisted of innumerable self-constituted and self-sustained kingdoms,
+formed whenever some chieftain elevated himself whom individuals or the
+body of citizens in a town were willing to serve. Gaal, son of Zobah,
+entered Shechem with troops raised by himself, just like a condottiere
+in Italy in the Middle Ages. As it became evident that the nation could
+not permanently dispense with an earthly government, it was forced to
+rally round some powerful leader; and as the Theocracy was still
+acknowledged by the best of the nation, these leaders, who owed their
+power to circumstances, could not easily be transformed into regular
+kings, but to exceptional dictators the State offered no strong
+resistance."
+
+And yet these rulers arose not solely by force of individual prowess,
+but were expressly raised up by God as deliverers of the nation in times
+of peculiar peril. And further, the spirit of Jehovah came upon them,
+as it did upon Deborah the prophetess, and as it did still more
+remarkably upon Moses himself.
+
+The last and greatest of these extemporized leaders called Judges, was
+Samuel. In him the people learned to put their trust; and the national
+assembly which he summoned was completely guided by him. No one of the
+Judges, it would seem, had his seat of government in any central city,
+but where he happened to live. So the residence of Samuel was at his
+native town of Ramah, where he married. It would seem that he travelled
+from city to city to administer justice, like the judges of England on
+their circuits; but, unlike them, on his own supreme authority,--not
+with power delegated by a king, but acknowledging no superior except God
+himself, from whom he received his commission. We know not at what time
+and whom he married; but his two sons, who in his old age shared power
+with him, did not discharge their delegated functions more honorably
+than the sons of Eli, who had been a disgrace to their office, to their
+father, and to the nation. One of the greatest mysteries of human life
+is the seeming inability of pious fathers to check the vices of their
+children, who often go astray under an apparently irresistible impulse
+or innate depravity, in spite of parental precept and example,--thus
+seeming to show that neither virtue nor vice can be surely transmitted,
+and that every human being stands on his individual responsibility, with
+peculiar temptations to combat, and peculiar circumstances to influence
+him. The son of a saint becomes mysteriously a drunkard or a fraud, and
+the son of a sensualist becomes an ascetic. This does not uniformly
+occur: in fact, the sons of good men are more likely to be an honor to
+their families than the sons of the wicked; but why are exceptions so
+common as to be proverbial?
+
+It was no light work which was imposed on the shoulders of Samuel,--to
+establish law and order among the demoralized tribes of the Jews, and to
+prepare them for political independence; and it was a still greater
+labor to effect a moral reformation and reintroduce the worship of
+Jehovah. Both of these objects he seems to have accomplished; and his
+success places him in the list of great reformers, like Mohammed and
+Luther,--but greater and better than either, since he did not attempt,
+like the former, to bring about a good end by bad means; nor was he
+stained by personal defects, like the latter. "It was his object to
+re-enkindle the national life of the nation, so as to combat
+successfully its enemies in the field, which could be attained by
+rousing a common religious feeling;" for he saw that there could be no
+true enthusiasm without a sense of dependence on the God of battles, and
+that heroism could be stimulated only by exalted sentiments, both of
+patriotism and religion.
+
+But how was Samuel to rekindle a fervent religious life among the
+degenerate Israelites in such unsettled times? Only by rousing the
+people by his teachings and his eloquence. He was a preacher of
+righteousness, and in all probability went from city to city and village
+to village,--as Saint Bernard did when he preached a crusade against the
+infidels, as John the Baptist did when he preached repentance, as
+Whitefield did when he sought to kindle religious enthusiasm in England.
+So he set himself to educate his countrymen in the great truths which
+appealed to the inner life,--to the heart and conscience. This he did,
+first, by rousing the slumbering spirits of the elders of tribes when
+they sought his counsel as a prophet, the like of whom had not appeared
+since Moses, so gifted and so earnest; and secondly, by founding a
+school for the education of young men who should go with his
+instructions wherever he chose to send them, like the early
+missionaries, to hamlets and villages which he was unable to visit in
+person. The first "school of the prophets" was a seminary of
+missionaries, animated by the spirit of a teacher whom they feared and
+admired as no prophet had been revered in the whole history of the
+nation since Moses.
+
+Samuel communicated his own burning spirit wherever he went, and the
+burden of his eloquence was zeal and loyalty for Jehovah. Before his
+time the prophets had been known as seers; but Samuel superadded the
+duties of a religious teacher,--the spokesman of the Almighty. The
+number of his disciples, whom he doubtless commissioned as evangelists,
+must have been very large. They lived in communities and ate in common,
+like the primitive monks. They probably resembled the early Dominican
+and Franciscan friars of the Middle Ages, who were kindled to enthusiasm
+by such teachers as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. Like them they were
+ascetics in their habits and dress, wearing sheepskins, and living on
+locusts and wild honey,--on the fruits which grew spontaneously in the
+rich valleys of their well-watered country. It did not require much
+learning to arouse the common people to new duties and a higher
+religious life. The Bible does not inform us as to the details by which
+Samuel made his influence felt, but there can be no doubt that by some
+means he kindled a religious life before unknown among his countrymen.
+He infused courage and hope into their despairing hearts, and laid the
+foundation of military enthusiasm by combining with it religious ardor;
+so that by the discipline of forty years,--the same period employed by
+Moses in transmuting a horde of slaves into a national host of warriors;
+a period long enough to drop out the corrupted elements and replace
+them with the better trained rising generation,--the nation was prepared
+for accomplishing the victories of Saul and David. But for Samuel no
+great captains would have arisen to lead the scattered and dispirited
+hosts of Israel against the Philistines and other enemies. He was thus a
+political leader as well as a religious teacher, combining the offices
+of judge and prophet. Everybody felt that he was directly commissioned
+by God, and his words had the force of inspiration. He reigned with as
+much power as a king over all the tribes, though clad in the garments of
+humility. Who in all Israel was greater than he, even after he had
+anointed Saul to the kingly office?
+
+The great outward event in the life of Samuel was the transition of the
+Israelites from a theocratic to a monarchical government. It was a
+political revolution, and like all revolutions was fraught with both
+good and evil, yet seemingly demanded by the spirit of the times,--in
+one sense an advance in civilization, in another a retrogression in
+primeval virtues. It resulted in a great progress in material arts,
+culture, and power, but also in a decline in those simplicities that
+favor a religious life, on which the strength of man is apparently
+built,--that is, a state of society in which man in his ordinary life
+draws nearest to his Maker, to his kindred, and his home; to which
+luxury and demoralizing pleasures are unknown; a life free from
+temptations and intellectual snares, from political ambition and social
+unrest, from recognized injustice and stinging inequalities. The
+historian with his theory of development might call this revolution the
+change from national youth to manhood, the emerging from the dark ages
+of Hebrew history to a period of national aggrandizement and growth in
+civilization,--one of the necessary changes which must take place if a
+nation would become strong, powerful, and cultivated. To the eye of the
+contemplative, conservative, and God-fearing Samuel this change of
+government seemed full of perils and dangers, for which the nation was
+not fully prepared. He felt it to be a change which might wean the
+Israelites from their new sense of dependence on God, the only hope of
+nations, and which might favor another lapse to pagan idolatries and a
+decline in household virtues, such as had been illustrated in the life
+of Ruth and Boaz,--and hence might prove a mere exchange of that rugged
+life which elevates the soul, for those gilded glories which adorn and
+pamper the mortal body. He certainly foresaw and knew that the change in
+government would produce tyranny, oppression, and injustice, from which
+there could be no escape and for which there could be no redress, for he
+told the people in detail just what they should suffer at the hands of
+any king whom they might have; and these were in his eyes evils which
+nothing could compensate,--the loss of liberty, the extinction of
+personal independence, and a probable rebellion against the Supreme
+Jehovah in the degrading worship of the gods of idolatrous nations.
+
+When the people, therefore, under the guidance of so-called "progressive
+leaders," hankered for a government which would make them like other
+nations, and demanded a king, the prophet was greatly moved and sore
+displeased; and this displeasure was heightened by a bitter humiliation
+when the elders reproached him because of the misgovernment of his own
+sons. He could not at first say a word, in view of a demand apparently
+justified by the conduct of the existing rulers. There was a just cause
+of complaint. If his own sons would take bribes in rendering judgment,
+who could be trusted? Civilization would say that there was needed a
+stronger arm to punish crime and enforce the laws.
+
+So Samuel, perplexed and disheartened, fearing that the political
+changes would be evil rather than good, and yet feeling unable to combat
+the popular voice, sought wisdom in prayer. "And the Lord said, hearken
+unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee, for they
+have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should reign
+over them. Now therefore hearken unto their voice; howbeit yet protest
+solemnly unto them, and show them the manner of the king that shall
+reign over them." The Almighty would not take away the free-will of the
+people; but Samuel is required to show them the perversity of their
+will, and that if they should choose evil the consequences would be on
+their heads and the heads of their children, from generation to
+generation.
+
+Samuel therefore spake unto the people,--probably the elders and leading
+men, for the aristocratic element of society prevailed, as in the Middle
+Ages of feudal Europe, when even royal power was merely nominal, and
+barons and bishops ruled,--and said: "This will be the manner of the
+king that shall reign over you: He shall take your sons and appoint them
+for himself for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run
+before his chariots; and he shall appoint captains over thousands and
+captains over fifties, and will set them to ear [plough] his ground and
+reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and the
+instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be
+confectioners [or perfumers] and cooks and bakers. And he will take your
+fields and your vineyards and your olive-yards, even the best of them,
+and give them to his servants; and he will take the tenth of your seed
+and of your vineyards, and give to his officers and to his servants. And
+he will take your men-servants and your maid-servants, and your
+goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. And he
+will take the tenth of your sheep; and ye shall be his servants. And ye
+will cry out in that day because of your king which ye have chosen you,
+and the Lord will not hear you in that day."
+
+Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they
+said, "Nay, but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like
+all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us,
+and fight our battles." It would thus appear that the monarchy which the
+people sought would necessarily become nearly absolute, limited only by
+the will of God as interpreted by priests and prophets,--for the
+theocracy was not to be destroyed, but still maintained as even superior
+to the royal authority. The future king was to be supreme in affairs of
+state, in the direction of armies, in the appointment of captains and
+commanders, in the general superintendence of the realm in worldly
+matters; but he could not go contrary to the divine commands as they
+would be revealed to him, without incurring a fearful penalty. He could
+not interfere with the functions of the priesthood under any pretence
+whatever; and further, he was required to rule on principles of equity
+and immutable justice. He could not repel the divine voice, whether it
+spake to his consciousness or was revealed to him by divinely
+commissioned prophets, without the certainty of divine chastisement.
+Thus was his power limited, even by invisible forces superior to his
+own; for Jehovah had not withdrawn his special jurisdiction over the
+chosen people for whom he was preparing a splendid destiny,--that is,
+through them, the redemption of the world.
+
+Whether the people of Israel did not believe the predictions of the
+prophet, or wished to have a kingly government in spite of its evils, in
+order to become more powerful as a nation, we do not know. All that we
+know is that they persisted in their demand, and that God granted their
+request. With all the memories and traditions of their slavery in the
+land of Egypt, and the grinding despotism incident to an absolute
+monarchy of which their ancestors bore witness, they preferred despotism
+with its evils to the independence they had enjoyed under the Judges;
+for nationality, to which the Jewish people were casting longing eyes,
+demands law and order as the first condition of society. In obedience to
+this same principle the grinding monarchy of Louis XIV. seemed
+preferable to the turbulence and anarchy of the Middle Ages, since
+unarmed and obscure citizens felt safe in their humble avocations. In
+like manner, after the license of the French Revolution the people said,
+"Give us a king once more!" and seated Napoleon on the throne of the
+Bourbons,--a ruler who took one man out of every five adults to recruit
+his armies and consolidate his power, which he called the glory of
+France. Thus kings have reigned by the will of the people,--or, as they
+call it, by the grace of God,--from Saul and David to our own times,
+except in those few countries where liberty is preferred to material
+power and military laurels.
+
+The peculiar situation of the Israelites in a narrow strip of territory
+which was the highway between Syria and Egypt, likely to be overrun by
+Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, to say nothing of the
+hostile nations which surrounded them, such as Moabites and Philistines,
+necessarily made them a warlike people (like the inhabitants of the
+Swiss Cantons five or six hundred years ago), and they were hence led to
+put a high estimate on military qualities, especially on the general who
+led them to battle. They accordingly desired a greater centralized power
+than the Judges wielded, which could be exercised only by a king,
+intrenched in a strong capital. Their desire for a king was natural, and
+almost excusable if they were willing to pay the inevitable price. They
+simply wished to surrender liberty for protection and political safety.
+They did not repudiate the fundamental doctrine of their religion; they
+simply wanted a change of government,--a more efficient administration.
+
+The selection of a king did not rest with the people, however, but with
+the great prophet who had ruled them with so much wisdom and ability,
+and who was regarded as the interpreter of the will of God.
+
+Samuel, by the direction of God, did not go into the powerful tribe of
+Ephraim, which possessed one half of the Israelitish territory, to
+select a sovereign, but to the smallest of the tribes, that of
+Benjamin,--the most warlike, however,--and to one of the least of the
+families of that tribe, dwelling in very humble life. Kish, the
+Benjamite, had sent out his son Saul in quest of three asses which had
+strayed away from the farm,--a man so poor that he had no money to give
+to the seer who should direct his search, as was customary, and was
+obliged to borrow a quarter of a shekel from his servant when they went
+together to seek the counsel of Samuel. But this obscure youth was "a
+choice young man, and a goodly." He had a commanding presence, was very
+beautiful, and was head and shoulders taller than any other man of his
+tribe,--a man every way likely to succeed in war. Samuel no sooner saw
+the commanding figure and intelligent countenance of Saul than he was
+assured that this was the man whom the Lord had chosen to be the future
+captain and champion of Israel. He at once treated him with
+distinguished honor, and made him sit at his own table, much to the
+amazement of the thirty nobles who also were bidden to a banquet. The
+prophet took the young man aside, conducted him to the top of his
+house, anointed him with the sacred oil, kissed him (a form of
+allegiance), and communicated to him the will of God. But Saul was only
+privately consecrated, and with rare discretion told no man of his good
+fortune,--for he had not yet distinguished himself in any way, and would
+have been laughed to scorn by his relatives, as Joseph was by his
+brothers, had he revealed his destiny.
+
+Nor did Samuel dare to tell the people of the man whom the Lord had
+chosen to rule over them, but assembled all the tribes, that the choice
+might be publicly indicated. Probably to their astonishment the little
+tribe of Benjamin was "taken,"--that is pointed out, presumably by lot,
+as was their custom when appealing for divine direction; and out of the
+tribe of Benjamin the family of Matri was chosen, and Saul the son of
+Kish was selected. But Saul could not be found. With rare modesty and
+humility he had hidden himself. When at length they brought him from his
+hiding-place Samuel said unto the people, "See ye him whom the Lord hath
+chosen, that there is none like him among all the people!" And such was
+the authority of Samuel that the people shouted, saying, "God save the
+king!"--a circumstance interesting as being the first recorded utterance
+of a cry that has been echoed the world over by many a loyal people.
+
+Not yet, however, was Saul clothed with full power as a king. Samuel
+still remained the acknowledged ruler until Saul should distinguish
+himself in battle. This soon took place. With heroic valor he delivered
+Jabesh-Gilead from the hosts of the Ammonites when that city was about
+to fall into their hands, and silenced the envy of his enemies. In a
+burst of popular enthusiasm Samuel collected the people in Gilgal, and
+there formally installed Saul as King of Israel.
+
+Samuel was now an old man, and was glad to lay down his heavy burden and
+put it on the shoulders of Saul. Yet he did not retire from the active
+government without making a memorable speech to the assembled nation, in
+which with transcendent dignity he appealed to the people in attestation
+of his incorruptible integrity as a judge and ruler. "Behold, here I am!
+Witness against me before the Lord, and before his anointed. Whose ox
+have I taken, or whose ass have I taken, or whom have I defrauded? Or of
+whose hand have I received any bribe to blind my eyes therewith? And
+they said, Thou hast not defrauded us, nor oppressed us; neither hast
+thou taken aught of any man's hand." Then Samuel closed his address with
+an injunction to both king and people to obey the commandments of God,
+and denouncing the penalty of disobedience: "Only fear the Lord, and
+serve Him in truth and with all your heart, for consider what great
+things He hath done for you; but if ye shall do wickedly, ye shall be
+consumed,--both ye and your king."
+
+Saul for a time gave no offence worthy of rebuke, but was a valiant
+captain, smiting the Philistines, who were the most powerful enemies
+that the Israelites had yet encountered. But in an evil day he forgot
+his true vocation, and took upon himself the function of a priest by
+offering burnt sacrifices, which was not lawful but for the priest
+alone. For this he was rebuked by Samuel. "Thou hast done foolishly," he
+said to the King; "for which thy kingdom shall not continue. The Lord
+hath sought him a man after his own heart, and the Lord hath commanded
+him to be captain over his people, because thou hast not kept that which
+the Lord commanded thee." We here see the blending of the theocratic
+with the kingly rule.
+
+Nevertheless Saul was prospered in his wars. He fought successfully the
+Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Amalekites, and the
+Philistines, aided by his cousin Abner, whom he made captain of his
+host. He did much to establish the kingdom; but he was rather a great
+captain than a great man. He did not fully perceive his mission, which
+was to fight, but meddled with affairs which belonged to the priests.
+Nor was he always true to his mission as a warrior. He weakly spared
+Agag, King of the Amalekites, which again called forth the displeasure
+and denunciation of Samuel, who regarded the conduct of the King as
+direct rebellion against God, since he was commanded to spare none of
+that people, they having shown an uncompromising hostility to the
+Israelites in their days of weakness, when first entering Canaan. This,
+and similar commands laid upon the Israelites at various times, to
+"utterly destroy" certain tribes or individuals and all of their
+possessions, have been justified on the ground of the bestial grossness
+and corruption of those pagan idolaters and the vileness of their
+religious rites and social customs, which unfortunately always found a
+temptable side on the part of the Israelites, and repeatedly brought to
+nought the efforts of Jehovah's prophets to bring up their people in the
+fear of the Lord, to recognize Him, only, as God. It was not easy for
+that sensual race to stand on the height of Moses, and "endure as seeing
+him who is invisible." They too easily fell into idolatry; hence the
+necessity of the extermination of some of the nests of iniquity
+in Canaan.
+
+Whether Saul spared Agag because of his personal beauty, to grace his
+royal triumph, or whatever the motive, it was a direct disobedience; and
+when the king attempted to exculpate himself, inasmuch as he had made a
+sacrifice of the spoil to the Lord, Samuel replied: "Hath the Lord as
+great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying his
+voice?... Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than
+the fat of rams,--for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and
+stubbornness as an iniquity and idolatry." The prophet here sets forth,
+as did Isaiah in later times, the great principles of moral obligation
+as paramount over all ceremonial observances. He strikes a blow at all
+pharisaism and all self-righteousness, and inculcates obedience to
+direct commands as the highest duty of man.
+
+Saul, perceiving that he had sinned, confessed his transgression, but
+palliated it by saying that he feared the people. But this policy of
+expediency had no weight with the prophet, although Saul repented and
+sought pardon. Samuel continued his stern rebuke, and uttered his
+fearful message, saying, "Jehovah hath rent the kingdom of Israel from
+thee this day, and hath given it to a neighbor of thine that is better
+than thou." Furthermore Samuel demanded that Agag, whom Saul had spared,
+should be brought before him; and he took upon himself with his aged
+hand the work of executioner, and hewed the king of the Amalekites in
+pieces in Gilgal. He then finally departed from Saul, and mournfully
+went to his own house in Ramah, and Saul saw him no more. As the king
+was the "Lord's anointed," Samuel could not openly rebel against kingly
+authority, but he would henceforth have nothing to do with the
+headstrong ruler. He withdrew from him all spiritual guidance, and left
+him to his follies and madness; for the inextinguishable jealousy of
+Saul, that now began to appear, was a species of insanity, which
+poisoned his whole subsequent life. The people continued loyal to a king
+whom God had selected, but Samuel "came no more to see Saul until the
+day of his death." To be deserted by such a counsellor as Samuel, was no
+small calamity.
+
+Meanwhile, in obedience to instructions from God, Samuel proceeded to
+Bethlehem, to the humble abode of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, one of
+whose sons he was required to anoint as the future king of Israel. He
+naturally was about to select the largest and finest looking of the
+seven sons; but God looketh on the heart rather than the outward
+appearance, and David, a mere youth, and the youngest of the family, was
+the one indicated by Jehovah, and was privately anointed by the prophet.
+
+Saul, of course, did not know on whom the choice had fallen as his
+successor, but from that day on which he was warned of the penalty of
+his disobedience divine favor departed from him, and he became jealous,
+fitful, and cruel. He presented a striking contrast to the character he
+had shown in his early days,--being no longer modest and humble, but
+proud and tyrannical. Prosperity and power had turned his head, and
+developed all that was evil in him. Nero was not more unreasonable and
+bloodthirsty than was Saul in his latter days. Prosperity developed in
+Solomon a love of magnificence, in Nebuchadnezzar a towering vanity, but
+in Saul a malignant envy of all extraordinary merit, and a sullen
+determination to destroy the persons it adorned. The last person in his
+kingdom of whom apparently he had reason to be jealous, was the ruddy
+and beardless youth whom he had sent for to drive away his melancholy by
+his songs and music. Nor was it until David killed Goliath that Saul
+became jealous; before this he had no cause of envy, for kings do not
+envy musicians, but reward them. David's reward was as extravagant as
+that which Russian emperors shower upon singers and dancers: he was made
+armor-bearer to the King,--an office bestowed only upon favorites and
+those who were implicitly trusted and beloved. Little did the moody and
+jealous King imagine that the youth whom he had brought from obscurity
+to amuse his melancholy hours by his music, and probably his wit and
+humor, would so soon, by his own sanction, become the champion of
+Israel, and ultimately his successor on the throne.
+
+In the latter part of the reign of Saul the enemies with whom he had to
+contend were the various Canaanitish nations that had remained
+unconquered during the hard struggle of four hundred years after the
+Hebrews had been led by Joshua to the promised land. The most powerful
+of these nations were the Philistines. "Strong in their military
+organization, fierce in their warlike spirit, and rich by their position
+and commercial instincts, they even threatened the ancient supremacy of
+the Phoenicians of the north. Their cities were the restless centres of
+every form of activity. Ashdod and Gaza, as the keys of Egypt, commanded
+the carrying trade to and from the Nile, and formed the great depots for
+its imports and exports. All the cities, moreover, traded in slaves with
+Edom and southern Arabia, and their commerce in other directions
+flourished so greatly as to gain for the people at large the name of
+Canaanites,--which was synonymous with 'merchant,' Even the word
+'Palestine' is derived from the Philistines. Their skill as smiths and
+armorers was noted; the strength of their cities attest their strength
+as builders, and their idols and golden mice and emerods show their
+respect for the arts of peace." It is supposed that they had settled in
+Canaan about the time of Abraham, and were originally a pastoral people
+in the neighborhood of Gesar, or emigrants from Crete. When the
+Israelites under Joshua arrived, they were in full possession of the
+southern part of Palestine, and had formed a confederacy of five
+powerful cities,--Gaza, Ashdod, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron. In the time
+of the Judges they had become so prosperous and powerful that they held
+the Israelites in partial subjection, broken at intervals by heroes like
+Shamgar and Samson. Under Eli there was an organized but unsuccessful
+resistance to these prosperous and warlike heathen. Under Samuel the
+tide of success was turned in Israel's favor at the battle of Mizpeh,
+when the Israelites erected their pillar at Ebenezer as a token of
+victory. The battle of Michmash, gained by Saul and Jonathan after an
+immense slaughter of their foes, was so decisive that for twenty-five
+years the Israelites were unmolested. In the latter part of the reign of
+Saul the Philistines attempted to regain their ascendency, but on the
+death of Goliath at the hand of David they were driven to their own
+territories. The battle of Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were slain,
+again turned the scale in favor of the Philistines. Under David the
+Israelites resumed the aggressive, took Gath, and completely broke
+forever the ascendency of their powerful foes. Under Solomon it would
+appear that the whole of Philistia was incorporated with the Hebrew
+monarchy, and remained so until the calamities of the Jews gave
+Philistia to the Assyrian conquerors of Jerusalem, and finally it fell
+into the hands of the Romans. The Philistines were zealous idolaters,
+and in times of great religious apostasy they succeeded in introducing
+the worship of their gods among the Israelites, especially that of Baal
+and Ashtaroth.
+
+Samuel did not live to see the complete humiliation of his nation which
+succeeded the bloody battle when Saul was slain; but he lived to a good
+old age, and never lost his influence over the Israelites, whom he had
+rescued from idolatry and to whom he had given political unity. Although
+Saul was king, we are told that Samuel judged Israel all the days of his
+life. He died universally lamented. There is no record in the Scriptures
+of a death attended with such profound and general mourning. All Israel
+mourned for him. They mourned because he was a good man, unstained by
+crime or folly; they mourned because their judge and oracle and friend
+had passed away; they mourned because he had been their intercessor with
+God himself, and the interpreter of the divine will. His like would
+never appear again in Israel. "He represents the independence of the
+moral law, as distinct from regal and sacerdotal enactments. If a
+Levite, he was not a priest. He was a prophet, the first in the regular
+succession of prophets. He was also the founder of the first regular
+institutions of religious instruction, and communities for the purposes
+of education. From these institutions were developed the universities of
+Christendom."
+
+In a spiritual and religious sense the prophet takes the highest rank
+in the kingdom of God on earth. Among the Hebrews he was the interpreter
+of the divine will; he predicted future events. He was a preacher of
+righteousness; he was the counsellor of kings and princes; he was a sage
+and oracle among the people. He was a reformer, teaching the highest
+truths and restoring the worship of God when nations were sunk in
+idolatry; he was the mouth-piece of the Eternal, for warning, for
+rebuke, for encouragement, for chastisement. He was divinely inspired,
+armed with supernatural powers,--a man whom the people feared and
+obeyed, sometimes honored, sometimes stoned; one who bore heavy
+responsibilities, and of whom were demanded disagreeable duties. We
+associate with the idea of a prophet both wisdom and virtue, great gifts
+and great personal piety. We think of him as a man who lived a secluded
+life of meditation and prayer, in constant communion with God and
+removed from all worldly rewards,--a man indifferent to ordinary
+pleasures, to outward pomp and show, free from personal vanity, lofty in
+his bearing, independent in his mode of life, spiritual in his aims,
+fervent and earnest in his exhortations, living above the world in the
+higher regions of faith and love, disdaining praises and honors, soft
+raiment and luxurious food, and maintaining a proud equality with the
+greatest personages; a man not to be bought, and not to be deterred
+from his purpose by threatenings or intimidation or flatteries,
+commanding reverence, and exalted as a favorite of heaven. It was not
+necessary that the prophet should be a priest or even a Levite. He was
+greater than any impersonation of sacerdotalism, sacred in his person
+and awful in his utterances, unassisted by ritualistic forms, declaring
+truths which appealed to consciousness,--a kind of spiritual dictator
+who inspired awe and reverence.
+
+In one sense or another most of the august characters of the Old
+Testament were prophets,--Abraham, Moses, Joseph, David, Elijah, Daniel,
+Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. They either foretold the future, or rebuked
+kings as messengers of omnipotence, or taught the people great truths,
+or uttered inspired melodies, or interpreted dreams, or in some way
+revealed the ways and will of God. Among them were patriarchs, kings,
+and priests, and sages uninvested with official functions. Some lived in
+cities and others in villages, and others again in the wilderness and
+desert places; some reigned in the palaces of pride, and others in the
+huts of poverty,--yet all alike exercised a tremendous moral power. They
+were the national poets and historians of Judaea, preachers of
+patriotism as well as of religion and morals, exercising political as
+well as spiritual power. Those who stand out pre-eminently in the
+sacred writings were gifted with the power of revealing the future
+destinies of nations, and above all other things the peculiarities of
+the Messianic reign.
+
+Samuel was not called to declare those profound truths which relate to
+the appearance and reign of Christ as the Saviour of mankind, nor the
+fate of idolatrous nations, nor even the future vicissitudes connected
+with the Hebrew nation, but to found a school of religious teachers, to
+revive the worship of Jehovah, guide the conduct of princes, and direct
+the general affairs of the nation as commanded by God. He was the first
+and most favored of the great prophets, and exercised an influence as a
+prophet never equalled by any who succeeded him. He was a great prophet,
+since for forty years he ruled Israel by direct divine illumination,--a
+holy man who communed with God, great in speech and great in action. He
+did not rise to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah, nor foresee the fate of
+nations like Daniel and Ezekiel; but he was consulted and obeyed as a
+man who knew the divine will, gifted beyond any other man of his age in
+spiritual insight, and trusted implicitly for his wisdom and sanctity.
+These were the excellences which made him one of the most extraordinary
+men in Jewish history, rendering services to his nation which cannot
+easily be exaggerated.
+
+
+
+
+DAVID.
+
+
+1055-1015 B.C.
+
+ISRAELITISH CONQUESTS.
+
+
+Considering how much has been written about David in all the nations of
+Christendom, and how familiar Christian people are with his life and
+writings, it would seem presumptuous to attempt a lecture on this
+remarkable man, especially since it is impossible to add anything
+essentially new to the subject. The utmost that I can do is to select,
+condense, and rearrange from the enormous quantity of matter which
+learned and eloquent writers have already furnished.
+
+The warrior-king who conquered the enemies of Israel in a dark and
+desponding period; the sagacious statesman who gave unity to its various
+tribes, and formed them into a powerful monarchy; the matchless poet who
+bequeathed to all ages a lofty and beautiful psalmody; the saint, who
+with all his backslidings and inconsistencies was a man after God's own
+heart,--is well worthy of our study. David was the most illustrious of
+all the kings of whom the Jewish nation was proud, and was a striking
+type of a good man occasionally enslaved by sin, yet breaking its bonds
+and rising above subsequent temptations to a higher plane of goodness. A
+man so elevated, with almost every virtue which makes a man beloved, and
+yet with defects which will forever stain his memory, cannot easily be
+portrayed. What character in history presents such wide contradictions?
+What career was ever more varied? What recorded experiences are more
+interesting and instructive?--a life of heroism, of adventures, of
+triumphs, of humiliations, of outward and inward conflicts. Who ever
+loved and hated with more intensity than David?--tender yet fierce,
+brave yet weak, magnanimous yet unrelenting, exultant yet sad,
+committing crimes yet triumphantly rising after disgraceful falls by the
+force of a piety so ardent that even his backslidings now appear but as
+spots upon a sun. His varied experiences call out our sympathy and
+admiration more than the life of any secular hero whom poetry and
+history have immortalized. He was an Achilles and a Ulysses, a Marcus
+Aurelius and a Theodosius, an Alfred and a Saint Louis combined; equally
+great in war and in peace, in action and in meditation; creating an
+empire, yet transmitting to posterity a collection of poems identified
+forever with the spiritual life of individuals and nations. Interesting
+to us as are the events of David's memorable career, and the sentiments
+and sorrows which extort our sympathy, yet it is the relation of a
+sinful soul with its Maker, by which he infuses his inner life into all
+other souls, and furnishes materials of thought for all generations.
+
+David was the youngest and seventh son of Jesse, a prominent man of the
+tribe of Judah, whose great-grandmother was Ruth, the interesting wife
+of Boaz the Jew. He was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem,--a town
+rendered afterward so illustrious as the birthplace of our Lord, who was
+himself of the house and lineage of David. He first appears in history
+at the sacrificial feast which his townspeople periodically held,
+presided over by his father, when the prophet Samuel unexpectedly
+appeared at the festival to select from the sons of Jesse a successor to
+Saul. He was not tall and commanding like the Benjamite hero, but was
+ruddy of countenance, with auburn hair, beautiful eyes, and graceful
+figure, equally remarkable for strength and agility. He had the charge
+of his father's sheep,--not the most honorable employment in the eyes of
+his brothers, who, according to Ewald, treated him with little
+consideration; but even as a shepherd boy he had already proved his
+strength and courage by an encounter with a bear and a lion.
+
+Until David was thirty years of age his life was identified with the
+fading glories of the reign of Saul, who laid the foundation of the
+military power of his successors,--a man who lacked only the one quality
+imperative on the vicegerent of a supreme but invisible Power, that of
+unquestioning obedience to the divine directions as interpreted by the
+voice of prophets. Had Saul been loyal in his heart, as David was, to
+the God of Israel, the sceptre might not have departed from his
+house,--for he showed some of the highest qualities of a general and a
+ruler, until his jealousy was excited by the brilliant exploits of the
+son of Jesse. On these exploits and subsequent adventures, which invest
+David's early career with the fascinations of a knight of chivalry, I
+need not dwell. All are familiar with his encounter with Goliath, and
+with his slaughter of the Philistines after he had slain the giant,
+which called out the admiration of the haughty daughter of the king, the
+love of the heir-apparent to the throne, and the applause of the whole
+nation. I need not speak of his musical melodies, which drove the fatal
+demon of melancholy from the royal palace; of his jealous expulsion by
+the King, his hairbreadth escapes, his trials and difficulties as a
+wanderer and exile, as a fugitive retreating to solitudes and caves of
+the earth, parched with heat and thirst, exhausted with hunger and
+fatigue, surrounded with increasing dangers,--yet all the while
+forgiving and magnanimous, sparing the life of his deadly enemy,
+unstained by a single vice or weakness, and soothing his stricken soul
+with bursts of pious song unequalled for pathos and loftiness in the
+whole realm of lyric poetry. He is never so interesting as amid caverns
+and blasted desolations and serrated rocks and dried-up rivulets, when
+his life is in constant danger. But he knows that he is the anointed of
+the Lord, and has faith that in due time he will be called to
+the throne.
+
+It was not until the bloody battle with the Philistines, which
+terminated the lives of both Saul and Jonathan, that David's reign began
+in about his thirtieth year,[3]--first at Hebron, where he reigned seven
+and one half years over his own tribe of Judah,--but not without the
+deepest lamentations for the disaster which had caused his own
+elevation. To the grief of David for the death of Saul and Jonathan we
+owe one of the finest odes in Hebrew poetry. At this crisis in national
+affairs, David had sought shelter with Achish, King of Gath, in whose
+territory he, with the famous band of six hundred warriors whom he had
+collected in his wanderings, dwelt in safety and peace. This apparent
+alliance with the deadly enemy of the Israelites had displeased the
+people. Notwithstanding all his victories and exploits, his anointment
+at the hand of Samuel, his noble lyrics, his marriage with the daughter
+of Saul, and the death of both Saul and Jonathan, there had been at
+first no popular movement in David's behalf. The taking of decisive
+action, however, was one of his striking peculiarities from youth to old
+age, and he promptly decided, after consulting the Urim and Thummim, to
+go at once to Hebron, the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, and
+there await the course of events. His faithful band of six hundred
+devoted men formed the nucleus of an army; and a reaction in his favor
+having set in, he was chosen king. But he was king only of the tribe to
+which he belonged. Northern and central Palestine were in the hands of
+the Philistines,--ten of the tribes still adhering to the house of Saul,
+under the leadership of Abner, the cousin of Saul, who proclaimed
+Ishbosheth king. This prince, the youngest of Saul's four sons, chose
+for his capital Mahanaim, on the east of the Jordan.
+
+[Footnote 3: Authorities differ as to the precise date of David's
+accession.]
+
+Ishbosheth was, however, a weak prince, and little more than a puppet in
+the hands of Abner, the most famous general of the day, who, organizing
+what forces remained after the fatal battle of Gilboa, was quite a match
+for David. For five years civil war raged between the rivals for the
+ascendency, but success gradually secured for David the promised throne
+of united Israel. Abner, seeing how hopeless was the contest, and
+wishing to prevent further slaughter, made overtures to David and the
+elders of Judah and Benjamin. The generous monarch received him
+graciously, and promised his friendship; but, out of jealousy,--or
+perhaps in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
+slain in battle,--Joab, the captain of the King's chosen band,
+treacherously murdered him. David's grief at the foul deed was profound
+and sincere, but he could not afford to punish the general on whom he
+chiefly relied. "Know ye," said David to his intimate friends, "that a
+great prince in Israel has fallen to-day; but I am too weak to avenge
+him, for I am not yet anointed king over the tribes." He secretly
+disliked Joab from this time, and waited for God himself to repay the
+evil-doer according to his wickedness. The fate of the unhappy and
+abandoned Ishbosheth could not now long be delayed. He also was murdered
+by two of his body-guard, who hoped to be rewarded by David for their
+treachery; but instead of gaining a reward, they were summarily ordered
+to execution. The sole surviving member of Saul's family was now
+Mephibosheth, the only son of Jonathan,--a boy of twelve, impotent, and
+lame. This prince, to the honor of David, was protected and kindly cared
+for. David's magnanimity appears in that he made special search, asking
+"Is there any that is left of the house of Saul, that I may show him the
+kindness of God for Jonathan's sake?" The memory of the triumphant
+conqueror was still tender and loyal to the covenant of friendship he
+had made in youth, with the son of the man who for long years had
+pursued him with the hate of a lifetime.
+
+David was at this time thirty-eight years of age, in the prime of his
+manhood, and his dearest wish was now accomplished; for on the burial of
+Ishbosheth "came all the tribes of Israel to David unto Hebron,"
+formally reminded him of his early anointing to succeed Saul, and
+tendered their allegiance. He was solemnly consecrated king, more than
+eight thousand priests joining in the ceremony; and, thus far without a
+stain on his character, he began his reign over united Israel. The
+kingdom over which he was called to reign was the most powerful in
+Palestine. Assyria, Egypt, China, and India were already empires; but
+Greece was in its infancy, and Homer and Buddha were unborn.
+
+The first great act of David after his second anointment was to transfer
+his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, then a strong fortress in the
+hands of the Jebusites. It was nearer the centre of his new kingdom than
+Hebron, and yet still within the limits of the tribe of Judah, He took
+it by assault, in which Joab so greatly distinguished himself that he
+was made captain-general of the King's forces. From that time "David
+went on growing great, and the Lord God of Hosts was with him." After
+fortifying his strong position, he built a palace worthy of his capital,
+with the aid of Phoenician workmen whom Hiram, King of Tyre, wisely
+furnished him. The Philistines looked with jealousy on this impregnable
+stronghold, and declared war; but after two invasions they were so badly
+beaten that Gath, the old capital of Achish, passed into the hands of
+the King of Israel, and the power of these formidable enemies was
+broken forever.
+
+The next important event in the reign of David was the transfer of the
+sacred ark from Kirjath-jearim, where it had remained from the time of
+Samuel, to Jerusalem. It was a proud day when the royal hero, enthroned
+in his new palace on that rocky summit from which he could survey both
+Judah and Samaria, received the symbol of divine holiness amid all the
+demonstrations which popular enthusiasm could express. "And as the long
+and imposing procession, headed by nobles, priests, and generals, passed
+through the gates of the city, with shouts of praise and songs and
+sacred dances and sacrificial rites and symbolic ceremonies and bands of
+exciting music, the exultant soul of David burst out in the most
+rapturous of his songs: 'Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift
+up ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall come in!'"--thus
+reiterating the fundamental truth which Moses taught, that the King of
+Glory is the Lord Jehovah, to be forever worshipped both as a personal
+God and the real Captain of the hosts of Israel.
+
+"One heart alone," says Stanley, "amid the festivities which attended
+this joyful and magnificent occasion, seemed to be unmoved. Whether she
+failed to enter into its spirit, or was disgusted with the mystic dances
+in which her husband shared, the stately daughter of Saul assailed David
+on his return to his palace--not clad in his royal robes, but in the
+linen ephod of the priests--with these bitter and disdainful words: 'How
+glorious was the King of Israel to-day, as he uncovered himself in the
+eyes of his handmaidens!'--an insult which forever afterward rankled in
+his soul, and undermined his love." Thus was the most glorious day which
+David ever saw, clouded by a domestic quarrel; and the proud princess
+retired, until her death, to the neglected apartments of a dishonored
+home. How one word of bitter scorn or harsh reproach will sometimes
+sunder the closest ties between man and woman, and cause an alienation
+which never can be healed, and which may perchance end in a
+domestic ruin!
+
+David had now passed from the obscurity of a chief of a wandering and
+exiled band of followers to the dignity of an Oriental monarch, and
+turned his attention to the organization of his kingdom and the
+development of its resources. His army was raised to two hundred and
+eighty thousand regular soldiers. His intimate friends and best-tried
+supporters were made generals, governors, and ministers. Joab was
+commander-in-chief; and Benaiah, son of the high-priest, was captain of
+his body-guard,--composed chiefly of foreigners, after the custom of
+princes in most ages. His most trusted counsellors were the prophets Gad
+and Nathan. Zadok and Abiathar were the high-priests, who also
+superintended the music, to which David gave special attention. Singing
+men and women celebrated his victories. The royal household was
+regulated by different grades of officers. But David departed from the
+stern simplicity of Saul, and surrounded himself with pomps and guards.
+None were admitted to his presence without announcement or without
+obeisance, while he himself was seated on a throne, with a golden
+sceptre in his hands and a jewelled crown upon his brow, clothed in
+robes of purple and gold. He made alliances with powerful chieftains and
+kings, and imitated their fashion of instituting a harem for his wives
+and concubines,--becoming in every sense an Oriental monarch, except
+that his power was limited by the constitution which had been given by
+Moses. He reigned, it would seem, in justice and equity, and in
+obedience to the commands of Jehovah, whose servant he felt himself to
+be. Nor did he violate any known laws of morality, unless it were the
+practice of polygamy, in accordance with the custom of all Eastern
+potentates, permitted to them if not to their ordinary subjects. We
+infer from all incidental notices of the habits of the Israelites at
+this period that they were a remarkably virtuous people, with primitive
+tastes and love of domestic life, among whom female chastity was
+esteemed the highest virtue; and it is a matter of surprise that the
+loose habits of the King in regard to women provoked so little comment
+among his subjects, and called out so few rebukes from his advisers.
+
+But he did not surrender himself to the inglorious luxury in which
+Oriental monarchs lived. He retained his warlike habits, and in great
+national crises he headed his own troops in battle. It would seem that
+he was not much molested by external enemies for twenty years after
+making Jerusalem his capital, but reigned in peace, devoting himself to
+the welfare of his subjects, and collecting materials for the future
+building of the Temple,--its actual erection being denied to him as a
+man of blood. Everything favored the national prosperity of the
+Israelites. There was no great power in western Asia to prevent them
+founding a permanent monarchy; Assyria had been humbled; and Egypt,
+under the last kings of the twentieth dynasty, had lost its ancient
+prestige; the Philistines were driven to a narrow portion of their old
+dominion, and the king of Tyre sought friendly alliance with David.
+
+In the course of time, however, war broke out with Moab, followed by
+other wars, which required all the resources of the Jewish kingdom, and
+taxed to the utmost the energies of its bravest generals. Moab, lying
+east of the Dead Sea, had at one time given refuge to David when pursued
+by Saul, and he was even allied by blood to some of its people,--being
+descended from Ruth, a Moabitish woman. The sacred writings shed but
+little light on this war, or on its causes; but it was carried on with
+unusual severity, only a third part of the people being spared alive,
+and they reduced to slavery. A more important contest took place with
+the kingdom of Ammon on the north, on the confines of Syria, caused by
+the insults heaped on the ambassadors of David, whom he sent on a
+friendly message to Hanun the King. The campaign was conducted by Joab,
+who gained brilliant victories, without however crushing the Ammonites,
+who again rallied with a vast array of mercenaries gathered in their
+support. David himself took the field with the whole force of his
+kingdom, and achieved a series of splendid successes by which he
+extended his empire to the Euphrates, including Damascus, besides
+securing invaluable spoils from the cities of Syria,--among them
+chariots and horses, for which Syria was celebrated. Among these spoils
+also were a thousand shields overlaid with gold, and great quantities of
+brass afterward used by Solomon in the construction of the Temple. Yet
+even these conquests, which now made David the most powerful monarch of
+western Asia, did not secure peace. The Edomites, south of the Dead Sea,
+alarmed in view of the increasing greatness of Israel, rose against
+David, but were routed by Abishai, who penetrated to Petra and became
+master of the country, the inhabitants of which were put to the sword
+with unrelenting vengeance. This war of the Edomites took place
+simultaneously with that of the Ammonites, who, deprived of their
+allies, retreated with desperation to their strong capital,--Rabbah
+Ammon, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and twenty miles east of
+the Jordan,--where they made a memorable but unsuccessful resistance.
+
+It was during the siege of this stronghold, which lasted a year, that
+David, no longer young, oppressed with cares, and unable personally to
+bear the fatigues of war, forgot his duties as a king and as a man. For
+fifty years he had borne an unsullied name; for more than thirty years
+he had been a model of reproachless chivalry. If polygamy and ferocity
+in war are not drawbacks to our admiration, certain it is that no
+recorded crime or folly that called out divine censure can be laid to
+his charge. But in an hour of temptation, or from strange infatuation,
+he added murder to adultery,--covering up a great crime by one of still
+greater enormity, evincing meanness and treachery as well as ungoverned
+passion, and creating a scandal which was considered disgraceful even in
+an Oriental palace. "We read," says South in one of his most brilliant
+paragraphs, "of nothing like adultery in a persecuted David in the
+wilderness, when he fled hither and thither like a chased doe upon the
+mountains; but when the delicacies of his palace softened and ungirt his
+spirit, then it was that this great hero fell by a glance, and buried
+his glories in nocturnal shame, giving to his name a lasting stain, and
+to his conscience a fearful wound." Nor did he come to himself until a
+child was born, and the prophet Nathan had ingeniously pointed out to
+him his flagrant sin. He manifested no wrath against his accuser, as
+some despots would have done, but sank to the ground in the greatest
+anguish and grief.
+
+Then it was that David's repentance was more marvellous than his
+transgression, offering the most memorable instance of contrition
+recorded in history,--surpassing in moral sublimity, a thousand times
+over, the grief of Theodosius under the rebuke of Ambrose, or the sorrow
+of the haughty Plantagenet for the murder of Becket. His repentance was
+so profound, so sincere, so remarkable, that it is embalmed forever in
+the heart of a sinful world. Its wondrous depth and intensity almost
+make us forget the crime itself, which nevertheless pursued him into the
+immensity of eternal night, and was visited upon the third and fourth
+generation in treason, rebellion, and wars. "Be sure your sin will find
+you out," is a natural law as well as a divine decree. It was not only
+because David added Bathsheba to the catalogue of his wives; it was not
+only because he coveted, like Ahab, that which was not his own,--but
+because he violated the most sacred of all laws, and treacherously
+stained his hands in the blood of an innocent, confiding, and loyal
+subject, that his soul was filled with shame and anguish. It was this
+blood-guiltiness which was the burden of his confession and his agonized
+grief, as an offence not merely against society and all moral laws, but
+also against his Maker, in whose pure eyes he had committed his crimes
+of lust, deceit, and murder. "Against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned,
+and have done this evil in Thy sight!" What a volume of theological
+truth blazes from this single expression, so difficult for reason to
+fathom, that it was against God that the royal penitent felt that he had
+sinned, even more than against Uriah himself, whose life and property,
+in a certain sense, belonged to an Oriental king.
+
+"Nor do we charge ourselves," says Edward Irving, "with the defence of
+those backslidings which David more keenly scrutinized and more bitterly
+lamented than any of his censors, because they were necessary, in a
+measure, that he might be the full-orbed man to utter every form of
+spiritual feeling. And if the penitential psalms discover the deepest
+hell of agony, and if they bow the head which utters them, then let us
+keep those records of the psalmist's grief and despondency as the most
+precious of his utterances, and sure to be needed by every man who
+essayeth to lead a spiritual life; for it is not until a man, however
+pure, honest, and honorable he may have thought himself, and have been
+thought by others, discovereth himself to be utterly fallen, defiled,
+and sinful before God,--not until he can, for expression of utter
+worthlessness, seek those psalms in which David describes his
+self-abasement, that he will realize the first beginning of spiritual
+life in his own soul."
+
+Should we seek for the cause of David's fall, for that easy descent in
+the path of rectitude,--may we not find it in that fatal custom of
+Eastern kings to have more wives than was divinely instituted in the
+Garden of Eden,--an indulgence which weakened the moral sense and
+unchained the passions? Polygamy, under any circumstances, is the folly
+and weakness of kings, as well as the misfortune and curse of nations.
+It divided and distracted the household of David, and gave rise to
+incessant intrigues and conspiracies in his palace, which embittered his
+latter days and even undermined his throne.
+
+We read of no further backslidings which seemed to call forth the divine
+displeasure, unless it were the census, or numbering of the people, even
+against the expostulations of Joab. Why this census, in which we can see
+no harm, should have been followed by so dire a calamity as a pestilence
+in which seventy thousand persons perished in four days, we cannot see
+by the light of reason, unless it indicated the purpose of establishing
+an absolute monarchy for personal aggrandizement, or the extension of
+unnecessary conquests, and hence an infringement of the theocratic
+character of the Hebrew commonwealth. The conquests of David had thus
+far been so brilliant, and his kingdom was so prosperous, that had he
+been a pagan monarch he might have meditated the establishment of a
+military monarchy, or have laid the foundation of an empire, like Cyrus
+in after-times. From a less beginning than the Jewish commonwealth at
+the time of David, the Greeks and Romans advanced to sovereignty over
+both neighboring and distant States. The numbering of the Israelitish
+nation seemed to indicate a desire for extended empire against the plain
+indications of the divine will. But whatever was the nature of that sin,
+it seems to have been one of no ordinary magnitude; and in view of its
+consequences, David's heart was profoundly touched. "O God!" he cried,
+in a generous burst of penitence, "I have sinned. But these sheep, what
+have they done? Let thine hand be upon me, I pray thee, and upon my
+father's house!"
+
+If David committed no more sins which we are forced to condemn, and
+which were not irreconcilable with his piety, he was subject to great
+trials and misfortunes. The wickedness of his children, especially of
+his eldest son Amnon, must have nearly broken his heart. Amnon's offence
+was not only a terrible scandal, but cost the life of the heir to the
+throne. It would be hard to conceive how David's latter days could have
+been more embittered than by the crime of his eldest son,--a crime he
+could neither pardon nor punish, and which disgraced his family in the
+eyes of the nation. As to Absalom, it must have been exceedingly painful
+and humiliating to the aged and pious king to be a witness of the pride,
+insolence, extravagance, and folly of his favorite son, who had nothing
+to commend him to the people but his good looks; and still harder to
+bear was his rebellion, and his reckless attempt to steal his father's
+sceptre. What a pathetic sight to see the old warrior driven from his
+capital, and forced to flee for his life beyond the Jordan! How
+humiliating to witness also the alienation of his subjects, and their
+willingness to accept a brainless youth as his successor, after all the
+glorious victories he had won, and the services he had rendered to the
+nation! David's history reveals the sorrows and burdens of all kings and
+rulers. Outward grandeur and power, after all, are a poor compensation
+for the incessant cares, vexations, and humiliations which even the most
+favored monarchs are compelled to accept,--troubles, disappointments,
+and burdens which oppress both soul and body, and induce fears,
+suspicions, jealousies, and animosities. Who would envy a Tiberius or a
+Louis XIV. if he were obliged to carry their load, knowing well what
+that burden was?
+
+Then again the kingdom of David was afflicted with a grievous famine,
+which lasted three years, decimating the people, and giving a check to
+the national prosperity; and the Philistines, too, whom he thought he
+had finally subdued, renewed their ancient warfare. But these calamities
+were not all that the old king had to endure. A new rebellion more
+dangerous even than that of Absalom broke out under Sheba, a Benjamite,
+who sounded the trumpet of defiance from the mountains of Ephraim, and
+who rallied under his standard ten of the tribes. To Amasa, it seems,
+was intrusted the honor and the task of defending David and the tribe of
+Judah, to which he belonged,--the king being alienated from Joab for the
+slaying of Absalom, although it had ended that undutiful son's
+rebellion. The bloodthirsty Joab, as implacable as Achilles, who had
+rendered such signal services to his sovereign, was consumed with
+jealousy at this new appointment, and going up to the new
+general-in-chief as if to salute him, treacherously stabbed him with his
+sword,--but continued, however, to support David. He succeeded in
+suppressing the rebellion by intrigue, and on the promise that the city
+should be spared, the head of the rebel was thrown over the wall of the
+fortress to which he had retired. Even this rebellion did not end the
+trials of David, since Adonijah, the heir presumptive after the death of
+Absalom, conspired to steal the royal sceptre, which David had sworn to
+Bathsheba he would bequeath to her son Solomon. Joab even favored the
+succession of Adonijah; but the astute monarch, amid the infirmities of
+age, still possessed a large measure of the intellect and decision of
+his heroic days, and secured, by a rapid movement, the transfer of his
+kingdom to Solomon, who was crowned in the lifetime of his father.
+
+In all these foul treacheries and crimes within his own household may be
+seen the distinct fulfilment of the punishment foretold by Nathan the
+prophet, as prepared for David's own "great transgression." God's
+providence is unerring, and men indeed prepare for themselves the
+retribution which, in spite of sincere repentance, is the inevitable
+consequence of their own violations of law,--physical, moral, and
+spiritual. God gave David the new heart he longed for; but the evil
+seeds sown bore nevertheless evil fruit for him and his children.
+
+Aside from these troubles, we know but little of the latter days of
+David. After the death of Absalom, it would seem that he reigned ten
+years, on the whole tranquilly, turning his attention to the development
+of the resources of his kingdom, and collecting treasure for the Temple,
+which he was not to build. He was able to set aside, as we read in the
+twenty-second chapter of the Chronicles, a hundred thousand talents of
+gold and a million talents of silver,--an almost incredible sum.
+
+If a talent of silver is, as estimated, about L390, or $1950, it would
+seem that the silver accumulated by David would have amounted to nearly
+two billion dollars, and the gold to a like sum,--altogether four
+billions, which is plainly impossible. Probably there is a mistake in
+the figures. We read in the twenty-ninth chapter of Chronicles that
+David gave to Solomon, out of his own private property, three thousand
+talents of gold and seven thousand talents of silver,--together, nearly
+$74,000,000. His nobles added what would be equal to $120,000,000 in
+gold and silver alone, besides brass and iron,--altogether about
+$194,000,000, which is not incredible when we bear in mind that a
+single family in New York has accumulated a larger sum in two
+generations. But even this sum,--nearly two hundred million
+dollars,--would have more than built all the temples of Athens, or St.
+Peter's Church at Rome. Whether the author of the Chronicles has
+exaggerated the amount of the national contribution for the building of
+the Temple or not, we yet are impressed with the vast wealth which was
+accumulated in the lifetime of David; and hence we infer that the wealth
+of his kingdom was enormous. And it was perhaps the excessive taxation
+of the people to raise this money, outside of the spoils of successful
+wars, that alienated them in the latter days of David, and induced them
+to rally under the standards of usurpers. Certain it is that he became
+unpopular in the feebleness of old age, and was forced to abdicate
+his throne.
+
+David's premature old age presented a sad contrast to the vigor of his
+early days. He was not a very old man when he died,--younger than many
+monarchs and statesmen who in our times have retained their vigor, their
+popularity, and their power. But the intense labors and sorrows of forty
+years may have proved too great a strain on his nervous energies, and
+made him as timid as he once was bold. The man who had slain Goliath ran
+away from Absalom. He was completely under the domination of an
+intriguing wife. He showed a singular weakness in reference to the
+crimes of his favorite son, so as to merit the bitter reproaches of his
+captain-general. "Thou hast shamed this day," said Joab, "the faces of
+all thy servants; for I perceive had Absalom lived, and all of us had
+died this day, then it had pleased thee well." In David's case, his last
+days do not seem to have been his best days, although he retained his
+piety and had conquered all his enemies. His glorious sun set in clouds
+after a reign of thirty-three years over united Israel, and the nation
+hailed the accession of a boy whose character was undeveloped.
+
+The final years of this great monarch present an impressive lesson of
+the vanity even of a successful life, whatever services a man may have
+rendered to his country and to civilization. Few kings have ever
+accomplished more than David; but his glory was succeeded, if not by
+shame, at least by clouds and darkness. And this eclipse is all the more
+mournful when we remember not only his services but his exalted virtues.
+He was the most successful and the most admired of all the monarchs who
+reigned at Jerusalem. He was one of the greatest and best men who ever
+lived in any nation or at any period. "When, before or since, has there
+lived an outlaw who did not despoil his country?" Where has there
+reigned a king whose head was less giddy on a throne, or who retained
+more humility in the midst of riches and glories, unless it were Marcus
+Aurelius or Alfred the Great? David had an inborn aptitude for
+government, and a power like Julius Caesar of fascinating every one who
+came in contact with him. His self-denial and devotion to the interests
+of the nation were marvellous. We do not read that he took any time for
+pleasure or recreation; the heavy load of responsibility and care never
+for a moment was thrown from his shoulders. His penetration of character
+was so remarkable that all stood in fear of him; yet fear gave place to
+admiration. Never had a monarch more devoted servants and followers than
+David in his palmy days; he was the nation's idol and pride for thirty
+years. In every successive vicissitude he was great; and were it not for
+his cruelty in war and severity to his enemies, and his one great lapse
+into criminal self-indulgence, his reign would have been faultless.
+Contrast David with the other conquerors of the world; compare him with
+classical and mediaeval heroes,--how far do they fall beneath him in
+deeds of magnanimity and self-sacrifice! What monarch has transmitted to
+posterity such inestimable treasures of thought and language?
+
+It is consoling to feel that David, whether exultant in riches and
+honors, or bowed down to the earth with grief and wrath, both in the
+years of adversity and in his prosperous manhood, in strength and in
+weakness, with unfailing constancy and loyalty turned his thoughts to
+God as the source of all hope and consolation. "As the hart panteth
+after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God!" He has no
+doubts, no scepticism, no forgetfulness. His piety has the seal of an
+all-pervading sense of the constant presence and aid of a personal God
+whom it is his supremest glory to acknowledge,--his staff, his rock, his
+fortress, his shield, his deliverer, his friend; the One with whom he
+sought to commune, both day and night, on the field of battle and in the
+guarded recesses of his palace. In the very depths of humiliation he
+never sinks into despair. His piety is both tender and exultant. In the
+ecstasy of his raptures he calls even upon inanimate nature to utter
+God's praises,--upon the sun and moon, the mountains and valleys, fire
+and hail, storms and winds, yea, upon the stars of night. "Bless ye the
+Lord, O my soul! for his mercy endureth forever." And this is why he was
+a man after God's own heart. Let cynics and critics, and unbelievers
+like Bayle, delight to pick flaws in David's life. Who denies his
+faults? He was loved because his soul was permeated with exalted
+loyalty, because he hungered and thirsted after righteousness, because
+he could not find words to express sufficiently his sense of sin and his
+longing for forgiveness, his consciousness of littleness and
+unworthiness when contrasted with the majesty of Jehovah. Let not our
+eyes be fixed upon his defects, but upon the general tenor of his life.
+It is true he is in war merciless and cruel; he hurls anathemas on his
+enemies. His wrath is as supernal as his love; he is inspired with the
+fiercest resentments; he exhibits the mighty anger of Homer's heroes; he
+never could forgive Joab for the slaughter of Abner and Absalom. But the
+abiding sentiments of his heart are gentleness and magnanimity. How
+affectionately his soul clung to Jonathan! What a power of self-denial,
+when he was faint and thirsty, in refusing the water which his brave
+companions brought him at the risk of their lives! How generously he
+spared the life of Saul! How patiently he bore the rebukes of Nathan!
+How nobly he treated the aged Barzillai! His impulses were all generous.
+He was affectionate to weakness. He had no egotistic ends. He forgot his
+own sorrows in the sufferings of his people. He had no pride in all the
+pomp of power, although he never forgot that he was the Lord's anointed.
+
+When we pass from David's personal character to the services he
+rendered, how exalted his record! He laid the foundation of the
+prosperity of his nation. Where would have been the glories of Solomon
+but for the genius and deeds of David? But more than any material
+greatness are the imperishable lyrics he bequeathed to all ages and
+nations, in which are unfolded the varied experiences of a good man in
+his warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,--those priceless
+utterances which portray every passion that can move the human soul. He
+has left bare to the contemplation of all ages all that a lofty soul can
+suffer or enjoy, all that can be learned from folly and sin, all that
+can stimulate religious life, all that can console in sorrow and
+affliction. These experiences and aspirations he has embodied in lyric
+poetry, on the whole the most exquisite in the Hebrew language, creating
+a new world of religious thought and feeling, and furnishing the
+foundation for Christian psalmody, to be sung from age to age throughout
+the world. His kingdom passed away, but his Psalms remain,--a realm
+which no civilization can afford to lose. As Moses lives in his
+jurisprudence, Solomon in his proverbs, Isaiah in his prophecies, and
+Paul in his epistles, so David lives in those poems that are still the
+most expressive of all the forms in which the public worship of God is
+still continued. Such poetry could not have been written, had not the
+author experienced in his own life every variety of suffering and joy.
+
+The literary excellence of the Psalms cannot be measured by the standard
+of Greek and Roman lyrics. It is not seen in any of our present forms of
+metrical composition. It is the mighty soaring of an exalted soul which
+makes the Psalms so dear to us, and not their artificial structure.
+They were made to reveal the ways of God to man and the life of the
+human soul, not to immortalize heroes or dignify a human love. We may
+not be able to appreciate in English form their original metrical skill;
+but it is impossible that a people so musical as the Hebrews were
+kindled into passionate admiration of them, had they not possessed great
+rhythmic beauty. We may not comprehend the force of the melodic forms,
+but we can appreciate the tenderness, the pathos, the sublimity, and the
+intensity of the sentiments expressed. "In pathetic dirges, in songs of
+jubilee, in outbursts of praise, in prophetic announcements, in the
+agonies of contrition, in bursts of adoration, in the beatitudes of holy
+bliss, in the enchanting calmness of Christian life," no one has ever
+surpassed David, so that he was called "the sweet singer of Israel."
+There is nothing pathetic in national difficulties, or endearing in
+family relations, or profound in inward experience, or triumphant over
+the fall of wickedness, or beatific in divine worship, which he does not
+intensify. He raises mortals to the skies, though he brings no angels
+down. Never does he introduce dogmas, yet his songs are permeated with
+fundamental truths, and are a perpetual rebuke to pharisaism,
+rationalism, epicureanism, and every form of infidel speculation that
+with "the fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." As the Psalter
+was held to be the most inspiring poetry in the palmy days of the Hebrew
+commonwealth, so it proved the most impressive part of the ritual of the
+mediaeval Church, and is still the most valued of all the lyrics which
+Protestantism has appropriated in the worship of God. And how potent,
+how lasting, how valued is a good song! The psalmody of the Church will
+last longer than its sermons; and when a song stimulates the loftiest
+sentiments of which men are capable, how priceless it is, how
+permanently it is embalmed in the heart of the world! "Thus have his
+songs become the treasured property of mankind, resounding in the
+anthems of different creeds, and carrying into every land that same
+voice which on Mount Zion was raised in sorrowful longings or
+ecstatic praise."
+
+What a mighty power the songs of the son of Jesse still wield over the
+affections of mankind! We lose sight at times of Moses, of Solomon, and
+of Isaiah; but we never lose sight of David.
+
+     Such is the tribute which all nations bring,
+     O warrior, prophet, bard, and sainted king,
+     From distant ages to thy hallowed name,
+     Transcending far all Greek and Roman fame!
+     No pagan gods thy sacred songs invoke,
+     No loves degrading do thy strains provoke.
+     Thy soul to heaven in holy rapture mounts,
+     And joys seraphic in its bliss recounts.
+     O thou sweet singer of a favored race,
+     What vast results to thy pure songs we trace!
+     How varied and how rich are all thy lays
+     On Nature's glories and Jehovah's ways!
+     In loftiest flight thy kindling soul surveys
+     The promised glories of the latter days,
+     When peace and love this fallen world shall bind,
+     And richest blessings all the race shall find.
+
+
+
+
+SOLOMON.
+
+
+THE GLORY OF THE MONARCHY.
+
+ABOUT 993-953 B.C.
+
+
+We associate with Solomon the culmination of the Jewish monarchy, and a
+reign of unexampled prosperity and glory. He not only surpassed all his
+predecessors and successors in those things which strike the imagination
+as brilliant and imposing, but he had such extraordinary intellectual
+gifts that he has passed into history as the wisest of ancient kings,
+and one of the most favored of mortals.
+
+Amid the evils which saddened the latter days of his father David, this
+remarkable man grew up. His interests were protected by his mother
+Bathsheba, an intriguing, ambitious, and beautiful woman, and his
+education was directed by the prophet Nathan. He was ten years of age
+when his elder brother Absalom rebelled, and a youth of fifteen to
+twenty when he was placed upon the throne, during the lifetime of his
+father and with his sanction, aided by the cabals of his mother, the
+connivance of the high-priest Zadok, the spiritual authority of Nathan,
+and the political ascendency of Benaiah, the most valiant of the
+captains of Israel after Joab. He became king in a great national
+crisis, when unfilial rebellion had undermined the throne of David, and
+Adonijah, next in age to Absalom, had sought to steal the royal sceptre,
+supported by the veteran Joab and Abiathar, the elder high-priest.
+
+Solomon's first acts as monarch were to remove the great enemies of his
+father and the various heads of faction, not sparing even Joab, the most
+successful general that ever brought lustre on the Jewish arms. With
+Abiathar, who died in exile, expired the last glory of the house of Eli;
+and with Shimei, who was slain with Adonijah, passed away the last
+representative of the royal family of Saul. Soon after Solomon repaired
+to the heights of Gibeon, six miles from Jerusalem,--a lofty eminence
+which overlooks Judaea, and where stood the Tabernacle of the
+Congregation, the original Tent of the Wanderings, in front of which was
+the brazen altar on which the young king, as a royal holocaust, offered
+the sacrifice of one thousand victims. It was on the night of that
+sacrificial offering that, in a dream, a divine voice offered to the
+youthful king whatsoever his heart should crave. He prayed for wisdom,
+which was granted,--the first evidence of which was his celebrated
+judgment between the two women who claimed the living child, which made
+a powerful impression on the whole nation, and doubtless strengthened
+his throne.
+
+The kingdom which Solomon inherited was probably at that time the most
+powerful in western Asia, the fruit of the conquests of Saul and David,
+of Abner and Joab. It was bounded by Lebanon on the north, the Euphrates
+on the east, Egypt on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. Its
+territorial extent was small compared with the Assyrian or Persian
+empire; but it had already defeated the surrounding nations,--the
+Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. It hemmed in
+Phoenicia on the sea-coast, and controlled the great trade-routes to the
+East, which made it politic for the King of Tyre to cultivate the
+friendship of both David and Solomon. If Palestine was small in extent,
+it was then exceedingly fertile, and sustained a large population. Its
+hills were crested with fortresses, and covered with cedars and oaks.
+The land was favorable to both tillage and pasture, abounding in grapes,
+figs, olives, dates, and every species of grain; the numerous springs
+and streams favored a perfect system of irrigation, so that the country
+presented a picture in striking contrast to its present blasted and
+dreary desolation. The nation was also enriched by commerce as well as
+by agriculture. Caravans brought from Eastern cities the most valuable
+of their manufactures. From Tarshish in Spain ships brought gold and
+silver; Egypt sent chariots and fine linen; Syria sold her purple cloths
+and robes of varied colors; Arabia furnished horses and costly
+trappings. All the luxuries and riches which Tyre had collected in her
+warehouses found their way to Jerusalem. Even silver was as plenty as
+the stones in the streets. Long voyages to the mouth of the Indus
+resulted in a vast accumulation of treasure,--gold, ivory, spices, gums,
+perfumes, and precious stones. The nations and tribes subject to Solomon
+from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea,
+paid a fixed tribute, while their kings and princes sent rich
+presents,--vessels of gold and silver, costly arms and armor, rich
+garments and robes, horses and mules, perfumes and spices.
+
+But the prosperity of the realm was not altogether inherited; it was
+firmly and prudently promoted by the young king. Solomon made alliances
+with Egypt and Syria, as well as with Phoenicia, and peace and plenty
+enriched all classes, so that every man sat under his own vine and
+fig-tree in perfect security. Never was such prosperity seen in Israel
+before or since. Strong fortresses were built on Lebanon to protect the
+caravans, and Tadmor in the wilderness to the east became a great centre
+of trade, and ultimately a splendid city under Zenobia. The royal
+stables contained forty thousand horses and fourteen hundred chariots.
+The royal palace glistened with plates of gold, and the parks and
+gardens were watered from immense reservoirs. "When the youthful monarch
+repaired to these gardens in his gorgeous chariot, he was attended,"
+says Stanley, "by nobles whose robes of purple floated in the wind, and
+whose long black hair, powdered with gold dust, glistened in the sun,
+while he himself, clothed in white, blazing with jewels, scented with
+perfumes, wearing both crown and sceptre, presented a scene of gladness
+and glory. When he travelled, he was borne on a splendid litter of
+precious woods, inlaid with gold and hung with purple curtains, preceded
+by mounted guards, with princes for his companions, and women for his
+idolaters, so that all Israel rejoiced in him."
+
+We infer that Solomon reigned for several years in justice and equity,
+without striking faults,--a wise and benevolent prince, who feared God
+and sought from him wisdom, which was bestowed in such a remarkable
+degree that princes came from remote countries to see him, including the
+famous Queen of Sheba, who was both dazzled and enchanted.
+
+Yet while he was, on the whole, loyal to the God of his fathers, and was
+the pride and admiration of his subjects, especially for his wisdom and
+knowledge, Solomon was not exempted from grave mistakes. He was
+scarcely seated on his throne before he married an Egyptian princess,
+doubtless with the view of strengthening his political power. But while
+this splendid alliance brought wealth and influence, and secured
+chariots and horses, it violated one of the settled principles of the
+Jewish commonwealth, and prevented that isolation which was so necessary
+to keep uncorrupted the manners and habits of the people. The alliance
+doubtless favored commerce, and in one sense enlarged the minds of his
+subjects, removing from them many prejudices; but the nation was not
+intended by the divine founder to be politically or commercially great,
+but rather to preserve the worship of Jehovah. Moreover, the daughter of
+Pharaoh was an idolater, and her influence, so far as it went, tended to
+wean the king from his religious duties,--at least to make him tolerant
+of false gods.
+
+The enlargement of the king's harem was another mistake, for although
+polygamy was not condemned, and was practised even by David, it made
+Solomon prominent among Eastern monarchs for an absurd ostentation,
+allied with enervating effeminacy, and thus gradually undermined the
+healthy tone of his character. It may have prepared the way for the
+apostasy of his later years, and certainly led to a great increase of
+the royal expenses. The support of seven hundred wives and three
+hundred concubines must have been a scandal and a burden for which the
+nation was not prepared. The pomp in which he lived presupposes a change
+in the government itself, even to an absolute monarchy and a grinding
+despotism, fatal to the liberties which the Israelites had enjoyed under
+Saul and David. The predictions and warnings of Samuel were realized for
+the first time in the reign of Solomon, so that wealth, prosperity, and
+luxury were but a poor exchange for that ancient religious ardor and
+intense patriotism which had led the Hebrew nation to victory over
+surrounding idolatrous nations. The heroic ages of Jewish history passed
+away when ships navigated by Phoenician sailors brought gold from Ophir
+and silver from Tarshish, and did not return until the Maccabees rallied
+the hunted and decimated tribes of Israel against the armies of the
+Syrian kings.
+
+Solomon's peaceful and prosperous reign of forty years was, however,
+favorable to one grand enterprise which David had longed to accomplish,
+but to whom it was denied. This was the building of the Temple, for so
+long a time identified with the glory of Jerusalem, and common interest
+in which might have bound the twelve tribes together but for the
+excessive taxation which the extravagance and ostentation of the monarch
+had rendered necessary.
+
+We can form but an inadequate idea of the magnificence of this Temple
+from its description in the sacred annals. An edifice which taxed the
+mighty resources of Solomon and consumed the spoils of forty years'
+successful warfare, must have been in that age without a parallel in
+splendor and beauty. If the figures are not exaggerated, it required the
+constant labors of ten thousand men in the mountains of Lebanon alone to
+cut down and hew the timber, and this for a period of eleven years. Of
+ordinary laborers there were seventy thousand; and of those who worked
+in the quarries and squared the stones there were eighty thousand more,
+besides overseers. It took three years to prepare the foundations. As
+Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was built, did not furnish level space
+enough, a wall of solid masonry was erected on the eastern and southern
+sides nearly three hundred feet in height, the stones of which, in some
+instances, were more than twenty feet long and six feet thick, so
+perfectly squared that no mortar was required. The buried foundations
+for the courts of the Temple and the vast treasure-houses still remain
+to attest the strength and solidity of the work, seemingly as
+indestructible as are the pyramids of Egypt, and only paralleled by the
+uncovered ruins of the palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill at
+Rome, which fill all travellers with astonishment. Vast cisterns also
+had to be hewn in the rocks to supply water for the sacrifices, capable
+of holding ten millions of gallons. The Temple proper was small compared
+with the Egyptian temples, or with mediaeval cathedrals; but the courts
+which surrounded it were vast, enclosing a quadrangle larger than the
+area on which St. Peter's Church at Rome is built. It was, however, the
+richness of the decorations and of the sacred vessels and the altars for
+sacrifice, which consumed immense quantities of gold, silver, and brass,
+that made the Temple especially remarkable. The treasures alone which
+David collected were so enormous that we think there must be errors in
+the calculation,--thirteen million pounds Troy of gold, and one hundred
+and twenty-seven million pounds of silver,--an amount not easy to
+estimate. But the plates of gold which overlaid the building, and the
+cherubim or symbolical winged figures, the precious woods, the rich
+hangings and curtains of crimson and purple, the brazen altars, the
+lamps, the sacred vessels of solid gold and silver, the elaborate
+carvings and castings, the rare gems,--these all together must have
+required a greater expenditure than is seen in the most famous temples
+of Greece or Asia Minor, whose value and beauty chiefly consisted in
+their exquisite proportions and their marble pillars and figures of men
+or animals. But no representation of man, no statue to the Deity, was
+seen in the Temple of Solomon; no idol or sacred animal profaned it.
+There was no symbol to indicate even the presence of Jehovah, whose
+dwelling-place was in the heavens, and whom the heaven of heavens could
+not contain. There were rites and sacrifices, but these were offered to
+an unseen divinity, whose presence was everywhere, and who alone reigned
+as King of Kings and Lord of Lords, forever and forever. The Temple,
+however, with its courts and porticos, its vast foundations of stones
+squared in distant quarries, and the immense treasures everywhere
+displayed, impressed both the senses and the imagination of a people
+never distinguished for art or science. And not only so, but Fergusson
+says: "The whole Mohammedan world look to it as the foundation of all
+architectural knowledge, and the Jews still recall its glories, and sigh
+over their loss with a constant tenacity unmatched by that of any other
+people to any other building of the ancient world." Whether or not we
+are able to explain the architecture of the Temple, or are in error
+respecting its size, or the amount of gold and silver expended, or the
+number of men employed, we know that it was the pride and glory of that
+age, and was large enough, with its enclosures, to contain a
+representation of five millions of people, the heads of all the families
+and tribes of the nation, such as were collected together at its
+dedication.
+
+As the great event of David's reign was the removal of the Ark to
+Jerusalem, so the culminating glory of Solomon was the dedication of the
+Temple he had built to the worship of Jehovah. The ceremony equalled in
+brilliancy the glories of a Roman triumph, and infinitely surpassed them
+in popular enthusiasm. The whole population of the kingdom,--some four
+or five millions,--or their picked representatives, came to Jerusalem to
+witness or to take part in it. "And as the long array of dignitaries,
+with thousands of musicians clothed in white, and the monarch himself
+arrayed in pontifical robes, and the royal household in embroidered
+mantles, and the guards with their golden shields, and the priests
+bearing the sacred but tattered tabernacle, with the ark and the
+cherubim, and the altar of sacrifice, and the golden candlesticks and
+table of shew bread, and the brazen serpent of the wilderness and the
+venerated tables of stone on which were engraved by the hand of God
+himself the ten commandments,"--as this splendid procession swept along
+the road, strewed with flowers and fragrant with incense, how must the
+hearts of the people have been lifted up! Then the royal pontiff arose
+from the brazen scaffold on which he had seated himself, and amid clouds
+of incense and the smoke of burning sacrifice offered unto God the
+tribute of national praise, and implored His divine protection. And
+then, rising from his knees, with hands outstretched to heaven, he
+blessed the congregation, saying with a loud voice, "Let the Lord our
+God be with us as he was with our fathers, so that all the earth may
+know that Jehovah is God and that there is none else!"
+
+Then followed the sacrifices for this grand occasion,--twenty thousand
+oxen and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep and goats were offered up
+on successive days. Only a portion of these animals was actually
+consumed on the altar by the officiating priests: the greater part
+furnished meat for the assembled multitude. The Festival of the
+Dedication lasted a week, and this was succeeded by the Feast of the
+Tabernacles; and from that time the Temple became the pride and glory of
+the nation. To see it periodically and worship in its courts became the
+intensest desire of every Hebrew. Three times a year some great festival
+was held, attended by a vast concourse of the people. The command was
+that every male Israelite should "appear before the Lord" and make his
+offering; but this of course had its necessary exceptions, as multitudes
+of women and children could not go, and had to be cared for at home. We
+cannot easily understand how on any other supposition they were all
+accommodated, spacious as were the various courts of the Temple; and we
+conclude that only a large representation of the tribes and families
+took place, for how could four or five millions of people assemble
+together at any festival?
+
+Contemporaneous with the building of the Temple, or immediately after it
+was dedicated, were other gigantic works, including the royal palace,
+which it took thirteen years to complete, and upon which, as upon the
+Sacred House, Syrian artists and workmen were employed. The principal
+building was only one hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five broad,
+and forty-five feet high, in three stories, with a grand porch supported
+on lofty pillars; but connected with the palace were other edifices to
+support the magnificence in which the king lived with his court and his
+harem. Around the tower of the House of David were hung the famous
+golden shields, one thousand in number, which had been made for the
+body-guard, with other glittering ornaments, which were likened by the
+poets to the neck of a bride decked with rays of golden coins. In the
+great Judgment Hall, built of cedar and squared stone, was the throne of
+the monarch, made of ivory, inlaid with gold. A special mansion was
+erected for Solomon's Egyptian queen, of squared stones twelve to
+fifteen feet in length. Connected with these various palaces were
+extensive gardens constructed at great expense, filled with all the
+triumphs of horticultural art, and watered by streams from vast
+reservoirs. In these the luxurious king and court could wander among
+beds of spices and flowers and fruits. But these did not content the
+royal family. A summer palace was erected on the heights of Mount
+Lebanon, having gardens filled with everything which could delight the
+eye or captivate the senses. Here, surrounded with learned men, women,
+and courtiers, with bands of music, costly litters, horses and chariots,
+and every luxury which unbounded means could command, the magnificent
+monarch beguiled his leisure hours, abandoned equally to pleasure and
+study,--for his inquiring mind sought to master all the knowledge that
+was known, especially in the realm of natural history, since "he was
+wiser than all men, and spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is on
+Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." We can get
+some idea of the expenses of his household, in the fact that it daily
+consumed sixty measures of flour and meal and thirty oxen and one
+hundred sheep, besides venison, game, and fatted fowls. The king never
+appeared in public except with crown and sceptre, in royal robes
+redolent of the richest perfumes of India and Arabia, and sparkling with
+gold and gems. He lived in a constant blaze of splendor, whether
+travelling in his gorgeous litter, surrounded with his guards, or seated
+on his throne to dispense justice and equity, or feasting with his
+nobles to the sound of joyous music.
+
+To keep up this regal splendor, to support seven hundred wives and
+three hundred concubines on the fattest of the land, and deck them all
+in robes of purple and gold; to build magnificent palaces, to dig
+canals, and construct gigantic reservoirs for parks and gardens; to
+maintain a large standing army in time of peace; to erect strong
+fortresses wherever caravans were in danger of pillage; to found cities
+in the wilderness; to level mountains and fill up valleys,--to
+accomplish all this even the resources of Solomon were insufficient.
+What were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, yearly received
+(thirty-five million dollars), besides the taxes on all merchants and
+travellers, and the vast gifts which flowed from kings and princes, when
+that constant drain on the royal treasury is considered! Even a Louis
+XIV. was impoverished by his court and palace building, though he
+controlled the fortunes of twenty-five millions of people. King Solomon,
+in all his glory, became embarrassed, and was obliged to make forced
+contributions,--to levy a heavy tribute on his own subjects from Dan to
+Beersheba, and make bondmen of all the people that were left of the
+Amorites, Hittites, Perizites, Hivites, and Jebusites. The people were
+virtually enslaved to aggrandize a single person. The burdens laid on
+all classes and the excessive taxation at last alienated the nation.
+"The division of the whole country into twelve revenue districts was a
+serious grievance,--especially as the high official over each could make
+large profits from the excess of contributions demanded." A poll-tax,
+from which the nation in the olden times was freed, was levied on
+Israelite and Canaanite alike. The virtual slave-labor by which the
+great public improvements were made, sapped the loyalty of the people
+and produced discontent. This forced labor was as fatal as war to the
+real property of the nation, for wealth is ever based on private
+industry, on farms and vineyards, rather than on the palaces of kings.
+Moreover, the friendly relations which Solomon established with the
+neighboring heathen nations disgusted the old religious leaders, while
+the tendency to Oriental luxury which outward prosperity favored alarmed
+the more thoughtful. It was not a pleasant sight for the princes of
+Israel to see the whole land overrun with Phoenicians, Arabs,
+Babylonians, Egyptians, caravan drivers, strangers and travellers,
+camels and dromedaries from Midian and Sheba, traders to the fairs,
+pedlers with their foreign cloths and trinkets, all spreading immorality
+and heresy, and filling the cities with strange customs and
+degrading dances.
+
+Nor was there, in that absolute monarchy which Solomon centralized
+around his throne, any remedy for all this, save assassination or
+revolution. The king had become debauched and effeminate. The love of
+pomp and extravagance was followed by worldliness, luxury, and folly.
+From agricultural pursuits the people had passed to commercial; the
+Israelites had become merchants and traders, and the foul idolatries of
+Phoenicians and Syrians had overspread the land. The king having lost
+the respect and affection of the nation, the rebellion of Jeroboam was a
+logical sequence.
+
+I have not read of any king who so belied the promises of his early
+days, and on whom prosperity produced so fatal an apostasy as Solomon.
+With all his wisdom and early piety, he became an egotist, a sensualist,
+and a tyrant. What vanity he displayed before the Queen of Sheba! What a
+slave he became to wicked women! How disgraceful was his toleration of
+the gods of Phoenicia and Egypt! How hard was the bondage to which he
+subjected his subjects! How different was his ordinary life from that of
+his illustrious father, with no repentance, no remorse, no
+self-abasement! He was a Nebuchadnezzar and a Sardanapalus combined,
+going from bad to worse. And he was not only a sensualist and a tyrant,
+an egotist, and to some extent an idolater, but he was a cynic,
+sceptical of all good, and of the very attainments which had made him
+famous. We read of no illustrious name whose glory passed through so
+dark an eclipse. The satiated, disenchanted, disappointed monarch,
+prematurely old, and worn out by self-indulgence, passed away without
+honor or regret, at the age of sixty, and was buried in the City of
+David; and Rehoboam, his son, reigned in his stead.
+
+The Christian fathers and many subsequent theological writers have
+puzzled their brains with unsatisfactory speculations whether Solomon
+finally repented or not; but the Scriptures are silent on that point. We
+have no means of knowing at what period of his life his heart was weaned
+from the religion of David, or when he entered upon a life of pleasure.
+There are some passages in the Book of Ecclesiastes which lead us to
+suppose that before he died he came to himself, and was a preacher of
+righteousness. This is the more charitable and humane view to take; yet
+even so, his moral teachings and warnings are not imbued with the
+personal contrition that endeared David's soul to God; they are
+unimpassioned, cold-hearted, intellectual, impersonal. Moreover, it may
+be that even in the midst of his follies he retained the perception of
+moral distinctions. His will was probably enslaved, so that he had not
+the power to restrain his passions, and his head may have become giddy
+in his high elevation. How few men could have resisted such powerful
+temptations as assailed Solomon on every side! The heart of the
+Christian world cannot but feel that so gifted a man, endowed with every
+intellectual attraction, who reigned for a time with so much wisdom,
+who recognized Jehovah as the guide and Lord of Israel, as especially
+appears at the dedication of the Temple, and who wrote such profound
+lessons of moral wisdom, would not be suffered to descend to the grave
+without the divine forgiveness. All that we know is that he was wise,
+and favored beyond all precedent, but that he adopted the habits and
+fell in with the vices of Oriental kings, and lost the affections of his
+people. He was exalted to the highest pinnacle of glory; he descended to
+an abyss of shame,--a sad example of the infirmity of human nature which
+all ages will lament.
+
+In one sense Solomon left nothing to his nation but monuments of
+despotic power, and trophies of a material civilization which implied
+the decay of primitive virtues. He did not perpetuate his greatness; he
+did not even enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. Like Louis XIV. he
+simply squandered a great inheritance. He did not leave his kingdom
+morally so strong as it was under David; it was even dismembered under
+his legitimate successor. The grand Temple indeed remained the pride of
+every Jew, but David had bequeathed the treasures to build it. The
+national resources had been wasted in palaces and in court festivities;
+and although these had contributed to a material civilization,
+especially the sums expended on fortresses, aqueducts, reservoirs, and
+roads for the caravans, this civilization, so highly and justly prized
+in our age, may--under the peculiar circumstances of the Jews, and the
+end for which, by the Mosaic dispensation, they were intended to be kept
+isolated--have weakened those simpler habits and sentiments which
+favored the establishment of their religion. It must never be lost sight
+of that the isolation of the Hebrew race, unfavorable to such
+developments of civilization as commerce and the arts, was
+providentially designed (as is evidenced by the fact of accomplishment
+in spite of all obstacles) to keep alive the worship of Jehovah until
+the fulness of time should come,--until the Messiah should appear to
+establish a new dispensation. The glory and grandeur of Solomon did not
+contribute to this end, but on the other hand favored idolatrous rites
+and corrupting foreign customs; and this is proved by the rapid decline
+of the Jews in religious life, patriotic ardor, and primitive virtues
+under the succeeding kings, both of Judah and Israel, which led
+ultimately to their captivity. Politically, Solomon may have added to
+the temporary power of the nation, but spiritually, and so
+fundamentally, he caused an eclipse of glory. And this is why his
+kingdom departed from his house, and he left a sullied name.
+
+Nevertheless, in many important respects Solomon rendered great services
+to humanity, which redeemed his memory from shame and made him a truly
+immortal man, and even a great benefactor. He left writings which are
+still among the most treasured inheritances of his nation and of
+mankind. It is recorded that he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his
+songs were a thousand and five. Only a small portion of these have
+descended to us in the sacred writings, but they doubtless entered into
+the literature of the Jews. Enough remains, whenever they were compiled
+and collected, to establish his fame as one of the wisest and most
+gifted of mortals. And these writings, whatever may have been his
+backslidings, are pervaded with moral wisdom. Whether written in youth
+or in old age, on the summit of human glory or in the depths of despair,
+they are generally accepted as among the most precious gems of the Old
+Testament. His profound experience, conveyed to us in proverbs and
+songs, remains as a guide in life through all generations. The dignity
+of intellect shines triumphantly through all the obscuration of virtues.
+Thus do poets live even when buried in ignominious graves; thus do
+philosophers instruct the world even though, like Seneca, and possibly
+Bacon, their lives present a sad contrast to their precepts. Great
+thoughts emancipate the soul, from age to age, while he who uttered them
+may have been enslaved by vices. Who knows what the private life of
+Shakspeare and Goethe may have been, but who would part with the
+writings they have left us? How soon the personal peculiarities of
+Coleridge and Carlyle will be forgotten, yet how permanent and healthy
+their utterances! It is truth, rather than man, that lives and conquers
+and triumphs. Man is nothing, except as the instrument of
+almighty power.
+
+Of the writings ascribed to Solomon, there are three books, each of
+which corresponds to the different periods of his life,--to his pious
+youth, to his prosperous manhood, and to his later years of cynicism and
+despair. They all alike blaze with moral truth, and appeal to universal
+experience. They present different features of human life, at different
+periods, and suggest sentiments which most people have realized at some
+time or another. And if in some cases they are apparently contradictory,
+like the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, they are equally striking and
+convincing, and are not more inconsistent than the man himself. Who does
+not change, and yet remain individually the same? Is there not a change
+between youth and old age? Do not most great men utter sentiments hard
+to be reconciled with one another, yet with equal sincerity? Webster
+enforces free-trade at one time and a high tariff at another, as light
+or circumstances change. Gladstone was in youth and middle age a pillar
+of the aristocracy; later he was the oracle of the masses, yet a lofty
+realism underlay all his utterances. The writings of Solomon present
+life in different aspects, and yet they are alike true. They are not
+divine revelations, like the commandments given to Moses amid the
+lightnings of Sinai, or like the visions of the prophets respecting the
+future glories of the Church. They do not exalt the soul into inspiring
+ecstasies like the psalms of David, or kindle a holy awe like the lofty
+meditations of Job; but they are yet such impressive truths pertaining
+to human life that we invest them with more than human wisdom.
+
+The Song of Songs, long ascribed to King Solomon, has been attended with
+some difficulty of explanation. It is a poem liable to be perverted by
+an unsanctified soul, since it is foreign to our modes of expression.
+For two hundred years it has been variously interpreted. It was the
+delight of Saint Bernard the ascetic, and a stumbling-block to Ewald the
+critic. To many German scholars, who have rendered great services by
+their learning and genius, it is only the expression of physical love,
+like the amatory songs of Greece. To others of more piety yet equal
+scholarship, like Origen, Grotius, and Bossuet, it is symbolic of the
+love which exists between Christ and the Church. It seems, at least, to
+be a contrast with the impure love of the heathen world. But whether it
+describes the ardent affection which Solomon bore to his young Egyptian
+bride; or the still more beautiful love of the innocent Shulamite
+maiden for her betrothed shepherd feeding his flock among the lilies,
+unseduced by all the influences of the royal court, and triumphant over
+the seductions of rank and power; or whether it is the rapt soul of the
+believer bursting out in holy transports of joy, like a Saint Theresa in
+the anticipated union with her divine Spouse,--it is still a noble
+tribute to what is most enchanting of the great certitudes on earth or
+in heaven; and it is expressed in language of exquisite and incomparable
+elegance. "Arise, my fair one, and come away! for the winter is past and
+gone, and the flowers appear upon the earth, and the voice of the turtle
+is heard in the land. Make haste, my beloved! Be thou like a roe on the
+mountains of spices, for many waters cannot quench love, nor the floods
+drown it; yea, were a man to offer all that he hath for it, it would be
+utterly despised." How tender, how innocent, how fervent, how beautiful,
+is this description of a lofty love, at rest in its happiness, in the
+society of the charmer, exultant in the certainty of that glorious
+sentiment which nothing can corrupt and nothing can destroy!
+
+If this unique and beautiful Song was the work of Solomon in his early
+days of innocence and piety, the book of Proverbs seems to be the result
+of his profound observations when he was still uncorrupted by
+prosperity, ruling his kingdom with sagacity and amazing the world with
+his wisdom. How many of those acute sayings were uttered by Solomon we
+know not, but probably most of them are his, collected, it is supposed,
+during the reign of Hezekiah. They are written on almost every subject
+pertaining to ethics, to nature, to science, and to society. Some are
+allusions to God, and others to the duties between man and man. Many are
+devoted to the duties of women, applicable to the sex in all times. They
+are not on a level of the Psalms in piety, nor of the Prophecies in
+grandeur, but they recognize the immutable principles of moral
+obligation. In some cases they seem to be worldly-wise,--such as we
+might suppose to fall from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin or
+Cobbett,--recognizing worldly prosperity as the greatest of blessings.
+Sometimes they are witty, again ironical, but always forcible. In some
+of them there is awful solemnity.
+
+There are no more terrific warnings and exhortations in the sacred
+writings than are found in the Proverbs of Solomon. The sins of
+idleness, of anger, of covetousness, of gossip, of falsehood, of
+oppression, of injustice, of intemperance, of unchastity, are uniformly
+denounced as leading to destruction; while prudence, temperance,
+chastity, obedience to parents, and loyalty to truth are enjoined with
+the earnestness of a man who believes in personal accountability to God.
+The ethics of the Proverbs are based on everlasting righteousness, and
+are imbued with the spirit of divine philosophy; their great peculiarity
+is the constant exhortation to wisdom and knowledge, to which young men
+are especially exhorted. Like Socrates, Solomon never separates wisdom
+from virtue, but makes one the foundation of the other. He shows the
+connection between virtue and happiness, vice and misery. The Proverbs
+are inexhaustible in moral force, and have universal application. There
+is nothing cynical or gloomy in them. They form a fitting study for
+youth and old age, an incentive to virtue and a terror to evil-doers, a
+thesaurus of moral wisdom; they speak in every line a lofty and
+comprehensive intellect, acquainted with all the experiences of life.
+Such moral wisdom would be imperishable in any literature. Such
+utterances go far to redeem all personal defects; they show how
+unclouded is a mind trained in equity, even when the will is enslaved by
+iniquity. What is still more remarkable, the Proverbs never apologize
+for the force of temptation, and never blend error with truth; they
+uniformly exalt wisdom, and declare that the beginning of it is the fear
+of the Lord. There is not one of them which seeks to cover up vice with
+sophistical excuses; they show that the author or authors of them love
+moral beauty and truth, and exalt the same,--as many great men, with
+questionable morals, give their testimony to the truths of
+Christianity, and utterly abhor those who poison the soul by plausible
+sophistries,--as Lord Brougham detested Rousseau. The famous writings of
+our modern times which nearest approach the Proverbs in love of truth
+and moral wisdom are those of Bacon and Shakspeare.
+
+In striking contrast with the praises of knowledge which permeate the
+Proverbs, is the book of Ecclesiastes, supposed to have been written in
+the decline of Solomon's life, when the pleasures of sin had saddened
+his soul, and filled his mind with cynicism. Unless the book of
+Ecclesiastes is to be interpreted as ironical, nothing can be more
+dreary than many of its declarations. It even seems to pour contempt on
+all knowledge and all enjoyments. "In much knowledge is much grief, and
+he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.... What profit hath a
+man of all his labor?... There is no remembrance of the wise more than
+of the fool.... There is nothing better for a man than that he should
+eat and drink.... A man hath no pre-eminence over a beast; all go to the
+same place.... What hath the wise man more than the fool?... There is a
+just man that perisheth in his righteousness, and there is a wicked man
+that prolongeth his life in wickedness.... One man among a thousand have
+I found, but a woman among all those have I not found.... The race is
+not to the swift, the battle to the strong; neither bread to the wise,
+nor riches to the man of understanding.... On all things is written
+vanity." Such are some of the dismal and cynical utterances of Solomon
+in his old age. The Ecclesiastes contrasted with the Proverbs is
+discouraging and sad, although there is great seriousness and even
+loftiness in many of its sayings. It seems to be the record of a
+disenchanted old man, to whom all things are a folly and vanity. There
+is a suppressed contempt expressed for what young men and the worldly
+regard as desirable, equalled only by a sort of proud disdain of success
+and fame. There is great bitterness in reference to women. Some of the
+sayings are as mournful jeremiads as any uttered by Carlyle, showing
+great scorn of what ninety-nine in one hundred are vain of, and pursue
+after, as all ending in vanity and vexation of spirit. We can understand
+how riches may prove a snare, how pleasure-seeking ends in
+disappointment, how the smiles of a deceitful woman may lead to the
+chamber of death, how little the treasures of wickedness profit, how
+sins will find out the transgressor, how the heart may be sad in the
+midst of laughter, how wine is a mocker, how ambition is Babel-building,
+how he who pursueth evil pursueth it to his death; we can understand how
+abundance will produce satiety, and satiety lead to disgust,--how
+disappointment attends our most cherished plans, and how all mortal
+pursuits fail to satisfy the cravings of an immortal soul. But why does
+the favored and princely Solomon, in sadness and bitterness, pronounce
+knowledge also to be a vanity like power and riches, especially when in
+his earlier writings he so highly commends it? Is it true that in much
+wisdom is much grief, and that the increase of knowledge is the increase
+of sorrow? Can it be that the book of Ecclesiastes is the mere record of
+the miserable experiences of an embittered and disappointed sensualist,
+or is it the profound and searching exposition of the vanities of this
+world as they appear to a lofty searcher after truth and God, measured
+by the realities of a future and endless life, which the soul
+emancipated from pollution pants and aspires after with all the
+intensity of a renovated nature? When I bear in mind the impressive
+lessons that are declared at the close of this remarkable book, the
+earnest exhortation to remember God before the dust shall return to the
+earth as it was, I cannot but feel that there are great moral truths
+underlying the sarcasm and irony in which the writer indulged. And these
+come with increased force from the mouth of a man who had tasted every
+mortal good, and found it all, when not properly used, a confirmation of
+the impossibility of earth to satisfy the soul of man. The writer calls
+himself "the preacher," and surely a great preacher he was,--not to a
+throng of "fashionable worshippers" or a crowd of listless
+pleasure-seekers, but to all ages and nations. And if he really was a
+living speaker to the young men who caught the inspiration of his voice,
+how terribly eloquent he must have been!
+
+I fancy that I can see that unhappy old man, worn out, saddened,
+embittered, yet at last rising above the decrepitude of age and the
+infirmities which sin had hastened, and speaking in tones that could
+never be forgotten. "Behold, ye young men! I have tasted every enjoyment
+of this earth; I have indulged in every pleasure forbidden or permitted.
+I have explored the world of thought and the realm of nature. I have
+been favored beyond any mortal that ever lived; I have been flattered
+and honored beyond all precedent; I have consumed the treasures of kings
+and princes. I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards; I made me
+gardens and orchards, I made me pools of water; I got me servants and
+maidens, I gathered me also silver and gold; I got me men-singers and
+women-singers and musical instruments; whatsoever my eyes desired I kept
+not from them; I withheld not my heart from any joy,--and now, lo! I
+solemnly declare unto you, with my fading strength and my eyes suffused
+with tears and my knees trembling with weakness, and in view of that
+future and higher life which I neglected to seek amid the dazzling
+glories of my throne, and the bewilderment of fascinating joys,--I now
+most earnestly declare unto you that all these things which men seek and
+prize are a vanity, a delusion, and a snare; that there is no wisdom but
+in the fear of God."
+
+So this saddest of books closes with lofty exhortations, and recognizes
+moral obligations which are in harmony with the great principle enforced
+in the Proverbs,--that there is no escape from the penalty of sin and
+folly; that whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap. The last
+recorded words of the preacher are concerning the vanity of life,--that
+is, the hopeless failure of worldly pleasures and egotistical pursuits
+in themselves alone to secure happiness; the impossibility of lasting
+good disconnected with righteousness; the fact that even knowledge, the
+greatest possession and the highest joy which a man can have, does not
+satisfy the soul.
+
+These final utterances of Solomon are not dogmas nor speculations, they
+are experiences,--the experiences of one of the most favored mortals who
+has lived upon our earth, and one of the wisest. If, measured by the
+eternal standards, his glory was less than that of the flower which
+withers in a day, what hope have ordinary men in the pursuit of
+pleasure, or gain, or honor? Utter vanity and vexation of spirit!
+Nothing brings a true reward but virtue,--unselfish labors for others,
+supreme loyalty to conscience, obedience to God. Hence, such profound
+experience so frankly published, such sad confessions uttered from the
+depths of the heart, and the summing up of the whole question of human
+life, enforced with the earnestness and eloquence of an old man soon to
+die, have peculiar force, and are among the greatest treasures of the
+Old Testament.
+
+The fundamental truth to be deduced from the book of Ecclesiastes is
+that whatsoever is born of vanity must end in vanity. If vanity is the
+seed, so vanity is the fruit. It is, in fact, one of the most impressive
+of all the truths that appeal either to consciousness or experience. If
+a man builds a house from vanity, or makes a party from vanity, or gives
+a present from vanity, or writes a book from vanity, or seeks an office
+from vanity,--then, as certainly as the bite of an asp will poison the
+body, will the expected good be turned into a bitter disappointment.
+Self-love cannot be the basis of human action without alienation from
+God, without weariness, disgust, and ultimate sorrow. The soul can be
+fed only by divine certitudes; it can be enlarged only by walking
+according to the divine commandments.
+
+Confucius, Socrates, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius declared the same
+truths, but not so impressively. Not for one's self, not for friends,
+not even for children alone must one live. There is a higher law still
+which speaks to the universal conscience, asking, What is your duty?
+With this is identified all that is precious in life, on earth or in
+heaven, for time and eternity. Anything in this world which is sought
+as a good, whose end is selfish, is an impressive failure; so that
+self-aggrandizement becomes as absurd and fatal as self-indulgence. One
+can no more escape from the operation of this law than he can take the
+wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost parts of the sea. The
+commonest experiences of every-day life confirm the wisdom which Solomon
+uttered out of his lonely and saddened soul. If ye will not hear him, be
+instructed by your own broken friendships, your own dispelled illusions,
+your own fallen idols; by the heartlessness which too often lurks in the
+smiles of beauty, by the poison concealed in polished flatteries, by the
+deceitfulness hidden, beneath the warmest praises, by the demons of
+envy, jealousy, and pride which take from success itself its
+promised joys.
+
+Who is happy with any amount of wealth? Who is free from corroding
+cares? Who can escape anxiety and fear? How hard to shake off the
+burdens which even a rich man is compelled to bear? There is a fly in
+every ointment, a skeleton in every closet, solitude in the midst of
+crowds, isolation in the joy of festivals. The wrecks of happiness are
+strewn in every path that the world has envied.
+
+Read the lives of illustrious men; how melancholy often are the latter
+days of those who have climbed the highest! Caesar is stabbed when he
+has conquered the world. Diocletian retires in disgust from the
+government of an empire. Godfrey languishes in grief when he has taken
+Jerusalem. Charles V. shuts himself up in a convent. Galileo, whose
+spirit has roamed the heavens, is a prisoner of the Inquisition.
+Napoleon masters a continent, and expires on a rock in the ocean.
+Mirabeau dies of despair when he has kindled the torch of revolution.
+The poetic soul of Burns passes away in poverty and moral eclipse.
+Madness overtakes the cool satirist Swift, and mental degeneracy is the
+final condition of the fertile-minded Scott. The high-souled Hamilton
+perishes in a petty quarrel, and curses overwhelm Webster in the halls
+of his early triumphs. What a confirmation of the experience of Solomon!
+"Vanity of vanities" write on all walls, in all the chambers of
+pleasure, in all the palaces of pride!
+
+This is the burden of the preaching of Solomon; but it is also the
+lesson which is taught by all the records of the past, and all the
+experiences of mankind. Yet it is not sad when one considers the dignity
+of the soul and its immortal destinies. It is sad only when the
+disenchantment of illusions is not followed by that holy fear which is
+the beginning of wisdom,--that exalted realism which we believe at last
+sustained the soul of the Preacher as he was hastening to that country
+from whose bourn no traveller returns.
+
+
+
+
+ELIJAH.
+
+
+NINTH CENTURY B.C.
+
+DIVISION OF THE JEWISH KINGDOM.
+
+
+Evil days fell upon the Israelites after the death of Solomon. In the
+first place their country was rent by political divisions, disorders,
+and civil wars. Ten of the tribes, or three quarters of the population,
+revolted from Rehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, and took for their
+king Jeroboam,--a valiant man, who had been living for several years at
+the court of Shishak, king of Egypt, exiled by Solomon for his too great
+ambition. Jeroboam had been an industrious, active-minded,
+strong-natured youth, whom Solomon had promoted and made much of. The
+prophet Ahijah had privately foretold to him that, on account of the
+idolatries tolerated by Solomon, ten of the tribes should be rent away
+from, the royal house and given to him. The Lord promised him the
+kingdom of Israel, and (if he would be loyal to the faith) the
+establishment of a dynasty,--"a sure house." Jeroboam made choice of
+Shechem for his capital; and from political reasons,--for fear that the
+people should, according to their custom, go up to Jerusalem to worship
+at the great festivals of the nation, and perhaps return to their
+allegiance to the house of David, while perhaps also to compromise with
+their already corrupted and unspiritualized religious sense,--he made
+two golden calves and set them up for religious worship: one in Bethel,
+at the southern end of the kingdom; the other in Dan, at the far north.
+
+It does not appear that the people of Israel as yet ignored Jehovah as
+God; but they worshipped him in the form of the same Egyptian symbol
+that Aaron had set up in the wilderness,--a grave offence, although not
+an utter apostasy. Moreover, this was the act of the king rather than of
+the priests or his own subjects.
+
+Stanley makes a significant comment on this act of the new king, which
+the sacred narrative refers to as "the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
+Nebat, who made Israel to sin." He says: "The Golden Image was doubtless
+intended as a likeness of the One True God. But the mere fact of setting
+up such a likeness broke down the sacred awe which had hitherto marked
+the Divine Presence, and accustomed the minds of the Israelites to the
+very sin against which the new form was intended to be a safeguard. From
+worshipping God under a false and unauthorized form they gradually
+learned to worship other gods altogether.... 'The sin of Jeroboam, the
+son of Nebat,' is the sin again and again repeated in the
+policy--half-worldly, half-religious--which has prevailed through large
+tracts of ecclesiastical history.... For the sake of supporting the
+faith of the multitude, lest they should fall away to rival sects, ...
+false arguments have been used in support of religious truths, false
+miracles promulgated or tolerated, false readings in the sacred text
+defended. And so the faith of mankind has been undermined by the very
+means intended to preserve it."
+
+For priests, Jeroboam selected the lowest of the people,--whoever could
+be induced to offer idolatrous sacrifices in the high places,--since the
+old priests and Levites remained with the tribe of Judah at Jerusalem.
+
+These abominations and political rivalries caused incessant war between
+the two kingdoms for several reigns. The northern kingdom, including the
+great tribe of Ephraim or Joseph, was the richest, most fertile, and
+most powerful; but the southern kingdom was the most strongly fortified.
+And yet even in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the king of
+Egypt, probably incited by Jeroboam, invaded Judah with an immense army,
+including sixty thousand cavalry and twelve hundred chariots, and
+invested Jerusalem. The city escaped capture only by submitting to the
+most humiliating conditions. The vast wealth which was stored in the
+Temple,--the famous gold shields which David had taken from the Syrians,
+and those also made by Solomon for his body-guard, together with the
+treasures of the royal palace,--became spoil for the Egyptians. This
+disaster happened when Solomon had been dead but five years. The
+solitary tribe left to his son, despoiled by Egypt and overrun by other
+enemies, became of but little account politically for several
+generations, although it still possessed the Temple and was proud of its
+traditions. After this great humiliation, the proud king of Judah, it
+seems, became a better man; and his descendants for a hundred years
+were, on the whole, worthy sovereigns, and did good in the sight of
+the Lord.
+
+Political interest now centres in the larger kingdom, called Israel.
+Judah for a time passes out of sight, but is gradually enriched under
+the reigns of virtuous princes, who preserved the worship of the true
+God at Jerusalem. Nations, like individuals, seldom grow in real
+strength except in adversity. The prosperity of Solomon undermined his
+throne. The little kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and fifty years
+after the ten tribes were carried into captivity.
+
+Yet what remained of power and wealth among the Jews after the rebellion
+under Jeroboam, was to be found in the northern kingdom. It was still
+exceedingly fertile, and was well watered. It was "a land of brooks of
+water, of fountains, of barley and wheat, of vines and fig-trees, of
+olives and honey." It boasted of numerous fortified cities, and had a
+population as dense as that in Belgium at the present time. The nobles
+were powerful and warlike; while the army was well organized, and
+included chariots and horses. The monarchy was purely military, and was
+surrounded by powerful nations, whom it was necessary to conciliate.
+Among these were the Phoenicians on the west, and the Syrians on the
+north. From the first the army was the great power of the state, its
+chief being more powerful than Joab was in the undivided kingdom of
+David. He stood next after the king, and was the channel of royal favor.
+
+The history of the northern kingdom which has come down to us is very
+meagre. From Jeroboam to Ahab--a period of sixty-six years--there were
+six kings, three of whom were assassinated. There was a succession of
+usurpers, who destroyed all the members of the preceding reigning
+family. They were all idolaters, violent and bloodthirsty men, whom the
+army had raised to the throne. No one of them was marked by signal
+ability, unless it were Omri, who built the city of Samaria on a high
+hill, and so strongly fortified it that it remained the capital until
+the fall of the kingdom. He also made a close alliance with Tyre, the
+great centre of commerce in that age, and one of the wealthiest cities
+of antiquity. To cement this political alliance, Omri married his son
+Ahab--the heir-apparent to the throne--to a daughter of the Tyrian king,
+afterward so infamous as a religious fanatic and persecutor, under the
+name of Jezebel,--one of the worst women in history.
+
+On the accession of Ahab, nine hundred and nineteen years before Christ,
+the kingdom of Israel was rapidly tending to idolatry. Jeroboam had set
+up golden calves chiefly for a political end, but Ahab built a temple to
+Baal, the sun-god, the chief divinity of the Phoenicians, and erected an
+altar therein for pagan sacrifices, thus abjuring Jehovah as the Supreme
+and only God. The established religion was now idolatry in its worst
+form; it was simply the worship of the powers of Nature, under the
+auspices of a foreign woman stained with every vice, who controlled her
+husband. For Ahab himself was bad enough, but he was not the wickedest
+of the monarchs of Israel, nor was he insignificant as a man. It was his
+misfortune to be completely under the influence of his Phoenician bride,
+as many stronger men than he have been enslaved by women before and
+since his day. Ahab, bad as he was, was brave in battle, patriotic in
+his aims, and magnificent in his tastes. To please his wife he added to
+his royal residences a summer retreat called Jezreel, which was of
+great beauty, and contained within its grounds an ivory palace of great
+splendor. Amid its gardens and parks and all the luxuries then known,
+the youthful monarch with his queen and attendant nobles abandoned
+themselves to pleasure and folly, as Oriental monarchs are wont to do.
+It would seem that he was unusually licentious in his habits, since he
+left seventy children,--afterward to be massacred.
+
+The ascendency of a wicked woman over this luxurious monarch has made
+her infamous. She was an incarnation of pride, sensuality, and cruelty;
+and with all her other vices she was a religious persecutor who has had
+no equal. We may perhaps give to her, as to many other tiger-like
+persecutors in the cause of what they call their "religion," the meagre
+credit of conscientious devotion in their cruelty; for she feasted at
+her own table at Jezreel four hundred priests of Baal, besides four
+hundred and fifty others at Samaria, while she erected two great
+sanctuaries for the Phoenician deities, at which the officiating priests
+were clad in splendid vestments. The few remaining prophets of Jehovah
+in the kingdom hid themselves in caves and deserts to escape the
+murderous fury of the idolatrous queen. We infer that she was
+distinguished for her beauty, and was bewitching in her manners like
+Catherine de' Medici, that Italian bigot whom her courtiers likened
+both to Aurora and Venus. Jezebel, like the Florentine princess, is an
+illustration of the wickedness which is so often concealed by enchanting
+smiles, especially when armed with power. The priests of Baal
+undoubtedly regarded their great protectress as one of the most
+fascinating women that ever adorned a royal palace, and in the blaze of
+her beauty and the magnificence of her bounty were blind to her
+innumerable sorceries and the wild license of her life.
+
+The fearful apostasy of Israel, which had been increasing for sixty
+years under wicked kings, had now reached a point which called for
+special divine intervention. There were only seven thousand men in the
+whole kingdom who had not bowed the knee to Baal, and God sent a
+prophet,--a prophet such as had not appeared in Israel since Samuel;
+more august, more terrible even than he; indeed, the most unique and
+imposing character in Jewish history.
+
+Almost nothing is known of the early history of Elijah. The Bible simply
+speaks of him as "the Tishbite,"--one of the inhabitants of Gilead, at
+the east of the Jordan. He evidently was a man accustomed to a wild and
+solitary life. His stature was large, and his features were fierce and
+stern. His long hair flowed upon his brawny shoulders, and he was
+clothed with a mantle of sheepskin or hair-cloth, and carried in his
+hand a rugged staff. He was probably unlearned, being rude and rough in
+both manners and speech. His first appearance was marked and
+extraordinary. He suddenly and unannounced stood before Ahab, and
+abruptly delivered his awful message. He was an apparition calculated to
+strike with terror the boldest of kings in that superstitious age. He
+makes no set speech, he offers no apology, he disdains all forms and
+ceremonies; he does not even render the customary homage. He utters only
+a few words, preceded by an oath: "As Jehovah the God of Israel liveth,
+there shall not be dew nor rain these years but according to my word."
+What arrogance before a king! Elijah, an utterly unknown man, in a
+sheepskin mantle, apparently a peasant, dares to utter a curse on the
+land without even deigning to give a reason, although the conscience of
+Ahab must have told him that he could not with impunity introduce
+idolatry into Israel.
+
+Elijah doubtless attacked the king in the presence of his wife and
+court. To the cynical and haughty queen, born in idolatry, he probably
+seemed a madman of the desert,--shaggy, unwashed, fierce, repulsive. To
+the Israelitish king, however, with better knowledge of the ways of God,
+the prophet appeared armed with supernal powers, whom he both feared and
+hated, and desired to put out of the way. But Elijah mysteriously
+disappears from the royal presence as suddenly as he had entered it, and
+no one knows whither he has fled. He cannot be found. The royal
+emissaries go into every land, but are utterly baffled in their search.
+The whole power of the realm was doubtless put forth to discover his
+retreat, and had he been found, no mercy would have been shown him; he
+would have been summarily executed, not only as a prophet of the
+detested religion, but as one who had insulted the royal station. He was
+forced to flee and hide after delivering his unwelcome message.
+
+And whither did the prophet fly? He fled with the swiftness of a
+Bedouin, accustomed to traverse barren rocks and scorching sands, to a
+retired valley of one of the streams that emptied into the Jordan near
+Samaria. Amid the clefts of the rocks which marked the deep valley, did
+the man of God hide himself from his furious and numerous persecutors.
+He does not escape to his native deserts, where he would most probably
+have been hunted like a wild beast, but remains near the capital in
+which Ahab reigns, in a deeply secluded spot, where he quenches his
+thirst from the waters of the brook, and eats the food which the ravens
+deposit amid the steep cliffs he knows how to climb.
+
+The bravest and most undaunted man in Israel, shielded and protected by
+God, was probably warned by the divine voice to make his escape, since
+his life was needful to the execution of Providential purposes. He was
+the only one of all the prophets of his day who dared to give utterance
+to his convictions. Some four or five hundred there were in the kingdom,
+all believers in Jehovah; but all sought to please the reigning power,
+or timidly concealed themselves. They had been trained in the schools
+which Samuel had established, and were probably teachers of the people
+on theological subjects, and hence an antagonistic force to idolatrous
+kings. Their great defect in the time of Ahab was timidity. There was
+needed some one who under all circumstances would be undaunted, and
+would not hesitate to tell the truth even to the king and queen, however
+unpleasant it might be. So this rough, fierce, unlettered man of few
+words was sent by God, armed with terrible powers.
+
+It was now the rainy season, when rain was confidently expected by the
+people throughout Palestine. Yet strangely no rain fell, though sixty
+inches were the usual quantity in the course of the year. The streams
+from the mountains were dried up; the land, long parched by the summer
+sun, became like dust and ashes; the hills presented a blasted and
+dreary desolation; the very trees were withered and discolored. At last
+even the sheltered brook failed from which Elijah drank, and it became
+necessary for the man of God to seek another retreat. The Lord therefore
+sent him to the last place in which his enemies would naturally search
+for him, even to a city of Phoenicia, where the worship of Baal was the
+only religion of the land. As in his tattered and strange apparel he
+approached Sarepta, or Zarephath, a town between Tyre and Sidon, worn
+out with fatigue, parched with thirst, and overcome with
+hunger,--everything around him being depressed and forlorn, the rivers
+and brooks showing only beds of stone, the trees and grass withered, the
+sky lurid, and of unnatural brightness like that of brass, and the sun
+burning and scorching every remnant of vegetation,--he beheld a woman
+issuing from the town to gather sticks, in order to cook what she
+supposed would be her last meal. To this sad and discouraged woman,
+doubtless a worshipper of Baal, the prophet thus spoke: "Fetch me, I
+pray you, a little water in a vessel that I may drink;" and as she
+turned sympathetically to look upon him, he added, "Bring me, I pray
+thee, a morsel of bread in thine hand."
+
+This was no small request to make of a woman who was herself on the
+borders of starvation, and of a pagan woman too. But there was a
+mysterious affinity between these two suffering souls. A common woman
+would not have appreciated the greatness of the beggar and vagrant
+before her. Only a discerning and sympathetic woman would have seen in
+the tones of his voice, and in his lofty bearing, despite all his rags
+and dirt, an unusual and marked character. She probably belonged to a
+respectable class, reduced to poverty by the famine, and her keen
+intelligence recognized at once in the hungry and needy stranger a
+superior person,--even as the humble friar of Palos saw in Columbus a
+nobleman by nature, when, wearied and disappointed, he sought food and
+shelter. She took the prophet by the hand, conducted him to her home,
+gave him the best chamber in her house, and in a strange devotion of
+generosity divided with him the last remnant of her meal and oil.
+
+It is probable that a lasting friendship sprang up between the pagan
+woman and the solemn man of God, such as bound together the no less
+austere Jerome and his disciple Paula. For two or three years the
+prophet dwelt in peace and safety in the heathen town, protected by an
+admiring woman,--for his soul was great, if his body was emaciated and
+his dress repulsive. In return for her hospitality he miraculously
+caused her meal and oil to be daily renewed; and more than this, he
+restored her only son to life, when he had succumbed to a dangerous
+illness,--the first recorded instance of such a miracle.
+
+The German critics would probably say that the boy was only seemingly
+dead, even as they would deny the miracle of the meal and oil. It is not
+my purpose to discuss this matter, but to narrate the recorded incidents
+that filled the soul of the woman of Sarepta with gratitude, with
+wonder, and with boundless devotion. "Verily, I say unto you," said a
+greater than Elijah, "whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in the
+name of a prophet, shall in no way lose his reward." Her reward was
+immeasurably greater than she had dared to hope. She received both
+spiritual and temporal blessings, and doubtless became a convert to the
+true faith. Tradition asserts that her boy, whom Elijah saved,--whether
+by natural or supernatural means, it is alike indifferent,--became in
+after years the prophet Jonah, who was sent to Nineveh. In all great
+friendships the favors are reciprocal. A noble-hearted woman was saved
+from starvation, and the life of a great man was preserved for future
+usefulness. Austerity and tenderness met together and became a cord of
+love; and when the land was perishing from famine, the favored members
+of a retired household were shielded from harm, and had all that was
+necessary for comfort.
+
+Meanwhile the abnormal drought and consequent famine continued. The
+northern kingdom was reduced to despair. So dried up were the wells and
+exhausted the cisterns and reservoirs that even the king's household
+began to suffer, and it was feared that the horses of the royal stables
+would perish. In this dire extremity the king himself set forth from his
+palace to seek patches of vegetation and pools of water in the valleys,
+while his prime minister Obadiah--a secret worshipper of Jehovah--was
+sent in an opposite direction for a like purpose. On his way, in the
+almost hopeless search for grass and water, Obadiah met Elijah, who had
+been sent from his retreat once more to confront Ahab, and this time to
+promise rain. As the most diligent search had been made in every
+direction, but in vain, to find Elijah, with a view to his destruction
+as the man who "troubled Israel," Obadiah did not believe that the
+hunted prophet would voluntarily put himself again in the power of an
+angry and hostile tyrant. Yet the prime minister, having encountered the
+prophet, was desirous that he should keep his word to appear before the
+king, and promise to remove the calamity which even in a pagan land was
+felt to be a divine judgment. Elijah having reassured him of his
+sincerity, the minister informed his master that the man he sought to
+destroy was near at hand, and demanded an interview. The wrathful and
+puzzled king went out to meet the prophet, not to take vengeance, but to
+secure relief from a sore calamity,--for Ahab reasoned that if Elijah
+had power, as the messenger of Omnipotence, to send a drought, he also
+had the power to remove it. Moreover, had he not said that there should
+be neither rain nor dew but according to his word? So Ahab addressed the
+prophet as the author of national calamities, but without threats or
+insults. "Art thou he who troubleth Israel?" Elijah loftily,
+fearlessly, and reproachfully replied: "I have not troubled Israel, but
+thou and thy father's house, in that thou hast forsaken the commandments
+of Jehovah, and hast followed Baalim." He then assumes the haughty
+attitude of a messenger of divine omnipotence, and orders the king to
+assemble all his people, together with the eight hundred and fifty
+priests of Baal, at Mount Carmel,--a beautiful hill sixteen hundred feet
+high, near the Mediterranean, usually covered with oaks and flowering
+shrubs and fragrant herbs. He gives no reasons,--he sternly commands;
+and the king obeys, being evidently awed by the imperious voice of the
+divine ambassador.
+
+The representatives of the whole nation are now assembled at Mount
+Carmel, with their idolatrous priests. The prophet appears in their
+midst as a preacher armed with irresistible power. He addresses the
+people, who seemed to have no firm convictions, but were swayed to and
+fro by changing circumstances, being not yet hopelessly sunk into the
+idolatry of their rulers. "How long," cried the preacher, with a loud
+voice and fierce aspect, "halt ye between two opinions? If Jehovah be
+God, _follow_ him; but if Baal be God, then follow _him_." The
+undecided, crestfallen, intimidated people did not answer a word.
+
+Then Elijah stoops to argument. He reminds the people, among whom
+probably were many influential men, that he stood alone in opposition
+to eight hundred and fifty idolatrous priests protected by the king and
+queen. He proposes to test their claims in comparison with his as
+ministers of the true God. This seems reasonable, and the king makes no
+objection. The test is to be supernatural, even to bring down fire from
+heaven to consume the sacrificial bullock on the altar. The priests of
+Baal select their bullock, cut it in pieces, put it on the wood, and
+invoke their supreme deity to send fire to consume the sacrifice. With
+all their arts and incantations and magical sorceries, the fire does not
+descend. They then perform their wild and fantastic dances, screaming
+aloud, from early morn to noon, "O Baal, hear us!" We do not read
+whether Ahab was present or not, but if he were he must have quaked with
+blended sentiments of curiosity and fear. His anxiety must have been
+terrible. Elijah alone is calm; but he is also stern. He mocks them with
+provoking irony, and ridicules their want of success. His grim sarcasms
+become more and more bitter. "Cry with a loud voice!" said he, "yea,
+louder and yet louder! for ye cry to a god; either he is talking, or he
+is hunting, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must
+be awakened." And they cried aloud, and cut themselves, after their
+manner, with knives and spears, till the blood gushed out upon them.
+
+Then Elijah, when midday was past, and the priests continued to call
+unto their god until the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice,
+and there was neither voice nor answer, assembled the people around him,
+as he stood alone by the ruins of an ancient altar. With his own hands
+he gathered twelve stones, piled them together to represent the twelve
+tribes, cut a bullock in pieces, laid it on the wood, made a trench
+around the rude altar, which he filled with water from an adjacent well,
+and then offered up this prayer to the God of his fathers: "O Jehovah,
+God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, hear me! and let all the people know
+that thou art the God of Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I
+have done all these things at thy word. Hear me, Jehovah, hear me! that
+this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast
+turned their hearts back again." Then immediately the fire of Jehovah
+fell and consumed the bullock and the wood, even melted the very stones,
+and licked up the water in the trench. And when the people saw it, they
+fell on their faces, and cried aloud, "Jehovah, he is the God! Jehovah,
+he is the God!"
+
+Elijah then commanded to take the prophets of Baal, all of them, so that
+not even one of them should escape. And they took them, by the direction
+of Elijah, down the mountain side to the brook Kishon, and slew them
+there. His triumph was complete. He had asserted the majesty and proved
+the power of Jehovah.
+
+The prophet then turned to the king, who seems to have been completely
+subjected by this tremendous proof of the prophetic authority, and said:
+"Get thee up, eat and drink, for there is the sound of abundance of
+rain." And Ahab ascended the hill, to eat and drink with his nobles at
+the sacrificial feast,--a venerable symbol by which, from the most
+primitive antiquity to our own day, by so universal an impulse that it
+would seem to be divinely imparted, every form of religion known to man
+has sought to typify the human desire to commune with Deity.
+
+Elijah also went to the top of Carmel, not to the symbolic feast, but in
+spirit and in truth to commune with God, reverentially hiding his face
+between his knees. He felt the approach of the coming storm, even when
+the sky was clear, and not a cloud was to be seen over the blue waters
+of the Mediterranean. So he said to his servant: "Go up now, and look
+toward the sea." And the servant went to still higher ground and looked,
+and reported that nothing was to be seen. Six times the order was
+impatiently repeated and obeyed; but at the seventh time, the youthful
+servant--as some think, the very boy he had saved--reported a cloud in
+the distant horizon, no bigger seemingly than a man's hand. At once
+Elijah sent word to Ahab to prepare for the coming tempest; and both he
+and the king began to descend the hill, for the clouds rapidly gathered
+in the heavens, and that mighty wind arose which in Eastern countries
+precedes a furious storm. With incredible rapidity the tempest spread,
+and the king hastened for his life to his chariot at the foot of the
+hill, to cross the brook before it became a flood; and Elijah,
+remembering that he was king, ran before his chariot more rapidly than
+the Arab steeds. As the servant of Jehovah, he performs his mission with
+dignity and without fear; as a subject, he renders due respect to rank
+and power.
+
+Ahab has now witnessed with his own eyes the impotency of the prophets
+of Baal, and the marvellous power of the messenger of Jehovah. The
+desire of the nation was to be gratified; the rains were falling, the
+cisterns and reservoirs were filling, and the fields once more would
+soon rejoice in their wonted beauty, and the famine would soon be at an
+end. In view of the great deliverance, and awe-stricken by the
+supernatural gifts of the prophet, one would suppose that the king would
+have taken Elijah to his confidence and loaded him with favors, and been
+guided by his counsels. But, no. He had been subjected to deep
+humiliation before his own people; his religion had been brought into
+contempt, and he was afraid of his cruel and inexorable wife, who had
+incited him to debasing idolatries. So he hastens to his palace in
+Jezreel and acquaints Jezebel of the wonderful things he had seen, and
+which he could not prevent. She was transported with fury and vengeance,
+and vowing a tremendous oath, she sent a messenger to the prophet with
+these terrible words: "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel, so
+may God do to me and more also, if I make not thy life to-morrow, about
+this time, as the life of one of them." In her unbounded rage she forgot
+all policy, for she should have struck the blow without giving her enemy
+time to escape. It may also be noted that she is no atheist, but
+believes in God according to Phoenician notions. She reflects that eight
+hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets had been slain, and that the nation
+might return to their allegiance to the god of their fathers, who had
+wrought the greatest calamity her proud heart could endure. Unlike her
+husband, she knows no fear, and is as unscrupulous as she is fanatical.
+Elijah, she resolved, should surely die.
+
+And how did the prophet receive her message? He had not feared to
+encounter Ahab and all the priests of Baal, yet he quailed before the
+wrath of this terrible woman,--this incarnate fiend, who cared neither
+for Jehovah nor his prophet. Even such a hero as Elijah felt that he
+must now flee for his life, and, attended only by his boy-servant, he
+did not halt until he had crossed the kingdom of Judah, and reached the
+utmost southern bounds of the Holy Land. At Beersheba he left his
+faithful attendant, and sought refuge in the desert,--the ancient
+wilderness of Sinai, with its rocky wastes. Under the shade of a
+solitary tree, exhausted and faint, he lay down to die. "It is enough, O
+Jehovah! now take away my life, for I am no better than my fathers." He
+had outstripped all pursuers, and was apparently safe, yet he wished to
+die. It was the reaction of a mighty excitement, the lassitude produced
+by a rapid and weary flight. He was physically exhausted, and with this
+exhaustion came despondency. He was a strong man unnerved, and his will
+succumbed to unspeakable weariness. He lay down and slept, and when he
+awoke he was fed and comforted by an angelic visitor, who commanded him
+to arise and penetrate still farther into the dreary wilderness. For
+forty days and nights he journeyed, until he reached the awful solitudes
+of Sinai and Horeb, and sought shelter in a cave. Enclosed between
+granite rocks, he entered upon a new crisis of his career.
+
+It does not appear that the future destinies of Samaria and Jerusalem
+were revealed to Elijah, nor the fate of the surrounding nations, as
+seen by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was not called to foretell the
+retribution which would surely be inflicted on degenerate and idolatrous
+nations, nor even to declare those impressive truths which should
+instruct all future generations. He therefore does not soar in his
+dreary solitude to those lofty regions of thought which marked the
+meditations of Moses. He is not a man of genius; he is no poet; he has
+no eloquence or learning; he commits no precious truths to writing for
+the instruction of distant generations. He is a man of intensely earnest
+convictions, gifted with extraordinary powers resulting from that
+peculiar combination of physical and spiritual qualities known as the
+prophetic temperament. The instruments of the Divine Will on earth are
+selected with unerring judgment. Elijah was sent by the Almighty to
+deliver special messages of reproof and correction to wicked rulers; he
+was a reformer. But his character was august, his person was weird and
+remarkable, his words were earnest and delivered with an indomitable
+courage, a terrific force. He was just the man to make a strong
+impression on a superstitious and weak king; but he had done more than
+that,--he had roused a whole nation from their foul debasement, and left
+them quaking in terror before their offended Deity.
+
+But the phase of exaltation and potent energy had passed for the time,
+and we now see him faint and despondent, yet, with the sure instinct of
+mighty spiritual natures, seeking recuperation in solitary companionship
+with the all-present Spirit.
+
+We do not know how long Elijah remained in his dismal cavern,--long
+enough, however, to recover his physical energies and his moral courage.
+As he wanders to and fro amid the hoary rocks and impenetrable solitudes
+of Horeb, he seeks to commune with God. He listens for some
+manifestation of the deity; he is ready to do His bidding. He hears the
+sound of a rushing hurricane; but God is not in the wind. The mountain
+then is shaken by a fearful earthquake; but Jehovah is not in the
+earthquake. Again the mountain seems to flash with fire; but the signs
+he seeks are not in the fire. At last, after the uproar of contending
+physical forces had died away, in the profound silence of the solitude
+he hears the whisper of a still small voice in gentle accents; and by
+this voice in the soul Jehovah speaks: "What doest thou here, Elijah?"
+Was this voice reproachful? Had the prophet been told to flee? Had he
+acted with the courage of a man sure of divine protection? Had he not
+been faint-hearted when he wished to die? How does he reply to the
+mysterious voice? He justifies himself. But strengthened, comforted,
+uplifted by the exaltation of the consciousness of God's presence,
+Elijah feels his resilient powers again upspringing. His courage
+returns; his perceptions grow sharp again; the inspiration of a new line
+of action opens up to him. He hears the word of the Lord: "Go, return on
+thy way to the wilderness of Damascus; and when thou comest, anoint
+Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu the son of Nimshi to be king over
+Israel, and Elisha the son of Shaphat to be prophet in thy room. And it
+shall come to pass that him who escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu
+destroy, and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet
+I have left me seven thousand in Israel, who have not bowed the knee
+unto Baal."
+
+Elijah still knows that his life is in peril, but is ready,
+nevertheless, to obey his master's call. He is not designated as the
+power to effect the great revolution which should root out idolatry and
+destroy the house of Omri; but Jehu, an unscrupulous yet jealous
+warrior, was to found a new dynasty, and the king of Syria was to punish
+and afflict the ten tribes, and Elisha was to be the mouth-piece of the
+Almighty in the court of kings. It would appear that Elijah did not
+himself anoint either the general of Benhadad or of Ahab as future
+kings,--instruments of punishment on idolatrous Israel,--but on Elisha
+did his mantle fall.
+
+Elisha was the son of a farmer, and, according to Ewald, when Elijah
+selected him for his companion and servant, had just been ploughing his
+twelve yoke of land (not of oxen), and was at work on the twelfth and
+last. Passing by the place, Elijah, without stopping, took off his
+shaggy mantle of skins, and cast it upon Elisha. The young man, who
+doubtless was familiar with the appearance of the great prophet,
+recognized and accepted this significant call, and without remonstrance,
+even as others in later days devoted themselves to a greater Prophet,
+"left all and followed" the one who had chosen him. He became Elijah's
+constant companion and pupil and ministrant, until the great man's
+departure. He belonged to "the sons of the prophets," among whom Elijah
+sojourned in his latter days,--a community of young men, for the most
+part poor, and compelled to combine manual labor with theological
+studies. Very few of these prophets seem to have been favored with
+especial gifts or messages from God, in the sense that Samuel and Elijah
+were. They were teachers and preachers rather than prophets, performing
+duties not dissimilar to those of Franciscan friars in the Middle Ages.
+They were ascetics like the monks, abstaining from wine and luxuries, as
+Samson and the Nazarites and Rechabites did. Religious asceticism goes
+back to a period that we cannot trace.
+
+After Elijah had gone from the scenes of his earthly labors, Elisha
+became a man of the city, and had a house in Samaria. His dress was that
+of ordinary life, and he was bland in manners. His nature, unlike that
+of Elijah, was gentle and affectionate. He became a man of great
+influence, and was the friend of three kings. Jehoshaphat consulted him
+in war; Joram sought his advice, and Benhadad in sickness sent to him to
+be healed, for he exercised miraculous powers. He cured Naaman of
+leprosy and performed many wonderful deeds, chiefly beneficent in
+character.
+
+Elisha took no part in the revolutions of the palace, but he anointed
+Jehu to be king over Israel, and predicted to Hazael his future
+elevation. His chief business was as president of a school of the
+prophets. His career as prophet lasted fifty-five years. He lived to a
+good old age, and when he died, was buried with great pomp as a man of
+rank, in favor with the court, for it was through him that Jehu
+subsequently reigned. During the life of Elijah, however, Elisha was his
+companion and coadjutor. More is said in Jewish history of Elisha than
+of Elijah, though the former was not so lofty and original a character
+as the latter. We are told that though Elisha inherited the mantle of
+his master, he received only two-thirds of his master's spirit. But he
+was regarded as a great prophet for over fifty years, even beyond the
+limits of Israel. Unlike Elijah, Elisha preferred the companionship of
+men rather than life in a desert. He fixed his residence in Samaria, and
+was highly honored and revered by all classes; he exercised a great
+influence on the king of Israel, and carried on the work which Elijah
+began. He was statesman as well as prophet, and the trusted adviser of
+the king; but his distinguished career did not begin till after Elijah
+had ascended to heaven.
+
+After the consecration of Elisha there is nothing said about Elijah for
+some years, during which Ahab was involved in war with Benhadad, king of
+Damascus. After that unfortunate contest it would seem that Ahab had
+resigned himself to pleasure, and amused himself with his gardens at
+Jezreel. During this time Elijah had probably lived in retirement; but
+was again summoned to declare the judgment of God on Ahab for a most
+atrocious murder.
+
+In his desire to improve his grounds Ahab cast his eyes on a fertile
+vineyard belonging to a distinguished and wealthy citizen named Naboth,
+which had been in the possession of his family even since the conquest.
+The king at first offered a large price for this vineyard, which he
+wished to convert into a garden of flowers, but Naboth refused to sell
+it for any price. "God forbid," said he, with religious scruples blended
+with the pride of ancestry, "that I should give to thee the inheritance
+of my fathers." Powerful and despotic as was the king, he knew he could
+not obtain this coveted vineyard except by gross injustice and an act of
+violence, which even he dared not commit. It would be an open violation
+of the Jewish Constitution. By the laws of Moses the lands of the
+Israelites, from the conquest, were inalienable. Even if they were sold
+for debt, after fifty years they would return to the family. The pride
+of ownership in real estate was one of the peculiarities of the Hebrews
+until after their final dispersion. After the fall of Jerusalem by
+Titus, personal property came to be more valued than real estate, and
+the Jews became the money lenders and the bankers of the world. They
+might be oppressed and robbed, but they could hide away their treasures.
+A scrap of paper, they soon discovered, was enough to transfer in safety
+the largest sums. A Jew had only to give a letter of credit on another
+Jewish house, and a king could find ready money, if he gave sufficient
+security, for any enterprise. Thus rare jewels pledged for gold
+accumulated among the Hebrew merchants at an early date.
+
+Ahab, disappointed in not being able without a crime to get possession
+of Naboth's vineyard, abandoned himself to melancholy. In his deep
+chagrin he laid himself down on his bed, turned his face to the wall,
+and refused to eat. This seems strange to us, since he had more than
+enough, and there was no check on his ordinary pleasures. But covetous
+men never are satisfied. Ahab was miserable with all his possessions so
+long as Naboth was resolved to retain his paternal acres. It seems that
+it did not occur even to this unprincipled king that he could get
+possession of the coveted vineyard if he resorted to craft
+and violence.
+
+But his clever and unscrupulous wife came to his assistance. In her
+active brain she devised the means of success. She saw only the end; she
+cared nothing for the means. It is probable, indeed, that Jezebel
+hankered even more than Ahab for a garden of flowers. Yet even she dared
+not openly seize the vineyard. Such an outrage might have caused a
+rebellion; it would, at least, have created a great scandal and injured
+her popularity, of which this artful woman was as tenacious as the Jew
+was of his property. Moreover, Naboth was a very influential and wealthy
+citizen, and had friends to support him. How could she remove the
+grievous eye-sore? She pondered and consulted the doctors of the law, as
+Henry VIII. made use of Cranmer when he wished to marry Anne Boleyn.
+They told her that if it could be proved that any one, however high his
+rank, had blasphemed God and the king, he could legally be executed, and
+that his property would revert to the Crown. So she suborned false
+witnesses, who swore at the trial of Naboth, already seized for high
+treason, that he had blasphemed God and the king. Sentence, according to
+law, was passed upon the innocent man, and according to law he was
+stoned to death, and the vineyard according to law became the property
+of the Crown. Jezebel, who had managed the whole affair, did not
+undertake the prosecution in her own name; as a woman, she had not the
+legal power. So she stole the king's ring, and sealed the indictment
+with the royal seal.
+
+Thus by force and fraud under skilful technicalities, and by usurpation
+of the royal authority, the crime was consummated, and had the sanction
+of the law. Oh, what crimes have been perpetrated in every age and
+country under cover of the law! The Holy Inquisition was according to
+law; the early Christian persecutions were according to law; usurpers
+and murderers have reigned according to law; the Quakers were put in
+prison, and witches were burned according to law. Slavery was sustained
+by legal enactments; the rum shops are all under the protection of the
+law. There is scarcely a public scandal and wrong in any civilized
+country which the law does not somehow countenance or sustain. All
+public robbers appeal to legal technicalities. How could city officials
+steal princely revenues, how could lawyers collect exorbitant fees, if
+it were not for the law? Neither Ahab nor Jezebel would have ventured to
+seize Naboth's vineyard except under legal pretences; false witnesses
+swore to a lie, and the law condemned the accused. Ahab in this instance
+was not as bad as his wife. He may not even have known by what
+diabolical craft the vineyard became his.
+
+But such crimes, striking at the root of justice, cry to heaven for
+vengeance. On Ahab as king rested the responsibility, and he as well as
+his more guilty partner was made to pay the penalty. God in his
+providence avenged the death of Naboth. The whole affair was widely
+known. As Naboth's reputed offence was unusual, and the gravest known to
+the Jewish laws, there was so great a sensation that a fast was
+proclaimed. The false trial and murderous execution were accomplished
+"before all the people." But this very ostentation of legal form made
+the outrage notorious. It reached the ears of Elijah. The prophet's keen
+sense of right detected such an outrageous combination of hypocrisy,
+covetousness, fraud, usurpation, cruelty, robbery, and murder, that he
+once more heard the Divine voice which summoned him from his retirement
+and sent him to the court with an awful message. Suddenly, unannounced
+and unexpected, the man of God appeared before the king in his newly
+acquired possession, surrounded by his gardeners and artificers, and
+accompanied by two of his officers,--Bidkar, and Jehu the son of
+Nimshi,--destined to be both instrument and witness of the retribution.
+With unwonted austerity, without preface or waste of words, Elijah broke
+forth: "Thus saith Jehovah!"--how the monarch must have quaked at this
+awful name: "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall
+dogs also lick thine, even thine." The conscience-stricken, affrighted
+monarch could only say, "Hast thou found me, oh mine enemy!" And
+terrible was the response: "Yes, I have found thee! and because thou
+hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the Lord, behold, I will
+take away thy posterity, and will make thy house like the house of
+Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin. And as to thy wife also, saith
+Jehovah, the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel. Him that
+dieth of Ahab in the city shall the dogs eat, and him that dieth in the
+field shall the fowls of the air eat."
+
+When and where, in the annals of the great, has such a dreadful
+imprecation been uttered? It was more awful than the doom pronounced on
+Belshazzar. The blood of Ahab and his wife was to be licked up by dogs,
+their dynasty to be overthrown, and their whole house destroyed. This
+dire punishment was inflicted probably not only on account of the crime
+pertaining to Naboth, but for a whole life devoted to idolatry. The
+sentence was not to be executed immediately,--possibly a time was given
+for repentance; but it would surely be inflicted at last. This Ahab knew
+better than any man in his kingdom. He was thrown into the depths of the
+most abject despair. He rent his clothes; he put ashes on his head and
+sackcloth on his flesh, and refused to eat or drink. He repented after
+the fashion of criminals, and humbled himself, as Nebuchadnezzar did,
+before the Most High God. God in mercy delayed, but did not annul, the
+punishment Ahab lived long enough to fight the king of Syria
+successfully, so that for three years there was peace in Israel. But
+Ramoth in Gilead, belonging to the northern kingdom, remained in the
+hands of the Syrians.
+
+In the mean time Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, whose son Jehoram had
+married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and who was therefore in friendly
+social and political relations with Ahab, came to visit him. They
+naturally talked about the war, and lamented the fall of Ramoth-Gilead.
+Ahab proposed a united expedition to recover it, to which Jehoshaphat
+was consenting; but before embarking in an offensive war against a
+powerful state, the two monarchs consulted the prophets. It is not to be
+supposed that they were the priests of Baal, but ordinary prophets who
+wished to please. False prophets and false friends are very much
+alike,--they give advice according to the inclinations and wishes of
+those who consult them. They are afraid of incurring displeasure,
+knowing well that no one likes to have his plans opposed by candid
+advisers. Therefore they all gave their voices for war, foretelling a
+grand success. But one prophet, more honest and bold--perhaps more
+gifted--than the rest, Micaiah by name, took a different view of the
+matter. He was constrained to speak his honest convictions, and
+prophesied evil, and was thrown into prison for his honesty
+and boldness.
+
+Nevertheless Ahab in his heart was afraid, and had sad forebodings.
+Knowing his peril, and alarmed at the words of a true prophet, he
+disguised himself for the battle; but a chance arrow, shot at a venture,
+penetrated through the joints of his armor, and he was mortally wounded.
+His blood ran from his wound into the chariot, and when the chariot was
+washed in the pool of Samaria, after Ahab had expired, the dogs licked
+up his blood, as Elijah had predicted.
+
+The death of Ahab put an end to the fighting; nor was Jehoshaphat
+injured, although he wore his royal robes. The Syrian general had given
+orders to slay only the king of Israel. At one time, however, the king
+of Judah was in great peril, being mistaken for Ahab; but when his
+pursuers discovered their mistake, they turned from the pursuit.
+
+It seems that Jezebel survived her husband fourteen years, and virtually
+ruled the kingdom, for she was a woman of ability. She exercised the
+same influence over her son Ahaziah that she had over her husband, so
+that the son like the father served Baal and made Israel to sin.
+
+To this young king was Elijah also sent. Ahaziah had been seriously
+injured by an accidental fall from his upper chamber, through the
+lattice, to the court yard below. He sent to the priests of Baal, to
+inquire whether he should recover or not. But Elijah by command of God
+had intercepted the king's messengers, and suddenly appearing before
+them, as was his custom, confronted them with these words: "Is there no
+God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron?
+Now, therefore, say unto the king, Thou shalt not come down from the bed
+on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die." On their return to
+Ahaziah, without delivering their message to the god of the Phoenicians
+or Philistines, the king said: "Why are ye now turned back?" They
+repeated the words of the strange man who had turned them back; and the
+king said: "What manner of man was he who came up to meet you?" They
+answered, "He was a hairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather around
+his loins." The king cried, "It is Elijah the Tishbite." Again his enemy
+had found him!
+
+Whereupon Ahaziah sent a band of fifty chosen soldiers to arrest the
+prophet, who had retired to the top of a steep and rugged hill, probably
+Carmel. The captain of the troop approached, and commanded him in the
+name of the king to come down, addressing him as the man of God. "If I
+am a man of God," said Elijah, "let fire come down from heaven and
+consume thee and thy fifty." The fire came down and consumed them.
+Again the king sent another band of fifty with their captain, who met
+with the same fate. Again the king sent another band of fifty men, the
+captain of which came and fell on his knees before Elijah and besought
+him, saying, "O man of God! I pray thee let my life and the lives of
+these fifty thy servants be precious in thy sight." And the angel of the
+Lord said unto Elijah, "Go down with him; be not afraid of him." And he
+arose and went with the soldiers to the king, repeating to him the words
+he had sent before, that he should not recover, but should surely die.
+
+So Ahaziah died, as Elijah prophesied, and Jehoram (or Joram) reigned in
+his stead,--a brother of the late king, who did not personally worship
+Baal, but who allowed the queen-mother to continue to protect idolatry.
+The war which had been begun by Ahab against the Syrians still
+continued, to recover Ramoth-Gilead, and the stronghold was finally
+taken by the united efforts of Judah and Israel; but Joram was wounded,
+and returned to Jezreel to be cured.
+
+With the advent of Elijah a reaction against idolatry had set in. The
+people were awed by his terrible power, and also by the influence of
+Elisha, on whom his mantle fell. It does not appear that the people had
+utterly abandoned the religion of their fathers, for they had not
+hesitated to slay the eight hundred and fifty priests of Baal at the
+command of Elijah. The introduction of idolatry had been the work of
+princes, chiefly through the influence of Jezebel; and as the
+establishment of a false religion still continued to be the policy of
+the court, the prophets now favored the revolution which should overturn
+the house of Ahab, and exterminate it root and branch. The instrument of
+the Almighty who was selected for this work was Jehu, one of the
+prominent generals of the army; and his task was made comparatively easy
+from the popular disaffection. That a woman, a foreigner, a pagan, and a
+female demon should control the government during two reigns was
+intolerable. Only a spark was needed to kindle a general revolt, and
+restore the religion of Jehovah.
+
+This was the appearance of a young prophet at Ramoth-Gilead, whom Elisha
+had sent with an important message. Forcing his way to the house where
+Jehu and his brother officers were sitting in council, he called Jehu
+apart, led him to an innermost chamber of the house, took out a small
+horn of sacred oil, and poured it on Jehu's head, telling him that God
+had anointed him king to cut off the whole house of Ahab, and destroy
+idolatry. On his return to the room where the generals were sitting,
+Jehu communicated to them the message he had received. As the discontent
+of the nation had spread to the army, it was regarded as a favorable
+time to revolt from Joram, who lay sick at Jezreel. The army, following
+the chief officers, at once hailed Jehu as king. It was supremely
+necessary that no time should be lost, and that the news of the
+rebellion should not reach the king until Jehu himself should appear
+with a portion of the army. Jehu was just the man for such an
+occasion,--rapid in his movements, unscrupulous, yet zealous to uphold
+the law of Moses. So mounting his chariot, and taking with him a
+detachment of his most reliable troops, he furiously drove toward
+Jezreel, turning everybody back on the road. It was a drive of about
+fifty miles. When within six miles of Jezreel the sentinels on the
+towers of the walls noticed an unusual cloud of dust, and a rider was at
+once despatched to know the meaning of the approach of chariots and
+horses. The rider, as he approached, was ordered to fall back in the
+rear of Jehu's force. Another rider was sent, with the same result. But
+Joram, discovering that the one who drove so rapidly must be his own
+impetuous captain of the host, and suspecting no treachery from him,
+ordered out his own chariot to meet Jehu, accompanied by his uncle
+Ahaziah, king of Judah. He expected stirring news from the army, and was
+eager to learn it. He supposed that Hazael, then king of Damascus, who
+had murdered Benhadad, had proposed peace. So as he approached Jehu--the
+frightful irony of fate halting him for the interview in the very
+vineyard of Naboth--he cried out, "Is it peace, Jehu?" "Peace!" replied
+Jehu; "what peace can be made so long as Jezebel bears rule?" In an
+instant the king understood the ominous words of his general, turned
+back his chariot, and fled toward his palace, crying, "There is
+treachery, O Ahaziah!" An arrow from Jehu pierced the monarch in the
+back, and he sank dead in his chariot. Ahaziah also was mortally wounded
+by another arrow from Jehu, but he succeeded in reaching Megiddo, where
+he died. Jehu spoke to Bidkar, his captain, and recalling the dread
+prophecy of Elijah, commanded the body of Ahab's son to be cast out into
+the dearly-bought field of Naboth.
+
+In the mean time, Jezebel from her palace window at Jezreel had seen the
+murder of her son. She was then sixty years of age. The first thing she
+did was to paint her eyelids, and put on her most attractive apparel, to
+appear as beautiful as possible, with the hope doubtless of attracting
+Jehu,--as Cleopatra, after the death of Antony, sought to win Augustus.
+Will a flattered woman, once beautiful, ever admit that her charms have
+passed away? But if the painted and bedizened queen anticipated her
+fate, she determined to die as she had lived,--without fear, imperious,
+and disdainful. So from her open window she tauntingly accosted Jehu as
+he approached: "What came of Zimri, who murdered his master as thou hast
+done?" "Are there any on my side?" was the only reply he deigned to
+make, as he looked up to a window of the palace, which was a part of the
+wall of the city. Two or three eunuchs, looking out from behind her,
+answered the summons, for the wicked and haughty queen had no real
+friends. "Throw her down!" ordered Jehu; and in a moment the blood from
+her mangled body splashed upon the walls and upon the horses. In another
+instant the wheels of the chariot passed over her lifeless remains. Jehu
+would have permitted a decent burial, "for," said he, "she is a king's
+daughter;" but before her mangled corpse could be collected, in the
+general confusion, the dogs of the city had devoured all that remained
+of her but the skull, the feet, and hands.
+
+So perished the most infamous woman that ever wore a royal diadem, as
+had been predicted. With her also perished the seventy sons of Ahab, all
+indeed that survived of the royal house of Omri. And the work of
+destruction did not end until the courtiers of the late king and all
+connected with them, even the palace priests, were killed. Then followed
+the massacre of the other priests of Baal, the destruction of the
+idolatrous temples, and the restoration of the worship of Jehovah, not
+only at Samaria, but at Jerusalem, for the revolution extended far and
+wide on the death of Ahaziah as of Joram. Athaliah, the daughter of
+Jezebel, who reigned over Judah, also perished in those
+revolutionary times.
+
+It is not to be supposed that the relentless and savage Jehu was
+altogether moved by a zeal for Jehovah in these revolting slaughters. He
+was an ambitious and successful rebel; but like all notable forces, he
+may be regarded as an instrument of Providence, whose ways are
+"mysterious," because men are not large enough and wise enough to trace
+effects to their causes under His immutable laws. Jehu was a necessary
+consequence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehovah, as the national deity of the
+Jews, was the natural and necessary rallying cry of the revolt against
+Phoenician idolatry and foulness. The missionary sermons of those crude
+days were preached with the sword and the strong arm. God's revelations
+of himself and his purposes to man have always been through men, and by
+His laws the medium always colors the light which it transmits. The
+splendor of the noonday sun cannot shine clearly through rough,
+imperfect glass; and so the conceptions of Deity and of the divine will,
+as delivered by the prophets, in every case show the nature of the man
+receiving and delivering the inspired message. And yet, through all the
+turmoil of those times, and the startling contrast between the
+conceptions presented by the "Jehovah" of Elijah and the "Father" of
+Jesus, the one grand central truth which the seed of Abraham were chosen
+to conserve stands out distinctly from first to last,--the unity and
+purity of God. However obscured by human passions and interests, that
+principle always retained a vital hold upon some--if only a
+"remnant"--of the Hebrew race.
+
+The influence of Elijah, then, acting personally through him and his
+successor Elisha, had caused the extermination of the worship of Baal.
+But the golden calves still remained; and there was no improvement in
+the political affairs of the kingdom. It was steadily declining as a
+political power, whether on account of the degeneracy which succeeded
+prosperity, or the warlike enterprises of the empires and states which
+were hostile equally to Judah and Israel. Jehu was forced to pay tribute
+to Assyria to secure protection against Syria; and after his death
+Israel was reduced to the lowest depression by Hazael, and had not the
+power of Syria soon after been broken by Assyria, the northern kingdom
+would have been utterly destroyed.
+
+It was not given to Elijah to foresee the future calamities of the Jews,
+or to declare them, as Isaiah and Jeremiah did. It was his mission, and
+also Elisha's, to destroy the worship of Baal and punish the apostate
+kings who had introduced it. He was the messenger and instrument of
+Jehovah to remove idolatry, not to predict the future destiny of his
+nation. He is to be viewed, like Elisha, as a reformer, as a man of
+action, armed with supernatural gifts to awe kings and influence the
+people, rather than as a seer or a poet, or even as a writer to instruct
+future generations. His mission seems to have ended shortly after he had
+thrown his mantle on a man more accomplished than himself in knowledge
+of the world. But his last days are associated with unspeakable grandeur
+as well as pathetic interest.
+
+Elijah seems to have known that the day of his departure was at hand.
+So, departing from Gilgal in company with his beloved companion, he
+proceeded toward Bethel. As he approached the city he besought Elisha to
+leave him alone; but Elisha refused to part with the master whom he both
+loved and revered. Onward they proceeded from Bethel to Jericho, and
+from Jericho to the Jordan. It was a mournful journey to Elisha, for he
+knew as well as the sons of the prophets at Jericho that he and his
+master, and friend more than master, were to part for the last time on
+earth. The waters of the Jordan happened to be swollen, and the two
+prophets, and the fifty sons of the prophets--their pupils, who came to
+say farewell--could not pass over. But the sacred narrative tells us
+that Elijah, wrapping his mantle together like a staff, smote the
+waters, so that they were divided, and the two passed over to the
+eastern bank, in view of the disciples. In loving intercourse Elijah
+promises to give to his companion as token of his love whatever Elisha
+may choose. Elisha asks simply for a double portion of his master's
+spirit, which Elijah grants in case Elisha shall see him distinctly when
+taken away.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold
+there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire, which parted them
+both asunder. And Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. And Elisha
+saw it, and he cried, 'My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and
+the horsemen thereof !'"--Thou art the chariot of Israel; thou hast been
+its horsemen! And then there fell from Elijah, as he vanished from human
+sight, the mantle by which he had been so well known; and it became the
+sign of that fulness of divine favor which was given to his successor in
+his arduous labors to restore the worship of Jehovah, "and to prepare
+the way for Him in whom all prophecy is fulfilled."
+
+
+
+
+ISAIAH.
+
+
+PROPHESIED 740-701 B.C.
+
+NATIONAL DEGENERACY.
+
+
+To understand the mission of Isaiah, one should be familiar with the
+history of the kingdom of Judah from the time of Jeroboam, founder of
+the separate kingdom of Israel, to that of Uzziah, in whose reign Isaiah
+was born, 760 B.C.
+
+Judah had doubtless degenerated in virtue and spiritual life, but this
+degeneracy was not so marked as that of the northern kingdom,--called
+Israel. Judah had been favored by a succession of kings, most of whom
+were able and good men. Out of nine kings, five of them "did right in
+the sight of the Lord;" and during the two hundred and sixteen years
+when these monarchs reigned, one hundred and eighty-seven were years
+when the worship of Jehovah was maintained by virtuous princes, all of
+whom were of the house of David. The reigns of those kings who did evil
+in the sight of the Lord were short.
+
+During this period there were nineteen kings of Israel, most of whom did
+evil. They introduced idolatry; many of them were usurpers, and died
+violent deaths. If the northern kingdom was larger and more fertile than
+the southern, it was more afflicted with disastrous wars and divine
+judgments for the sins into which it had fallen. It was to the wicked
+kings of Israel, throned in the Samarian Shechem, that Elijah and Elisha
+were sent; and the interest we feel in their reigns is chiefly directed
+to the acts and sayings of those two great prophets.
+
+The kingdom of Judah, blessed on the whole with virtuous rulers, and
+comparatively free from idolatry, continually increased in wealth and
+political power. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, after the rebellion of
+the ten tribes, seems to have changed somewhat his course of life,
+although the high places and graven images were not removed; but his
+grandson Asa destroyed the idols, and made fortunate alliances. Asa's
+son Jehoshaphat terminated the civil wars that had raged between Judah
+and Israel from the accession of Rehoboam, and almost rivalled Solomon
+in his outward prosperity. Jerusalem became the strongest fortress in
+western Asia; the Temple service was continued in its former splendor;
+all that was vital in the strength of nations pertained to the smaller
+kingdom. The dark spot in the history of Judah for nearly two hundred
+years was the ascendency gained by Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel,
+over her husband Jehoram, who introduced the gods of Phoenicia. She
+seems to have exercised the same malign influence in Jerusalem that
+Jezebel did in Samaria, and was as unscrupulous as her pagan mother. She
+even succeeded in usurping the throne, and in destroying the whole race
+of David, with the exception of Joash, an infant, whom Jehoiada the
+high-priest contrived to hide until the unscrupulous Athaliah was slain,
+having reigned as queen six years,--the first instance in Jewish history
+of a female sovereign.
+
+Both Judah and Israel in these years had the danger of a Syrian war
+constantly threatening them. Under Hazael, who reigned at Damascus,
+great conquests were made by the Syrians of Jewish territory, and the
+capture of Jerusalem was averted only by buying off the enemy, to whom
+were surrendered the gifts to the Temple accumulating since the days of
+Jehoshaphat. The whole land was overrun and pillaged. Nor were
+calamities confined to the miseries of war. A long drouth burned the
+fields; seed rotted under the clods; the cattle moaned in the barren and
+dried-up pastures; while locusts devoured what the drouth had spared.
+Says Stanley: "The purple vine, the green fig-tree, the gray olive, the
+scarlet pomegranate, the golden corn, the waving palm, the fragrant
+citron, vanished before them, and the trunks and branches were left
+bare and white by their devouring teeth,"--a brilliant sentence, by the
+way, which Geikie quotes without acknowledgment, as well as many others,
+which lays him open to the charge of plagiarism. Both Stanley and
+Geikie, however, seem to be indebted to Ewald for all that is striking
+and original in their histories,--so true is Solomon's saying that there
+is nothing new under the sun. The rarest thing in literature is a truly
+original history.
+
+In this mournful crisis the prophet Joel, who was a priest at Jerusalem,
+demanded a solemn fast, which the entire kingdom devoutly celebrated,
+the whole body of the priests crying aloud before the gates of the
+Temple, "Spare Thy people, O Lord! give not Thine heritage to reproach,
+lest the heathen make us a by-word, and ask, Where is now thy God?" But
+Joel, the oldest, and in many respects the most eloquent, Hebrew prophet
+whose utterances have come down to us, did not speak in vain, and a
+great religious revival followed, attended naturally by renewed
+prosperity,--for among the Jews a "revival of religion" meant a
+practical return from vice to virtue, personal holiness, and the just
+and wholesome requirements of their law; so that "under Amaziah, Uzziah,
+and Jotham, Judah rose once more to a pitch of honor and glory which
+almost recalled the golden age of David."
+
+A greater power than that of Syria threatened the peace and welfare of
+the kingdom of Judah, as it also did that of Israel; and this was the
+empire of Assyria. During the reigns of David and Solomon this empire
+was passing through so many disasters that it was not regarded as
+dangerous, and both of the Jewish kingdoms were left free to avail
+themselves of every facility afforded for national development. Ewald
+notices emphatically this outward prosperity, which introduced luxury
+and pride throughout the kingdom. It was the golden age of merchants,
+usurers, and money-mongers. Then appeared that extraordinary greed for
+riches which never afterward left the nation, even in seasons of
+calamity, and which is the most striking peculiarity of the modern
+Hebrew. This was a period not only of prosperity and luxury, but of
+vanity and ostentation, especially among women. The insidious influences
+of wealth more than balanced the good effected by a long succession of
+virtuous and gifted princes. I read of no country that, on the whole,
+was ever favored by a more remarkable constellation of absolute kings
+than that of Judah. Most of them had long reigns, took prophets and wise
+men for their counsellors, developed the resources of their kingdoms,
+strengthened Jerusalem, avoided entangling wars, and enjoyed the love
+and veneration of the people. Most of them, unlike the kings of Israel,
+were true to their exalted mission, were loyal to Jehovah, and
+discouraged idolatry, if they did not root out the scandal by
+persecuting violence. Some of these kings were poets, and others were
+saints, like their great ancestor David; and yet, in spite of all their
+efforts, corruption, and infidelity gained ground, and ultimately
+undermined the state and prepared the way for Babylonian conquests.
+Though Jerusalem survived the fall of Samaria for nearly five
+generations, divine judgment was delayed, but not withdrawn. The
+chastisement was sent at last at the hands of warriors whom no nation
+could successfully resist.
+
+The old enemies who had in the early days overwhelmed the Hebrews with
+calamities under the Judges had been conquered by Saul and David,--the
+Moabites, the Edomites, the Hittites, the Jebusites, and the
+Philistines,--and they never afterward seriously menaced the kingdom,
+although there were occasional wars. But in the eighth century before
+Christ the Assyrian empire, whose capital was Nineveh, had become very
+formidable under warlike sovereigns, who aimed to extend their dominion
+to the Mediterranean and to Egypt. In the reign of Jehoash, the son of
+Athaliah, an Assyrian monarch had exacted tribute from Tyre and Sidon,
+and Syria was overrun. When Pul, or Tiglath-pileser, seized the throne
+of Nineveh, he pushed his conquests to the Caspian Sea on the north and
+the Indus on the east, to the frontier of Egypt and the deserts of Sinai
+on the west and south. In 739 B.C. he appeared in Syria to break up a
+confederation which Uzziah of Judah had formed to resist him, and
+succeeded in destroying the power of Syria, and carrying its people as
+captives to Assyria. Menahem, king of Samaria, submitted to the enormous
+tribute of one thousand talents of silver. In 733 B.C. this great
+conqueror again invaded Syria, beheaded Rezin its king, took Damascus,
+reduced five hundred and eighteen cities and towns to ashes, and carried
+back to Nineveh an immense spoil. In 728 B.C. Shalmanezer IV. appeared
+in Palestine, and invested Samaria. The city made an heroic defence; but
+after a siege of three years it yielded to Sargon, who carried away into
+captivity the ten tribes of Israel, from which they never returned.
+
+Judah survived by reason of its greater military skill and its strong
+fortresses, with which Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah had fortified the
+country, especially Jerusalem. But the fate of western Asia was sealed
+when Rezin of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, and the king
+of Hamath moodily consented to pay tribute to the king of Assyria; the
+downfall of the sturdy Judah was in preparation.
+
+Greater evils than those of war threatened the stability of the state.
+In Judah as in Ephraim drunkenness was a national vice, and the nobles
+abandoned themselves to disgraceful debauchery. There was a general
+demoralization of the people more fearful in its consequences than even
+idolatry. Judah was no exception to the ordinary fate of nations; the
+everlasting sequence--pertaining to institutions as well as nations, to
+religious as well as merely political communities--was here
+seen,--"Inwardness, outwardness, worldliness, and rottenness."
+
+It was in this state of political danger and a general decline in
+morals, with a tendency to idolatry, that Isaiah--preacher, statesman,
+historian, poet, and prophet--was born.
+
+Less is said of the personal history of this great man than of Moses or
+David, of Daniel or Elisha, and it is only in his writings that we see
+the solemn grandeur of his character. We infer that he was allied with
+the royal family of David; he certainly held a high position in the
+courts of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was a man of great dignity,
+experience, and wisdom, but ascetic in his habits and dress. Although he
+associated with the great in courts and palaces, a cell was his delight.
+He was a retiring, contemplative, rapt, austere man, severe on
+passing follies, and not sparing in his rebukes of sin in high
+places,--something like Savonarola at Florence, both as preacher and
+prophet,--and exercising a commanding influence on political affairs
+and on the people directly, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and
+Hezekiah. He denounced woes and calamities, yet escaped persecution from
+the grandeur of his character and the importance of his utterances. He
+was a favorite of King Hezekiah, and was contemporary with the prophets
+Hosea, Amos, and Jonah. He lived in Jerusalem, not far from the Temple,
+and had a wife and two sons. He wrote the life of Uzziah, and died at
+the age of eighty-four, in the reign of Manasseh. It is generally
+supposed that although Isaiah had lived in honor during the reigns of
+four kings, he suffered martyrdom at last. It is the fate of prophets to
+be stoned when they are in antagonism with men in power, or with popular
+sentiments. His prophetic ministry extended over a period of about fifty
+years, and he was continually consulted by the reigning monarchs.
+
+The great outward events that took place during Isaiah's public career
+were the invasion of Judah by the combined forces of Israel and Syria in
+the reign of Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion in the reign
+of Hezekiah.
+
+In regard to the first, it was disastrous to Judah. The weak king, the
+twelfth from David, was inclined to the idolatries of the surrounding
+nations, but was not signally bad like Ahab. Yet he was no match for
+Pekah, who reigned at Samaria, or for Rezin, who reigned at Damascus.
+Their combined armies slew in one day one hundred and twenty thousand of
+the subjects of Ahaz, and carried away into captivity two hundred
+thousand women and children, with immense spoil. The conqueror then
+advanced to the siege of Jerusalem. In his distress Ahaz invoked the aid
+of Pul, or Tiglath-pileser II., one of the most warlike of the Assyrian
+kings, whose kingdom stretched from the Armenian mountains on the north
+to Bagdad on the south, and from the Zagros chain on the east to the
+Euphrates on the west. Earnestly did the prophet-statesman expostulate
+with Ahaz, telling him that the king of Assyria would prove "a razor to
+shave but too clean his desolate land." The inspired advice was
+rejected; and the result of the alliance was that Judah, like Israel,
+fell to the rank of a subject nation, and became tributary to Assyria,
+and Ahaz, a mere vassal of Tiglath-pileser. The whole of Palestine
+became the border-land of the Assyrian empire, easy to be invaded and
+liable to be conquered.
+
+The consequences which Isaiah feared, took place in the time of
+Hezekiah, in the actual invasion of Judah by the Assyrian hosts under
+Sennacherib. Not the splendid prosperity of Hezekiah, little short of
+that enjoyed by Solomon,--not his allegiance to Jehovah, nor his grand
+reforms and magnificent feasts averted the calamities which were the
+legitimate result of the blindness of his father Ahaz. Sennacherib, the
+most powerful of all the Assyrian kings, after suppressing a revolt in
+Babylon and conquering various Eastern states, turned his eyes and steps
+to Palestine, which had revolted. Hezekiah, in mortal fear, made humble
+submission, and consented to a tribute of three hundred talents of
+silver and thirty of gold, and the loss of two hundred thousand of his
+people as captives, and a cession of a part of his territory,--as great
+a calamity as France suffered in the war (1870-71) with Prussia.
+Considering the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah under Hezekiah, it is
+a difficult thing to be explained that the king could raise but three
+hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold, although David had
+contributed out of his private fortune, for the future erection of the
+Temple, three thousand talents of gold and seven thousand talents of
+silver, besides the one million talents of silver and one hundred
+thousand talents of gold which he collected as sovereign. It would seem
+probable that an error has crept into the estimates of the wealth of the
+kingdom under Solomon and under the subsequent kings; either that of
+Solomon is exaggerated, or that of Hezekiah is underrated.
+
+Notwithstanding his former defeat and losses, Hezekiah again revolted,
+and again was Judah invaded by a still greater Assyrian force. The king
+of Judah in this emergency showed extraordinary energy, stopped the
+supply of water outside his capital, strengthened his defences, gathered
+together his fighting men, and encouraged them with the assurance that
+help would come from the Lord, in whom they trusted, and whom
+Sennacherib boastfully defied. For the ringing words of Isaiah roused
+and animated the hearts of both king and people to a noble courage,
+announcing the aid of Jehovah and the overthrow of the heathen invader.
+As we have seen, the men of Judah showed their faith in the divine help
+by preparing to help themselves. But from an unexpected quarter the
+assistance came, as Isaiah had predicted. A pestilence destroyed in a
+single night one hundred and eighty-five thousand of the Assyrian
+warriors,--the most signal overthrow of the enemies of Israel since
+Pharaoh and his host were swallowed up by the waters of the Red Sea, and
+also the most signal deliverance which Jerusalem ever had. The calamity
+created such a fearful demoralization among the invaders that the
+over-confident Assyrian monarch retired to his capital with utter loss
+of prestige, and soon after was assassinated by his own sons. No
+Assyrian king after this invaded Judah, and Nineveh itself in a few
+years was conquered by Babylon.
+
+The fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians was delayed one
+hundred years. But such were the moral and social evils of the times
+succeeding the Ninevite invasion that Isaiah saw that retribution would
+come sooner or later, unless the nation repented and a radical reform
+should take place. He saw the people stricken with judicial blindness;
+so he clothed himself in sackcloth and cried aloud, with fervid
+eloquence, upon the people to repent. He is now the popular preacher,
+and his theme is repentance. In his earnest exhortations he foreshadows
+John the Baptist: "Unless ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." It
+would seem that Savonarola makes him the model of his own eloquence.
+"Thy crimes, O Florence! thy crimes, O Rome! thy crimes, O Italy! are
+the causes of these chastisements. O Rome! thou shalt be put to the
+sword, since thou wilt not be converted! O harlot Church! I will stretch
+forth mine hand upon thee, saith the Lord." The burden of the soul of
+the Florentine monk is sin, especially sin in high places. He sees only
+degeneracy in life, and alarms the people by threats of divine
+vengeance. So Isaiah cries aloud upon the people to seek the Lord while
+he may be found. He does not invoke divine wrath, as David did upon his
+enemies; but he shows that this wrath will surely overtake the sinner.
+In no respect does he glory in this retribution: he is sad; he is
+oppressed; he is filled with grief, especially in view of the prevailing
+infatuation. "My people," said he, "do not consider." He denounces all
+classes alike, and spares not even women. In sarcastic language he
+rebukes their love of dress, their abandonment to vanities, their
+finery, their very gait and mincing attitude. Still more contemptuously
+does the preacher speak of the men, over whom the women rule and
+children oppress. He is severe on corrupt judges, on usurers; on all who
+are conceited in their own eyes; on those who are mighty to drink wine;
+on those who join house to house and field to field; on those whose
+glorious beauty is a fading flower; on those who call good evil and evil
+good, that put darkness for light, that take away the righteousness of
+the righteous from him. His terrible denunciation and enumeration of
+evil indicate a very lax morality in every quarter, added to hypocrisy
+and pharisaism. He shows what a poor thing is sacrifice unaccompanied
+with virtue. "To what purpose," said he, "is the multitude of
+sacrifices? Bring no more vain oblations. Incense is an abomination to
+me, saith the Lord. Therefore wash you, make you clean, put away the
+evil of your doings; cease to do evil, learn to do well; seek judgment,
+relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow."
+Isaiah does not preach dogmas, still less metaphysical distinctions; he
+preaches against sin and demands repentance, and predicts calamity.
+
+There are two points in his preaching which stand out with great
+vividness,--the certain judgments of God in view of sin, retribution on
+all offenders; and secondly, the mercy and forgiveness of God in case of
+repentance. Retribution, however, is not in Isaiah usually presented as
+the penalty of transgression according to natural law; not, as in the
+Proverbs, as the inevitable sequence of sin,--"Whatsoever ye sow, that
+shall ye also reap,"--but as direct punishment from God. Jehovah's awful
+personality is everywhere recognized,--a being who rules the universe as
+"the living God," who loves and abhors, who punishes and rewards, who
+gives power to the faint, who judges among the nations, who takes away
+from Judah and Jerusalem the stay and the staff of bread and water. "To
+whom then will ye liken God? Have ye not known, have ye not heard, hath
+it not been told you from the beginning? It is He that sitteth upon the
+circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers;
+that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that bringeth the princes
+to nothing. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the
+everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth,
+fainteth not, neither is weary? He giveth power to the faint and weary,
+so that they who wait upon Him shall renew their strength, mount up with
+wings as eagles, run and not be weary, walk and not faint." Can stronger
+or more comforting language be made use of to assert the personality
+and providence of God? And where in the whole circuit of Hebrew poetry
+is there more sublimity of language, greater eloquence, or more profound
+conviction of the evil and punishment of sin? Isaiah, the greatest of
+all the prophets in his spiritual discernment, in his profound insight
+of the future, is not behind the author of Job in majestic and sublime
+description.
+
+Whatever may be the severity of language with which Isaiah denounces
+sin, and awful the judgments he pronounces in view of it, as coming
+directly from God, yet he seldom closes one of his dreadful sentences
+without holding out the hope of divine forgiveness in case of
+repentance, and the peace and comfort which will follow. In his view the
+mercy of the Lord is more impressive than his judgments. Isaiah is
+anything but a prophet of wrath; his soul overflows with tender
+sentiments and loving exhortation. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come
+to the waters! Come ye, buy and eat! Yea, come, buy wine and milk
+without money and without price!... Let the wicked forsake his way, and
+the unrighteous man his thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord, and
+he will have mercy upon him, and to our God, for he will abundantly
+pardon...Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save;
+neither his ear heavy that it cannot hear...Though your sins be as
+scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they be red like crimson,
+they shall be as wool."
+
+According to modern standards, we are struck with the absence of what we
+call art, in the writings of Isaiah. History, woes, promises, hopes,
+aspirations, and exultations are all mingled together in scarcely
+logical sequence. He exhorts, he threatens, he reproaches, he promises,
+often in the same chapter. The transition between preacher and prophet
+is very sudden. But it is as prophet that Isaiah is most frequently
+spoken of; and he is the prophet of hope and consolation, although he
+denounces woes upon the nations of the earth. In his prophetic office he
+predicts the future of all the people known to the Hebrews. He does not
+preach to _them_: they do not hear his voice; they do not know what
+tribulations shall be sent upon them. He commits his prophecies to
+writing for the benefit of future ages, in which he gives reasons for
+the judgments to be sent upon wicked nations, so that the great
+principles seen in the moral government of God may remain of perpetual
+significance. These principles centre around the great truth that
+national wickedness will certainly be followed by national calamities,
+which is also one of the most impressive truths that all history
+teaches; and so uniform is the operation of this great law that it is
+safe to make deductions from it for the guidance of statesmen and the
+teachings of moralists. National effeminacy which follows luxury, great
+injustices which cry to heaven for vengeance, and practical atheism and
+idolatry are certain to call forth divine judgments,--sometimes in the
+form of destructive wars, sometimes in pestilence and famine, and at
+other times in the gradual wasting away of national resources and
+political power. In conformity with this settled law in the moral
+government of God, we read the fate of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Tyre, of
+Jerusalem, of Carthage, of Antioch, of Corinth, of Athens, of Rome; and
+I would even add of Venice, of Turkey, of Spain. Nor is there anything
+which can save modern cities and countries, however magnificent their
+civilization, from a like visitation of Almighty power, if they continue
+in the iniquity which all the world perceives, and sometimes deplores.
+It must have seemed as absurd to the readers of Isaiah's predictions
+twenty-five hundred years ago that Babylon and Tyre should fall, as it
+would to the people of our day should one predict the future ruin of
+Paris or London or New York, if the vices which now flourish in these
+cities should reach an overwhelming preponderance, but which we hope may
+be wholly overcome by the influence of Christianity and the spirit and
+interference of God himself; for He governs the world by the same
+principles that He did two thousand years ago,--a fact which seldom is
+ignored by any profound and religious inquirer.
+
+I have no faith in the permanence of any form of civilization, or of any
+government, where a certain depth of infamy and depravity is reached;
+because the impressive lesson of history is that righteousness exalteth
+a nation, and iniquity brings it low. Isaiah predicted woes which came
+to pass, since the cities and peoples against whom he denounced them
+remained obstinately perverse in their iniquity and atheism. Their doom
+was certain, without that repentance which would lead to a radical
+change of life and opinions. He held out no hope unless they turned to
+the Lord; nor did any of the prophets. Jeremiah was sad because he knew
+they would not repent, even as Christ himself wept over Jerusalem. No
+maledictions came from the pen or voice of Isaiah such as David breathed
+against his enemies, only the expression of the sad and solemn
+conviction that unless the people and the nation repented, they would
+all equally and surely perish, in accordance with the stern laws written
+on the two tables of Moses,--for "I, thy God, am a jealous God, visiting
+the iniquities of the fathers upon the children, even to the third and
+fourth generation;"--yea, written before Moses, and to be read unto this
+day in the very constitution of man, physical, mental, spiritual,
+and social.
+
+The prophet first announces the calamities which both Judah and
+Ephraim--the southern and the northern kingdoms--shall suffer from
+Assyrian invasions. "The Lord shall shave Judah with a razor, not only
+the head, but the beard,"--thus declaring that the land would be not
+only depopulated, but become a desert, and that men should no longer
+live by agriculture, or by trade and commerce, but by grazing alone.
+"Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glorious
+beauty is a fading flower; it shall be trodden under foot." The sins of
+pride and drunkenness are especially enumerated as the cause of their
+chastisement. "Woe to Ariel [that is Jerusalem]! I will camp against
+thee round about, and lay siege against thee with a mount, and I will
+raise forts against thee, and thou shalt be brought down.... Forasmuch
+as this people draw near me with their mouth, and with lips do they
+honor me, but have removed their heart far from me,"--hereby showing
+that hypocrisy at Jerusalem was as prevalent as drunkenness in Samaria,
+and as difficult to be removed.
+
+Isaiah also reproves Judah for relying on the aid of Egypt in the
+threatened Assyrian invasion, instead of putting confidence in God, but
+declares that the evil day will be deferred in case that Judah repents;
+however, he holds out no hope that her people may escape the final
+captivity to Babylon. All that the prophet predicted in reference to
+the desolation of Palestine by Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as
+instruments of punishment, came to pass.
+
+From the calamities which both Judah and Israel should suffer for their
+pride, hypocrisy, drunkenness, and idolatry, Isaiah turns to predict the
+fall of other nations. "Wherefore it shall come to pass that when the
+Lord hath performed his whole work upon Jerusalem, I will punish the
+fruit of the stout heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
+high looks.... For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it,
+and by my wisdom; for I am prudent, and I have removed the bounds of the
+people, and have robbed their treasures, and put down the inhabitants
+like a valiant man: and as I have gathered all the earth, as one
+gathereth eggs, therefore shall the Lord of Hosts send among his fat
+ones leanness, and under his glory He shall kindle a burning like the
+burning of a fire." In the inscriptions which have recently been
+deciphered on the broken and decayed monuments of Nineveh nothing is
+more remarkable than the boastful spirit, pride, and arrogance of the
+Assyrian kings and conquerors.
+
+The fall of still prouder Babylon is next predicted. "Since thou hast
+said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne
+above the stars of God, thou shalt be brought down to hell.... Babylon,
+the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldean excellency, shall be
+as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited,
+neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation; neither
+shall the Arabians pitch tent there, neither shall the shepherds make
+their fold there; but wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there, and
+the owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there." Both Nineveh
+and Babylon arose to glory and power by unscrupulous conquests, for
+their kings and people were military in their tastes and habits; and
+with dominion cruelly and wickedly obtained came arrogance and pride
+unbounded, and with these luxury and sensuality. The wickedest city of
+antiquity meets with the most terrible punishment that is recorded of
+any city in the world's history. Not only were pride and cruelty the
+peculiar vices of its kings and princes, but a gross and degrading
+idolatry, allied with all the vices that we call infamous, marked the
+inhabitants of the doomed capital; so that the Hebrew language was
+exhausted to find a word sufficiently expressive to mark its
+foul depravity, or sufficiently exultant to rejoice over its
+predicted  \fall. Most cities have recovered more or less from their
+calamities,--Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,--but Babylon was utterly
+destroyed, as by fire from heaven, and never has been rebuilt or again
+inhabited, except by wild beasts. Its very ruins, the remains of walls
+three hundred and fifty feet in height, and of hanging gardens, and of
+palaces a mile in circuit, and of majestic temples, are now with
+difficulty determined. Truly has that wicked city been swept with the
+besom of destruction, as Isaiah predicted.
+
+The prophet then predicts the desolation of Moab on account of its
+pride, which seems to have been its peculiar offence. It is to be noted
+that the sin of pride has ever called forth a severe judgment. "It goeth
+before destruction." Pride was one of the peculiarities of both Nineveh
+and Babylon. But that which is exalted shall be brought low. A bitter
+humiliation, at least, has ever been visited upon those who have
+arrogated a lofty superiority. It presupposes an independence utterly
+inconsistent with the real condition of men in the eyes of the
+Omnipotent; in the eyes of men, even, it is offensive in the extreme,
+and ends in isolation. We can tolerate certain great defects and
+weaknesses, but no one ever got reconciled to pride. It led to the ruin
+of Napoleon, as well as of Caesar; it creates innumerable enemies, even
+in the most retired village; it separates and alienates families; and
+when the punishment for it comes, everybody rejoices. People say
+contemptuously, "Is this the man that made the earth to tremble?" There
+is seldom pity for a fallen greatness that rejoiced in its strength, and
+despised the weakness of the unfortunate. If anything is foreign to the
+spirit of Christianity it is boastful pride, and yet it is one of those
+things which it is difficult for conscience to reach, as it is generally
+baptized with the name of self-respect.
+
+The next woe which Isaiah denounced was on Egypt, which had played so
+great a part in the history of ancient nations. The judgments sent on
+this civilized country were severe, but were not so appalling as those
+to be visited upon Babylon. With Egypt was included Ethiopia. Civil war
+should desolate both nations, and it should rage so fiercely that "every
+one should fight against his brother, and every one against his
+neighbor, city against city, and kingdom against kingdom." Moreover, the
+famed wisdom of Egypt should fail; the people in their distress should
+seek to gain direction from wizards and charmers and soothsayers. It
+always was a country of magicians, from the time that Aaron's rod
+swallowed up the rods of those boastful enchanters who sought to repeat
+his miracles; it was a country of soothsayers and sorcerers when finally
+conquered by the Romans; it was the fruitful land of religious
+superstitions in every age. It was governed in the earliest times by
+pagan priests; the early kings were priests,--even Moses and Joseph were
+initiated into the occult arts of the priests. It was not wholly given
+to idolatry, since it is supposed that there was an esoteric wisdom
+among the higher priests which held to the One Supreme God and the
+immortality of the soul, as well as to future rewards and punishments.
+Nevertheless, the disgusting ceremonies connected with the worship of
+animals were far below the level of true religion, and the sorceries and
+magical incantations and superstitious rites which kept the people in
+ignorance, bondage, and degradation called loudly for rebuke. By reason
+of these things the nation was to be still farther subjected to the
+grinding rule of tyrants. It was a fertile and fruitful land, in which
+all the arts known to antiquity flourished; but the rains of Ethiopia
+were to be withheld, and such should be the unusual and abnormal drouth
+that the Nile should be dried up, and the reeds upon its banks should
+wither and decay. The river was stocked with fish, but the fishermen
+should cast their hooks and arrange their nets in vain. Even the workers
+in flax (one great source of Egyptian wealth and luxury) should be
+confounded. The princes were to become fools; there was to be general
+confusion, and no work was to be done in manufactures. Even Judah should
+become a terror to Egypt, and fear should overspread the land. To these
+calamities there was to be some palliation. Five cities should speak the
+language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of Hosts; and an altar should
+be erected in the middle of the land which should be a witness unto the
+Lord of Hosts, to whom the people should cry amid their oppressions and
+miseries; and Jehovah should be known in Egypt. "He shall smite it, but
+he also shall heal it." And when we remember what a refuge the Jews
+found in Alexandria and other cities in the no very distant future,
+keeping alive there the worship of the true God, and what a hold
+Christianity itself took in the second and third centuries in that old
+country of priests and sorcerers, producing a Clement, a Cyprian, a
+Tertullian, an Athanasius, and an Augustine; yea, that when conquered by
+the Mohammedans, the worship of the one true God was everywhere
+maintained from that time to the present,--we feel that the mercy of God
+followed close upon his justice. Isaiah predicted even the divine
+blessing on the land, which it should share with Palestine: "Blessed be
+Egypt my people, and Israel mine inheritance."
+
+It is not to be supposed that Tyre would escape from the calamities
+which were to be sent on the various heathen nations. Tyre was the great
+commercial centre of the world at that time, as Babylon was the centre
+of imperial power. Babylon ruled over the land, and Tyre over the sea;
+the one was the capital of a vast empire, the other was a maritime
+power, whose ships were to be seen in every part of the Mediterranean.
+Tyre, by its wealth and commerce, gained the supremacy in Phoenicia,
+although Sidon was an older city, five miles distant. But Tyre was
+defiled by the worship of Baal and Astarte; it was a city of exceeding
+dissoluteness. It was not only proud and luxurious, but abominably
+licentious; it was a city of harlots. And what was to be its fate? It
+was to be destroyed, and its merchandise was to be scattered. "Howl, ye
+ships of Tarshish! for your strength is laid waste, so that there is no
+house, no entering in.... The Lord of Hosts hath purposed it, to stain
+the pride of glory, and bring to contempt all the honorable of the
+earth." The inhabitants of the city who sought escape from death were
+compelled to take refuge in the colonies at Cyprus, Carthage, and
+Tartessus in Spain. The destruction of Tyre has been complete. There are
+no remains of its former grandeur; its palaces are indistinguishable
+ruins. Its traffic was transferred to Carthage. Yet how strong must have
+been a city which took Nebuchadnezzar thirteen years to subdue! It arose
+from its ashes, but was reduced again by Alexander.
+
+Isaiah condenses his judgment in reference to the other wicked nations
+of his time in a few rapid, vigorous, and comprehensive clauses.
+"Behold, Jehovah emptieth the earth, and layeth it waste, and scattereth
+its inhabitants. And it happeneth, as to the people, so to the priest;
+as to the servant, so to the master; as to the maid, so to her mistress;
+as to the buyer, so to the seller; as to the lender, so to the
+borrower; as to the creditor, so to the debtor. The earth has become
+wicked among its inhabitants, therefore hath the curse devoured the
+earth, and they who dwelt in it make expiation." We observe that these
+severe calamities are not uttered in wrath. They are not maledictions;
+they are simply divine revelations to the gifted prophet, or logical
+deductions which the inspired statesman declares from incontrovertible
+facts. In this latter sense, all profound observations on the tendency
+of passing events partake of the nature of prophecy. A sage is
+necessarily a prophet. Men even prophesy rain or heat or cold from
+natural phenomena, and their predictions often come to pass. Much more
+to be relied on is the prophetic wisdom which is seen among great
+thinkers and writers, like Burke, Webster, and Carlyle, since they rely
+on the operation of unchanging laws, both moral and physical. When a
+nation is wholly given over to lying and cheating in trade, or to
+hypocritical observances in religion, or to practical atheism, or to
+gross superstitions, or abominable dissoluteness in morals, or to the
+rule of feeble kings controlled by hypocritical priests and harlots, is
+it presumptuous to predict the consequences? Is it difficult to predict
+the ultimate effect on a nation of overwhelming standing armies eating
+up the resources of kings, or of the general prevalence of luxury,
+effeminacy, and vice?
+
+Isaiah having declared the judgment of God on apostate, idolatrous, and
+wicked nations; having emphasized the great principle of retribution,
+even on nations that in his day were prosperous and powerful; having
+rebuked the sins of the people among whom he dwelt, and exposed
+hypocrisy and dead-letter piety,--lays down the fundamental law that
+chastisements are sent to lead men to repentance, and that where there
+is repentance there is forgiveness. Severe as are his denunciations of
+sin, and certain as is the punishment of it, yet his soul dwells on the
+mercy and love of God more than even on His justice. He never loses
+sight of reconciliation, although he holds out but little hope for
+people wedded to their idols. There is no hope for Babylon or Tyre; they
+are doomed. Nor is there much encouragement for Ephraim, which composed
+so large a part of the kingdom of Israel; its people were to be
+dispersed, to become captives, and never were to return to their native
+hills. But he holds out great hope for Judah. It will be conquered, and
+its people carried away in slavery to Babylon,--that is their
+chastisement for apostasy; but a remnant of them shall return. They had
+not utterly forgotten God, therefore a part of the nation shall be
+rescued from captivity. So full of hope is Isaiah that the nation shall
+not utterly be destroyed, that he names his son Shear-jashub,--"a
+remnant shall return." This is his watchword. Certain is it that the
+Lord will have mercy on Jacob whom he hath chosen; his promises will not
+fail. Judah shall be chastised; but a part of Judah shall return to
+Jerusalem, purified, wiser, and shall again in due time flourish as
+a nation.
+
+Isaiah is the prophet of hope, of forgiveness, and of love. Not only on
+Judah shall a blessing be bestowed, but upon the whole world.
+Forgiveness is unbounded if there is repentance, no matter what the sin
+may be. He almost anticipates the message of Jesus by saying, "Though
+your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." God's mercy is
+past finding out. "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters!"
+So full is he of the boundless love of God, extended to all created
+things, that he calls on the hills and the mountains to rejoice. Here he
+soars beyond the Jew; he takes in the whole world in his rapturous
+expectation of deliverance. He comforts all good people under
+chastisement. He is as cheerful as Jeremiah is sad.
+
+Having laid down the conditions of forgiveness, and expatiated on the
+divine benevolence, Isaiah now sings another song, and ascends to
+loftier heights. He is jubilant over the promised glories of God's
+people; he speaks of the redemption of both Jew and Gentile. His
+prophetic mission is now more distinctly unfolded. He blends the
+forgiveness of sins with the promised Deliverer; he unfolds the advent
+of the Messiah. He even foretells in what form He shall come; he
+predicts the main facts of His personal history. Not only shall there
+"come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of its
+roots," but he shall be "a man despised and rejected, a man of sorrows
+and acquainted with grief; who shall be wounded for our transgressions
+and bruised for our iniquities, brought as a lamb to the slaughter, cut
+off from the living, making his grave with the wicked and with the rich
+in his death; yet bruised because it pleased the Lord, and because he
+made his soul an offering for sin, and made intercession with the
+transgressors." Who is this stricken, persecuted, martyred personage,
+bearing the iniquity of the race, and thus providing a way for future
+salvation? Isaiah, with transcendent majesty of style, clear and
+luminous as it is poetical, declares that this person who is still
+unborn, this light which shall appear in Galilee, is no less than he on
+whose shoulders shall be the government, "whose name shall be called
+Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
+Prince of Peace; of the increase of whose kingdom and peace there shall
+be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it,
+and to establish it with judgment and justice forever."
+
+Only in some of the Messianic Psalms do we meet with kindred passages,
+indicating the reign of the Christ upon the earth, expressed with such
+emphatic clearness. How marvellous and wonderful this prophecy! Seven
+hundred years before its fulfilment, it is expressed with such
+minuteness, that, had the prophet lived in the Apostolic age, he could
+not have described the Messiah more accurately. The devout Jew,
+especially after the Captivity, believed in a future deliverer, who
+should arise from the seed of David, establish a great empire, and reign
+as a temporal monarch; but he had no lofty and spiritual views of this
+predicted reign. To Isaiah, more even than to Abraham or David or any
+other person in Jewish history, was it revealed that the reign of the
+Christ was to be spiritual; that he was not to be a temporal deliverer,
+but a Saviour redeeming mankind from the curse of sin. Hence Isaiah is
+quoted more than all the other prophets combined, especially by the
+writers of the New Testament.
+
+Having announced this glorious prediction of the advent into our world
+of a divine Redeemer in the form of a man, by whose life and suffering
+and death the world should be saved, the prophet-poet breaks out in
+rhapsodies. He cannot contain his exultation. He loses sight of the
+judgments he had declared, in his unbounded rejoicings that there was to
+be a deliverance; that not only a remnant would return to Jerusalem and
+become a renewed power, but that the Messiah should ultimately reign
+over all the nations of the earth, should establish a reign of peace,
+so that warriors "should beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
+spears into pruning-hooks." Heretofore the history of kings had been a
+history of wars,--of oppression, of injustice, of cruelty. Miseries
+overspread the earth from this scourge more than from all other causes
+combined. The world was decimated by war, producing not only wholesale
+slaughter, but captivity and slavery, the utter extinction of nations.
+Isaiah had himself dwelt upon the woes to be visited on mankind by war
+more than any other prophet who had preceded him. All the leading
+nations and capitals were to be utterly destroyed or severely punished;
+calamity and misery should be nearly universal; only "a remnant should
+be saved." Now, however, he takes the most cheerful and joyous views. So
+marked is the contrast between the first and latter parts of the Book of
+Isaiah, that many great critics suppose that they were written by
+different persons and at different times. But whether there were two
+persons or one, the most comforting and cheering doctrines to be found
+in the Scriptures, before the Sermon on the Mount was preached, are
+declared by Isaiah. The breadth and catholicity of them are amazing from
+the pen of a Jew. The whole world was to share with him in the promises
+of a Saviour; the whole world was to be finally redeemed. As recipients
+of divine privileges there was to be no difference between Jew and
+Gentile. Paul himself shows no greater mental illumination. "The glory
+of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it."
+
+In view of this glorious reign of peace and universal redemption, Isaiah
+calls upon the earth to be joyful and all the mountains to break forth
+in singing, and Zion to awake, and Jerusalem to put on her beautiful
+garments, and all waste places to break forth in joy; for the glory of
+the Lord is risen upon the City of David. How rapturously does the
+prophet, in the most glowing and lofty flights of poetry, dwell upon the
+time when the redeemed of the Lord shall return to Zion with songs and
+thanksgivings, no more to be called "forsaken," but a city to be renewed
+in beauties and glories, and in which kings shall be nursing fathers to
+its sons and daughters, and queens nursing mothers. These are the
+tidings which the prophet brings, and which the poet sings in matchless
+lyrics. To the Zion of the Holy One of Israel shall the Gentiles come
+with their precious offerings. "Violence shall no more be heard in thy
+land," saith the poet, "wasting nor destruction within thy borders; but
+thou shalt call thy walls Salvation and thy gates Praise.... Thy sun
+shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for the
+Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the day of thy mourning shall
+be ended.... Thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the
+land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I
+may be glorified. A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one
+a strong nation: I the Lord will hasten it in its time."
+
+Salvation, peace, the glory of Zion!--these are the words which Isaiah
+reiterates. With these are identified the spiritual kingdom of Christ,
+which is to spread over the whole earth. The prophet does not specify
+when that time shall come, when peace shall be universal, and when all
+the people shall be righteous; that part of the prophecy remains
+unfulfilled, as well as the renewed glories of Jerusalem. Yet a thousand
+years with the Lord are as one day. No believing Christian doubts that
+it will be fulfilled, as certainly as that Babylon should be destroyed,
+or that a Messiah should appear among the Jews. The day of deliverance
+began to dawn when Christianity was proclaimed among the Gentiles. From
+that time a great progress has been seen among the nations. First, wars
+began to cease in the Roman world. They were renewed when the empire of
+the Caesars fell, but their ferocity and cruelty diminished; conquered
+people were not carried away as slaves, nor were women and children put
+to death, except in extraordinary cases, which called out universal
+grief, compassion, and indignation. With all the progress of truth and
+civilization, it is amazing that Christian nations should still be
+armed to the teeth, and that wars are still so frequent. We fear that
+they will not cease until those who govern shall be conscientious
+Christians. But that the time will come when rulers shall be righteous
+and nations learn war no more, is a truth which Christians everywhere
+accept. When, how,--by the gradual spread of knowledge, or by
+supernatural intervention,--who can tell? "Zion shall arise and
+shine.... The Gentiles shall come to its light, and kings to the
+brightness of its rising.... Violence shall no more be heard in the
+land, nor wasting and destruction within its borders.... They shall not
+hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord.... And it shall
+come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to
+another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the Lord."
+
+This is the sublime faith of Christendom set forth by the most sublime
+of the prophets, from the most gifted and eloquent of the poets. On this
+faith rests the consolation of the righteous in view of the prevalence
+of iniquity. This prophecy is full of encouragement and joy amid
+afflictions and sorrows. It proclaims liberty to captives, and the
+opening of the prison to those that are bound; it preaches glad tidings
+to the meek, and binds up the broken-hearted; it gives beauty for ashes,
+the oil of joy for mourning, and the garment of praise for the spirit
+of heaviness. This prediction has inspired the religious poets of all
+nations; on this is based the beauty and glory of the lyrical stanzas we
+sing in our churches. The hymns and melodies of the Church, the most
+immortal of human writings, are inspired with this cheering
+anticipation. The psalmody of the Church is rapturous, like Isaiah, over
+the triumphant and peaceful reign of Christ, coming sooner perhaps than
+we dream when we see the triumphal career of wicked men. In the temporal
+fall of a monstrous despotism, in the decline of wicked cities and
+empires, in the light which is penetrating all lands, in the shaking of
+Mohammedan thrones, in the opening of the most distant East, in the
+arbitration of national difficulties, in the terrible inventions which
+make nations fear to go to war, in the wonderful network of
+philanthropic enterprises, in the renewed interest in sacred literature,
+in the recognition of law and order as the first condition of civilized
+society, in that general love of truth which science has stimulated and
+rarely mocked, and which casts its searching eye into all creeds and all
+hypocrisies and all false philosophy,--we share the exultant spirit of
+the prophet, and in the language of one of our great poets we repeat the
+promised joy:--
+
+     "Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!
+      Exalt thy towering head and lift thine eyes!
+     See a long race thy spacious courts adorn,
+     See future sons and daughters yet unborn!
+     See barbarous nations at thy gates attend,
+     Walk in thy light, and in thy temple bend!
+     See thy bright altars thronged with prostrate kings,
+     And heaped with products of Sabaean springs!
+     No more the rising sun shall gild the morn,
+     Nor evening Cynthia fill her silver horn;
+     But lost, dissolved in thy superior rays,
+     One tide of glory, one unclouded blaze
+     O'erflow thy courts; the Light himself shall shine
+     Revealed, and God's eternal day be thine!
+     The seas shall waste, the skies to smoke decay,
+     Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away;
+     But fixed His word, His saving power remains:
+     Thy realm forever lasts; thy own Messiah reigns!"
+
+
+
+
+JEREMIAH.
+
+
+ABOUT 629-580 B.C.
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+Jeremiah is a study to those who would know the history of the latter
+days of the Jewish monarchy, before it finally succumbed to the
+Babylonian conqueror. He was a sad and isolated man, who uttered his
+prophetic warnings to a perverse and scornful generation; persecuted
+because he was truthful, yet not entirely neglected or disregarded,
+since he was consulted in great national dangers by the monarchs with
+whom he was contemporary. So important were his utterances, it is matter
+of great satisfaction that they were committed to writing, for the
+benefit of future generations,--not of Jews only, but of the
+Gentiles,--on account of the fundamental truths contained in them. Next
+to Isaiah, Jeremiah was the most prominent of the prophets who were
+commissioned to declare the will and judgments of Jehovah on a
+degenerate and backsliding people. He was a preacher of righteousness,
+as well as a prophet of impending woes. As a reformer he was
+unsuccessful, since the Hebrew nation was incorrigibly joined to its
+idols. His public career extended over a period of forty years. He was
+neither popular with the people, nor a favorite of kings and princes;
+the nation was against him and the times were against him. He
+exasperated alike the priests, the nobles, and the populace by his
+rebukes. As a prophet he had no honor in his native place. He uniformly
+opposed the current of popular prejudices, and denounced every form of
+selfishness and superstition; but all his protests and rebukes were in
+vain. There were very few to encourage him or comfort him. Like Noah, he
+was alone amidst universal derision and scorn, so that he was sad beyond
+measure, more filled with grief than with indignation.
+
+Jeremiah was not bold and stern, like Elijah, but retiring, plaintive,
+mournful, tender. As he surveyed the downward descent of Judah, which
+nothing apparently could arrest, he exclaimed: "Oh that my head were
+waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and
+night for the daughter of my people!" Is it possible for language to
+express a deeper despondency, or a more tender grief? Pathos and
+unselfishness are blended with his despair. It is not for himself that
+he is overwhelmed with gloom, but for the sins of the people. It is
+because the people would not hear, would not consider, and would
+persist in their folly and wickedness, that grief pierces his soul. He
+weeps for them, as Christ wept over Jerusalem. Yet at times he is stung
+into bitter imprecations, he becomes fierce and impatient; and then
+again he rises over the gloom which envelops him, in the conviction that
+there will be a new covenant between God and man, after the punishment
+for sin shall have been inflicted. But his prevailing feelings are grief
+and despair, since he has no hopes of national reform. So he predicts
+woes and calamities at no distant day, which are to be so overwhelming
+that his soul is crushed in the anticipation of them. He cannot laugh,
+he cannot rejoice, he cannot sing, he cannot eat and drink like other
+men. He seeks solitude; he longs for the desert; he abstains from
+marriage, he is ascetic in all his ways; he sits alone and keeps
+silence, and communes only with his God; and when forced into the
+streets and courts of the city, it is only with the faint hope that he
+may find an honest man. No persons command his respect save the Arabian
+Rechabites, who have the austere habits of the wilderness, like those of
+the early Syrian monks. Yet his gloom is different from theirs: they
+seek to avert divine wrath for their own sins; he sees this wrath about
+to descend for the sins of others, and overwhelm the whole nation in
+misery and shame.
+
+Jeremiah was born in the little ecclesiastical town of Anathoth, about
+three miles from Jerusalem, and was the son of a priest. We do not know
+the exact year of his birth, but he was a very young man when he
+received his divine commission as a prophet, about six hundred and
+twenty-seven years before Christ. Josiah had then been on the throne of
+Judah twelve years. The kingdom was apparently prosperous, and was
+unmolested by external enemies. For seventy-five years Assyria had given
+but little trouble, and Egypt was occupied with the siege of Ashdod,
+which had been going on for twenty-nine years, so strong was that
+Philistine city. But in the absence of external dangers corruption,
+following wealth, was making fearful strides among the people, and
+impiety was nearly universal. Every one was bent on pleasure or gain,
+and prophet and priest were worldly and deceitful. From the time when
+Jeremiah was first called to the prophetic office until the fall of
+Jerusalem there was an unbroken series of national misfortunes,
+gradually darkening into utter ruin and exile. He may have shrunk from
+the perils and mortifications which attended him for forty years, as his
+nature was sensitive and tender; but during this long ministry he was
+incessant in his labors, lifting up his voice in the courts of the
+Temple, in the palace of the king, in prison, in private houses, in the
+country around Jerusalem. The burden of his utterances was a
+denunciation of idolatry, and a lamentation over its consequences. "My
+people, saith Jehovah, have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters,
+and hewn out for themselves underground cisterns, full of rents, that
+can hold no water.... Behold, O Judah! thou shalt be brought to shame by
+thy new alliance with Egypt, as thou wast in the past by thy old
+alliance with Assyria."
+
+In this denunciation by the prophet we see that he mingled in political
+affairs, and opposed the alliance which Judah made with Egypt, which
+ever proved a broken reed. Egypt was a vain support against the new
+power that was rising on the Euphrates, carrying all before it, even to
+the destruction of Nineveh, and was threatening Damascus and Tyre as
+well as Jerusalem. The power which Judah had now to fear was Babylon,
+not Assyria. If any alliance was to be formed, it was better to
+conciliate Babylon than Egypt.
+
+Roused by the earnest eloquence of Jeremiah, and of those of the group
+of earnest followers of Jehovah who stood with him,--Huldah the
+prophetess, Shallum her husband, keeper of the royal wardrobe, Hilkiah
+the high-priest, and Shaphan the scribe, or secretary,--the youthful
+king Josiah, in the eighteenth year of his reign, when he was himself
+but twenty-six years old, set about reforms, which the nobles and
+priests bitterly opposed. Idolatry had been the fashionable religion for
+nearly seventy years, and the Law was nearly forgotten. The corruption
+of the priesthood and of the great body of the prophets kept pace with
+the degeneracy of the people. The Temple was dilapidated, and its gold
+and bronze decorations had been despoiled. The king undertook a thorough
+repair of the great Sanctuary, and during its progress a discovery was
+made by the high-priest Hilkiah of a copy of the Law, hidden amid the
+rubbish of one of the cells or chambers of the Temple. It is generally
+supposed to have been the Book of Deuteronomy. When it was lost, and
+how, it is not easy to ascertain,--probably during the reign of some one
+of the idolatrous kings. It seems to have been entirely forgotten,--a
+proof of the general apostasy of the nation. But the discovery of the
+book was hailed by Josiah as a very important event; and its effect was
+to give a renewed impetus to his reforms, and a renewed study of
+patriarchal history. He forthwith assembled the leading men of the
+nation,--prophets, priests, Levites, nobles, and heads of tribes. He
+read to them the details of the ancient covenant, and solemnly declared
+his purpose to keep the commandments and statutes of Jehovah as laid
+down in the precious book. The assembled elders and priests gave their
+eager concurrence to the act of the king, and Judah once more, outwardly
+at least, became the people of God.
+
+Nor can it be questioned that the renewed study of the Law, as brought
+about by Josiah, produced a great influence on the future of the Hebrew
+nation, especially in the renunciation of idolatry. Yet this reform,
+great as it was, did not prevent the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of
+the leading people among the Hebrews to the land of the Chaldeans,
+whence Abraham their great progenitor had emigrated.
+
+Josiah, who was thoroughly aroused by "the words of the book," and its
+denunciations of the wrath of Jehovah upon the people if they should
+forsake his ways, in spite of the secret opposition of the nobles and
+priests, zealously pursued the work of reform. The "high places," on
+which were heathen altars, were levelled with the ground; the images of
+the gods were overthrown; the Temple was purified, and the abominations
+which had disgraced it were removed. His reforms extended even to the
+scattered population of Samaria whom the Assyrians had spared, and all
+the buildings connected with the worship of Baal and Astaroth at Bethel
+were destroyed. Their very stones were broken in pieces, under the eyes
+of Josiah himself. The skeletons of the pagan priests were dragged from
+their burial places and burned.
+
+An elaborate celebration of the feast of the Passover followed soon
+after the discovery of the copy of the Law, whether confined to
+Deuteronomy or including other additional writings ascribed to Moses, we
+know not. This great Passover was the leading internal event of the
+reign of Josiah. Having "taken away all the abominations out of all the
+countries that belonged to the children of Israel," even as the earlier
+keepers of the Law cleansed their premises, especially of all remains of
+leaven,--the symbol of corruption,--the king commanded a celebration of
+the feast of deliverance. Priests and Levites were sent throughout the
+country to instruct the people in the preparations demanded for the
+Passover. The sacred ark, hidden during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon,
+was restored to its old place in the Temple, where it remained until the
+Temple was destroyed. On the approach of the festival, which was to be
+held with unusual solemnities, great multitudes from all parts of
+Palestine assembled at Jerusalem, and three thousand bullocks and thirty
+thousand lambs were provided by the king for the seven days' feast which
+followed the Passover. The princes also added eight hundred oxen and
+seven thousand six hundred small cattle as a gift to priests and people.
+After the priests in their white robes, with bare feet and uncovered
+heads, and the Levites at their side according to the king's
+commandment, had "killed the passover" and "sprinkled the blood from
+their hands," each Levite having first washed himself in the Temple
+laver, the part of the animal required for the burnt-offering was laid
+on the altar flames, and the remainder was cooked by the Levites for the
+people, either baked, roasted, or boiled. And this continued for seven
+days; during all the while the services of the Temple choir were
+conducted by the singers, chanting the psalms of David and of Asaph.
+Such a Passover had not been held since the days of Samuel. No king, not
+even David or Solomon, had celebrated the festival on so grand a scale.
+The minutest details of the requirements of the Law were attended to.
+The festival proclaimed the full restoration of the worship of Jehovah,
+and kindled enthusiasm for his service. So great was this event that
+Ezekiel dates the opening of his prophecies from it. "It seems probable
+that we have in the eighty-fifth psalm a relic of this great
+solemnity.... Its tone is sad amidst all the great public rejoicings; it
+bewails the stubborn ungodliness of the people as a whole."
+
+After the great Passover, which took place in the year 622, when Josiah
+was twenty-six years of age, little is said of the pious king, who
+reigned twelve years after this memorable event. One of the best, though
+not one of the wisest, kings of Judah, he did his best to eradicate
+every trace of idolatry; but the hearts of the people responded faintly
+to his efforts. Reform was only outward and superficial,--an
+illustration of the inability even of an absolute monarch to remove
+evils to which the people cling in their hearts. To the eyes of
+Jeremiah, there was no hope while the hearts of the people were
+unchanged. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
+spots?" he mournfully exclaims. "Much less can those who are accustomed
+to do evil learn to do well." He had no illusions; he saw the true state
+of affairs, and was not misled by mere outward and enforced reforms,
+which partook of the nature of religious persecution, and irritated the
+people rather than led to a true religious life among them. There was
+nothing left to him but to declare woes and approaching calamities, to
+which the people were insensible. They mocked and reviled him. His lofty
+position secured him a hearing, but he preached to stones. The people
+believed nothing but lies; many were indifferent and some were secretly
+hostile, and he must have been pained and disappointed in view of the
+incompleteness of his work through the secret opposition of the
+popular leaders.
+
+Josiah was the most virtuous monarch of Judah. It was a great public
+misfortune that his life was cut short prematurely at the age of
+thirty-eight, and in consequence of his own imprudence. He undertook to
+oppose the encroachments of Necho II, king of Egypt, an able, warlike,
+and enterprising monarch, distinguished for his naval expeditions, whose
+ships doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and returned to Egypt in safety,
+after a three years' voyage. Necho was not so successful in digging a
+canal across the Isthmus of Suez, in which enterprise one hundred and
+twenty thousand men perished from hunger, fatigue, and disease. But his
+great aim was to extend his empire to the limits reached by Rameses II.,
+the Sesostris of the Greeks. The great Assyrian empire was then breaking
+up, and Nineveh was about to fall before the Babylonians; so he seized
+the opportunity to invade Syria, a province of the Assyrian empire. He
+must of course pass through Palestine, the great highway between Egypt
+and the East. Josiah opposed his enterprise, fearing that if the
+Egyptian king conquered Syria, he himself would become the vassal of
+Egypt. Jeremiah earnestly endeavored to dissuade his sovereign from
+embarking in so doubtful a war; even Necho tried to convince him through
+his envoys that he made war on Nineveh, not on Jerusalem, invoking--as
+most intensely earnest men did in those days of tremendous impulse--the
+sacred name of Deity as his authentication. Said he: "What have I to do
+with thee, thou King of Judah? I come not against thee this day, but
+against the house wherewith I have war; for God commanded me to make
+haste. Forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he
+destroy thee not." But nothing could induce Josiah to give up his
+warlike enterprise. He had the piety of Saint Louis, and also his
+patriotic and chivalric heroism. He marched his forces to the plain of
+Esdraelon, the great battle field where Rameses II. had triumphed over
+the Hittites centuries before. The battle was fought at Megiddo.
+Although Josiah took the precaution to disguise himself, he was mortally
+wounded by the Egyptian archers, and was driven back in his splendid
+chariot toward Jerusalem, which he did not live to reach.
+
+The lamentations for this brave and pious monarch remind us of the
+universal grief of the Hebrew nation on the death of Samuel. He was
+buried in a tomb which he had prepared for himself, amid universal
+mourning. A funeral oration was composed by Jeremiah, or rather an
+elegy, afterward sung by the nation on the anniversary of the battle.
+Nor did the nation ever forget a king so virtuous in his life and so
+zealous for the Law. Long after the return from captivity the singers of
+Israel sang his praises, and popular veneration for him increased with
+the lapse of time; for in virtues and piety, and uninterrupted zeal for
+Jehovah, Josiah never had an equal among the kings of Judah.
+
+The services of this good king were long remembered. To him may be
+traced the unyielding devotion of the Jews, after the Captivity, for the
+rites and forms and ceremonies which are found in the books of the Law.
+The legalisms of the Scribes may be traced to him. He reigned but twelve
+years after his great reformation,--not long enough to root out the
+heathenism which had prevailed unchecked for nearly seventy years. With
+him perished the hopes of the kingdom.
+
+After his death the decline was rapid. A great reaction set in, and
+faction was accompanied with violence. The heathen party triumphed over
+the orthodox party. The passions which had been suppressed since the
+death of Manasseh burst out with all the frenzy and savage hatred which
+have ever marked the Jews in their religious contentions, and these were
+unrestrained by the four kings who succeeded Josiah. The people were
+devoured by religious animosities, and split up into hostile factions.
+Had the nation been united, it is possible that later it might have
+successfully resisted the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah gave vent
+to his despairing sentiments, and held out no hope. When Elijah had
+appealed to the people to choose between Jehovah and Baal, he was
+successful, because they were then undecided and wavering in their
+belief, and it required only an evidence of superior power to bring
+them back to their allegiance. But when Jeremiah appeared, idolatry was
+the popular religion. It had become so firmly established by a
+succession of wicked kings, added to the universal degeneracy, that even
+Josiah could work but a temporary reform.
+
+Hence the voice of Jeremiah was drowned. Even the prophets of his day
+had become men of the world. They fawned on the rich and powerful whose
+favor they sought, and prophesied "smooth things" to them. They were the
+optimists of a decaying nation and a godless, pleasure-seeking
+generation. They were to Jerusalem what the Sophists were to Athens when
+Demosthenes thundered his disregarded warnings. There were, indeed, a
+few prophets left who labored for the truth; but their words fell on
+listless ears. Nor could the priests arrest the ruin, for they were as
+corrupt as the people. The most learned among them were zealous only for
+the letter of the law, and fostered among the people a hypocritical
+formalism. True religious life had departed; and the noble Jeremiah, the
+only great statesman as well as prophet who remained, saw his influence
+progressively declining, until at last he was utterly disregarded. Yet
+he maintained his dignity, and fearlessly declared his message.
+
+In the meantime the triumphant Necho, after the defeat and dispersion of
+Josiah's army, pursued his way toward Damascus, which he at once
+overpowered. From thence he invaded Assyria, and stripped Nineveh of
+its most fertile provinces. The capital itself was besieged by
+Nabopolassar and Cyaxares the Mede, and Necho was left for a time in
+possession of his newly-acquired dominion.
+
+Josiah was succeeded by his son Shallum, who assumed the crown under the
+name of Jehoaz, which event it seems gave umbrage to the king of Egypt.
+So he despatched an army to Jerusalem, which yielded at once, and King
+Jehoaz was sent as a captive to the banks of the Nile. His elder brother
+Eliakim was appointed king in his place, under the name of Jehoiakim,
+who thus became the vassal of Necho. He was a young man of twenty-five,
+self-indulgent, proud, despotic, and extravagant. There could be no more
+impressive comment on the infatuation and folly of the times than the
+embellishment of Jerusalem with palaces and public buildings, with the
+view to imitate the glory of Solomon. In everything the king differed
+from his father Josiah, especially in his treatment of Jeremiah, whom he
+would have killed. He headed the movement to restore paganism; altars
+were erected on every hill to heathen deities, so that there were more
+gods in Judah than there were towns. Even the sacred animals of Egypt
+were worshipped in the dark chambers beneath the Temple. In the most
+sacred places of the Temple itself idolatrous priests worshipped the
+rising sun, and the obscene rites of Phoenician idolatry were performed
+in private houses. The decline in morals kept pace with the decline of
+spiritual religion. There was no vice which was not rampant throughout
+the land,--adultery, oppression of foreigners, venality in judges,
+falsehood, dishonesty in trade, usury, cruelty to debtors, robbery and
+murder, the loosing of the ties of kindred, general suspicion of
+neighbors,--all the crimes enumerated by the Apostle Paul among the
+Romans. Judah in reality had become an idolatrous nation like Tyre and
+Syria and Egypt, with only here and there a witness to the truth, like
+Jeremiah, the prophetess Huldah, and Baruch the scribe.
+
+This relapse into heathenism filled the soul of Jeremiah with grief and
+indignation, but gave to him a courage foreign to his timid and
+shrinking nature. In the presence of the king, the princes, and priests
+he was defiant, immovable, and fearless, uttering his solemn warnings
+from day to day with noble fidelity. All classes turned against him; the
+nobles were furious at his exposure of their license and robberies, the
+priests hated him for his denunciation of hypocrisy, and the people for
+his gloomy prophecies that the Temple should be destroyed, Jerusalem
+reduced to ashes, and they themselves led into captivity.
+
+Not only were crime and idolatry rampant, but the death of Josiah was
+followed by droughts and famine. In vain were the prayers of Jeremiah to
+avert calamity. Jehovah replied to him: "Pray not for this people!
+Though they fast, I will not hear their cry; though they offer sacrifice
+I have no pleasure in them, but will consume them by the sword, by
+famine, and pestilence." Jeremiah piteously gives way to despairing
+lamentations. "Hast thou, O Lord, utterly rejected Judah? Is thy soul
+tired of Zion? Why hast thou smitten us so that there is no healing for
+us?" Jehovah replies: "If Moses and Samuel stood pleading before me, my
+soul could not be toward this people. I appoint four destroyers,--the
+sword to slay, the dogs to tear and fight over the corpse, the birds of
+the air, and the beasts of the field; for who will have pity on thee, O
+Jerusalem? Thou hast rejected me. I am weary of relenting. I will
+scatter them as with a broad winnowing-shovel, as men scatter the chaff
+on the threshing-floor."
+
+Such, amid general depravity and derision, were some of the utterances
+of the prophet, during the reign of Jehoiakim. Among other evils which
+he denounced was the neglect of the Sabbath, so faithfully observed in
+earlier and better times. At the gates of the city he cried aloud
+against the general profanation of the sacred day, which instead of
+being a day of rest was the busiest day of the week, when the city was
+like a great fair and holiday. On this day the people of the
+neighboring villages brought for sale their figs and grapes and wine and
+vegetables; on this day the wine-presses were trodden in the country,
+and the harvest was carried to the threshing-floors. The preacher made
+himself especially odious for his rebuke for the violation of the
+Sabbath. "Come," said his enemies to the crowd, "let us lay a plot
+against him; let us smite him with the tongue by reporting his words to
+the king, and bearing false witness against him." On this renewed
+persecution the prophet does not as usual give way to lamentation, but
+hurls his maledictions. "O Jehovah! give thou their sons to hunger,
+deliver them to the sword; let their wives be made childless and widows;
+let their strong men be given over to death, and their young men be
+smitten with the sword."
+
+And to consummate, as it were, his threats of divine punishment so soon
+to be visited on the degenerate city, Jeremiah is directed to buy an
+earthenware bottle, such as was used by the peasants to hold their
+drinking-water, and to summon the elders and priests of Jerusalem to the
+southwestern corner of the city, and to throw before their feet the
+bottle and shiver it in pieces, as a significant symbol of the
+approaching fall of the city, to be destroyed as utterly as the
+shattered jar. "And I will empty out in the dust, says Jehovah, the
+counsels of Judah and Jerusalem, as this water is now poured from the
+bottle. And I will cause them to fall by the sword before their enemies
+and by the hands of those that seek their lives; and I will give their
+corpses for meat to the birds of heaven and the beasts of the earth; and
+I will make this city an astonishment and a scoffing. Every one that
+passes by it will be astonished and hiss at its misfortunes. Even so
+will I shatter this people and this city, as this bottle, which cannot
+be made whole again, has been shattered." Nor was Jeremiah contented to
+utter these fearful maledictions to the priests and elders; he made his
+way to the Temple, and taking his stand among the people, he reiterated,
+amid a storm of hisses, mockeries, and threats, what he had just
+declared to a smaller audience in reference to Jerusalem.
+
+Such an appalling announcement of calamities, and in such strong and
+plain language, must have transported his hearers with fear or with
+wrath. He was either the ambassador of Heaven, before whose voice the
+people in the time of Elijah would have quaked with unutterable anguish,
+or a madman who was no longer to be endured. We have no record of any
+prophet or any preacher who ever used language so terrible or so daring.
+Even Luther never hurled such maledictions on the church which he called
+the "scarlet mother." Jeremiah uttered no vague generalities, but
+brought the matter home with awful directness. Among his auditors was
+Pashur, the chief governor of the Temple, and a priest by birth. He at
+once ordered the Temple police to seize the bold and outspoken prophet,
+who was forthwith punished for his plain speaking by the bastinado, and
+then hurried bleeding to the stocks, into which his head and feet and
+hands were rudely thrust, to spend the night amid the jeers of the crowd
+and the cold dews of the season. In the morning he was set free, his
+enemies thinking that he now would hold his tongue; but Jeremiah, so far
+from keeping silence, renewed his threats of divine vengeance. "For thus
+saith Jehovah, I will give all Judah into the hands of the king of
+Babylon, and he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and slay them with
+the sword." And then turning to Pashur, before the astonished
+attendants, he exclaimed: "And thou, Pashur, and all that dwell in thy
+house, will be dragged off into captivity; and thou wilt come to
+Babylon, and thou wilt die and be buried there,--thou and all thy
+partisans to whom thou hast prophesied lies."
+
+We observe in these angry words of Jeremiah great directness and great
+minuteness, so that his meaning could not be mistaken; also that the
+instrument of punishment on the degenerate and godless city was to be
+the king of Babylon, a new power from whom Judah as yet had received no
+harm. The old enemies of the Hebrews were the Assyrians and Egyptians,
+not the Babylonians and Medes.
+
+Whatever may have been the malignant animosity of Pashur, he was
+evidently afraid to molest the awful prophet and preacher any further,
+for Jeremiah was no insignificant person at Jerusalem. He was not only
+recognized as a prophet of Jehovah, but he had been the friend and
+counsellor of King Josiah, and was the leading statesman of the day in
+the ranks of the opposition. But distinguished as he was, his voice was
+disregarded, and he was probably looked upon as an old croaker, whose
+gloomy views had no reason to sustain them. Was not Jerusalem strong in
+her defences, and impregnable in the eyes of the people; and was she not
+regarded as under the special protection of the Deity? Suppose some
+austere priest--say such a man as the Abbe Lacordaire--had risen from
+the pulpit of Notre Dame or the Madeleine, a year before the battle of
+Sedan, and announced to the fashionable congregation assembled to hear
+his eloquence, and among them the ministers of Louis Napoleon, that in a
+short time Paris would be surrounded by conquering armies, and would
+endure all the horrors of a siege, and that the famine would be so great
+that the city would surrender and be at the entire mercy of the
+conquerors,--would he have been believed? Would not the people have
+regarded him as a madman, great as was his eloquence, or as the most
+gloomy of pessimists, for whom they would have felt contempt or bitter
+wrath? And had he added to his predictions of ruin, utterly
+inconceivable by the giddy, pleasure-seeking, atheistic people, the most
+scathing denunciations of the prevailing sins of that godless city, all
+the more powerful because they were true, addressed to all classes
+alike, positive, direct, bold, without favor and without fear,--would
+they not have been stirred to violence, and subjected him to any
+chastisement in their power? If Socrates, by provoking questions and
+fearless irony, drove the Athenians to such wrath that they took his
+life, even when everybody knew that he was the greatest and best man at
+Athens, how much more savage and malignant must have been the
+narrow-minded Jews when Jeremiah laid bare to them their sins and the
+impotency of their gods, and the certainty of retribution!
+
+Yet vehement, or direct, or plain as were Jeremiah's denunciations to
+the idol-worshippers of Jerusalem in the seventh century before it was
+finally destroyed by Titus, he was no more severe than when Jesus
+denounced the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, no more mournful
+than when he lamented over the approaching ruin of the Temple. Therefore
+they sought to kill him, as the princes and priests of Judah would have
+sacrificed the greatest prophet that had appeared since Elisha, the
+greatest statesman since Samuel, the greatest poet since David, if
+Isaiah alone be excepted. No wonder he was driven to a state of
+despondency and grief that reminds us of Job upon his ash-heap. "Cursed
+be the day," he exclaims, in his lonely chamber, "on which I was born!
+Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man-child
+is born to thee, making him very glad! Why did I come forth from the
+womb that my days might be spent in shame?" A great and good man may be
+urged by the sense of duty to declare truths which he knows will lead to
+martyrdom; but no martyr was ever insensible to suffering or shame. All
+the glories of his future crown cannot sweeten the bitterness of the cup
+he is compelled to drain; even the greatest of martyrs prayed in his
+agony that the cup might pass from him. How could a man help being sad
+and even bitter, if ever so exalted in soul, when he saw that his
+warnings were utterly disregarded, and that no mortal influence or power
+could avert the doom he was compelled to pronounce as an ambassador of
+God? And when in addition to his grief as a patriot he was unjustly made
+to suffer reproach, scourgings, imprisonment, and probable death, how
+can we wonder that his patience was exhausted? He felt as if a burning
+fire consumed his very bones, and he could refrain no longer. He cried
+aloud in the intensity of his grief and pain, and Jehovah, in whom he
+trusted, appeared to him as a mighty champion and an everlasting support.
+
+Jeremiah at this time, during the early years of the reign of Jehoiakim,
+the period of the most active part of his ministry, was about forty-five
+years of age. Great events were then taking place. Nineveh was besieged
+by one of its former generals,--Nabopolassar, now king of Babylon. The
+siege lasted two years, and the city fell in the year 606 B.C., when
+Jehoiakim had been about four years on the throne. The fall of this
+great capital enabled the son of the king of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar,
+to advance against Necho, the king of Egypt, who had taken Carchemish
+about three years before. Near that ancient capital of the Hittites, on
+the banks of the Euphrates, one of the most important battles of
+antiquity was fought,--and Necho, whose armies a few years before had so
+successfully invaded the Assyrian empire, was forced to retreat to
+Egypt. The battle of Carchemish put an end to Egyptian conquests in the
+East, and enabled the young sovereign of Babylonia to attain a power and
+elevation such as no Oriental monarch had ever before enjoyed. Babylon
+became the centre of a new empire, which embraced the countries that had
+bowed down to the Assyrian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar in the pride of victory
+now meditated the conquest of Egypt, and must needs pass through
+Palestine. But Jehoiakim was a vassal of Egypt, and had probably
+furnished troops for Necho at the fatal battle of Carchemish. Of course
+the Babylonian monarch would invade Judah on his way to Egypt, and
+punish its king, whom he could only look upon as an enemy.
+
+It was then that Jeremiah, sad and desponding over the fate of
+Jerusalem, which he knew was doomed, committed his precious utterances
+to writing by the assistance of his friend and companion Baruch. He had
+lately been living in retirement, feeling that his message was
+delivered; possibly he feared that the king would put him to death as he
+had the prophet Urijah. But he wished to make one more attempt to call
+the people to repentance, as the only way to escape impending
+calamities; and he prevailed upon his secretary to read the scroll,
+containing all his verbal utterances, to the assembled people in the
+Temple, who, in view of their political dangers, were celebrating a
+solemn fast. The priests and people alike, clad in black hair-cloth
+mantles, with ashes on their heads, lay prostrate on the ground, and by
+numerous sacrifices hoped to propitiate the Deity. But not by sacrifices
+and fasts were they to be saved from Nebuchadnezzar's army, as Jeremiah
+had foretold years before. The recital by Baruch of the calamities he
+had predicted made a profound impression on the crowd. A young man, awed
+by what he had heard, hastened to the hall in which the princes were
+assembled, and told them what had been read from the prophet's scroll.
+They in their turn were alarmed, and commanded Baruch to read the
+contents to them also. So intense was the excitement that the matter was
+laid before the king, who ordered the roll to be read to him: he would
+hear the words that Jeremiah had caused to be written down. But scarcely
+had the reading of the roll begun before he flew into a violent rage,
+and seizing the manuscript he cut it to pieces with the scribe's knife,
+and burned it upon a brazier of coals. Orders were instantly given to
+arrest both Jeremiah and Baruch; but they had been warned and fled, and
+the place of their concealment could not be found.
+
+Jehoiakim thus rejected the last offer of mercy with scorn and anger,
+although many of his officers were filled with fear. His heart was
+hardened, like that of Pharaoh before Moses. Jeremiah having learned the
+fate of the roll, dictated its contents anew to his faithful secretary,
+and a second roll was preserved, not, however, without contriving to
+send to the king this awful message. "Thus saith Jehovah of thee
+Jehoiakim: He shall have no son to sit on the throne of David, and his
+dead body will be cast out to lie in the heat by day and the frost by
+night; and no one shall raise a lament for him when he dies. He shall be
+buried with the burial of an ass, drawn out of Jerusalem, and cast down
+from its gates."
+
+No wonder that we lose sight of Jeremiah during the remainder of the
+reign of Jehoiakim; it was not safe for him to appear anywhere in
+public. For a time his voice was not heard; yet his predictions had such
+weight that the king dared not defy Nebuchadnezzar when he demanded the
+submission of Jerusalem. He was forced to become the vassal of the king
+of Babylonia, and furnish a contingent to his army. But this vassalage
+bore heavily on the arrogant soul of Jehoiakim, and he seized the first
+occasion to rebel, especially as Necho promised him protection. This
+rebellion was suicidal and fatal, since Babylon was the stronger power.
+Nebuchadnezzar, after the three years of forced submission, appeared
+before the gates of Jerusalem with an irresistible army. There was no
+resistance, as resistance was folly. Jehoiakim was put in chains, and
+avoided being carried captive to Babylon only by the most abject
+submission to the conqueror. All that was valuable in the Temple and the
+palaces was seized as spoil. Jerusalem was spared for a while; and in
+the mean time Jehoiakim died, and so intensely was he hated and despised
+that no dirge was sung over his remains, while his dishonored body was
+thrown outside the walls of his capital like that of a dead ass, as
+Jeremiah had foretold.
+
+On his death, B.C. 598, after a reign of eight years, his son
+Jehoiachin, at the age of eighteen, ascended his nominal throne. He
+also, like his father, followed the lead of the heathen party. The
+bitterness of the Babylonian rule, united with the intrigues of Egypt,
+led to a fresh revolt, and Jerusalem was invested by a powerful
+Chaldean army.
+
+Jeremiah now appears again upon the stage, but only to reaffirm the
+calamities which impended over his nation,--all of which he traced to
+the decay of religion and morality. The mission and the work of the Jews
+were to keep alive the worship of the One God amid universal idolatry.
+Outside of this, they were nothing as a nation. They numbered only four
+or five millions of people, and lived in a country not much larger than
+one of the northern counties of England and smaller than the state of
+New Hampshire or Vermont; they gave no impulse to art or science. Yet as
+the guardians of the central theme of the only true religion and of the
+sacred literature of the Bible, their history is an important link in
+the world's history. Take away the only thing which made them an object
+of divine favor, and they were of no more account than Hittites, or
+Moabites, or Philistines. The chosen people had become idolatrous like
+the surrounding nations, hopelessly degenerate and wicked, and they
+were to receive a dreadful chastisement as the only way by which they
+would return to the One God, and thus act their appointed part in the
+great drama of humanity. Jeremiah predicted this chastisement. The
+chosen people were to suffer a seventy years' captivity, and then city
+and Temple were to be destroyed. But Jeremiah, sad as he was over the
+fate of his nation, and terribly severe as he was in his denunciations
+of the national sins, knew that his people would repent by the river of
+Babylon, and be finally restored to their old inheritance. Yet nothing
+could avert their punishment.
+
+In less than three months after Jehoiachin became king of Judah, its
+capital was unconditionally surrendered to the Chaldean hosts, since
+resistance was vain. No pity was shown to the rebels, though the king
+and nobles had appeared before Nebuchadnezzar with every mark and emblem
+of humiliation and submission. The king and his court and his wives, and
+all the principal people of the nation, were sent to Babylon as captives
+and slaves. The prompt capitulation saved the city for a time from
+complete destruction; but its glory was turned to shame and grief. All
+that was of any value in the Temple and city was carried to the banks of
+the Euphrates, nearly one hundred and fifty years after Samaria had
+fallen from a protracted siege, and its inhabitants finally dispersed
+among the nations that were subject to Nineveh.
+
+One would suppose that after so great a calamity the few remaining
+people in Jerusalem and in the desolate villages of Judah would have
+given no further molestation to their powerful and triumphant enemies.
+The land was exhausted; the towns were stripped of their fighting
+population, and only the shadow of a kingdom remained. Instead of
+appointing a governor from his own court over the conquered province,
+Nebuchadnezzar gave the government into the hands of Mattaniah, the
+third son of Josiah, a youth of twenty, changing his name to Zedekiah.
+He was for a time faithful to his allegiance, and took much pains to
+quiet the mind of the powerful sovereign who ruled the Eastern world,
+and even made a journey to Babylon to pay his homage. He was a weak
+prince, however, alternately swayed by the different parties,--those
+that counselled resistance to Babylon, and those, like Jeremiah, that
+advised submission. This long-headed statesman saw clearly that
+rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar, flushed with victory, and with the
+whole Eastern world at his feet, was absurd; but that the time would
+come when Babylon in turn should be humbled, and then the captive
+Hebrews would probably return to their own land, made wiser by their
+captivity of seventy years. The other party, leagued with Moabites,
+Tyrians, Egyptians, and other nations, thought themselves strong enough
+to break their allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar; and bitter were the
+contentions of these parties. Jeremiah had great influence with the
+king, who was weak rather than wicked, and had his counsels been
+consistently followed, Jerusalem would probably have been spared, and
+the Temple would, have remained. He preferred vassalage to utter ruin.
+With Babylon pressing on one side and Egypt on the other,--both great
+monarchies,--vassalage to one or the other of these powers was
+inevitable. Indeed, vassalage had been the unhappy condition of Judah
+since the death of Josiah. Of the two powers Jeremiah preferred the
+Chaldean rule, and persistently advised submission to it, as the only
+way to save Jerusalem from utter destruction.
+
+Unfortunately Zedekiah temporized; he courted all parties in turn, and
+listened to the schemes of rebellion,--for all the nations of Palestine
+were either conquered or invaded by the Chaldeans, and wished to shake
+off the yoke. Nebuchadnezzar lost faith in Zedekiah; and being irritated
+by his intrigues, he resolved to attack Jerusalem while he was
+conducting the siege of Tyre and fighting with Egypt, a rival power.
+Jerusalem was in his way. It was a small city, but it gave him
+annoyance, and he resolved to crush it. It was to him what Tyre became
+to Alexander in his conquests. It lay between him and Egypt, and might
+be dangerous by its alliances. It was a strong citadel which he had
+unwisely spared, but determined to spare no longer.
+
+The suspicions of the king of Babylonia were probably increased by the
+disaffection of the Jewish exiles themselves, who believed in the
+overthrow of Nebuchadnezzar and their own speedy return to their native
+hills. A joint embassy was sent from Edom, from Moab, the Ammonites, and
+the kings of Tyre and Sidon, to Jerusalem, with the hope that Zedekiah
+would unite with them in shaking off the Babylonian yoke; and these
+intrigues were encouraged by Egypt. Jeremiah, who foresaw the
+consequences of all this, earnestly protested. And to make his protest
+more forcible, he procured a number of common ox-yokes, and having put
+one on his own neck while the embassy was in the city, he sent one to
+each of the envoys, with the following message to their masters: "Thus
+saith Jehovah, the God of Israel. I have made the earth and man and the
+beasts on the face of the earth by my great power, and I give it to whom
+I see fit. And now I have given all these lands into the hands of
+Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to serve him. And all nations shall
+serve him, till the time of his own land comes; and then many nations
+and great kings shall make him their servant. And the nation and people
+that will not serve him, and that does not give its own neck to the
+yoke, that nation I will punish with sword, famine, and pestilence, till
+I have consumed them by his hand." A similar message he sent to Zedekiah
+and the princes who seemed to have influenced him. "Bring your necks
+under the yoke of the king of Babylon, and serve him, and ye shall live.
+Do not listen to the words of the prophets who say to you, Ye shall not
+serve the king of Babylon. They prophesy a lie to you." The same message
+in substance he sent to the priests and people, urging them not to
+listen to the voice of the false prophets, who based their opinions on
+the anticipated interference of God to save Jerusalem from destruction;
+for that destruction would surely come if its people did not serve the
+king of Babylonia until the appointed time should come, when Babylon
+itself should fall into the hands of enemies more powerful than itself,
+even the Medes and Persians.
+
+Jeremiah, thus brought into direct opposition to the false prophets, was
+exposed to their bitterest wrath. But he was undaunted, although alone,
+and thus boldly addressed Hananiah, one of their leaders and himself a
+priest: "Hear the words that I speak in your ears. Not I alone, but all
+the prophets who have been before me, have prophesied long ago war,
+captivity, and pestilence, while you prophesy peace." On this, Hananiah
+snatched the ox-yoke from the neck of Jeremiah, and broke it, saying,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Even so will I break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar
+from the neck of all nations within two years." Jeremiah in reply said
+to this false prophet that he had broken a wooden yoke only to prepare
+an iron one for the people; for thus saith Jehovah: "I have put a yoke
+of iron on the neck of all these nations, that they shall serve the king
+of Babylon.... And further, hear this, O Hananiah! Jehovah has not sent
+thee, but thou makest this people trust in a lie; therefore thou shalt
+die this very year, because thou hast spoken rebellion against Jehovah."
+In two months the lying prophet was dead.
+
+Zedekiah, now awe-struck by the death of his counsellor, made up his
+mind to resist the Egyptian party and remain true to Nebuchadnezzar, and
+resolved to send an embassy to Babylon to vindicate himself from any
+suspicion of disloyalty; and further, he sought to win the favor of
+Jeremiah by a special gift to the Temple of a set of silver vessels to
+replace the golden ones that had been carried to Babylon. Jeremiah
+entered into his views, and sent with the embassy a letter to the exiles
+to warn them of the hopelessness of their cause. It was not well
+received, and created great excitement and indignation, since it seemed
+to exhort them to settle down contentedly in their slavery. The words
+of Jeremiah were, however, indorsed by the prophet Ezekiel, and he
+addressed the exiles from the place where he lived in Chaldaea,
+confirming the destruction which Jeremiah prophesied to unwilling ears.
+"Behold the day! See, it comes! The fierceness of Chaldaea has shot up
+into a rod to punish the wickedness of the people of Judah. Nothing
+shall remain of them. The time is come! Forge the chains to lead off the
+people captive. Destruction comes; calamity will follow calamity!"
+
+Meanwhile, in spite of all these warnings from both Jeremiah and
+Ezekiel, things were passing at Jerusalem from bad to worse, until
+Nebuchadnezzar resolved on taking final vengeance on a rebellious city
+and people that refused to look on things as they were. Never was there
+a more infatuated people. One would suppose that a city already
+decimated, and its principal people already in bondage in Babylon, would
+not dare to resist the mightiest monarch who ever reigned in the East
+before the time of Cyrus. But "whom the gods wish to destroy they first
+make mad." Every preparation was made to defend the city. The general of
+Nebuchadnezzar with a great force surrounded it, and erected towers
+against the walls. But so strong were the fortifications that the
+inhabitants were able to stand a siege of eighteen months. At the end of
+this time they were driven to desperation, and fought with the energy
+of despair. They could resist battering rams, but they could not resist
+famine and pestilence. After dreadful sufferings, the besieged found the
+soldiers of Chaldaea within their Temple, a breach in the walls having
+been made, and the stubborn city was taken by assault. The few who were
+spared were carried away captive to Babylon with what spoil could be
+found, and the Temple and the walls were levelled to the ground. The
+predictions of the prophets were fulfilled,--the holy city was a heap of
+desolation. Zedekiah, with his wives and children, had escaped through a
+passage made in the wall, at a corner of the city which the Chaldeans
+had not been able to invest, and made his way toward Jericho, but was
+overtaken and carried in chains to Riblah, where Nebuchadnezzar was
+encamped. As he had broken a solemn oath to remain faithful, a severe
+judgment was pronounced upon him. His courtiers and his sons were
+executed in his sight, his own eyes were put out, and then he was taken
+to Babylon, where he was made to work like a slave in a mill. Thus ended
+the dynasty of David, in the year 588 B.C., about the time that Draco
+gave laws to Athens, and Tarquinius Priscus was king of Rome.
+
+As for Jeremiah, during the siege of the city he fell into the power of
+the nobles, who beat him and imprisoned him in a dungeon. The king was
+not able to release him, so low had the royal power sunk in that
+disastrous age; but he secretly befriended him, and asked his counsel.
+The princes insisted on his removal to a place where no succor could
+reach him, and he was cast into a deep well from which the water was
+dried up, having at the bottom only slime and mud. From this pit of
+misery he was rescued by one of the royal guards, and once again he had
+a secret interview with Zedekiah, and remained secluded in the palace
+until the city fell. He was spared by the conqueror in view of his
+fidelity and his earnest efforts to prevent the rebellion, and perhaps
+also for his lofty character, the last of the great statesmen of Judah
+and the most distinguished man of the city. Nebuchadnezzar gave him the
+choice, to accompany him to Babylon with the promise of high favor at
+his court, or remain at home among the few that were not deemed of
+sufficient importance to carry away. Jeremiah preferred to remain amid
+the ruins of his country; for although Jerusalem was destroyed, the
+mountains and valleys remained, and the humble classes--the
+peasants--were left to cultivate the neglected vineyards and cornfields.
+
+From Mizpeh, the city which he had selected as his last resting-place,
+Jeremiah was carried into Egypt, and his subsequent history is unknown.
+According to tradition he was stoned to death by his fellow-exiles in
+Egypt. He died as he had lived, a martyr for the truth, but left behind
+a great name and fame. None of the prophets was more venerated in
+after-ages. And no one more than he resembled, in his sufferings and
+life, that greater Prophet and Sage who was led as a lamb to the
+slaughter, that the world through him might be saved.
+
+
+
+
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS.
+
+
+DIED, 160 B.C.
+
+RESTORATION OF THE JEWISH COMMONWEALTH.
+
+
+After the heroic ages of Joshua, Gideon, and David, no warriors
+appeared in Jewish history equal to Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers in
+bravery, in patriotism, and in noble deeds. They delivered the Hebrew
+nation when it had sunk to abject submission under the kings of Syria,
+and when its glory and strength alike had departed. The conquests of
+Judas especially were marvellous, considering the weakness of the Jewish
+nation and the strength of its enemies. No hero that chivalry has
+produced surpassed him in courage and ability; his exploits would be
+fabulous and incredible if not so well attested. He is not a familiar
+character, since the Apocrypha, from which our chief knowledge of his
+deeds is derived, is now rarely read. Jewish history resembles that of
+Europe in the Middle Ages in the sentiments which are born of danger,
+oppression, and trial. As a point of mere historical interest, the dark
+ages that preceded the coming of the Messiah furnish reproachless
+models of chivalry, courage, and magnanimity, and also the foundation of
+many of those institutions that cannot be traced to the laws of Moses.
+
+But before I present the wonderful career of Judas Maccabaeus, we must
+look to the circumstances which made that career remarkable
+and eventful.
+
+On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity there was among
+them only the nucleus of a nation: more remained in Persia and Assyria
+than returned to Judaea. We see an infant colony rather than a developed
+State; it was so feeble as scarcely to attract the notice of the
+surrounding monarchies. In all probability the population of Judaea did
+not number a quarter as many as those whom Moses led out of Egypt; it
+did not furnish a tenth part as many fighting men as were enrolled in
+the armies of Saul; it existed only under the protection afforded by the
+Persian monarchs. The Temple as rebuilt by Nehemiah bore but a feeble
+resemblance to that which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed; it had neither
+costly vessels nor golden ornaments nor precious woods to remind the
+scattered and impoverished people of the glory of Solomon. Although the
+walls of Jerusalem were partially restored, its streets were filled with
+the debris and ruins of ancient palaces. The city was indeed fortified,
+but the strong walls and lofty towers which made it almost impregnable
+were not again restored as in the times of the old monarchy. It took no
+great force to capture the city and demolish the fortifications. The
+vast and unnumbered treasures which David, Solomon, and Hezekiah had
+accumulated in the Temple and the palaces formed no inconsiderable part
+of the gold and silver that finally enriched Babylonian and Persian
+kings. The wealth of one of the richest countries of antiquity had been
+dispersed and re-collected at Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and other cities,
+to be again seized by Alexander in his conquest of the East, then again
+to be hoarded or spent by the Syrian and Egyptian kings who descended
+from Alexander's generals, and finally to be deposited in the treasuries
+of the Romans and the Byzantine Greeks. Whatever ruin warriors may make,
+whatever temples and palaces they may destroy, they always spare and
+seize the precious metals, and keep them until they spend them, or are
+robbed of them in their turn.
+
+Not only was the Holy City a desolation on the return of the Jews, but
+the rich vineyards and olive-grounds and wheat-fields had run to waste,
+and there were but few to till and improve them. The few who returned
+felt their helpless condition, and were quiet and peaceable. Moreover,
+they had learned during their seventy years' exile to have an intense
+hatred of everything like idolatry,--a hatred amounting to fanatical
+fierceness, such as the Puritan Colonists of New England had toward
+Catholicism. In their dreary and humiliating captivity they at length
+perceived that idolatry was the great cause of all their calamities;
+that no national prosperity was possible for them, as the chosen people,
+except by sincere allegiance to Jehovah. At no period of their history
+were they more truly religious and loyal to their invisible King than
+for two hundred years after their return to the land of their ancestors.
+The terrible lesson of exile and sorrow was not lost on them. It is true
+that they were only a "remnant" of the nation, as Isaiah had predicted,
+but they believed that they were selected and saved for a great end.
+This end they seemed to appreciate now more than ever, and the idea that
+a great Deliverer was to arise among them, whose reign was to be
+permanent and glorious, was henceforth devoutly cherished.
+
+A severe morality was practised among these returned exiles, as marked
+as their faith in God. They were especially tenacious of the laws and
+ceremonies that Moses had commanded. They kept the Sabbath with a
+strictness unknown to their ancestors. They preserved the traditions of
+their fathers, and conformed to them with scrupulous exactness; they
+even went beyond the requirements of Moses in outward ceremonials. Thus
+there gradually arose among them a sect ultimately known as the
+Pharisees, whose leading peculiarity was a slavish and fanatical
+observance of all the technicalities of the law, both Mosaic and
+traditional; a sect exceedingly narrow, but popular and powerful. They
+multiplied fasts and ritualistic observances as the superstitious monks
+of the Middle Ages did after them; they extended the payment of tithes
+(tenths) to the most minute and unimportant things, like the herbs which
+grew in their gardens; they began the Sabbath on Friday evening, and
+kept it so rigorously that no one was permitted to walk beyond one
+thousand steps from his own door.
+
+A natural reaction to this severity in keeping minute ordinances, alike
+narrow, fanatical, and unreasonable, produced another sect called the
+Sadducees,--a revolutionary party with a more progressive spirit, which
+embraced the more cultivated and liberal part of the nation; a minority
+indeed,--a small party as far as numbers went,--but influential from the
+men of wealth, talent, and learning that belonged to it, containing as
+it did the nobility and gentry. The members of this party refused to
+acknowledge any Oral Law transmitted from Moses, and held themselves
+bound only by the Written Law; they were indifferent to dogmas that had
+not reason or Scriptures to support them. The writings of Moses have
+scarcely any recognition of a future life, and hence the Sadducees
+disbelieved in the resurrection of the dead,--for which reason the
+Pharisees accused them of looseness in religious opinions. They were
+more courteous and interesting than the great body of the people who
+favored the Pharisees, but were more luxurious in their habits of life.
+They had more social but less religious pride than their rivals, among
+whom pride took the form of a gloomy austerity and a self-satisfied
+righteousness.
+
+Another thing pertaining to divine worship which marked the Jews on
+their return from captivity was the establishment of synagogues, in
+which the law was expounded by the Scribes, whose business it was to
+study tradition, as embodied in the Talmud. The Pharisees were the great
+patrons and teachers of these meetings, which became exceedingly
+numerous, especially in the cities. There were at one time four hundred
+synagogues in Jerusalem alone. To these the great body of the people
+resorted on the Sabbath, rather than to the Temple. The synagogue,
+popular, convenient, and social, almost supplanted the Temple, except on
+grand occasions and festivals. The Temple was for great ceremonies and
+celebrations, like a mediaeval cathedral,--an object of pride and awe,
+adorned and glorious; the synagogue was a sort of church, humble and
+modest, for the use of the people in ordinary worship,--a place of
+religious instruction, where decent strangers were allowed to address
+the meetings, and where social congratulations and inquiries were
+exchanged. Hence, the synagogue represented the democratic element in
+Judaism, while it did not ignore the Temple.
+
+Nearly contemporaneous with the synagogue was the Sanhedrim, or Grand
+Council, composed of seventy-one members, made up of elders, scribes,
+and priests,--men learned in the law, both Pharisees and Sadducees. It
+was the business of this aristocratic court to settle disputed texts of
+Scripture; also questions relating to marriage, inheritance, and
+contracts. It met in one of the buildings connected with the Temple. It
+was presided over by the high-priest, and was a dignified and powerful
+body, its decisions being binding on the Jews outside Palestine. It was
+not unlike a great council in the early Christian Church for the
+settlement of theological questions, except that it was not temporary
+but permanent; and it was more ecclesiastical than civil. Jesus was
+summoned before it for assuming to be the Messiah; Peter and John, for
+teaching false doctrine; and Paul, for transgressing the rules of
+the Temple.
+
+Thus in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years after the Jews
+returned to their own country, we see the rise of institutions adapted
+to their circumstances as a religious people, small in numbers, poor but
+free,--for they were protected by the Persian monarchs against their
+powerful neighbors. The largest part of the nation was still scattered
+in every city of the world, especially at Alexandria, where there was a
+very large Jewish colony, plying their various occupations unmolested by
+the civil power. In this period Ewald thinks there was a great stride
+made in sacred literature, especially in recasting ancient books that we
+accept as canonical. Some of the most beautiful of the Psalms were
+supposed to have been written at this time; also Apocalypses, books of
+combined history and revelatory prophecy,--like Daniel, and simple
+histories like Esther,--written by gifted, lofty, and spiritual men
+whose names have perished, embodying vivid conceptions of the agency of
+Jehovah in the affairs of men, so popular, so interesting, and so
+religious that they soon took their place among the canonical books.
+
+The most noted point in the history of the Jews in the dark ages of
+their history, for two hundred years after their return from Babylon and
+Persia, was the external peace and tranquillity of the country,
+favorable to a quiet and uneventful growth, like that of Puritan New
+England for one hundred and fifty years after the settlement at
+Plymouth,--making no history outside of their own peaceful and
+prosperous life. They had no intercourse with surrounding nations, but
+were contented to resettle ancient villages, and devote themselves to
+agricultural pursuits. They were thus trained by labor and
+poverty--possibly by dangers--to manly energies and heroic courage. They
+formed a material from which armies could be extemporized on any sudden
+emergencies. There was no standing army as in the times of David and
+Solomon, but the whole people were trained to the use of military
+weapons. Thus the hardy and pious agriculturists of Palestine grew
+imperceptibly in numbers and wealth, so as to become once more a nation.
+In all probability this unhistorical period, of which we know almost
+nothing, was the most fruitful period in Jewish history for the
+development of great virtues. If they had no heathen literature, they
+could still discuss theological dogmas; if they had no amusements, they
+could meet together in their synagogues; if they had no king, they
+accepted the government of the high-priest; if they had no powerful
+nobles, they had the aristocratic Sanhedrim, which represented their
+leading men; if they were disposed to contention, as so many persons
+are, they could dispute about the unimportant shibboleths which their
+religious parties set up as matters of difference,--and the more minute,
+technical, and insoluble these questions were, the fiercer probably grew
+their contests.
+
+Such was the Hebrew commonwealth in the dark ages of its history, under
+the protection of the Persian kings. It formed a part of the province of
+Syria, but the internal government was administered by the
+high-priests. After the return from exile Joshua, Joachim, and Eliashib
+successively filled the pontifical office. The government thus was not
+unlike that of the popes, abating their claims to universal spiritual
+dominion, although the office of high-priest was hereditary. Jehoiada,
+son of Eliashib, reigned from 413 to 373, and he was succeeded by his
+son Johanan, under whose administration important changes took place
+during the reign of Artaxerxes III., called Ochus, the last but two of
+the Persian monarchs before the conquest of Persia by Alexander.
+
+The Persians had in the mean time greatly degenerated in their religious
+faith and observances. Magian rites became mingled with the purer
+religion of Zoroaster, and even the worship of Venus was not uncommon.
+Under Cyrus and Darius there was nothing peculiarly offensive to the
+Jews in the theism of Ormuzd, which was the old religion of the
+Persians; but when images of ancient divinities were set up by royal
+authority in Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Damascus, the allegiance of
+the Jews was weakened, and repugnance took the place of sympathy.
+Moreover, a creature of Artaxerxes III., by the name of Bagoses, became
+Satrap of Syria, and presumed to appoint as the high-priest at Jerusalem
+Joshua, another son of Jehoiada, and severely taxed the Jews, and even
+forced his way into the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the
+Temple,--a sacrilege hard to be endured. This Bagoses poisoned his
+master, and in the year 338 B.C. elevated to the throne of Persia his
+son Arses, who had a brief reign, being dethroned and murdered by his
+father. In 336 Darius III. became king, under whom the Persian monarchy
+collapsed before the victories of Alexander.
+
+Judaea now came under the dominion of this great conqueror, who favored
+the Jews, and on his death, 323 B.C., it fell to the possession of
+Laomedon, one of his generals; while Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy
+Soter, son of Lagus. Between these princes a war soon broke out, and
+Laomedon was defeated by Nicanor, one of Ptolemy's generals; and
+Palestine refusing to submit to the king of Egypt, Ptolemy invaded
+Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it by assault on the Sabbath, when
+the Jews refused to fight. A large number of Jews were sent to
+Alexandria, and the Jewish colony ultimately formed no small part of the
+population of the new capital. Some eighty thousand Jews, it is said,
+were settled in Alexandria when Palestine was governed by Greek generals
+and princes. But Judaea was wrested from Ptolemy Lagus by Antigonus, and
+again recovered by Ptolemy after the battle of Ipsus, in 301 B.C. Under
+Ptolemy Egypt became a powerful kingdom, and still more so under his
+son Philadelphus, who made Alexandria the second capital of the
+world,--commercially, indeed, the first. It became also a great
+intellectual centre, and its famous library was the largest ever
+collected in classical antiquity. This city was the home of scholars and
+philosophers from all parts of the world. Under the auspices of an
+enlightened monarch, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek,
+the version being called the Septuagint,--an immense service to sacred
+literature. The Jews enjoyed great prosperity under this Grecian prince,
+and Palestine was at peace with powerful neighbors, protected by the
+great king who favored the Jews as the Persian monarchs had done. Under
+his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, a still more powerful king, the empire
+reached its culminating glory, and was extended as far as Antioch and
+Babylon. Under the next Ptolemy,--Philopater,--degeneracy set in; but
+the empire was not diminished, and the Syrian monarch Antiochus III.,
+called the Great, was defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217. Under the
+successor of the enervated Egyptian king, Ptolemy V., a child five years
+old, Antiochus the Great retrieved the disaster at Raphia, and in 199
+won a victory over Scopas the Egyptian general, in consequence of which
+Judaea, with Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, passed from the Ptolemies to the
+Seleucidae.
+
+Judaea now became the battle-ground for the contending Syrian and
+Egyptian armies, and after two hundred years of peace and prosperity her
+calamities began afresh. She was cruelly deceived and oppressed by the
+Syrian kings and their generals, for the "kings of the North" were more
+hostile to the Jews than the "kings of the South." In consequence of the
+incessant wars between Syria and Egypt, many Jews emigrated, and became
+merchants, bankers, and artisans in all the great cities of the world,
+especially in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Egypt, where all
+departments of industry were freely opened to them. In the time of
+Philo, there were more than a million of Jews in these various
+countries; but they remained Jews, and tenaciously kept the laws and
+traditions of their nation. In every large city were Jewish synagogues.
+
+It was under the reign of Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, when Judaea
+was tributary to Syria, that those calamities and miseries befell the
+Jews which rendered it necessary for a deliverer to arise. Though
+enlightened and a lover of art, this monarch was one of the most cruel,
+rapacious, and tyrannical princes that have achieved an infamous
+immortality. He began his reign with usurpation and treachery. Being
+unsuccessful in his Egyptian campaigns, he vented his wrath upon the
+Jews, as if he were mad. Onias III. was the high-priest at the time.
+Antiochus dispossessed him of his great office and gave it to his
+brother Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who erected in Jerusalem a gymnasium
+after the Greek style. But the king, a zealot in paganism, bitterly and
+scornfully detested the Jewish religion, and resolved to root it out.
+His general, Apollonius, had orders to massacre the people in the
+observance of their rites, to abolish the Temple service and the
+Sabbath, to destroy the sacred books, and introduce idol worship. The
+altar on Mount Moriah was especially desecrated, and afterward dedicated
+to Jupiter. A herd of swine were driven into the Temple, and there
+sacrificed. This outrage was to the Jews "the abomination of
+desolation," which could never be forgotten or forgiven. The nation
+rallied and defied the power of a king who could thus wantonly trample
+on what was most sacred and venerable.
+
+Two hundred years earlier, resistance would have been hopeless; but in
+the mean time the population had quietly increased, and in the practice
+of those virtues and labors which agricultural life called out, the
+people had been strengthened and prepared to rally and defend their
+lives and liberties. They were still unwarlike, without organization or
+military habits; but they were brave, hardy, and patriotic. Compared,
+however, with the forces which could be arrayed against them by the
+Syrian monarch, who was supreme in western Asia, they were numerically
+insignificant; and they were also despised and undervalued. They seemed
+to be as sheep among wolves,--easy to be intimidated and even
+exterminated.
+
+The outrage in the Temple was the consummation of a series of
+humiliations and crimes; for in addition to the desecration of the
+Jewish religion, Antiochus had taken Jerusalem with a great army, had
+entered into the Temple, where the national treasures were deposited
+(for it was the custom even among Greeks and Romans to deposit the
+public money in the temples), and had taken away to his capital the
+golden candlesticks, the altar of incense, the table of shew bread, and
+the various vessels and censers and crowns which were used in the
+service of God,--treasures that amounted to one thousand eight hundred
+talents, spared by Alexander. So that there came great mourning upon
+Israel throughout the land, both for the desecration of sacred places,
+the plunder of the Temple, and the massacre of the people. Jerusalem was
+sacked and burned, women and children were carried away as captives, and
+a great fortress was erected on an eminence that overlooked the Temple
+and city, in which was placed a strong garrison. The plundered
+inhabitants fled from Jerusalem, which became the habitation of
+strangers, with all its glory gone. "Her sanctuary was laid waste, her
+feasts were turned into mourning, her Sabbath into a reproach, and her
+honor into contempt." Many even of the Jews became apostate, profaned
+the Sabbath, and sacrificed to idols, rather than lose their lives; for
+the persecution was the most unrelenting in the annals of martyrdom,
+even to the destruction of women and children.
+
+The insulted and decimated Jews now rallied under Mattathias, the
+founder of the Asmonean dynasty.
+
+The immediate occasion of the Jewish uprising, which was ultimately to
+end in national independence and in the rule of a line of native
+princes, was as unpremeditated as the throwing out of the window at the
+council chamber at Prague those deputies who supported the Emperor of
+Germany in his persecution of the Protestants, which led to the Thirty
+Years' War and the establishment of religious liberty in Germany. At
+this crisis among the Jews, a hero arose in their midst as marvellous as
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+In Modin, or Modein, a town near the sea, but the site of which is now
+unknown, there lived an old man of a priestly family named Asmon, who
+was rich and influential. His name was Mattathias, and he had five
+grown-up sons, each distinguished for bravery, piety, and patriotism. He
+was so prominent in his little city for fidelity to the faith of his
+fathers, as well as for social position, that when an officer of
+Antiochus came to Modin to enforce the decrees of his royal master, he
+made splendid offers to Mattathias to induce him to favor the crusade
+against his countrymen. Mattathias not only contemptuously rejected
+these overtures, but he openly proclaimed his resolution to adhere to
+his religion,--a man who could not be bribed, and who could not be
+intimidated. "Be it far from us," he said, "to forsake law and
+ordinances. We will not hearken to the king's words, to turn aside to
+the right hand or to the left."
+
+When he had thus given noble attestation of his resolution to adhere to
+the faith of his fathers, there came forward an apostate Jew to
+sacrifice on the heathen altar, which it seems was erected by royal
+command in all the cities and towns of Judaea. This so inflamed the
+indignation of the brave old man that he ran and slew the Jew upon the
+altar, together with the king's commissioner, and pulled down the altar.
+
+For this, Mattathias was obliged to flee, and he escaped to the
+mountains, taking with him his five sons and all who would join his
+standard of revolt, crying with a loud voice, "Let every one zealous for
+the Law follow me!" A considerable multitude fled with him to the
+wilderness of Judaea, on the west of the Dead Sea, taking with them
+their wives and children and cattle. But this flight from persecution
+speedily became known to the troops that were quartered on Mount Zion, a
+strong fortress which controlled the Temple and city, and a detachment
+was sent in pursuit. The fugitives, zealous for the Law, refused to
+defend themselves on the Sabbath day, and the result was that they all
+perished, with their wives and children. Their fate made such a powerful
+impression on Mattathias, that it was resolved henceforth to fight on
+the Sabbath day, if attacked. The patriots had to choose between two
+alternatives,--to be utterly rooted out, or to defend themselves on the
+Sabbath, and thus violate the letter of the Law. Mattathias was
+sufficiently enlightened to perceive that fighting on the Sabbath, if
+attacked, was a supreme necessity, remembering doubtless that Moses
+recognized the right of necessary work even on the sacred day of rest.
+The law of self-defence is an ultimate one, and appeals to the
+consciousness of universal humanity. Strange as it may seem, the Sabbath
+has ever been a favorite day with generals to fight grand battles in
+every Christian country.
+
+Mattathias, although a very old man, now put forth superhuman energies,
+raised an army, drove the persecuting soldiers out of the country,
+pulled down the heathen altars, and restored the Law; and when the time
+came for him to die, at the age of one hundred and forty-five years,--if
+we may credit the history, for Josephus and the Apocrypha are here our
+chief authorities,--he collected around him his five sons, all wise and
+valiant men, and enjoined them to be united among themselves, and to be
+faithful to the Law,--calling to their minds the noted examples from the
+Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham, Joseph, Joshua, David, Elijah, who were
+obedient to the commandments of God. He did not speak of patriotism,
+although an intense lover of his country. He exhorted his sons to be
+simply obedient to the Law,--not, probably, in the restricted and
+literal sense of the word, but in the idea of being faithful to God,
+even as Abraham was obedient before the Law was given. The glory which
+he assured them they would thus win was not the _eclat_ of victory, or
+even of national deliverance, but the imperishable renown which comes
+from righteousness. He promised a glorious immortality to those who fell
+in battle in defence of the truth and of their liberties, reminding us
+of the promises which Mohammed made to his followers. But the great
+incentive to bravery which he urged was the ultimate reward of virtue,
+which runs through the Scriptures, even the favor of God. The heroes of
+chivalry fought for the favor of ladies, the praises of knights, and the
+friendship of princes; the reward of modern generals is exaltation in
+popular estimation, the increase of political power, the accumulation of
+wealth, and sometimes the consciousness of rendering important services
+to their country,--an exalted patriotism, such as marked Washington and
+Cromwell. But the reward which the Jewish hero promised was
+loftier,--even that of the divine favor.
+
+The aged Mattathias, having thus given his last counsels to his sons,
+recommended the second one, Simon, or Simeon, as the future head of the
+family, to whose wisdom the other brothers were to defer,--a man whose
+counsel would be invaluable. The third brother, Judas, a mighty warrior
+from his youth, was appointed as the leader of the forces to fight the
+battles of the people,--the peculiar vocations of Saul and of David, for
+which they were selected to be kings.
+
+On the death of Mattathias, mourned by all Israel as Samuel was mourned,
+at the age of one hundred and forty-five, and buried in the sepulchre of
+his fathers at Modin, Judas, called "The Maccabaeus" ("The Hammer," as
+some suppose), rose up in his stead; and all his brothers helped him,
+and all his father's friends, and he fought with cheerfulness the
+battles of Israel. He put on armor as a hero, and was like a lion in his
+acts, and like a lion's whelp roaring for prey. He pursued and punished
+the Jewish transgressors of the Law, so that they lost courage, and all
+the workers of inquity were thrown into disorder, and the work of
+deliverance prospered in his hands. Like Josiah he went through the
+cities of Judah, destroying the heathen and the ungodly. The fame of his
+exploits rapidly spread through the land, and Apollonius, military
+governor of Samaria, collected an army and marched against a man who
+with his small forces set at defiance the sovereignty of a mighty
+monarchy. Judas attacked Apollonius, slew him, and dispersed his army.
+Ever afterward he was girded with the sword of the Syrian,--a weapon
+probably adorned with jewels, and tempered like the famous
+Damascus blades.
+
+Seron, a general of higher rank, the commander-in-chief of the Syrian
+forces in Palestine, irritated at the defeat and death of Apollonius,
+the following year marched with a still larger army against Judas. The
+latter had with him only a small company, who were despondent in view of
+the great array of their heathen enemies, and moreover faint from having
+not eaten anything that day. But the heroic leader encouraged his men,
+and, undaunted in the midst of overwhelming danger, resolved to fight,
+trusting for aid from the God of battles; for "victory," said he, "is
+not through the multitude of an army, but from heaven cometh the
+strength." This resolution to fight against overwhelming odds would be
+audacity in modern warfare, which is perfected machinery, making one man
+with reliable weapons as good as another, and success to be chiefly
+determined by numbers skilfully posted and manoeuvred according to
+strategic science; but in ancient times personal bravery, directed by
+military genius and aided by fortunate circumstances, frequently
+prevailed over the force of multitudes, especially if the latter were
+undisciplined or intimidated by superstitious omens,--as evinced by
+Alexander's victories, and those of Charles Martel and the Black Prince
+in the Middle Ages. The desperate valor of Judas and his small band was
+crowned with complete success. Seron was defeated with great loss, his
+army fled, and the fame of Judas spread far and wide. His name became a
+terror to the nations.
+
+King Antiochus now saw that the subjection of this valiant Jew was no
+easy matter; and filled with wrath and vengeance he gathered together
+all the forces of his kingdom, opened his treasury, paid his soldiers a
+year in advance, and resolved to root out the rebellious nation by a war
+of extermination. Crippled, however, in resources, and in great need of
+money, he concluded to go in person to Persia and collect tribute from
+the various provinces, and seize the treasures which were supposed to be
+deposited in royal cities beyond the Euphrates. He left behind, as
+regent or lieutenant, Lysias, a man of royal descent, with orders to
+prosecute the war against the Jews with the utmost severity, while with
+half his forces he proceeded in person to Persia. Lysias chose Ptolemy,
+Nicanor, and Gorgias, experienced generals, to conduct the war, with
+forty thousand foot and seven thousand horsemen, besides elephants,
+with orders to exterminate the rebels, take possession of their lands,
+and settle heathen aliens in their place. So confident were these
+generals of success that merchants accompanied the army with gold and
+silver to purchase the Jews from the conquerors, and fetters in which to
+make them slaves. A large force from the land of the Philistines also
+joined the attacking army.
+
+Jerusalem at this time was a forsaken city, uninhabited, like a
+wilderness; the Sanctuary was trodden down, and heathen foreigners
+occupied the citadel on Mount Zion. It was a time of general mourning
+and desolation, and the sound of the harp and the pipe ceased throughout
+the land. But Judas was not discouraged; and the warriors with him were
+bent upon redeeming the land from desolation. They however put on
+sackcloth, and prayed to the God of their fathers, and made every effort
+to rally their forces, feeling that it was better to die in battle than
+see the pollution of the Sanctuary and the evils which overspread the
+land. Judas succeeded in collecting altogether three thousand men, who
+however were poorly armed, and intrenched himself among the mountains,
+about twenty miles from Jerusalem. Learning this, Gorgias took five
+thousand men, one thousand horsemen, under guides from the castle on
+Mount Zion, and departed from his camp at Emmaus by night, with a view
+of surprising and capturing the Jewish force. But Judas was on the
+alert, and obtained information of the intended attack. So he broke up
+his own camp, and resolved to attack the main force of the enemy,
+weakened by the absence of Gorgias and his chosen band. After reminding
+his soldiers of God's mercies in times of old, he ordered the trumpets
+to sound, and unexpectedly rushed upon the unsuspecting and unprepared
+Syrians, totally routed them, pursued them as far as to the plains of
+Idumaea, killed about three thousand men, took immense spoil,--gold and
+silver, purple garments and military weapons,--and returned in triumph
+to the forsaken camp, singing songs and blessing Heaven for the
+great victory.
+
+Many of the Syrians that escaped came and told Lysias all that had
+happened, and he on hearing it was confounded and discouraged. But in
+the year following he collected an army of sixty thousand chosen footmen
+and five thousand horsemen to renew the attack, and marched to the
+Idumaean border. Here Judas met him at Bethsura, near to Jerusalem, with
+ten thousand men, now inspirited by victory, and again defeated the
+Syrian forces, with a loss to the enemy of five thousand men. Lysias,
+who commanded this army in person, returned to Antioch and made
+preparations to raise a still greater force, while the victorious Jews
+took possession of the capital.
+
+Judas had now leisure to cleanse the Sanctuary and dedicate it. When
+his army saw the desolation of their holy city,--trees growing in the
+very courts of the Temple as in a forest, the altars profaned, the gates
+burned,--they were filled with grief, and rent their garments and cried
+aloud to Heaven. But Judas proceeded with his sacred work, pulled down
+the defiled altar of burnt sacrifice and rebuilt it, cleansed the
+Sanctuary, hallowed the desecrated courts, made new holy vessels, decked
+the front of the Temple with crowns and shields of gold, and restored
+the gates and chambers. Judas also fortified the Temple with high walls
+and towers, and placed in it a strong garrison, for the Syrians still
+held possession of the Tower,--a strong fortress near the mount of
+the Temple.
+
+When all was cleansed and renewed, a solemn service of reconsecration
+was celebrated; the sacred fire was kindled afresh on the altar,
+thousands of lamps were lighted, the sacrifices were offered, the people
+thronged the courts of Jehovah, and with psalms of praise, festive
+dances, harps, lutes, and cymbals made a joyful noise unto the Lord.
+This triumphant restoration was celebrated three years, to the very day,
+from the day of desecration; it was forever after--as long as the Temple
+stood--held a sacred yearly festival, and called the Feast of the
+Dedication, or sometimes, from its peculiar ceremonies, the Feast
+of Lights.
+
+The successes of Judas and the restoration of the Temple worship
+inflamed with renewed anger the heathen population of the countries in
+the near vicinity of Judaea; and there seems to have been a general
+confederacy of Idumaeans,--descendants of Esau,--with sundry of the
+Bedouin tribes, and of the heathen settled east of the Jordan in the
+land of Gilead, and of Phoenicians and heathen strangers in Galilee, to
+recover what the Syrians had lost, and to restore idol worship. Judas
+had now an army of eleven thousand men, which he divided between himself
+and his brother Simon, and they marched in different directions to the
+attack of their numerous enemies. They were both eminently successful,
+gaining bloody battles, capturing cities and fortresses, taking immense
+spoils, mingling the sound of trumpets with prayers to Almighty
+God,--heroes as religious as they were brave, an unexampled band of
+warriors, rivalling Joshua, Saul, and David in the brilliancy of their
+victories. All the Jews who remained true to their faith in the
+districts which he overran and desolated, Judas brought back with him to
+Jerusalem for greater safety.
+
+Only one misfortune sullied the glory of these exploits. Judas had left
+behind him at Jerusalem, when he and Simon went forth to fight the
+idolaters, a garrison of two thousand men under the command of Joseph
+and Azarias, leaders of the people, with the strict command to remain
+in the city until he should return. But these popular leaders, dazzled
+by the victories of Judas and Simon, and wishing to earn a fame like
+theirs, issued from their stronghold with two thousand men to attack
+Jamnia, and were met by Gorgias the Syrian general and completely
+annihilated,--a just punishment for military disobedience. The loss of
+two thousand men was a calamity, but Judas pursued his victories,
+finally turning against the Philistines, who at this point disappear
+from sacred history.
+
+In the meantime King Antiochus, who, as already stated, had gone on a
+plundering expedition to Persia, was defeated in the attempt, and
+returned in great grief and disappointment to Ecbatana. Here he heard
+that his armies under Lysias had been disgracefully beaten, and that
+Judaea was in a fair way to achieve its independence under the heroic
+Judas; and, worse still, that all the pagan temples and altars which he
+had set up in Jerusalem were removed and destroyed. This especially
+filled him with rage, for he was a fanatic in his religion, and utterly
+detested the monotheism of the Jews. So oppressed with grief was this
+heathen persecutor that he took to his bed; and in addition to his
+humiliation he was afflicted with a loathsome disease, called
+elephantiasis, so that he was avoided and neglected by his own servants.
+He now saw that he must die, and calling for his friend Philip, made
+him regent of his kingdom during the minority of his son, whom he had
+left at Antioch.
+
+The Jews were thus delivered from the worst enemy that had afflicted
+them since the Babylonian captivity. Neither Assyrians nor Egyptians nor
+Persians had so ruthlessly swept away religious institutions. Those
+conquerors were contented with conquest and its political
+results,--namely, the enslavement and spoliation of the people; they did
+not pollute the sacred places like the Syrian persecutor. By the rivers
+of Babylon the Jews had sat down and wept when they remembered Zion, but
+their sad wailing was over the fact that they were captives in a strange
+land. Ground down to the dust by Antiochus, however, they bewailed not
+only their external misfortunes, but far more bitterly the desecration
+of their Sanctuary and the attempt to root out their religion, which was
+their life.
+
+The death of Antiochus Epiphanes was therefore a great relief and
+rejoicing to the struggling Jews. He left as heir to his throne a boy
+nine years of age; but though he had made his friend Philip guardian of
+his son and regent of his kingdom, his lieutenant at Antioch, Lysias,
+also claimed the guardianship and the regency. These rival claims of
+course led to civil wars between Lysias and Philip, in consequence of
+which the Jews were comparatively unmolested, and had leisure to
+organize their forces, fortify their strongholds, and prepare for
+complete independence. Among other things, Judas Maccabaeus attacked the
+citadel or tower on Mount Zion, overlooking the Temple, in which a large
+garrison of the enemy had long been stationed, and which was a perpetual
+menace. The attack or siege of this strong fortress alarmed the heathen,
+who made complaint to the young king, called Eupator, or more probably
+to the regent Lysias, who sent an overwhelming army into Judaea,
+consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and
+thirty-two elephants. But Judas did not hesitate to give battle to this
+great force, and again gained a victory. It was won, however, at the
+expense of his brother Eleazer. Seeing one of the elephants armed with
+royal armor, he supposed that it carried the king himself; and
+heroically forcing his way through the ranks of the enemy, he slipped
+under the elephant, and gave the beast a mortal wound, so that it fell
+to the ground, crushing to death the courageous Maccabaeus,--for the
+brothers of Judas, worthy compatriots and fellow-soldiers with him, were
+also called by his special name; and although the family name was Asmon,
+they are famous as "the Maccabees."
+
+This battle however was not decisive. Lysias advanced to Jerusalem and
+laid siege to it. But hearing that Philip had succeeded in gaining
+authority at Antioch, he made peace with Judas, and hastily returned to
+his capital, where he found Philip master of the city. Although he
+recovered his capital, it was only for a short time, since Demetrius,
+son of Seleucus, who had been sojourning at Rome, returned to the palace
+of his ancestors, and slaying both Lysias and the young king, reigned in
+their stead.
+
+With this king the Jews were soon involved in war. Evil-minded men,
+hostile to Judas (for in such unsettled times treachery was everywhere),
+went to Antioch with their complaints, headed by Alcimus, who wished to
+be high-priest, and inflamed the anger of King Demetrius. The new
+monarch sent one of his ablest generals, called Bacchides, with an army
+to chastise the Jews and reinstate Alcimus, who had been ejected from
+his high office. This wicked high-priest overran the country with the
+forces of Bacchides, who had returned to Antioch, but did not prevail;
+so the king sent Nicanor, already experienced in this Jewish war, with a
+still larger army against Judas. The gallant Maccabaeus, however, gained
+a great victory, and slew Nicanor himself. This battle gave another rest
+for a time to the afflicted land of Judah.
+
+Meanwhile Judas, fearing that the Syrian forces would ultimately
+overpower him, sent an embassy to Rome to invoke protection. It was a
+long journey in those times. A century and a half later it took Saint
+Paul six months to make it. The conquests of the Romans were known
+throughout the East, and better known than the policy they pursued of
+devouring the countries that sought their protection when it suited
+their convenience. At this time, 162 B.C., Italy was subdued, Spain had
+been added to the empire, Macedonia was conquered, Syria was threatened,
+and Carthage was soon to fall. The Senate was then the ruling power at
+Rome, and was in the height of its dignity, not controlled by either
+generals or demagogues. The Senate received with favor the Jewish
+ambassadors, and promised their protection. Had Judas known what that
+protection meant, he would have been the last man to seek it.
+
+Nor did the treaty of alliance with Rome save Judaea from the continued
+hostilities of Syria. Demetrius sent Bacchides with another army, which
+encamped against Jerusalem, where Judas had only eight hundred men to
+resist an army of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse. We infer
+that his forces had dwindled away by perpetual contests. His heart of
+hope was now well-nigh broken, but his lion courage remained. Against
+the solicitation of his companions in war he resolved to fight;
+gallantly and stubbornly contested the field from morning to night, and
+at last, hemmed in between two wings of the Syrian foe, fell in
+the battle.
+
+The heroic career of Judas Maccabaeus was ended. He had done marvellous
+things. He had for six years resisted and often defeated overwhelming
+forces; he had fought more battles than David; he had kept the enemy at
+bay while his prostrate country arose from the dust; he had put to
+flight and slain tens of thousands of the heathen; he had recovered and
+fortified Jerusalem, and restored the Temple worship; he had trained his
+people to be warlike and heroic. At last he was slain only when his
+followers were scattered by successive calamities. He bore the brunt of
+six years' successful war against the most powerful monarchy in Asia,
+bent on the extermination of his countrymen. And amid all his labors he
+had kept the Law, being revered for his virtues as much as for his
+heroism. Not a single crime sullied his glorious name. And when he fell
+at last, exhausted, the nation lamented him as David mourned for
+Jonathan, saying, "How is the valiant fallen!" A greater hero than he
+never adorned an age of heroism. Judas was not only a mighty captain,
+but a wise statesman,--so revered, that, according to Josephus, in his
+closing years he was made high-priest also, thus uniting in his person
+both spiritual and temporal authority. It was a very small country that
+he ruled, but it is in small countries that genius is often most fully
+developed, either for war or for peace. We know but little of his
+private life. He had no time for what the world calls pleasures; his
+life was rough, full of dangers and embarrassments. His only aim seems
+to have been to shake off the Syrian yoke that oppressed his native
+land, to redeem the holy places of the nation from the pollutions of the
+obscene rites of heathenism, and to restore the worship of Jehovah
+according to the consecrated ritual established in the Mosaic Law.
+
+The death of Judas was of course followed by great disorders and
+universal despondency. His mantle fell on his brother Jonathan, who
+became the leader of the scattered forces of the Jews. He also prevailed
+over Bacchides in several engagements, so that the Syrian leader
+returned to Antioch, and the Jews had rest for two years. Jonathan was
+now clothed with honor and dignity, wore a purple garment and other
+emblems of high rank, and was almost an acknowledged sovereign. He
+improved his opportunities and fortified Jerusalem. But his prosperous
+career was cut short by treachery. He was enticed by the Syrian general,
+even when he had an army of forty thousand men,--so largely had the
+forces of Judaea increased,--into Ptolemais with a few followers, under
+blandishing promises, and slain.
+
+Simon was now the only remaining son of Mattathias; and on him devolved
+the high-priesthood, as well as the executive duties of supreme ruler.
+He wisely devoted himself to the internal affairs of the State which he
+ruled. He fortified Joppa, the only port of Judaea, reduced hostile
+cities, and made himself master of the famous fortress of Mount Zion, so
+long held in threatening vicinity by the Syrians, which he not only
+levelled with the ground, but also razed the summit of the hill on which
+it stood, so that it should no longer overlook the Temple area. The
+Temple became not only the Sanctuary, but also one of the strongest
+fortresses in the world. At a later period it held out for some time
+against the army of Titus, even after Jerusalem itself had fallen.
+
+Simon executed the laws with rigorous impartiality, repaired the Temple,
+restored the sacred vessels, and secured general peace, order, and
+security. Even the lands desolated by the wasting wars with several
+successive Syrian monarchs again rejoiced in fertility. Every man sat
+under his own vine and fig-tree in safety. The friendly alliance with
+Rome was renewed by a present to that greedy republic of a golden
+shield, weighing one thousand pounds, and worth fifty talents, thus
+showing how much wealth had increased under Judas and his brothers. Even
+the ambassadors of the Syrian monarch were astonished at the splendor of
+Simon's palace, and at the riches of the Temple, again restored, not in
+the glory of Solomon, but in a magnifience of which few temples could
+boast,--the pride once more of the now prosperous Jews, who had by
+their persistent bravery earned their independence. In the year 143
+B.C., the Jews began a new epoch in their history, after twenty-three
+years of almost incessant warfare.
+
+Yet Simon was destined, like his brothers, to end his days by violence.
+He also, together with two of his sons, was treacherously murdered by
+his son-in-law Ptolemy, who aspired to the exalted office of
+high-priest, leaving his son John Hyrcanus to reign in his stead, in the
+year 136 B.C. The rule of the Maccabees,--the five sons of
+Mattathias,--lasted thirty years. They were the founders of the Asmonean
+princes, who ruled both as kings and high-priests.
+
+With the death of Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias, this
+lecture properly should end; yet a rapid glance at the Jewish nation,
+under the rule of the Asmonean princes and the Idumaean Herod, may not
+be uninteresting.
+
+John Hyrcanus, the first of the Asmonean kings, was an able sovereign,
+and reigned twenty-nine years. He threw off the Syrian yoke, and the
+Jewish kingdom maintained its independence until it fell under the Roman
+sway. His most memorable feat was the destruction of the Samaritan
+Temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been an eye-sore to the people of
+Jerusalem for two hundred years. He then subdued Idumaea, and compelled
+the people of that country to adopt the Jewish religion. He maintained a
+strict alliance with the Romans, and became master of Samaria and of
+Galilee, which were incorporated with his kingdom, so that the ancient
+limits of the kingdom of David were nearly restored. He built the castle
+of Baris on a rock within the fortifications that surrounded the hill of
+the Temple, which afterward was known as the tower of Antonia.
+
+On his death, 105 B.C., Hyrcanus was succeeded by his son
+Aristobulus,--a weak and wicked prince, who assassinated his brother,
+and starved to death his mother in a dungeon. The next king of the
+Asmonean line, Alexander Jannaeus, was brave, but unsuccessful, and died
+after an unquiet and turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, 77 B.C. His
+widow, Alexandra, ruled as regent with great tact and energy for nine
+years, and was succeeded by her son Hyrcanus II. This feeble and
+unfortunate prince had to contend with the intrigues and violence of his
+more able but unscrupulous brother, Aristobulus, who sought to steal his
+sceptre, and who at one time even drove him from his kingdom. Hyrcanus
+put himself under the protection of the Romans. They came as arbiters;
+they remained as masters. It was when Judaea was under the nominal rule
+of Hyrcanus II., driven hither and thither by his enemies, and when his
+capital was in their hands, that Pompey, triumphant over the armies of
+the East, took Jerusalem after a desperate resistance, entered the
+Temple, and even penetrated to the Holy of Holies. To his credit he left
+untouched the treasures accumulated in the Temple, but he demolished the
+walls of the city and imposed a tribute. Judaea was now virtually under
+the dominion of the Romans, although the sovereignty of Hyrcanus was not
+completely taken away. On the fall of Pompey, Crassus the triumvir
+plundered the Temple of ten thousand talents, as was estimated, and the
+fate of Judaea, during the memorable civil war of which Caesar was the
+hero and victor, hung in trembling suspense. I will not enumerate the
+contentions, the deeds of violence, the acts of treachery, and the
+strife of rival parties which marked the tumultuous period in Judaea
+while Caesar and Pompey were contending for the sovereignty of the
+world. These came to an end at last by the dethronement of the last of
+the Asmonean princes, and the accession of the Idumaean Herod by the aid
+of Antony (40 B.C.).
+
+Herod, called the Great, was the last independent sovereign of
+Palestine. He was the son of Antipater, a noble Idumaean, who had
+ingratiated himself in the favor of Hyrcanus II., high-priest and
+sovereign, and who ruled as the prime minister of this feeble and
+incapable prince. By rendering some service to Caesar, Antipater was
+made procurator of Judaea, and appointed his son Herod to the government
+of Galilee, where he developed remarkable administrative talents. Soon
+after, he was raised by Sextus Caesar to the military command of
+Coele-Syria. After the battle of Philippi, Herod secured the favor of
+Antony by an enormous bribe, as he had that of Cassius on the death of
+Caesar, and was made one of the tetrarchs of the province. In the
+meantime his father, Alexander, was poisoned at Jerusalem, and
+Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had gained ascendency, cut off the
+ears of Hyrcanus, and not only deprived him of the office of
+high-priest, but usurped his authority. Herod himself proceeded to Rome,
+and was successful in his intrigues, being by the favor of Antony made
+king of Judaea. But a severe contest was before him, since Antigonus was
+resolved to defend his crown. With the aid of the Romans, Herod, after a
+war of three years, subdued his rival and put him to death, together
+with every member of the Sanhedrim but two. His power was cemented by
+his marriage with Mariamne, the beautiful sister of Aristobulus, whom he
+made high-priest.
+
+The Asmonean princes were now, by the death of Antigonus, reduced to
+Aristobulus and the aged Hyrcanus, both of whom were murdered by the
+suspicious tyrant who had triumphed over so many enemies. In a fit of
+jealousy Herod even caused the execution of his beautiful wife, whom he
+passionately loved, as he had already destroyed her grandfather, father,
+brother, and uncle. Supported by Augustus, whom he had managed to
+conciliate after the death of Antony, Herod reigned with undisputed
+authority over even an increase of territory. He doubtless reigned with
+great ability, tyrant and murderer as he was, and detested by the Jews
+as an Idumaean. He reigned in a state of magnificence unknown to the
+Asmonean princes. He built a new and magnificent palace on the hill of
+Zion, and rebuilt the fortress of Baris, which he called Antonia in
+honor of his friend and patron, Antony. He also erected strong citadels
+in different cities of his kingdom, and rebuilt Samaria; he founded
+Caesarea and colonized it with Greeks, so that it became a great
+maritime city, rivalling Tyre in magnificence and strength. But Herod's
+greatest work, by which he hoped to ingratiate himself in the favor of
+the Jews, was the rebuilding of the Temple on a scale of unexampled
+magnificence. He was also very liberal in the distribution of corn
+during a severe famine. He was in such high favor with Augustus by his
+presents and his devotion to the imperial interests, that, next to
+Agrippa, he was the emperor's greatest favorite. His two sons by
+Mariamne were educated at Rome with great care, and were lodged in the
+palace of the Emperor.
+
+Herod's latter days however were clouded by the intrigues of his court,
+by treason and conspiracies, in consequence of which his sons, favorites
+with the people on account of their accomplishments and their Asmonean
+blood, were executed by the suspicious and savage despot. Antipater,
+another son, by his first wife, whom he had chosen as his successor,
+conspired against his life, and the proof of his guilt was so clear that
+he also was summarily executed. In addition to these troubles Herod was
+tormented by remorse for the execution of the murdered Mariamne. He was
+the victim of jealousy, suspicion, and wrath. One of his last acts was
+the order to destroy the infants in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the
+vain hope of destroying the predicted Messiah,--him who should be "born
+king of the Jews." He died of a loathsome and excruciating disease, in
+his seventieth year, having reigned nearly forty years. His kingdom, by
+his will, was divided between the children of his later wife, a
+Samaritan woman,--the eldest of whom, Archelaus, became monarch of
+Judea; and the second, Antipas, became tetrarch of Galilee. The former
+married the widow of his half-brother Alexander, who was executed; and
+the latter married Herodias, wife of Philip, also his half-brother.
+
+Archelaus ruled Judaea with such injustice and cruelty, that, after
+nine years, he was summoned to Rome and exiled to Vienne in Gaul, and
+Judaea became a Roman province under the prefecture of Syria. The
+supreme judicial authority was exercised by the Jewish Sanhedrim, the
+great ecclesiastical and civil council, composed of seventy-one persons
+presided over by the high-priest. The Sanhedrim, under the name of chief
+priests, scribes, and elders of the people, now took the lead in all
+public transactions pertaining to the internal administration of the
+province, being inferior only to the tribunal of the governor, who
+resided in Caesarea.
+
+Meanwhile the long expectation of the Jews, especially during the reign
+of Herod, of a promised Deliverer, was fulfilled, and one claiming to be
+the Messiah appeared,--not a temporal prince and mighty hero of war, a
+greater Judas Maccabaeus, as the Jews had supposed, but a helpless
+infant, born in a manger, and brought up as a peasant-carpenter. Yet he
+it was who should found a spiritual kingdom never to be destroyed, going
+on from conquering to conquer, until the whole world shall be subdued.
+With the advent of Jesus of Nazareth, in which we see the fulfilment of
+all the promises made to the chosen people from Abraham to Isaiah,
+Jewish history loses its chief interest. The mission of the Hebrew
+nation seems to stand accomplished; the conception of one, holy,
+spiritual God was kept alive in the world until, in "the fulness of
+time," the mighty Romans subdued and united all lands under one rule,
+drawing them nearer together by great highroads; the flexible Greek
+language gave all peoples a common tongue, in which already the Hebrew
+Scriptures had been familiarized among scholars; the life and teachings
+of Jesus entered with vital power into the heart and brain of those
+devoted followers who recognized him as the Christ,--the revelator of
+the universal fatherhood of the One true God; and thenceforward
+Christianity becomes the great spiritual power of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SAINT PAUL.
+
+
+DIED, ABOUT 67 A.D.
+
+THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+
+The Scriptures say but little of the life of Saul from the time he was
+a student, at the age of fifteen, at the feet of Gamaliel, one of the
+most learned rabbis of the Jewish Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, until he
+appeared at the martyrdom of Stephen, when about thirty years of age.
+
+Saul, as he was originally named, was born at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia,
+about the fourth year of our era. His father was a Jew, a pharisee, and
+a man of respectable social position. In some way not explained, he was
+able to transmit to his son the rights of Roman citizenship,--a valuable
+inheritance, as it proved. He took great pains in the education of his
+gifted son, who early gave promise of great talents and attainments in
+rabbinical lore, and who gained also some knowledge, although probably
+not a very deep one, of the Greek language and literature. Saul's great
+peculiarity as a young man was his extreme pharisaism,--devotion to the
+Jewish Law in all its minuteness of ceremonial rites. We gather from his
+own confessions that at that period, when he was engrossed in the study
+of the Jewish scriptures and religious institutions, he was narrow and
+intolerant, and zealous almost to fanaticism to perpetuate ritualistic
+conventionalities and the exclusiveness of his sect. He was austere and
+conscientious, but his conscience was unenlightened. He exhibited
+nothing of that large-hearted charity and breadth of mind for which he
+was afterward distinguished; he was in fact a bitter persecutor of those
+who professed the religion of Jesus, which he detested as an innovation.
+His morality being always irreproachable, and his character and zeal
+giving him great influence, he was sent to Damascus, with authority to
+bring to Jerusalem for trial or punishment those who had embraced the
+new faith. He is supposed to have been absent from Jerusalem during the
+ministry of our Lord, and probably never saw him who was despised and
+rejected of men. We are told that Saul, in the virulence of his
+persecuting spirit, consented to the death of Stephen, who was no
+ignorant Galilean, but a learned Hellenist; nor is there evidence that
+the bitter and relentless young pharisee was touched either by the
+eloquence or blameless life or terrible sufferings of the
+distinguished martyr.
+
+The next memorable event in the life of Saul--at that time probably a
+member of the Jewish Sanhedrim--was his conversion to Christianity, as
+sudden and unexpected as it was profound and lasting, while on his way
+to Damascus on the errand already mentioned. The sudden light from
+heaven which exceeded in brilliancy the torrid midday sun, the voice of
+Jesus which came to the trembling persecutor as he lay prostrate on the
+ground, the blindness which came upon him--all point to the
+supernatural; for he was no inquirer after truth like Luther and
+Augustine, but bent on a persistent course of cruel persecution. At once
+he is a changed man in his spirit, in his aims, in his entire attitude
+toward the followers of the Nazarene. The proud man becomes as docile
+and humble as a child; the intolerant zealot for the Law becomes broad
+and charitable; and only one purpose animates his whole subsequent
+life,--which is to spend his strength, amid perils and difficult labors,
+in defence of the doctrines he had spurned. His leading idea now is to
+preach salvation, not by pharisaical works by which no man can be
+justified, but by faith in the crucified one who was sent into the world
+to save it by new teachings and by his death upon the cross. He will go
+anywhere in his sublime enthusiasm, among Jews or among Gentiles, to
+plant the precious seeds of the new faith in every pagan city which he
+can reach.
+
+It is thought by Conybeare and Howson, Farrar and others that the new
+convert spent three years in retirement in Arabia, in profound
+meditation and communion with God, before the serious labors of his life
+began as a preacher and missionary. After his conversion it would seem
+that Saul preached the divinity of Christ with so much zeal that the
+Jews in Damascus were filled with wrath, and sought to take his life,
+and even guarded the gates of the city for fear that he might escape.
+The conspiracy being detected, the friends of Saul put him into a basket
+made of ropes, and let him down from a window in a house built upon the
+city wall, so that he escaped, and thereupon proceeded to Jerusalem to
+be indorsed as a Christian brother. He was especially desirous to see
+Peter, as the foremost man among the Christians, though James had
+greater dignity. Peter received him kindly, though not enthusiastically,
+for the remembrance of his relentless persecutions was still fresh in
+the minds of the Christians. It was impossible, however, that two such
+warmhearted, honest, and enthusiastic men should not love each other,
+when the common leading principle of their lives was mutually
+understood.
+
+Among the disciples, however, it was only Peter who took Saul cordially
+by the hand. The other leaders held aloof; not one so much as spoke to
+him. He was regarded with general mistrust; even James, the Lord's
+brother, the first bishop of Jerusalem, would hold no communion with
+him. At length Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, afterward called Barnabas,--a
+man of large heart, who sold his possessions to give to the
+poor,--recognizing Saul's sincerity and superior talents, extended to
+him the right hand of fellowship, and later became his companion in the
+missionary journeys which he undertook. He used his great influence in
+removing the prejudices of the brethren, and Saul henceforth was
+admitted to their friendship and confidence.
+
+Saul at first did not venture to preach in Hebrew synagogues, but sought
+the synagogue of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen had first
+been heard. But his preaching was again cut short by a conspiracy to
+murder him, so fierce was the animosity which his conversion had created
+among the Jews, and he was compelled to flee. The brethren conducted him
+to the little coast village of Caesarea, whence he sailed for his native
+city Tarsus, in Cilicia.
+
+How long Saul remained in Tarsus, and what he did there, we do not know.
+Not long, probably, for he was sought out by Barnabas as his associate
+for missionary work in Antioch. It would seem that on the persecution
+which succeeded Stephen's death, many of the disciples fled to various
+cities; and among others, to that great capital of the East,--the third
+city of the Roman Empire.
+
+Thither Barnabas had gone as their spiritual guide; but he soon found
+out that among the Greeks of that luxurious and elegant city there were
+demanded greater learning, wisdom, and culture than he himself
+possessed. He turned his eyes upon Saul, then living quietly at Tarsus,
+whose superior tact and trained skill in disputation, large and liberal
+mind, and indefatigable zeal marked him out as the fittest man he could
+find as a coadjutor in his laborious work. Thus Saul came to Antioch to
+assist Barnabas.
+
+No city could have been chosen more suitable for the peculiar talents of
+Saul than this great Eastern emporium, containing a population of five
+hundred thousand. I need not speak of its works of art,--its palaces,
+its baths, its aqueducts, its bridges, its basilicas, its theatres,
+which called out even the admiration of the citizens of the imperial
+capital. These were nothing to Saul, who thought only of the souls he
+could convert to the religion of Jesus; but they indicate the importance
+and wealth of the population. In this pagan city were half a million
+people steeped in all the vices of the Oriental world,--a great influx
+of heterogeneous races, mostly debased by various superstitions and
+degrading habits, whose religion, so far as they had any, was a crude
+form of Nature-worship. And yet among them were wits, philosophers,
+rhetoricians, poets, and satirists, as was to be expected in a city
+where Greek was the prevailing language. But these were not the people
+who listened to Saul and Barnabas. The apostles found hearers chiefly
+among the poor and despised,--artisans, servants, soldiers,
+sailors,--although occasionally persons of moderate independence became
+converts, especially women of the middle ranks. Poor as they were, the
+Christians at Antioch found means to send a large contribution in money
+to their brethren at Jerusalem, who were suffering from a
+grievous famine.
+
+A year was spent by Barnabas and Saul at Antioch in founding a Christian
+community, or congregation, or "church," as it was called. And it was in
+this city that the new followers of Christ were first called
+"Christians," mostly made up as they were of Gentiles. The missionaries
+had not much success with the Jews, although it was their custom first
+to preach in the Jewish synagogues on the Sabbath. It was only the
+common people of Antioch who heard the word gladly, for it was to them
+tidings of joy, which raised them above their degradation and misery.
+
+With the contributions which the Christians of Antioch, and probably of
+other cities, made to their poorer and afflicted brethren, Barnabas and
+Saul set out for Jerusalem, soon returning however to Antioch, not to
+resume their labors, but to make preparations for an extended missionary
+tour. Saul was then thirty-seven years of age, and had been a Christian
+seven years.
+
+In spite of many disadvantages, such as ill-health, a mean personal
+appearance, and a nervous temperament, without a ready utterance, Saul
+had a tolerable mastery of Greek, familiarity with the habits of
+different classes, and a profound knowledge of human nature. As a
+widower and childless, he was unincumbered by domestic ties and duties;
+and although physically weak, he had great endurance and patience. He
+was courteous in his address, liberal in his views, charitable to
+faults, abounding in love, adapting himself to people's weaknesses and
+prejudices,--a man of infinite tact, the loftiest, most courageous, most
+magnanimous of missionaries, setting an example to the Xaviers and
+Judsons of modern times. He doubtless felt that to preach the gospel to
+the heathen was his peculiar mission; so that his duty coincided with
+his inclination, for he seems to have been very fond of travelling. He
+made his journeys on foot, accompanied by a congenial companion, when he
+could not go by water, which was attended with less discomfort, and was
+freer from perils and dangers than a land journey.
+
+The first missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul, accompanied by Mark,
+was to the isle of Cyprus. They embarked at Seleucia, the port of
+Antioch, and landed at Salamis, where they remained awhile, preaching
+in the Jewish synagogue, and then traversed the whole island, which is
+about one hundred miles in length. Whenever they made a lengthened stay,
+Saul worked at his trade as a sail and tent maker, so as not to be
+burdensome to any one. His life was very simple and inexpensive, thus
+enabling him to maintain that independence so essential to self-respect.
+
+No notable incident occurred to the three missionaries until they
+reached the town of Nea-Paphos, celebrated for the worship of Venus, the
+residence of the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,--a man of illustrious
+birth, who amused himself with the popular superstitions of the country.
+He sought, probably from curiosity, to hear Barnabas and Saul preach;
+but the missionaries were bitterly opposed by a Jewish sorcerer called
+Elymas, who was stricken with blindness by Saul, the miracle producing
+such an effect on the governor that he became a convert to the new
+faith. There is no evidence that he was baptized, but he was respected
+and beloved as a good man. From that time the apostle assumed the name
+of Paul; and he also assumed the control of the mission, Barnabas
+gracefully yielding the first rank, which till then he had himself
+enjoyed. He had been the patron of Saul, but now became his subordinate;
+for genius ever will work its way to ascendency. There are no outward
+advantages which can long compete with intellectual supremacy.
+
+From Cyprus the missionaries went to Perga, in Pamphylia, one of the
+provinces of Asia Minor. In this city, famed for the worship of Diana,
+their stay was short. Here Mark separated from his companions and
+returned to Jerusalem, much to the mortification of his cousin Barnabas
+and the grief of Paul, since we have a right to infer that this
+brilliant young man was appalled by the dangers of the journey, or had
+more sympathy with his brethren at Jerusalem than with the liberal yet
+overbearing spirit of Paul.
+
+From Perga the two travellers proceeded to Antioch in Pisidia, in the
+heart of the high table-lands of the Peninsula, and, according to their
+custom, went on Saturday to the Jewish synagogue. Paul, invited to
+address the meeting, set forth the mystery of Jesus, his death, his
+resurrection, and the salvation which he promised to believers. But the
+address raised a storm, and Paul retired from the synagogue to preach to
+the Gentile population, many of whom were favorably disposed, and became
+converted. The same thing subsequently took place at Philippi, at
+Alexandria, at Troas, and in general throughout the Roman colonies. But
+the influence of the Jews was sufficient to secure the expulsion of Paul
+and Barnabas from the city; and they departed, shaking off the dust
+from their feet, and turning their steps to Iconium, a city of
+Lycaonia, where a church was organized. Here the apostles tarried some
+time, until forced to leave by the orthodox Jews, who stirred up the
+heathen population against them. The little city of Lystra was the scene
+of their next labors, and as there were but few Jews there the
+missionaries not only had rest, but were very successful.
+
+The sojourn at Lystra was marked by the miraculous cure of a cripple,
+which so impressed the people that they took the missionaries for
+divinities, calling Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury; and a priest of
+the city absolutely would have offered up sacrifices to the supposed
+deities, had he not been severely rebuked by Paul for his superstition.
+
+At Lystra a great addition was made to the Christian ranks by the
+conversion of Timothy, a youth of fifteen, and of his excellent mother
+Eunice; but the report of these conversions reached Iconium and Antioch
+of Pisidia, which so enraged the Jews of these cities that they sent
+emissaries to Lystra, zealous fanatics, who made such a disturbance that
+Paul was stoned, and left for dead. His wounds, however, were not so
+serious as were supposed, and the next day he departed with Barnabas for
+Derbe, where he made a long stay. The two churches of Lystra and Derbe
+were composed almost wholly of heathen.
+
+From Derbe the apostles retraced their steps, A.D. 46, to Antioch, by
+the way they had come,--a journey of one hundred and twenty miles, and
+full of perils,--instead of crossing Mount Taurus through the famous
+pass of the Cilician Gates, and then through Tarsus to Antioch, an
+easier journey.
+
+One of the noticeable things which marked this first missionary journey
+of Paul, was the opposition of the Jews wherever he went. He was forced
+to turn to the Gentiles, and it was among them that converts were
+chiefly made. It is true that his custom was first to address the Jewish
+synagogues on Saturday, but the Jews opposed and hated and persecuted
+him the moment he announced the grand principle which animated his
+life,--salvation through Jesus Christ, instead of through obedience to
+the venerated Law of Moses.
+
+On his return to Antioch with his beloved companion, Paul continued for
+a time in the peaceful ministration of apostolic duties, until it became
+necessary for him to go to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles
+in reference to a controversy which began seriously to threaten the
+welfare of their common cause. This controversy was in reference to the
+rite of circumcision,--a rite ever held in supreme importance by the
+Jews. The Jewish converts to Christianity had all been previously
+circumcised according to the Mosaic Law, and they insisted on the
+circumcision of the Gentile converts also, as a mark of Christian
+fraternity. Paul, emancipated from Jewish prejudices and customs,
+regarded this rite as unessential; he believed that it was abrogated by
+Christ, with other technical observances of the Law, and that it was not
+consistent with the liberty of the Gospel to impose rites exclusively
+Jewish on the Pagan converts. The elders at Jerusalem, good men as they
+were, did not take this view; they could not bear to receive into
+complete Christian fellowship men who offended their prejudices in
+regard to matters which they regarded as sacred and obligatory as
+baptism itself. They would measure Christianity by their traditions; and
+the smaller the point of difference seemed to the enlightened Paul, the
+bitterer were the contests,--even as many of the schisms which
+subsequently divided the Church originated in questions that appear to
+us to be absolutely frivolous. The question very early arose, whether
+Christianity should be a formal and ritualistic religion,--a religion of
+ablutions and purifications, of distinctions between ceremonially pure
+and impure things,--or, rather, a religion of the spirit; whether it
+should be a sect or a universal religion. Paul took the latter view;
+declared circumcision to be useless, and freely admitted heathen
+converts into the Church without it, in opposition to those who
+virtually insisted on a Gentile becoming a Jew before he could become a
+Christian.
+
+So, to settle this miserable dispute, Paul went to Jerusalem, taking
+with him Barnabas and Titus, who had never been circumcised,--eighteen
+years after the death of Jesus, when the apostles were old men, and when
+Peter, James, and John, having remained at Jerusalem, were the real
+leaders of the Jewish Church. James in particular, called the Just, was
+a strenuous observer of the law of circumcision,--a severe and ascetic
+man, and very narrow in his prejudices, but held in great veneration for
+his piety. Before the question was brought up in a general assembly of
+the brethren for discussion, Paul separately visited Peter, James, and
+John, and argued with them in his broad and catholic spirit, and won
+them over to his cause; so that through their influence it was decided
+that it was not essential for a Gentile to be circumcised on admission
+to the Church, only that he must abstain from meats offered to idols,
+and from eating the meat of any animal containing the blood (forbidden
+by Moses),--a sort of compromise, a measure by which most quarrels are
+finally settled; and the title of Paul as "Apostle to the Gentiles" was
+officially confirmed.
+
+The controversy being settled amicably by the leaders of the infant
+Church, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and for a while longer
+continued their labors there, as the most important centre of
+missionary operations. But the ardent soul of Paul could not bear
+repose. He set about forming new plans; and the result was his second
+and more important missionary tour.
+
+The relations between Paul and Barnabas had been thus far of the most
+intimate and affectionate kind. But now the two apostles
+disagreed,--Barnabas wishing to associate with them his cousin Mark, and
+Paul determining that the young man, however estimable, should not
+accompany them, because he had turned back on the former journey. It
+must be confessed that Paul was not very amiable and conciliatory in
+this matter; but his nature was earnest and stern, and he was resolved
+not to have a companion under his trying circumstances who had once put
+his hand to the plough and looked back. Neither apostle would yield, and
+they were obliged to separate,--reluctantly, doubtless,--Paul choosing
+Silas as his future companion, while Barnabas took Mark. Both were
+probably in the right, and both in the wrong; for the best of men have
+faults, and the strongest characters the most. Perhaps Paul thought that
+as he was now recognized as the leading apostle to the Gentiles,
+Barnabas should yield to him; and perhaps Barnabas felt aggrieved at the
+haughty dictation of one who was once his inferior in standing.
+
+The choice of Paul, however, was admirable. Silas was a broad and
+liberal man, who had great influence at Jerusalem, and was entirely
+devoted to his superior.
+
+"The first object of Paul was to confirm the churches he had already
+founded; and accordingly he began his mission by visiting the churches
+of Syria and Cilicia," crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician
+Gates,--one of the most frightful mountain passes in the
+world,--penetrating thus into Lycaonia, and reaching Derbe, Lystra, and
+Iconium. At Lystra he found Timothy, whom he greatly loved, modest and
+timid, and made him his deacon and secretary, although he had never been
+circumcised. To prevent giving offence to Jewish Christians, Paul
+himself circumcised Timothy, in accordance with his custom of yielding
+to prejudices when no vital principles were involved,--which concession
+laid him open to the charge of inconsistency on the part of his enemies.
+Expediency was not disdained by Paul when the means were
+unobjectionable, but he did not use bad means to accomplish good ends.
+He always had tenderness and charity for the weaknesses of his brethren,
+especially intellectual weakness. What would have been intolerable to
+some was patiently submitted to by him, if by any means he could win
+even the feeble; so that he seemed to be all things to all men. No one
+ever exceeded him in tact.
+
+After Paul had finished his visit to the principal cities of Galatia,
+he resolved to explore new lands. We next find him, after a long journey
+through Mysia of three hundred miles, travelling to the south of Mount
+Olympus, at Troas, near the ancient city of Troy. Here he fell in with
+Luke, a physician, who had received a careful Hellenic and Jewish
+education. Like Timothy, the future historian of the Acts of the
+Apostles was admirably fitted to be the companion of Paul. He was
+gentle, sympathetic, submissive, and devoted to his superior. Through
+Luke's suggestion, Renan thinks, Paul determined to go to Macedonia.
+
+So, without making a long stay at Troas, the four missionaries--Paul,
+Silas, Luke, and Timothy--took ship and landed at Neapolis, the seaport
+of Philippi on the borders of Thrace at the extreme northern shores of
+the Aegean Sea. They were now on European ground,--the most healthy
+region of the ancient world, where the people, largely of Celtic origin,
+were honest, earnest, and primitive in their habits. The travellers
+proceeded at once to Philippi, a city more Latin than Grecian, and began
+their work; making converts, chiefly women, among whom Lydia was the
+most distinguished, a wealthy woman who traded in purple. She and her
+whole household were baptized, and it was from her that Paul consented
+against his custom to accept pecuniary aid.
+
+While the work of conversion was going on favorably, an incident
+occurred which hastened the departure of the missionaries. Paul
+exorcised a poor female slave, who brought, by her divinations and
+ventriloquism, great gain to her masters; and because of this
+destruction of the source of their income they brought suit against Paul
+and Silas before the magistrates, who condemned them to be beaten in the
+presence of the superstitious people, and then sent them to prison and
+put their feet fast in the stocks. The jailer and the duumvirs, however,
+ascertaining that the prisoners were Roman citizens and hence exempt
+from corporal punishment, released them, and hurried them out of
+the city.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Luke at Philippi, Paul and Silas proceeded to
+Thessalonica, the largest and most important city of Macedonia, where
+there was a Jewish synagogue in which Paul preached for three
+consecutive Sabbaths. A few Jews were converted, but the converts were
+chiefly Greeks, of whom the larger part were women belonging to the best
+society of the city. By these converts the apostles were treated with
+extraordinary deference and devotion, and the church of Thessalonica
+soon rivalled that of Philippi in the piety and unity of its converts,
+becoming a model Christian church. As usual, however, the Jews stirred
+up animosities, and Paul and Silas were obliged to leave, spending
+several days at Berea and preaching successfully among the Greeks. These
+conquests were the most brilliant that Paul had yet made,--not among
+enervated Asiatics, but bright, elegant, and intelligent Europeans,
+where women were less degraded than in the Orient.
+
+Leaving Timothy and Silas behind him, Paul, accompanied by some faithful
+Bereans, embarked for Athens,--the centre of philosophy and art, whose
+wonderful prestige had induced its Roman conquerors to preserve its
+ancient glories. But in the first century Athens was neither the
+fascinating capital of the time of Cicero, nor of the age of Chrysostom.
+Its temples and statues remained intact, but its schools could not then
+boast of a single man of genius. There remained only dilettante
+philosophers, rhetoricians, grammarians, pedagogues, and pedants, puffed
+up with conceit and arrogance, with very few real inquirers after truth,
+such as marked the times of Socrates and Plato. Paul, like Luther, cared
+nothing for art; and the thousands of statues which ornamented every
+part of the city seemed to him to be nothing but idols. Still, he was
+not mistaken in the intense paganism of the city, the absence of all
+earnestness of character and true religious life. He was disappointed,
+as afterward Augustine was when he went to Rome. He expected to find
+intellectual life at least, but the pretenders to superior knowledge in
+that degenerate university town merely traded on the achievements of
+their ancestors, repeating with dead lips the echo of the old
+philosophies. They were marked only by levity, mockery, sneers, and
+contemptuous arrogance; idlers were they, in quest of some new
+amusement.
+
+The utter absence of sympathy among all classes given over to
+frivolities made Paul exceedingly lonely in Athens, and he wrote to
+Timothy and Silas to join him with all haste. He wandered about the
+streets distressed and miserable. There was no field for his labors. Who
+would listen to him? What ear could he reach? He was as forlorn and
+unheeded as a temperance lecturer would be on the boulevards of Paris.
+His work among the Jews was next to nothing, for where trade did not
+flourish there were but few Jews. Still, amid all this discouragement,
+it would seem that Paul attracted sufficient notice, from his
+conversation with the idlers and chatterers of the Agora, to be invited
+to address the Athenians at the Areopagus. They listened with courtesy
+so long as they thought he was praising their religious habits, or was
+making a philosophical argument against the doctrines of rival sects;
+but when he began to tell them of that Cross which was to them
+foolishness, and of that Resurrection from the dead which was alien to
+all their various beliefs, they were filled with scorn or relapsed into
+indifference. Paul's masterly discourse on Mars Hill was an obvious
+failure, so far as any immediate impression was concerned. The Pagans
+did not persecute him,--they let him alone; they killed him with
+indifference. He could stand opposition, but to be laughed at as a
+fanatic and neglected by bright and intellectual people was more than
+even Paul could stand. He left Athens a lonely man, without founding a
+church. It was the last city in the world to receive his
+doctrines,--that city of grammarians, of pedants, of gymnasts, of
+fencing masters, of play-goers, and babblers about words. "As well might
+a humanitarian socialist declaim against English prejudices to the proud
+and exclusive fellows of Oxford and Cambridge."
+
+Paul, disappointed and disgusted, without waiting for Timothy, then set
+out for Corinth,--a much wickeder and more luxurious city than Athens,
+but not puffed up with intellectual pride. Here there were sailors and
+artisans, and slaves bearing heavy burdens, who would gladly hear the
+tidings of a salvation preached to the poor and miserable. Not yet was
+the alliance to be formed between Philosophy and Christianity. Not to
+the intellect was the apostolic appeal to be made, but to the conscience
+and the heart of those who knew and owned that they were sinners in need
+of forgiveness.
+
+Paul instinctively perceived that Corinth, with its gross and shameless
+immoralities, was the place for him to work in. He therefore decided on
+a long stay, and went to live with Aquila and Priscilla, converted Jews,
+who followed the same trade as himself, that of tent and sail making,--a
+very humble calling, but one which was well patronized in that busy mart
+of commerce. Timothy soon joined him, with Silas. As usual, Paul
+preached to the Jews until they repulsed him with insults and blasphemy,
+when he turned to the heathen, among whom he had great success,
+converting the common people, including some whose names have been
+preserved,--Titus, Justius, Crispus, Chloe, and Phoebe. He remained in
+Corinth eighteen months, not without difficulties and impediments. The
+Jews, unable to vent their wrath upon him as fully as they wished in a
+city under the Roman government, appealed to the governor of the
+province of which Corinth was the capital. This governor is best known
+to us as Gallio,--a man of fine intellect, and a friend of scholars.
+
+When Sosthenes, chief of the synagogue, led Paul before Gallio's
+tribunal, accusing him of preaching a religion against the law, the
+proconsul interrupted him with this admirable reply: "If it were a
+matter of wrong, or moral outrage, it would be reasonable in me to hear
+you; but if it be a question of words and names and of your Law, look ye
+to it, for I will be no judge of such matters." He thus summarily and
+contemptuously dismissed the complaint, without however taking any
+notice of Paul. The mistake of Gallio was that he did not comprehend
+that Christianity was a subject infinitely greater than a mere Jewish
+sect, with which, in common with educated Romans, he confounded it. In
+his indifference however he was not unlike other Roman governors, of
+whom he was one of the justest and most enlightened. In reference to the
+whole scene, Canon Farrar forcibly remarks that this distinguished and
+cultivated Gallio "flung away the greatest opportunity of his life, when
+he closed the lips of the haggard Jewish prisoner whom his decision had
+rescued from the clutches of his countrymen;" for Paul was prepared with
+a speech which would have been more valued, and would have been more
+memorable, than all the acts of Gallio's whole government.
+
+While Paul was pursuing his humble labors with the poor converts of
+Corinth, about the year 53 A.D., a memorable event took place in his
+career, which has had an immeasurable influence on the Christian world.
+Being unable personally to visit, as he desired, the churches he had
+founded, Paul began to write to them letters to instruct and confirm
+them in the faith.
+
+The apostle's first epistle was to his beloved brethren, in
+Thessalonica,--the first of that remarkable series of theological essays
+which in all subsequent ages have held their position as fundamentally
+important in the establishment of Christian doctrine. They are luminous,
+profound, original, remarkable alike for vigor of style and depth of
+spiritual significance. They are not moral essays like those of
+Confucius, nor mystic and obscure speculations like those of Buddha, but
+grand treatises on revealed truth, written, as it were, with his heart's
+blood, and vivid as fire in a dark night. In these epistles we see also
+Paul's intense personality, his frank egotism, his devotion to his work,
+his sincerity and earnestness, his affectionate nature, his tolerant and
+catholic spirit, and also his power of sarcasm, his warm passions, and
+his unbending will. He enjoins the necessity of faith, which is a gift,
+with the practice of virtues that appeal to consciousness and emanate
+from love and purity of heart. These letters are exhortations to a lofty
+life and childlike acceptance of revealed truths. The apostle warns his
+little flock against the evils that surrounded them, and which so easily
+beset them,--especially unchastity and drunkenness, and strifes,
+bickerings, slanders, and retaliations. He exhorts them to unceasing
+prayer, the feeling of constant dependence, and hence the supreme need
+of divine grace to keep them from falling, and to enable them to grow in
+spiritual strength. He promises as the fruit of spiritual victories
+immeasurable joys, not only amid present evils, but in the glorious
+future when the mortal shall put on immortality. Especially and
+repeatedly does he urge them to "have also that mind which was in Christ
+Jesus," showing itself in humility, willingness to serve others,
+unselfish consideration of others, even the preference of others'
+interests before their own,--a combination of the homely practical with
+the divinely ideal, such as the world had never learned from any earlier
+philosophy of life.
+
+Paul at last felt that he must revisit the earlier churches, especially
+those of Syria. It was three years since he had left Antioch. But more
+than all, he wished to consult with his brethren in Jerusalem, and to be
+present at the feast of the Passover. Bidding an affectionate adieu to
+his Christian friends, he set out for the little seaport of Cenchrea,
+accompanied by Aquila and his wife Priscilla, and then set sail for
+Ephesus, on his way to Jerusalem. In his haste to reach the end of his
+journey he did not tarry at Ephesus, but took another vessel, and
+arrived at Caesarea without any recorded accident. Nor did he make a
+long visit at Jerusalem, probably to avoid a rupture with James, the
+head of the church in that city, whose views about Jewish ceremonials,
+as already noted, differed from his.
+
+Paul returned again to Ephesus, where he made a sojourn of three years,
+following his trade for a living, while he founded a church in that city
+of necromancers, sorcerers, magicians, courtesans, mimics,
+flute-players,--a city abandoned to Asiatic sensualities and
+superstitious rites; an exceedingly wicked and luxurious city, yet
+famous for arts, especially for the grandest temple ever erected by the
+Greeks, one of the seven wonders of the world. It was in the most
+abandoned capitals, with mixed populations, that the greatest triumphs
+of Christianity were achieved. Antioch, Corinth, and Ephesus were more
+favorable to the establishment of Christian churches than Jerusalem
+and Athens.
+
+But the trials of Paul in Ephesus, the capital of Asia Minor, the most
+celebrated of all the Ionian cities,--"more Hellenic than Antioch, more
+Oriental than Corinth, more wealthy than Thessalonica, more populous
+than Athens,"--were incessant and discouraging, since it was the
+headquarters of pagan superstitions, and of all forms of magical
+imposture. As usual, he was reviled and slandered by the Jews; but he
+was also at this time an object of intense hatred to the priests and
+image-makers of the Temple of Diana, troubled in mind by evil reports
+concerning the converts he had made in other cities, physically weak and
+depressed by repeated attacks of sickness, oppressed by cares and
+labors, exposed to constant dangers, his life an incessant mortification
+and suffering, "killed all the day long," carrying about him wherever he
+went "the deadness of the crucified Christ."
+
+Paul's labors in Ephesus were nevertheless successful. He made many
+converts and exercised an extraordinary influence,--among other things
+causing magicians voluntarily to burn their own costly books, as
+Savonarola afterward made a bonfire of vanities at Florence. His sojourn
+was cut short at length by the riot which was made by the various
+persons who were directly or indirectly supported by the revenues of the
+Temple,--a mongrel mob, brought to terms by the tact of the town clerk,
+who reminded the howling dervishes and angry silversmiths of the
+punishment which might be inflicted on them by the Roman proconsul for
+raising a disturbance and breaking the law.
+
+Yet Paul with difficulty escaped from Ephesus and departed again for
+Greece, not however until he had written his extraordinary Epistles to
+the Corinthians, who had sadly departed from his teachings both in
+morals and doctrine, either through ignorance, or in consequence of the
+depravity which they had but imperfectly conquered. The infant churches
+were deplorably split into factions, "the result of the visits from
+various teachers who succeeded Paul, and who built on his foundations
+very dubious materials by way of superstructure,"--even Apollos himself,
+an Alexandrian Jew baptized by the Apostle John, the most eloquent and
+attractive preacher of the day, who turned everybody's head. In the
+churches women rose to give their opinions without being veiled, as if
+they were Greek courtesans; the Agapae, or love-feasts, had degenerated
+into luxurious banquets; and unchastity, the peculiar vice of the
+Corinthians, went unrebuked. These evils Paul rebukes, and lays down
+rules for the faithful in reference to marriage, to the position of
+women, to the observance of the Lord's Supper, and sundry other things,
+enjoining forbearance and love. His chapter in reference to charity is
+justly regarded by all writers and commentators as the nearest approach
+in Christian literature to the Sermon on the Mount. Scarcely less
+remarkable is the chapter on death and the resurrection, shedding more
+light on that great subject than all other writers combined in heathen
+and Christian annals,--one of the profoundest treatises ever written by
+mortal man, and which can be explained only as the result of a
+supernatural revelation.
+
+Paul's second sojourn in Macedonia lasted only six months; this time he
+spent in going from city to city confirming the infant churches,
+remaining longest in Thessalonica and Philippi, where his most faithful
+converts were found. Here Titus joined him, bringing good news from
+Corinth. Still, there were dissensions and evils in that troublesome
+church which called for a second letter. In this letter he sets forth,
+not in the spirit of egotism, the various sufferings and perils he had
+endured, few of which are alluded to by Luke: "Of the Jews five times
+received I forty stripes save one; thrice was I beaten with rods; once
+was I stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck; a night and a day have I
+spent in the deep; in journeyings often; in perils of rivers, in perils
+of robbers, in perils from my own race, in perils from the Gentiles, in
+perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea,
+in perils among false brethren; in toil and weariness, in sleeplessness
+often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often; besides anxiety for all
+the churches."
+
+It was probably at the close of the year 57 A.D. that Paul set out for
+Corinth, with Titus, Timothy, Sosthenes, and other companions. During
+the three months he remained in that city he probably wrote his Epistle
+to the Galatians and his Epistle to the Romans,--the latter the most
+profound of all his writings, setting forth the sum and substance of his
+theology, in which the great doctrine of justification by faith is
+severely elaborated. The whole epistle is a war on pagan philosophy, the
+insufficiency of good works without faith,--the lever by which in later
+times Wyclif, Huss, Luther, Calvin, Knox, and Saint Cyran overthrew a
+pharisaic system of outward righteousness. In the Epistle to the
+Galatians Paul speaks with unusual boldness and earnestness, severely
+rebuking them for their departure from the truth, and reiterating with
+dogmatic ardor the inutility of circumcision as of the Law abrogated by
+Christ, with whom, in the liberty which he proclaimed, there is neither
+Jew nor Greek, neither bond nor free, neither male nor female, but all
+are one in Him. And Paul reminds them,--a bitter pill to the Jews,--that
+this is taught in the promise made to Abraham four hundred and fifty
+years before the Law was declared by Moses, by which promise all races
+and tribes and people are to be blessed to remotest generations. This
+epistle not only breathes the largest Christian liberty,--the equality
+of all men before God,--but it asserts, as in the Epistle to the Romans,
+with terrible distinctness, that salvation is by faith in Christ and not
+by deeds of the Law, which is only a schoolmaster to prepare the way for
+the ascendency of Jesus.
+
+I need not dwell on these two great epistles, which embody the substance
+of the Pauline theology received by the Church for eighteen hundred
+years, and which can never be abrogated so long as Paul is regarded as
+an authority in Christian doctrine.
+
+I return to a brief notice of Paul's last visit to Jerusalem, which was
+made against the expostulations of his friends and disciples in Ephesus,
+who gathered around him weeping, knowing well that they never would see
+his face again. But he was inflexible in his resolution, declaring that
+he had no fear of chains, and was ready to die at Jerusalem for the
+name of Jesus. Why he should have persisted in his resolution, so full
+of danger; why he should again have thrown himself into the hands of his
+bitterest enemies, thirsty for his blood,--we do not know, for he had no
+new truth to declare. But the brethren were forced to yield to his
+strong will, and all they could do was to provide him with a sufficient
+escort to shield him from ordinary dangers on the way.
+
+The long voyage from Ephesus was prosperous but tedious, and on the last
+day before the Pentecostal feast, in May, in the year 58 A.D., Paul for
+the fifth time entered Jerusalem. His meeting with the elders, under the
+presidency of James,--"the stern, white-robed, ascetic, mysterious
+prophet,"--was cold. His personal friends in Jerusalem were few, and his
+enemies were numerous, powerful, and bitter; for he had not only
+emancipated himself from the Jewish Law, with all its rites and
+ceremonies, but had made it of no account in all the churches he had
+founded. What had he naturally to expect from the zealots for that Law
+but a renewed persecution? Even the Jewish Christians gave no thanks for
+the splendid contribution which Paul had gathered in Asia for the relief
+of their poor. Nor was there any exultation among them when Paul
+narrated his successful labors among the Gentiles. They pretended to
+rejoice, but added, "You observe, brother, how many myriads of the Jews
+there are that have embraced the faith, and they are all zealots for the
+Law. And we are informed that thou teachest all the Jews that are among
+the Gentiles to forsake Moses." There was no cordiality among the Jewish
+elders of the Christian community, and deadly hostility among the
+unconverted Jews, for they had doubtless heard of Paul's
+marvellous career.
+
+Jerusalem was then full of strangers, and the Jews of Asia recognizing
+Paul in the Temple, raised a disturbance, pretending that he was a
+profaner of the sacred edifice. The crowd of fanatics seized him,
+dragged him out of the Temple, and set about to kill him. But the Roman
+authorities interfered, and rescuing him from the hands of the
+infuriated mob, bore him to the castle, the tower of Antonia. When they
+arrived at the stairs of the tower, Paul begged the tribune to be
+allowed to speak to the angry and demented crowd. The request was
+granted, and he made a speech in Hebrew, narrating his early history and
+conversion; but when he came to his mission to the Gentiles, the uproar
+was renewed, the people shouting, "Away with such a fellow from the
+earth, for it is not fit that he should live!" And Paul would have been
+bound and scourged, had he not proclaimed that he was a Roman citizen.
+
+On the next day the Roman magistrate summoned the chief priests and the
+Sanhedrim, to give Paul an opportunity to make his defence in the matter
+of which he was accused. Ananias the high-priest presided, and the Roman
+tribune was present at the proceedings, which were tumultuous and angry.
+Paul seeing that the assembly was made up of Pharisees, Sadducees, and
+hostile parties, made no elaborate defence, and the tribune dissolved
+the assembly; but forty of the most hostile and fanatical formed a
+conspiracy, and took a solemn oath not to eat or drink until they had
+assassinated him. The plot reached the ears of a nephew of Paul, who
+revealed it to the tribune. The officer listened attentively to all the
+details, and at once took his resolution to send Paul to Caesarea, both
+to get him out of the hands of the Jews, and to have him judged by the
+procurator Felix. Accordingly, accompanied by an escort of two hundred
+soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen of the guard, Paul
+was sent by night, secretly, to the Roman capital of the Province. He
+entered the city in the course of the next day, and was at once led to
+the presence of the governor.
+
+Felix, as procurator, ruled over Judaea with the power of a king. He had
+been a freedman of the Emperor Claudius, and was allied by marriage to
+Claudius himself,--an ambitious, extortionate, and infamous governor.
+Felix was obliged to give Paul a fair trial, and after five days the
+indomitable missionary was confronted with accusers, among whom appeared
+the high-priest Ananias. They associated with them a lawyer called
+Tertullus, of oratorical gifts, who conducted the case. The principal
+charges made against Paul were that he was a public pest and leader of
+seditions; that he was a ringleader of the Nazarenes (the contemptuous
+name which the Jews gave to the Christians); and that he had attempted
+to profane the Temple, which was a capital offence according to the
+Jewish law. Paul easily refuted these charges, and had Felix been an
+upright judge he would have dismissed the case; but supposing the
+apostle to be rich because of the handsome contributions he had brought
+from Asia Minor for the poor converts at Jerusalem, Felix retained Paul
+in the hope of a bribe. A few days after, Drusilla, a young woman of
+great beauty and accomplishments, who had eloped from her husband to be
+married to Felix, was desirous to hear so famous a man as Paul explain
+his faith; and Felix, to gratify her curiosity, summoned his
+distinguished prisoner to discourse before them. Paul eagerly embraced
+the opportunity; but instead of explaining the Christian mysteries, he
+reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and retribution,--moral
+truths which even intelligent heathen accepted, and as to which the
+consciences of both, his hearers must have tingled; indeed, he
+discoursed with such matchless boldness and power that Felix trembled
+with fear as he remembered the arts by which he had risen from the
+condition of a slave, and the extortions and cruelties by which he had
+become enriched, to say nothing of the lusts and abominations which had
+disgraced his career. However, he did not set Paul free, but kept him a
+prisoner for two years, in order to gain favor with the Jews, or to
+receive a bribe.
+
+Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix, was a just and inflexible man,
+who arrived at Caesarea in the year 60 A.D., when Paul was fifty-eight
+years of age. Immediately the enemies of Paul, especially the Sadducees,
+renewed their demands to have him again tried; and Festus, wishing to be
+just, ordered the second trial. Again Paul defended himself with
+masterly ability, proving that he had done nothing against the Jewish
+law or Temple, or against the Roman Emperor. Festus, probably not seeing
+the aim of the conspirators, was disposed to send Paul back to Jerusalem
+to be tried by a Jewish court. To prevent this, as at Jerusalem
+condemnation and death would be certain, Paul, remembering that he was a
+Roman citizen, fell back on his privilege, and at once appealed to
+Caesar himself. The governor, at first surprised by such an unexpected
+demand, consulted with his assistants for a moment, and then replied:
+"Thou hast appealed unto Caesar, and unto Caesar shalt thou go." Thus
+ended the trial of Paul; and thus providentially was the way open to
+him, without expense to himself, to go to Rome, which of all cities he
+wished to visit, and where he hoped to continue, even under bonds and
+restrictions, his missionary labors.
+
+In the meantime, before a ship could be got in readiness to transport
+him and other prisoners to Rome, Herod Agrippa II., with his sister
+Bernice, came to Caesarea to pay a visit to the new governor.
+Conversation naturally turned upon the late extraordinary trial, and
+Agrippa expressed a desire to hear the prisoner speak, for he had heard
+much about him. Festus willingly acceded to this wish, and the next day
+Paul was again summoned before the king and the procurator. Agrippa and
+Bernice appeared in great pomp with their attendants; all the officers
+of the army and the principal men of the city were also present. It was
+the most splendid audience that Paul had ever addressed. He was equal to
+the occasion, and delivered a discourse on his familiar topics,--his own
+miraculous conversion and his mission to the Gentiles to preach the
+crucified and risen Christ,--things new to Festus, who thought that Paul
+was visionary, and had lost his balance from excess of learning.
+Agrippa, however, familiar with Jewish law and the prophecies concerning
+the Messiah, was much impressed with Paul's eloquence, and exclaimed:
+"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian!" When the assembly broke
+up, Agrippa said, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had
+not appealed unto Caesar." Paul, however, did not wish to be set at
+liberty among bitter and howling enemies; he preferred to go to Rome,
+and would not withdraw his appeal. So in due time he embarked for Italy
+under the charge of a centurion, accompanied with other prisoners and
+his friends Timothy, Luke, and Aristarchus of Thessalonica.
+
+The voyage from Caesarea to Italy was a long one, and in the autumn was
+a dangerous one, as in Paul's case it unfortunately proved.
+
+The following spring, however, after shipwreck and divers perils and
+manifold fatigues, Paul arrived at Rome, in the year 61 A.D., in the
+seventh year of the Emperor Nero. Here the centurion handed Paul over to
+the prefect of the praetorian guards, by whom he was subjected to a
+merely nominal custody, although, according to Roman custom, he was
+chained to a soldier. But he was treated with great lenity, was allowed
+to have lodgings, to receive his friends freely, and to hold Christian
+meetings in his own house; and no one molested him. For two years Paul
+remained at Rome, a fettered prisoner it is true, but cheered by
+friendly visits, and attended by Luke, his "beloved physician" and
+biographer, by Timothy and other devoted disciples. During this second
+imprisonment Paul could see very little outside the praetorian barracks,
+but his friends brought him the news, and he had ample time to write
+letters. He had no intercourse with gifted and fortunate Romans; his
+acquaintance was probably confined to the praetorian soldiers, and some
+of the humbler classes who sought Christian instruction. But from this
+period we date many of his epistles, on which his fame and influence
+largely rest as a theologian and man of genius. Among those which he
+wrote from Rome were the Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and
+many pastoral letters like those written to Philemon, Titus, and
+Timothy. We know but little of the life of Paul after his arrival at
+Rome, for at this point Saint Luke closes his narrative, and all after
+this is conjecture and tradition.[4] But the main part of Paul's work
+was accomplished when he was first sent to Rome as a prisoner to be
+tried in the imperial courts; and there is but little doubt that he
+finally met the death he so heroically contemplated, at the hands of the
+monster Nero, who martyred such a vast multitude of Paul's
+fellow-Christians.
+
+[Footnote 4: There has been much doubt as to whether Paul was martyred
+during the three years of this imprisonment, or whether he was
+acquitted, left Rome, visited his beloved churches in Macedonia and Asia
+Minor, went to preach the gospel in Spain, and was again arrested, taken
+to Rome, and there beheaded. The earliest authorities seem to have been
+agreed upon the second hypothesis; and this is based chiefly upon a
+statement made by Paul's disciple Clement to the effect that the apostle
+had preached in "the extremity of the West" (an expression of Roman
+writers to denote Spain), and also on the impossibility of placing
+certain facts mentioned in the second letter to Timothy and the one to
+Titus in the period of the first imprisonment. He was certainly tried,
+defended himself, and he may have been at first acquitted.]
+
+At Jerusalem and at Antioch he had vindicated the freedom of the Gentile
+from the yoke of the Levitical Law; in his letters to the Romans and
+Galatians he had proclaimed both to Jew and Gentile that they were not
+under the law, but under grace. During the space of twenty years Paul
+had preached the gospel of Jesus as the Christ in the chief cities of
+the world, and had formulated the truths of Christianity. What
+marvellous labors! But it does not appear that this apostle's
+extraordinary work was fully appreciated in his day, certainly not by
+the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem; nor does it appear even that his
+pre-eminence among the apostles was conceded until the third and fourth
+centuries. He himself was often sad and discouraged in not seeing a
+larger success, yet recognized himself as a layer of foundations. Like
+our modern missionaries, Paul simply sowed the seed; the fruit was not
+to be gathered in until centuries after his death. Before he died, as is
+seen in his second letter to Timothy, many of his friends and disciples
+deserted him, and he was left almost alone. He had to defend himself
+single-handed against the capricious tyrant who ruled the world, and who
+wished to cast on the Christians the stain of his greatest crime, the
+conflagration of his capital. As we have said, all details pertaining to
+the life of Paul after his arrival at Rome are simply conjectural, and
+although interesting, they cannot give us the satisfaction of certainty.
+
+But in closing, after enumerating the labors and writings of this great
+apostle, it is not inopportune to say a few words about his remarkable
+character, although I have now and again alluded to his personal traits
+in the course of this narrative.
+
+Paul is the most prominent figure of all the great men who have adorned,
+or advanced the interest of, the Christian Church. Great pulpit orators,
+renowned theologians, profound philosophers, immortal poets, successful
+reformers, and enlightened monarchs have never disputed his intellectual
+ascendency; to all alike he has been a model and a marvel. The grand old
+missionary stands out in history as a matchless example of Christian
+living, a sure guide in Christian doctrine. No more favored mortal is
+ever likely to appear; he is the counterpart of Moses as a divine
+teacher to all generations. The popes may exalt Saint Peter as the
+founder of their spiritual empire, but when their empire as an
+institution shall crumble away, as all institutions must which are not
+founded on the "Rock" which it was the mission of apostles to proclaim,
+Paul will stand out the most illustrious of all Christian teachers.
+
+As a man Paul had his faults, but his virtues were transcendent; and
+these virtues he himself traced to divine grace, enabling him to conquer
+his infirmities and prejudices, and to perform astonishing labors, and
+to endure no less marvellous sufferings. His humanity was never lost in
+his discouraging warfare; he sympathized with human sorrows and
+afflictions; he was tolerant, after his conversion, of human
+infirmities, while enjoining a severe morality. He was a man of native
+genius, with profound insight into spiritual truth. Trained in
+philosophy and disputation, his gentleness and tact in dealing with
+those who opposed him are a lesson to all controversialists. His
+voluntary sufferings have endeared him to the heart of the world, since
+they were consecrated to the welfare of the world he sought to
+enlighten. As an encouragement to others, he enumerates the calamities
+which happened to him from his zeal to serve mankind, but he never
+complains of them or regards them as a mystery, or as anything but the
+natural result of unappreciated devotion. He was more cheerful than
+Confucius, who felt that his life had been a failure; more serene than
+Plato when surrounded by admiring followers. He regarded every Christian
+man as a brother and a friend. He associated freely with women, without
+even calling out a sneer or a reproach. He taught principles of
+self-control rather than rules of specific asceticism, and hence
+recommended wine to Timothy and encouraged friendship between men and
+women, when intemperance and unchastity were the scandal and disgrace
+of the age; although so far as himself was concerned, he would not eat
+meat, if thereby he should give offence to the weakest of his
+weak-minded brethren. He enjoined filial piety, obedience to rulers, and
+kindness to servants as among the highest duties of life. He was frugal,
+but independent and hospitable; he had but few wants, and submitted
+patiently to every inconvenience. He was the impersonation of
+gentleness, sympathy, and love, although a man of iron will and
+indomitable resolution. He claimed nothing but the right to speak his
+honest opinions, and the privilege to be judged according to the laws.
+He magnified his office, but only the more easily to win men to his
+noble cause. To this great cause he was devoted heart and soul, without
+ever losing courage, or turning back for a moment in despondency or
+fear. He was as courageous as he was faithful; as indifferent to
+reproach as he was eager for friendship. As a martyr he was peerless,
+since his life was a protracted martyrdom. He was a hero, always
+gallantly fighting for the truth whatever may have been the array and
+howling of his foes; and when wounded and battered by his enemies he
+returned to the fight for his principles with all the earnestness, but
+without the wrath, of a knight of chivalry. He never indulged in angry
+recriminations or used unseemly epithets, but was unsparing in his
+denunciation of sin,--as seen in his memorable description of the vices
+of the Romans. Self-sacrifice was the law of his life. His faith was
+unshaken in every crisis and in every danger. It was this which
+especially fitted him, as well as his ceaseless energies and superb
+intellect, to be a leader of mankind. To Paul, and to Paul more than to
+any other apostle, was given the exalted privilege of being the
+recognized interpreter of Christian doctrine for both philosophers and
+the people, for all coming ages; and at the close of his career, worn
+out with labor and suffering, yet conscious of the services which he had
+rendered and of the victories he had won, and possibly in view of
+approaching martyrdom, he was enabled triumphantly to say: "I have
+fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the faith.
+Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the
+Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME
+II***
+
+
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