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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10162-0.txt b/10162-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5b888a --- /dev/null +++ b/10162-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8269 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10162 *** + + DIO'S ROME + + + + AN HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK DURING THE REIGNS OF + SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS AND ALEXANDER + SEVERUS: + + + + AND + + + NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + + + BY + + HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting + Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + + + + THIRD VOLUME _Extant Books 45-51 (B.C. 44-29)_. + + + 1906 + + + + + VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Forty-five + +Book Forty-six + +Book Forty-seven + +Book Forty-eight + +Book Forty-nine + +Book Fifty + +Book Fifty-one + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +45 + +VOL. 3.--1 + +The following is contained in the Forty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +About Gaius Octavius, who afterward was named Augustus (chapters 1-9). + +About Sextus, the son of Pompey (chapter 10). + +How Caesar and Antony entered upon a period of hostility (chapters 11-17). + +How Cicero delivered a public harangue against Antony (chapters 18-47). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the year of the 5th dictatorship of C. +Iulius Caesar with M. Aemilius Lepidus, Master of the Horse, and of his 5th +consulship with Marcus Antonius. (B.C. 44 = a. u. 710.)[1] + + +(_BOOK 45, BOSSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_.710)] + +[-1-] This was Antony's course of procedure.--Gaius Octavius Copia,--this +was the name of the son of Caesar's niece, Attia,--came from Velitrae in +the Volscian country, and having been left without a protector by the +death of his father Octavius he was brought up in the house of his mother +and her husband, Lucius Philippus, but on attaining maturity spent his +time with Caesar. The latter, who was childless, based great hopes upon +him and was devoted to him, intending to leave him as successor to his +name, authority, and supremacy. He was influenced largely by Attia's +explicit affirmation that the youth had been engendered by Apollo. While +sleeping once in his temple, she said, she thought she had intercourse +with a serpent, and through this circumstance at the end of the allotted +time bore a son. Before he came to the light of day she saw in a dream +her womb lifted to the heavens and spreading out over all the earth; and +the same night Octavius thought the sun rose from her vagina. Hardly +had the child been born when Nigidius Figulus, a senator, straightway +prophesied for him sole command of the realm. [2] + +He could distinguish most accurately of his contemporaries the order of +the firmament and the mutations of the stars, what they accomplished +by separation and what by conjunctions, in their associations and +retirements, and for this reason had incurred the charge of practicing +some kind of forbidden pursuits. He accordingly met on that occasion +Octavius, who was somewhat tardy in reaching the senate on account of the +birth of the child,--there happened to be a meeting of the senate that +day,--and asked him why he was late. On learning the cause he cried out: +"You have begotten a master over us." [3] At that Octavius was alarmed and +wished to destroy the infant, but Nigidius restrained him, saying that +it was impossible for it to suffer any such fate. [-2-] This was the +conversation at that time. While the boy was growing up in the country an +eagle snatched from his hands a loaf of bread, and after soaring aloft +flew down and gave it back to him.[4] When he was a lad and staying in +Rome Cicero dreamed that the boy was let down by golden chains to the +summit of the Capitol and received a whip from Jupiter.[5] He did not +know who the youth was, but meeting him the next day on the Capitol +itself he recognized him, and told the vision to the bystanders. Catulus, +who had likewise never seen Octavius, beheld in a vision all the noble +children on the Capitol at the termination of a solemn procession to +Jupiter, and in the course of the ceremony the god cast what looked like +an image of Rome into that child's lap. Startled at this he went up into +the Capitol to offer prayers to the god, and finding there Octavius, who +had ascended the hill for some other reason, he compared his appearance +with the dream and was satisfied of the truth of the vision. When later +he had become a young man and was about to reach maturity, he was putting +on the dress of an adult when his tunic was rent on both sides from his +shoulders and fell to his feet. This event of itself not only had +no significance as forecasting any good fortune, but displeased the +spectators considerably because it had happened in his first putting on +the garb of a man: it occurred to Octavius to say: "I shall put the whole +senatorial dignity beneath my feet"; and the outcome proved in accordance +with his words. Caesar founded great hopes upon him as a result of +this, introduced him into the class of patricians and trained him for +rulership. In everything that is proper to come to the notice of one +destined to control so great a power well and worthily he educated him +with care. The youth was trained in oratorical speeches, not only in the +Latin but in this language [Greek], labored persistently in military +campaigns, and received minute instruction in politics and the science of +government. + +[-3-] Now this Octavius chanced at the time that Caesar was murdered to +be in Apollonia near the Ionic Gulf, pursuing his education. He had been +sent thither in advance to look after his patron's intended campaign +against the Parthians. When he learned of the event he was naturally +grieved, but did not dare at once to take any radical measures. He had +not yet heard that he had been made Caesar's son or heir, and moreover the +first news he received was to the effect that the people were of one mind +in the affair. When, however, he had crossed to Brundusium and had been +informed about the will and the people's second thought, he made no +delay, particularly because he had considerable money and numerous +soldiers who had been sent on under his charge, but he immediately +assumed the name of Caesar, succeeded to his estate, and began to busy +himself with the situation. [-4-] At the time he seemed to some to have +acted recklessly and daringly in this, but later as a result of his +good fortune and the successes he achieved he acquired a reputation for +bravery. In many instances in history men who were wrong in undertaking +some project have been famed for wisdom because they proved fortunate in +it: others who used the best possible judgment have had to stand a charge +of folly because they did not attain their ends. He, too, acted in a +blundering and dangerous way; he was only just past boyhood,--eighteen +years of age,--and saw that the succession to the inheritance and the +family was sure to provoke jealousy and censure: yet he started in +pursuit of objects that had led to Caesar's murder, and no punishment +befell him, and he feared neither the assassins nor Lepidus and Antony. +Yet he was not thought to have planned poorly, because he became +successful. Heaven, however, indicated not obscurely all the upheaval +that would result from it. As he was entering Rome a great variegated +iris surrounded the whole sun. + +[-5-] In this way he that was formerly called Octavius, but already at +this time Caesar, and subsequently Augustus, took charge of affairs and +settled them and brought them to a successful close more vigourously than +any mature man, more prudently than any graybeard. First he entered the +city as if for the sole purpose of succeeding to the inheritance, and as +a private citizen with only a few attendants, without any ostentation. +Still later he did not utter any threat against any one nor show that he +was displeased at what had occurred and would take vengeance for it. So +far from demanding of Antony any of the money that he had previously +plundered, he actually paid court to him although he was insulted and +wronged by him. Among the other injuries that Antony did him by both word +and deed was his action when the lex curiata was proposed, according to +which the transfer of Octavius into Caesar's family was to take place: +Antony himself, of course, was active to have it passed, but through some +tribunes he secured its postponement in order that the young man being +not yet Caesar's child according to law might not meddle with the property +and might be weaker in all other ways. [-6-] Caesar was restive under this +treatment, but as he was unable to speak his mind freely he bore it until +he had won over the crowd, by whose members he understood his father had +been raised to honor. He knew that they were angry at the latter's death +and hoped they would be enthusiastic over him as his son and perceived +that they hated Antony on account of his having been master of the horse +and also for his failure to punish the murderers. Hence he undertook to +become tribune as a starting point for popular leadership and to secure +the power that would result from it; and he accordingly became a +candidate for the place of Cinna, which was vacant. Though hindered +by Antony's clique he did not desist and after using persuasion upon +Tiberius Cannutius, a tribune, he was by him brought before the populace. +He took as an excuse the gift bequeathed by Caesar and in his speech +touched upon all the important points, promising that he would discharge +this debt at once, and gave them cause to hope for much besides. After +this came the festival appointed in honor of the completion of the temple +of Venus, which some, while Caesar was alive, had promised to celebrate, +but were now holding in, slight regard as they did the horse-race +connected with the Parilia;[6] and to win the favor of the populace he +provided for it at his private expense on the ground that it concerned +him because of his family. At this time out of fear of Antony he brought +into the theatre neither Caesar's gilded chair nor his crown set with +precious stones, though it was permitted by decree. [-7-] When, however, +a certain star through all those days appeared in the north toward +evening, some called it a comet, and said that it indicated the usual +occurrences; but the majority, instead of believing this, ascribed it +to Caesar, interpreting it to mean that he had become a god and had been +included in the number of the stars. Then Octavius took courage and set +up in the temple of Venus a bronze statue of him with a star above his +head. Through fear of the populace no one prevented this, and then, at +last, some of the earlier decrees in regard to honors to Caesar were put +into effect. They called one of the months July after him and in the +course of certain triumphal religious festivals they sacrificed during +one special day in memory of his name. For these reasons the soldiers +also, and particularly since some of them received largesses of money, +readily took the side of Caesar. + +Rumors accordingly went abroad, and it seemed likely that something +unusual would take place. This idea gained most headway for the reason +that when Octavius was somewhat anxious to show himself in court in an +elevated and conspicuous place, as he had been wont to do in his father's +lifetime, Antony would not allow it, but had his lictors drag him down +and drive him out. [-8-] All were exceedingly vexed, and especially +because Caesar with a view to casting odium upon his rival and arousing +the multitude would no longer even frequent the Forum. So Antony became +terrified, and in conversation with the bystanders one day remarked +that he harbored no anger against Caesar, but on the contrary owed him +affection, and felt inclined to dispel the entire cloud of suspicion. The +statement was reported to the other, they held a conference, and some +thought they had become reconciled. As a fact they understood each +other's dispositions accurately, and, thinking it inopportune at that +time to put them to the test, they came to terms by making a few mutual +concessions. For some days they were quiet; then they began to suspect +each other afresh as a result of either some really hostile action +or some false report of hostility,--as regularly happens under such +conditions,--and were again at variance. When men become reconciled after +a great enmity they are suspicious of many acts that contain no malice +and of many chance occurrences. In brief, they regard everything, in the +light of their former hostility, as done on purpose and for an evil +end. While they are in this condition those who stand on neutral ground +aggravate the trouble, irritating them still more by bearing reports to +and fro under the pretence of devotion. There is a very large element +which is anxious to see all those who have power at variance with one +another,--an element which consequently takes delight in their enmity and +joins in plots against them. And the party which has previously suffered +from calumny is very easy to deceive with words adapted to the purpose +by a band of friends whose attachment is not under suspicion. This also +accounts for the fact that these men, who did not trust each other +previously, became now even more estranged. + +[-9-] Antony seeing that Caesar was gaining ground attempted to attract +the populace by various baits, to see if he could detach the people from +his rival and number them among his own forces. Hence through Lucius +Antonius, his brother, who was tribune, he introduced a measure that +considerable land be opened for settlement, among the parcels being the +region of the Pontine marshes, which he stated had already been filled +and were capable of cultivation. The three Antonii, who were brothers, +all held office at the same time. Marcus was consul, Lucius tribune, and +Gaius praetor. Therefore they could very easily remove those who were +temporarily rulers of their allies and subjects (except the majority of +the assassins and some others whom they regarded as loyal) and choose +others in place of them: they could also grant some the right to hold +office for an unusually long term, contrary to the laws established by +Caesar. Also Macedonia, which fell to Marcus by lot, was appropriated +by his brother Gaius, but Marcus himself with the legions previously +despatched into Apollonia laid claim to Gaul on this side of the Alps, to +which Decimus Brutus had been assigned; the reason was that it seemed to +be very strong in resources of soldiers and money. After these measures +had been passed the immunity granted to Sextus Pompey by Caesar, as to all +the rest, was confirmed: he had already considerable influence. It was +further resolved that whatever moneys of silver or gold the public +treasury had taken from his ancestral estate should be restored. As +for the lands belonging to it Antony held the most of them and made no +restoration. + +[-10-] This was the business in which they were engaged. But I shall now +go on to describe how Sextus had fared. When he had fled from Corduba, he +first came to Lacetania and concealed himself there. He was pursued, to +be sure, but eluded discovery through the fact that the natives were +kindly disposed to him out of regard for his father's memory. Later, when +Caesar had started for Italy and only a small army was left behind in +Baetica, he was joined both by the native inhabitants and by those who +escaped from the battle, and with them he came again into Baetica, because +he thought it more suitable for the carrying on of war. There he gained +possession of soldiers and cities, particularly after Caesar's death, some +voluntarily and some by violence; the commandant in charge of them, Gaius +Asinius Pollio, held a force that was far from strong. He next set out +against Spanish Carthage, but since in his absence Pollio made an attack +and did some damage, he returned with a large force, met his opponent, +and routed him. After that the following accident enabled him to startle +and conquer the rest, as well, who were contending fiercely. Pollio had +cast off his general's cloak, in order to suffer less chance of detection +in his flight, and another man of the same name, a brilliant horseman, +had fallen. The soldiers, hearing the name of the latter, who was lying +there, and seeing the garment which had been captured, were deceived, and +thinking that their general had perished surrendered. In this way Sextus +conquered and held possession of nearly that entire region. When he was +now a powerful factor, Lepidus arrived to govern the adjoining portion of +Spain, and persuaded him to enter into an agreement on condition that he +should recover his father's estate. Antony, influenced by his friendship +for Lepidus and by his hostility toward Caesar, caused such a decree to be +passed. + +So Sextus, in this way and on these conditions, held aloof from Spain +proper. [-11-] Caesar and Antony in all their acts opposed each other, but +had not fallen out openly, and whereas in reality they were alienated +they tried to disguise the fact so far as appearances went. As a result +all other interests in the city were in a most undecided state and +condition of turmoil. People were still at peace and yet already at war. +Liberty led but a shadow existence, and the deeds done were the deeds +of royalty. To a casual observer Antony, since he held the consulship, +seemed to be getting the best of it, but the enthusiasm of the masses was +for Caesar. This was partly on his father's account, partly on account of +the hopes he held out to them, but above all because they were displeased +at the considerable power of Antony and were inclined to assist Caesar +while he was yet devoid of strength. Neither man had their affection, but +they were always eager for a change of administration, and it was their +nature to try to overthrow every superior force and to help any party +that was being oppressed. Consequently they made use of the two to suit +their own desires. After they had at this period humbled Antony through +the instrumentality of Caesar they next undertook to destroy the latter +also. Their irritation toward the men temporarily in power and their +liking for the weaker side made them attempt to overthrow the former. +Later they became estranged from the weaker also. Thus they showed +dislike for each of them in turn and the same men experienced their +affection and their hatred, their support and their active opposition. + +[-12-] While they were maintaining the above attitude toward Caesar and +Antony, the war began as follows. Antony had set out for Brundusium to +meet the soldiers who had crossed over from Macedonia. Caesar sent some +persons to that city with money, who were to arrive there before Antony +and win over the men, and himself went to Campania, where he collected +a large crowd of men, chiefly from Capua because the people there had +received their land and city from his father, whom he said he was +avenging. He made them many promises and gave them on the spot five +hundred denarii apiece. These men usually constituted the corps of +evocati, whom one might term in Greek "the recalled", because having +ended their service they have been recalled to it again. Caesar took +charge of them, hastened to Rome before Antony could make his way back, +and came before the people, who had been made ready for him by Cannutius. +There he called to their minds in detail all the excellent works his +father had done, made a considerable, though moderate, defence of +himself, and brought accusations against Antony. He also praised +the soldiers who had accompanied him, saying that they were present +voluntarily to lend aid to the city, that they had elected him to preside +over the State and that through his mouth they made known these facts to +all. For this speech he received the approbation of his following and of +the throng that stood by, after which he departed for Etruria with a view +to obtaining an accession to his forces from that country. + +[-13-] While he was doing this Antony had been at first kindly received +in Brundusium by the soldiers, because they expected they would secure +more from him than was offered them by Caesar. This belief was based +on the idea that he had possession of much more than his rival. When, +however, he promised to give each of them a hundred denarii, they raised +an outcry, but he reduced them to submission by ordering centurions as +well as others to be slain before the eyes of himself and his wife. For +the time being the soldiers were quiet, but on the way toward Gaul when +they arrived opposite the capital they revolted, and many of them, +despising the lieutenants that had been set over them, arrayed themselves +on Caesar's side. The so-called Martian and the fourth legion went over to +him in a body. He took charge of them and won their attachment by giving +money to all alike,--an act which added many more to his troops. He also +captured all the elephants of Antony, by confronting the train suddenly +as they were being conducted along. Antony stopped in Rome only long +enough to arrange a few affairs and to bind by oath all the rest of the +soldiers and the senators who were in their company; then he set out for +Gaul, fearing that that country too might indulge in an uprising. Caesar +without delay followed behind him. + +[-14-] Decimus Brutus was at this time governor of that province, and +Antony set great hopes upon him, because he had been a slayer of Caesar. +But it turned out as follows. Decimus did not look askance particularly +at Caesar, for the latter had uttered no threats against the assassins: on +the other hand, he saw that Antony was no more formidable a foe than his +rival, or, indeed, than himself or any of the rest who were in power as +a result of natural acquisitiveness; therefore he refused to give ground +before him. Caesar, when he heard this decision, was for some time at a +loss what course to adopt. The young man hated both Decimus and Antony +but saw no way in which he could contend against them both at once. He +was by no means yet a match for either one of the two, and he was further +afraid that if he risked such a move he should throw them into each +other's arms and face the united opposition of the two. After stopping to +reflect that the struggle with Antony was already begun and was urgent, +but that it was not yet a fitting season for taking vengeance for his +father, he decided to make a friend of Decimus. He understood well that +he should find no great difficulty in fighting against the latter, if +with his aid he could first overcome his adversaries, but that Antony +would be a powerful antagonist on any subsequent occasion. So much did +they differ from each other. [-15-] Accordingly he sent a messenger to +Decimus, proposing friendship and promising alliance, if he would refuse +to receive Antony. This proposal caused the people in the city likewise +to join in expressing their gratitude to Caesar. Just at this time the +year was drawing to a close and no consul was on the ground, Dolabella +having been previously sent by Antony to Syria. Eulogies, however, were +delivered in the senate by the members themselves and by the soldiers who +had abandoned Antony,--with the concurrence also of the tribunes. When +they entered upon the new year they decided, in order that they might +discuss freely existing conditions, to employ a guard of soldiers +at their meetings. This pleased nearly all who were in Rome at the +time,--for they cordially detested Antony,--but particularly Cicero. He, +on account of his bitter and long-standing hostility toward the man, paid +court to Caesar, and so far as he could, by speech and action, strove to +assist him in every way and to injure Antony. It was for this reason +that, when he had left the city to escort his son to Athens for the +benefit of his education, he had returned on ascertaining that the two +were publicly estranged. + +[-16-] Besides these events which took place that year Servilius +Isauricus died at a very advanced age. I have mentioned him both for that +fact and to show how the Romans of that period respected men who were +prominent through merit and hated those who behaved insolently, even on +the very slightest grounds. This Servilius while walking had once met on +the road a man on horseback, who so far from dismounting on his approach +spurned him violently aside. Later he recognized the fellow in a +defendant of a case in court, and when he mentioned the affair to the +judge, they paid no further attention to the man's plea, but unanimously +condemned him. + + +[B.C. 43 (_a u_. 711)] + +[-17-] In the consulship of Aldus Hirtius (who was now appointed consul +in spite of the fact that his father's name had been posted on the +tablets of Sulla), with his colleague Gaius Vibius, a meeting of the +senate was held and votes were taken for three successive days, including +the first of the month itself. As a result of the war which was upon them +and the portents, very numerous and extremely unfavorable, which took +place, they were so excited that they failed to pass over these _dies +nefasti_ on which they ought not to deliberate on any matter touching +their interests. Ominous had been the falling of great numbers of +thunderbolts, some of which descended on the shrine sacred to Capitoline +Jupiter, that stood in the temple of Victory. Also a great wind arose +which snapped and scattered the columns erected about the temple of +Saturn and the shrine of Fides, and likewise knocked down and shattered +the statue of Minerva the Protectress, which Cicero had set up on the +Capitol before his exile. This portended, of course, the death of Cicero +himself. Another thing that frightened the rest of the population was +a great earthquake which occurred, and the fact that a bull which was +sacrificed on account of it in the temple of Vesta leaped up after the +ceremony. In addition to these clear indications of danger a flash darted +across from the place of the rising sun to the place of its setting and a +new star was seen for several days. Then the light of the sun seemed to +be diminished and even extinguished, and at times to appear in three +circles, one of which was surmounted by a fiery crown of sheaves. This, +if anything, proved as clear a sign as possible to them. For three men +were in power,--I mean Caesar and Lepidus and Antony,--and of them Caesar +subsequently secured the victory. At the same time that these things +occurred all sorts of oracles tending to the downfall of the democracy +were recited. Crows, moreover, flew into the temple of the Dioscuri and +pecked out the names of the consuls and of Antony and of Dolabella, which +were inscribed there somewhere on a tablet. And by night dogs in large +numbers gathered throughout the city and especially near the house of the +high priest, Lepidus, and set up howls. Again, the Po, which had flooded +a large portion of the surrounding territory, suddenly receded and left +behind on the dry land a vast number of snakes. Countless fish were cast +up from the sea on the shore near the mouth of the Tiber. Succeeding +these terrors a plague spread over nearly the whole of Italy in a +malignant form, and in view of this the senate voted that the Curia +Hostilia[7] should be rebuilt and the spot where the naval battle had +taken place be filled up. However, the curse did not appear disposed to +rest even at this point, especially when during Vibius's conduct of the +initial sacrifices on the first of the month one of his lictors suddenly +fell down and died. Because of these events many men in the course of +those days took one side or the other in their speeches and advice, and +among the deliverances was the following, of Cicero:--[-18-] "You have +heard recently, Conscript Fathers, when I made a statement to you about +the matter, why I made preparations for my departure as if I were going +to be absent from the city a very long time and then returned rapidly +with the idea that I could benefit you greatly. I would not endure an +existence under a sovereignty or a tyranny, since under such forms of +government I can not enjoy the rights of free[8] citizenship nor speak +my mind safely nor die in a way that is of service to you; and again, if +opportunity is afforded to obey any of duty's calls, I would not shrink +from action, though it involved danger. I deem it the task of an upright +man equally to keep watch over himself for his country's interests +(guarding himself that he may not perish uselessly), and in this course +of action not to fail to say or do whatever is requisite, even if it be +necessary to suffer some harm in preserving his native land. + +[-19-] "These assumptions granted, a large degree of safety was afforded +by Caesar both to you and to me for the discussion of pressing questions. +And since you have further voted to assemble under guard, we must frame +all our words and behavior this day in such a fashion as to establish +the present state of affairs and provide for the future, that we may +not again be compelled to decide in a similar way about it. That our +condition is difficult and dangerous and requires much care and attention +you yourselves have made evident, if in no other way, at least by this +measure. For you would not have voted to keep the senate-house under +guard, if it had been possible for you to deliberate at all with your +accustomed orderliness, and in quiet, free from fear. It is necessary for +us even on account of the presence of the soldiers to accomplish some +measure of importance, that we may not incur the disgrace that would +certainly follow from asking for them as if we feared somebody, and then +neglecting affairs as if we were liable to no danger. We shall appear to +have acquired them only nominally in behalf of the city against Antony, +but to have given them in reality to him against our own selves, and it +will look as if in addition to the other legions which he gathers against +his country he needed to acquire these very men and so prevent your +passing any vote against him even to-day. + +[-20-] "Yet some have attained such a height of shamelessness as to dare +to say that he is not warring against the State and have credited you +with so great folly as to think that they will persuade you to attend to +their words rather than to his acts. But who would choose to desist from +regarding his performances and the campaign which he has made against our +allies without any orders from the senate or the people, the countries +which he is overrunning, the cities which he is besieging, and the hopes +upon which he is building in his entire course,--who would distrust, I +say, the evidence of his own eyes, and to his ruin yield credence to the +words of these men and their false statements, by which they put you off +with pretexts and excuses? + +I myself am far from asserting that in doing this he is carrying out any +legal act of administration. On the contrary, because he has abandoned +the province of Macedonia, which was assigned to him by lot, and because +he chose instead the province of Gaul, which in no way pertained to him, +and because he assumed control of the legions which Caesar had sent ahead +against the Parthians, keeping them about him though no danger threatens +Italy, and because he has left the city during the period of his +consulship to go about pillaging and injuring the country,--for all these +reasons I declare that he has long been an enemy of us all. [-21-] If you +did not perceive it immediately at the start or experience vexation +at each of his actions, he deserves to be hated all the more on +this account, in that he does not cease injuring you, who are so +long-suffering. He might perchance have obtained pardon for the errors +which he committed at first, but now by his perseverance in evil he has +reached such a pitch of knavery that he ought to be brought to book for +his former offences as well. And you ought to be especially careful in +regard to the situation, noticing and considering this point,--that the +man who has so often despised you in such weighty matters cannot submit +to be corrected by the same gentleness and kindliness that you have +shown, but must now against his will, even though never previously, be +chastised by force of arms. + +"And because he partly persuaded and partly compelled you to vote +him some privileges, do not think that this makes him less guilty or +deserving of less punishment. Quite the reverse,--for this very procedure +in particular he merits the infliction of a penalty: he determined from +the outset to commit many outrages, and after accomplishing some of them +through you, he employed against your own selves the resources which came +from you, which by deception, he forced you to vote to him, though you +neither knew nor foresaw any such result. On what occasion did you +voluntarily abolish the commands given by Caesar or by the lot to each +man, and allow this person to distribute many appointments to his friends +and companions, sending his brother Gaius to Macedonia, and assigning +Gaul to himself with the aid of the legions which he was not by any means +keeping to use in your defence? Do you not remember how, when he found +you startled at Caesar's demise, he carried out all the plans that +he chose, communicating some to you carefully dissimulated and at +inopportune moments, and on his own responsibility executing others that +inflicted injuries, while all his acts were characterized by violence? He +used soldiers, and barbarians at that, against you. And need any one be +surprised that in those days some vote was passed which should not have +been, when even now we have not obtained a free hand to speak and do what +is requisite in any other way than by the aid of a body-guard? If we had +been formerly endued with this power, he would not have obtained what any +one may say he has obtained, nor would he have risen to the prominence +enabling him to do the deeds that were a natural sequence. Accordingly, +let no one retort that the rights which we were seen to give him under +command and compulsion and amid laments were legally and rightfully +bestowed. For, even in private business, that is not considered binding +which a man does under compulsion from another. + +[-23-] "And yet all these measures which you are seen to have voted you +will find to be slight and varying but little from established custom. +What was there dreadful in the fact that one man was destined to govern +Macedonia or Gaul in place of another? Or what was the harm if a man +obtained soldiers during his consulship? But these are the facts that are +harmful and abominable,--that your land should be damaged, allied cities +besieged, that our soldiers should be armed against us and our means +expended to our detriment: this you neither voted nor intended. Do not, +merely because you have granted him some privileges, allow him to usurp +what was not granted him; and do not think that just as you have conceded +some points he ought similarly to be permitted to do what has not been +conceded. Quite the reverse: you should for this very reason both hate +and punish him, because he has dared not only in this case but in all +other cases to use the honor and kindness that you bestowed against you. +Look at the matter. Through my influence you voted that there should be +peace and harmony between individuals. This man was ordered to manage the +business, and conducted it in such a way (taking Caesar's funeral as a +pretext) that almost the whole city was burned down and great numbers +were once more slaughtered. You ratified all the grants made to various +persons and all the laws laid down by Caesar, not because they were +all excellent--far from it! ,--but because our mutual and unsuspecting +association, quite free from any disguise, was not furthered by changing +any one of those enactments. This man, appointed to examine into them, +has abolished many of his acts and has substituted many others in the +documents. He has taken away lands and citizenship and exemption from +taxes and many other honors from the possessors,--private individuals, +kings, and cities,--and has given them to men who had not received any, +altering the memoranda of Caesar; from those who were unwilling to give +up anything to his grasp he took away even what had been given them, +and sold this and everything else to such as wished to buy. Yet you, +foreseeing this very possibility, had voted that no tablet should be set +up after Caesar's death which might contain any article given by him to +any person. Notwithstanding, it happened many times after that. He also +said it was necessary for some provisions found in Caesar's papers to be +specially noted and put into effect. You then assigned to him, in company +with the foremost men, the task of making these excerpts; but he, paying +no attention to his colleagues, carried out everything alone according to +his wishes, in regard to the laws, the exiles, and other points which I +enumerated a few moments since. This is the way in which he wishes to +execute all your decrees. + +[-24-] "Has he then shown himself such a character only in these affairs, +while managing the rest rightly? In what instance? On what motive? He was +ordered to search for and declare the public money left behind by Caesar, +and did he not seize it, paying some of it to his creditors and spending +some on high living so that he no longer has even any of this left? You +hated the name of dictator on account of Caesar's sovereignty and rejected +it entirely from the constitution: but is it not true that Antony, though +he has avoided adopting it (as if the name in itself could do any harm), +has exhibited the behavior belonging to it and the greed for gain, under +the title of consulship? You assigned to him the duty of promoting +harmony, and has he not on his own responsibility begun this great war, +neither necessary nor sanctioned, against Caesar and Decimus, whom you +approve? Innumerable cases might be mentioned, if one wished to go into +details, in which you entrusted business to him to manage as consul, and +he has not conducted a single bit of it as the circumstances demanded, +but has done quite the opposite, using against you the authority that you +imparted. Now will you assume to yourself also these errors that he has +committed and say that you yourselves are responsible for all that has +happened, because you assigned to him the management and investigation of +the matters in question? It is ridiculous. If some general or envoy that +had been chosen should fail in every way to do his duty, you who sent him +would not incur the blame for this. It would be a sorry state of things, +if all who are elected to perform some work should themselves receive the +advantages and the honors, but lay upon you the complaints and the blame. +[-25-] Accordingly, there is no sense in paying any heed to him when he +says: 'It was you who permitted me to govern Gaul, you ordered me to +administer the public finances, you gave me the legions from Macedonia.' +Perhaps these measures were voted--yet ought you to put it that way, and +not instead exact punishment from him for his action in compelling you to +make that decision? At any rate, you never at any time gave him the +right to restore the exiles, to add laws surreptitiously, to sell the +privileges of citizenship and exemption from taxes, to steal the public +funds, to plunder the possessions of allies, to abuse the cities, or +to undertake to play the tyrant over his native country. And you never +conceded to any one else all that was desired, though you have granted by +your votes many things to many persons; on the contrary you have always +punished such men so far as you could, as you will also punish him, if +you take my advice. For it is not in these matters alone that he has +shown himself to be such a man as you know and have seen him to be, but +briefly in all undertakings which he has ever attempted to perform for +the commonwealth. + +[-26-] "His private life and his private examples of licentiousness +and avarice I shall willingly pass over, not because one would fail to +discover that he had committed many abominable outrages in the course of +them, but because, by Hercules, I am ashamed to describe minutely and +separately--especially to you who know it as well as I--how he conducted +his youth among you who were boys at the time, how he auctioned off +the vigor of his prime, his secret lapses from chastity, his open +fornications, what he let be done to him as long as it was possible, what +he did as early as he could, his revels, his periods of drunkenness, and +all the rest that follows in their train. It is impossible for a person +brought up in so great licentiousness and shamelessness to avoid defiling +his entire life: and so from his private concerns he brought his lewdness +and greed to bear upon public matters. On this I will refrain from +dilating, and likewise by Jupiter on his visit to Gabinius in Egypt +and his flight to Caesar in Gaul, that I may not be charged with going +minutely into every detail; for I feel ashamed for you, that knowing him +to be such a man you appointed him tribune and master of the horse and +subsequently consul. I will at present recite only his drunken insolence +and abuses in these very positions. + +[-27-] "Well, then, when he was tribune he first of all prevented you +from settling suitably the work you then had in hand by shouting and +bawling and alone of all the people opposing the public peace of the +State, until you became vexed and because of his conduct passed the vote +that you did. Then, though by law he was not permitted to be absent from +town a single night, he escaped from the city, abandoning the duties of +his office, and, having gone as a deserter to Caesar's camp, guided the +latter back as a foe to his country, drove you out of Rome and all the +rest of Italy, and, in short, became the prime cause of all the civil +disorders that have since taken place among you. Had he not at that time +acted contrary to your wishes, Caesar would never have found an excuse for +the war and could not, in spite of all his shamelessness, have gathered a +competent force in defiance of your resolutions; but he would have +either voluntarily laid down his arms, or been brought to his senses +unwillingly. As it is, this fellow is the man who furnished him with the +excuses, who destroyed the prestige of the senate, who increased the +audacity of the soldiers. He it is who planted the seeds of evils which +sprang up afterward: he it is who has proved the common bane not only of +us, but also of practically the whole world, as, indeed, Heaven rather +plainly indicated. When, that is to say, he proposed those astonishing +laws, the whole air was filled with thunder and lightning. Yet this +accursed wretch paid no attention to them, though he claims to be a +soothsayer, but filled not only the city but the whole world with the +evils and wars which I mentioned. + +[-28-] "Now after this is there any need of mentioning that he served as +master of the horse an entire year, something which had never before been +done? Or that during this period also he was drunk and abusive and in the +assemblies would frequently vomit the remains of yesterday's debauch on +the rostra itself, in the midst of his harangues? Or that he went about +Italy at the head of pimps and prostitutes and buffoons, women as well as +men, in company with the lictors bearing festoons of laurel? Or that he +alone of mankind dared to buy the property of Pompey, having no regard +for his own dignity or the great man's memory, but grasping eagerly those +possessions over which we even now as at that time shed a tear? He threw +himself upon this and many other estates with the evident intention of +making no recompense for them. Yet with all his insolence and violence +the price was nevertheless collected, for Caesar took this way of +discountenancing his act. And all that he has acquired, vast in extent +and gathered from every source, he has consumed in dicing, consumed in +harlotry, consumed in feasting, consumed in drinking, like a second +Charybdis. + +[-29-] "Of this behavior I shall make no chronicle. But on the subject of +the insults which he offered to the State and the assassinations which +he caused throughout the whole city alike how can any man be silent? Is +memory lacking of how oppressive the very sight of him was to you, but +most of all his deeds? He dared, O thou earth and ye gods, first in +this place, within the wall, in the Forum, in the senate-house, on the +Capitol, at one and the same time to array himself in the purple-bordered +garb, to gird a sword on his thigh, to employ lictors, and to be escorted +by armed soldiers. Next, whereas he might have checked the turmoil of the +citizens, he not only failed to do so, but set you at variance when you +were in concord, partly by his own acts and partly through the medium +of others. Moreover he directed his attention in turn to the latter +themselves, and by now assisting them and now abandoning them[9] incurred +full responsibility for great numbers of them being slain and for the +fact that the entire region of Pontus and of the Parthians was not +subdued at that time immediately after the victory over Pharnaces. Caesar, +being called hither in haste to see what he was doing, did not finish +entirely any of those projects, as he was surely intending. + +[-30-] "Even this result did not sober him, but when he was consul he +came naked, naked, Conscript Fathers, and anointed into the Forum, taking +the Lupercalia as an excuse, then proceeded in company with his lictors +to the rostra, and there harangued us from the elevation. From the day +the city was founded no one can point to any one else, even a praetor or +tribune or aedile, let alone a consul, who has done such a thing. To be +sure it was the festival of the Lupercalia, and the Lupercalia had been +put in charge of the Julian College[10]; yes, and Sextus Clodius had +trained him to conduct himself so, upon receipt of two thousand plethra +of the land of Leontini[11]. But you were consul, respected sir (for I +will address you as though you were present), and it was neither proper +nor permissible for you as such to speak in such a way in the Forum, hard +by the rostra, with all of us present, and to cause us both to behold +your remarkable body, so corpulent and detestable, and to hear your +accursed voice, choked with unguent, speaking those outrageous words; for +I will preferably confine my comment to this point about your mouth. The +Lupercalia would not have missed its proper reverence, but you disgraced +the whole city at once,--not to speak a word yet about your remarks on +that occasion. Who is unaware that the consulship is public, the property +of the whole people, that its dignity must be preserved everywhere, and +that its holder must nowhere strip naked or behave wantonly? [-31-] Did +he perchance imitate the famous Horatius of old or Cloelia of bygone +days? But the latter swam across the river with all her clothing, and +the former cast himself with his armor into the flood. It would be +fitting--would it not?--to set up also a statue of this consul, so that +people might contrast the one man armed in the Tiber and the other naked +in the Forum. It was by such conduct as has been cited that those heroes +of yore were wont to preserve us and give us liberty, while he took away +all our liberty from us, so far as was in his power, destroyed the whole +democracy, set up a despot in place of a consul, a tyrant in place of +a dictator over us. You remember the nature of his language when he +approached the rostra, and the style of his behavior when he had ascended +it. But when a man who is a Roman and a consul has dared to name any one +King of the Romans in the Roman Forum, close to the rostra of liberty, in +the presence of the entire people and the entire senate, and straightway +to set the diadem upon his head and further to affirm falsely in the +hearing of us all that we ourselves bade him say and do this, what most +outrageous deed will that man not dare, and from what action, however +revolting, will he refrain? [-32-] Did we lay this injunction upon you, +Antony, we who expelled the Tarquins, who cherished Brutus, who hurled +Capitolinus headlong, who put to death the Spurii?[12] Did we order you +to salute any one as king, when we have laid a curse upon the very name +of monarch and furthermore upon that of dictator as the most similar? Did +we command you to appoint any one tyrant, we who repulsed Pyrrhus from +Italy, who drove back Antiochus beyond the Taurus, who put an end to the +tyranny even in Macedonia? No, by the rods of Valerius and the law of +Porcius, no, by the leg of Horatius and the hand of Mucius, no, by the +spear of Decius and the sword of Brutus! But you, unspeakable villain, +begged and pleaded to be made a slave as Postumius pleaded to be +delivered to the Samnites, as Regulus to be given back to the +Carthaginians, as Curtius to be thrown into the chasm. And where did +you find this recorded? In the same place where you discovered that the +Cretans had been made free after Brutus was their governor, when we voted +after Caesar's death that he should govern them. + +[-33-] "So then, seeing that you have detected his baneful disposition +in so many and so great enterprises, will you not take vengeance on him +instead of waiting to learn by experience what the man who caused so much +trouble naked will do to you when he is armed? Do you think that he is +not eager for the tyrant's power, that he does not pray to obtain it some +day, or that he will put the pursuit of it out of his thoughts, when he +has once allowed it a resting-place in his mind, and that he will ever +abandon the hope of sole rulership for which he has spoken and acted so +impudently without punishment! What human being who, while master of his +own voice, would undertake to help some one else secure an honor, would +not appropriate it himself when he became powerful? Who that has dared +to nominate another as tyrant over his country and himself at once would +himself refuse to be monarch? [-34-] Hence, even if you spared him +formerly, you must hate him now for these acts. Do not desire to learn +what he will do when his success equals his wishes, but on the basis of +his previous ventures plan beforehand to suffer no further outrages. What +defence could any one make of what took place? That Caesar acted rightly +at that time in accepting neither the name of king nor the diadem? If so, +this man did wrong to offer something which pleased not even Caesar. Or, +on the other hand, that the latter erred in enduring at all to look on at +and listen to such proceedings? If so, and Caesar justly suffered death +for this error, does not this man, admitted in a certain way that he +desired a tyranny, most richly deserve to perish? That this is so is +evident from what I have previously said, but is proved most clearly by +what he did after that. What other end than supremacy had he in mind that +he has undertaken to cause agitation and to meddle in private business, +when he might have enjoyed quiet with safety? What other end, that he has +entered upon campaigns and warfare, when it was in his power to remain at +home without danger? For what reason, when many have disliked to go out +and take charge even of the offices that belonged to them, does he not +only lay claim to Gaul, which pertains to him in not the slightest +degree, but use force upon it because of its unwillingness? For what +reason, when Decimus Brutus is ready to surrender to us himself and +his soldiers and the cities, has this man not imitated him, instead of +besieging and shutting him up? The only interpretation to be put upon it +is that he is strengthening himself in this and every other way against +us, and to no other end. + +[-35-] "Seeing this, do we delay and give way to weakness and train up so +monstrous a tyrant against our own selves? Is it not disgraceful that our +forefathers, brought up in slavery, felt the desire for liberty, but we +who have lived under an independent government become slaves of our own +free will? Or again, that we were glad to rid ourselves of the dominion +of Caesar, though we had first received many favors from his hands, and +accept in his stead this man, a self-elected despot, who is far worse +than he; this allegation is proved by the fact that Caesar spared many +after his victories in war, but this follower of his before attaining any +power has slaughtered three hundred soldiers, among them some centurions, +guilty of no wrong, at home, in his own quarters, before the face and +eyes of his wife, so that she too was defiled with blood. What do you +think that the man who treated them so cruelly, when he owed them +care, will refrain from doing to all of you,--aye, down to the utmost +outrage,--if he shall conquer? And how can you believe that the man who +has lived so licentiously even to the present time will not proceed to +all extremes of wantonness, if he shall further secure the authority +given by arms? + +[-36-] "Do not, then, wait until you have suffered some such treatment +and begin to rue it, but guard yourselves before you are molested. It is +out of the question to allow dangers to come upon you and then repent of +it, when you might have anticipated them. And do not choose to neglect +the seriousness of the present situation and then ask again for another +Cassius or some more Brutuses. It is ridiculous, when we have the power +of aiding ourselves in time, to seek later on men to set us free. Perhaps +we should not even find them, especially if we handle in such a way +the present situation. Who would privately choose to run risks for the +democracy, when he sees that we are publicly resigned to slavery? It must +be evident to every man that Antony will not rest contented with what +he is now doing, but that in far off and small concerns even he is +strengthening himself against us. He is warring against Decimus and +besieging Mutina for no other purpose than to provide himself, by +conquering and capturing them, with resources against us. He has not been +wronged by them that he can appear to be defending himself, nor does he +merely desire the property that they possess and with this in mind endure +toils and dangers, while ready and willing to relinquish that belonging +to us, who own their property and much beside. Shall we wait for him to +secure the prize and still more, and so become a dangerous foe? Shall we +trust his deception when he says that he is not warring against the City? +[-37-] Who is so silly as to decide whether a man is making war on us or +not by his words rather than by his deeds? I do not say that now for the +first time is he unfriendly to us, when he has abandoned the City and +made a campaign against allies and is assailing Brutus and besieging the +cities; but on the basis of his former evil and licentious behavior, not +only after Caesar's death but even in the latter's lifetime, I decide that +he has shown himself an enemy of our government and liberty and a plotter +against them. Who that loved his country or hated tyranny would have +committed a single one of the many and manifold offences laid to this +man's charge? From every point of view he is proved to have long been an +enemy of ours, and the case stands as follows. If we now take measures +against him with all speed, we shall get back all that has been lost: +but if, neglecting to do this, we wait till he himself admits that he is +plotting against us, we shall lose everything. This he will never do, not +even if he should actually march upon the City, any more than Marius or +Cinna or Sulla did. But if he gets control of affairs, he will not fail +to act precisely as they did, or still worse. Men who are anxious to +accomplish an object are wont to say one thing, and those who have +succeeded in accomplishing it are wont to do quite a different thing. To +gain their end they pretend anything, but having obtained it they deny +themselves the gratification of no desire. Furthermore, the last born +always desire to surpass what their predecessors have ventured: they +think it a small thing to behave like them and do something that has been +effected before, but determine that something original is the only thing +worthy of them, because unexpected. + +[-38-] "Seeing this, then, Conscript Fathers, let us no longer delay nor +fall a prey to the indolence that the moment inspires, but let us take +thought for the safety that concerns the future. Surely it is a shame +when Caesar, who has just emerged from boyhood and was recently registered +among those having attained years of discretion, shows such great +interest in the State as to spend his money and gather soldiers for +its preservation that we should neither ourselves perform our duty +nor coöperate with him even after obtaining a tangible proof of his +good-will. Who is unaware that if he had not reached here with the +soldiers from Campania, Antony would certainly have come rushing from +Brundusium instanter, just as he was, and would have burst into our city +with all his armies like a winter torrent?[13] There is, moreover, a +striking inconsistency in our conduct. Men who have long been campaigning +voluntarily have put themselves at your service for the present crisis, +regarding neither their age nor the wounds which they received in past +years while fighting for you, and you both refuse to ratify the war in +which these very men elected to serve, and show yourselves inferior to +them, who are ready to face dangers; for while you praise the soldiers +that detected the defilement of Antony and withdrew from him, though he +was consul, and attached themselves to Caesar, (that is, to you through +him), you shrink from voting for that which you say they were right in +doing. Also we are grateful to Brutus that he did not even at the +start admit Antony to Gaul, and is trying to repel him now that Antony +confronts him with a force. Why in the world do we not ourselves do the +same? Why do we not imitate the rest whom we praise for their sound +judgment? There are only two courses open to us. [-39-] One is to say +that all these men,--Caesar, I mean, and Brutus, the old soldiers, the +legions,--have decided wrongly and ought to submit to punishment, because +without our sanction or that of the people they have dared to offer armed +resistance to their consul, some having deserted his standard, and others +having been gathered against him. The other is to say that Antony by +reason of his deeds has in our judgment long since admitted that he is +our enemy and by public consent ought to be chastised by us all. No one +can be ignorant that the latter decision is not only more just but more +expedient for us. The man neither understands how to handle business +himself (how or by what means could a person that lives in drunkenness +and dicing?) nor has he any companion who is of any account. He loves +only such as are like himself and makes them the confidants of all his +open and secret undertakings. Also he is most cowardly in extreme dangers +and most treacherous even to his intimate friends, neither of which +qualities is suited for generalship or war. [-40-] Who can be unaware +that this very man caused all our internal troubles and then shared the +dangers to the slightest possible degree? He tarried long in Brundusium +through cowardice, so that Caesar was isolated and on account of him +almost failed: likewise he held aloof from all succeeding wars,--that +against the Egyptians, against Pharnaces, the African, and the Spanish. +Who is unaware that he won the favor of Clodius, and after using the +latter's tribuneship for the most outrageous ends would have killed him +with his own hand, if I had accepted this promise from him? Again, in the +matter of Caesar, he was first associated with him as quaestor, when Caesar +was praetor in Spain, next attached himself to him during the tribuneship, +contrary to the liking of us all, and later received from him countless +money and excessive honors: in return for this he tried to inspire his +patron with a desire for supremacy, which led to talk against him and was +more than anything else responsible for Caesar's death. + +[-41-] "Yet he once stated that it was I who directed the assassins to +their work. He is so senseless as to venture to invent so great praise +for me. And I for my part do not affirm that he was the actual slayer of +Caesar,--not because he was not willing, but because in this, too, he was +timid,--yet by the very course of his actions I say that Caesar perished +at his hands. For this is the man who provided a motive, so that there +seemed to be some justice in plotting against him, this is he who called +him 'king', who gave him the diadem, who previously slandered him +actually to his friends. Do I rejoice at the death of Caesar, I, who never +enjoyed anything but liberty at his hands, and is Antony grieved, who has +rapaciously seized his whole property and committed many injuries on +the pretext of his letters, and is finally hastening to succeed to his +position of ruler? + +[-42-] "But I return to the point that he has none of the qualities of a +great general or such as to bring victory, and does not possess many or +formidable forces. The majority of the soldiers and the best ones have +abandoned him to his fate, and also, by Jupiter, he has been deprived +of the elephants. The remainder have perfected themselves rather in +outraging and pillaging the possessions of the allies than in waging war, +A proof of the sort of spirit that animates them lies in the fact that +they still adhere to him, and of their lack of fortitude in that they +have not taken Mutina, though they have now been besieging it for so long +a time. Such is the condition of Antony and of his followers found to be. +But Caesar and Brutus and those arrayed with them are firmly intrenched +without outside aid; Caesar, in fact, has won over many of his rival's +soldiers, and Brutus is keeping the same usurper out of Gaul: and if you +come to their assistance, first by approving what they have done of their +own motion, next by ratifying their acts, at the same time giving them +legal authority for the future, and next by sending out both the consuls +to take charge of the war, it is not possible that any of his present +associates will continue to aid him. However, even if they should cling +to him most tenaciously, they would not he able to resist all the rest +at once, but he will either lay down his arms voluntarily, as soon as +he ascertains that you have passed this vote, and place himself in your +hands, or he will be captured involuntarily as the result of one battle. + +"I give you this advice, and, if it had been my lot to be consul, I +should have certainly carried it out, as I did in former days when I +defended you against Catiline and Lentulus (a relative of this very man), +who had formed a conspiracy. [-43-] Perhaps some one of you regards these +statements as well put, but thinks we ought first to despatch envoys to +him, then, after learning his decision, in case he will voluntarily give +up his arms and submit himself to you, to take no action, but if he +sticks to the same principles, then to declare war upon him: this is the +advice which I hear some persons wish to give you. This policy is very +attractive in theory, but in fact it is disgraceful and dangerous to the +city. Is it not disgraceful that you should employ heralds and embassies +to citizens? With foreign nations it is proper and necessary to treat by +heralds in advance, but upon citizens who are at all guilty you should +inflict punishment straightway, by trying them in court if you can get +them under the power of your votes, and by warring against them if you +find them in arms. All such are slaves of you and of the people and of +the laws, whether they wish it or not; and it is not fitting either to +coddle them or to put them on an equal footing with the highest class of +free persons, but to pursue and chastise them like runaway servants, with +a feeling of your own superiority. [-44-] Is it not a disgrace that he +should not delay to wrong us, but we delay to defend ourselves? Or again, +that he should for a long time, weapons in hand, have been carrying on +the entire practice of war, while we waste time in decrees and embassies, +and that we should retaliate only with letters and phrases upon the man +whom we have long since discovered by his deeds to be a wrongdoer? What +do we expect? That he will some day render us obedience and pay us +respect? How can this prove true of a man who has come into such a +condition that he would not be able, even should he wish it, to be an +ordinary citizen with you under a democratic government? If he were +willing to conduct his life on fair and equitable principles, he would +never have entered in the first place upon such a career as his: and if +he had done it under the influence of folly or recklessness, he would +certainly have given it up speedily of his own accord. As the case +stands, since he has once overstepped the limits imposed by the laws and +the government and has acquired some power and authority by this action, +it is not conceivable that he would change of his own free will or heed +any one of our resolutions, but it is absolutely requisite that such a +man should be chastised with those very weapons with which he has dared +to wrong us. [-45-] And I beg you now to remember particularly a sentence +which this man himself once uttered, that it is impossible for you to be +saved, unless you conquer. Hence those who bid you send envoys are doing +nothing else than planning how you may be dilatory and the body of your +allies become as a consequence more feeble and dispirited; while he, on +the other hand, will be doing whatever he pleases, will destroy Decimus, +storm Mutina, and capture all of Gaul: the result will be that we can no +longer find means to deal with him, but shall be under the necessity of +trembling before him, paying court to him, worshiping him. This one thing +more about the embassy and I am done:--that Antony also gave you no +account of what business he had in hand, because he intended that you +should do this. + +"I, therefore, for these and all other reasons advise you not to delay +nor to lose time, but to make war upon him as quickly as possible. You +must reflect that the majority of enterprises owe their success rather to +an opportune occasion than to their strength; and you should by all means +feel perfectly sure that I would never give up peace if it were really +peace, in the midst of which I have most influence and have acquired +wealth and reputation, nor have urged you to make war, did I not think it +to your advantage. + +[-46-] And I advise you, Calenus, and the rest who are of the same mind +as you, to be quiet and allow the senate to vote the requisite measures +and not for the sake of your private good-will toward Antony recklessly +betray the common interests of all of us. Indeed, I am of the opinion, +Conscript Fathers, that if you heed my counsel I may enjoy in your +company and with thorough satisfaction freedom and preservation, but that +if you vote anything different, I shall choose to die rather than to +live. I have, in general, never been afraid of death as a consequence of +my outspokenness, and now I fear it least of all. That accounts, indeed, +for my overwhelming success, the proof of which lies in the fact that +you decreed a sacrifice and festival in memory of the deeds done in my +consulship,--an honor which had never before been granted to any one, +even to one who had achieved some great end in war. Death, if it befell +me, would not be at all unseasonable, especially when you consider that +my consulship was so many years ago; yet remember that in that very +consulship I uttered the same sentiment, to make you feel that in any +and all business I despised death. To dread any one, however, that was +against you, and in your company to be a slave to any one would prove +exceedingly unseasonable to me. Wherefore I deem this last to be the ruin +and destruction not only of the body, but of the soul and reputation, +by which we become in a certain sense immortal. But to die speaking and +acting in your behalf I regard as equivalent to immortality. + +[-47-] "And if Antony, also, felt the force of this, he would never have +entered upon such a career, but would have even preferred to die like his +grandfather rather than to behave like Cinna who killed him. For, putting +aside other considerations, Cinna was in turn slain not long afterward +for this and the other sins that he had committed; so that I am surprised +also at this feature in Antony's conduct, that, imitating his works as +he does, he shows no fear of some day falling a victim to a similar +disaster: the murdered man, however, left behind to this very descendant +the reputation of greatness. But the latter has no longer any claim to +be saved on account of his relatives, since he has neither emulated his +grandfather nor inherited his father's property. Who is unaware of the +fact that in restoring many who were exiled in Caesar's time and later, in +accordance forsooth with directions in his patron's papers, he did not +aid his uncle, but brought back his fellow-gambler Lenticulus, who was +exiled for his unprincipal life, and cherishes Bambalio, who is notorious +for his very name, while he has treated his nearest relatives as I have +described and as if he were half angry at them because he was born into +that family. Consequently he never inherited his father's goods, but has +been the heir of very many others, some whom he never saw or heard +of, and others who are still living. That is, he has so stripped and +despoiled them that they differ in no way from dead men." + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +46 + +The following is contained in the Forty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Calenus replied to Cicero in defence of Antony (chapters 1-28). + +How Antony was defeated at Mutina by Caesar and the consuls (chapters +29-38). + +How Caesar came to Rome and was appointed consul (chapters 39-49). + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus formed a solemn pact of union (chapters +50-56). + +Duration of time one year, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +C. Vibius C. filius Pansa Capronianus, Aulus Hirtius Auli filius (B.C. 43 += a. u. 711). + + +(_BOOK 46, BOISSAVAIN_) + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711) ] + +[-1-] When Cicero had finished speaking in this vein, Quintus Fufius +Calenus arose and said:--"Ordinarily I should not have wished either to +say anything in defence of Antony or to assail Cicero. I really do not +think it proper in such discussions as is the present to do either of +these things, but simply to make known what one's opinion is. The +former method belongs to the courtroom, whereas this is a matter of +deliberation. Since, however, he has undertaken to speak ill of Antony on +account of the enmity that exists between them, instead of sending him a +summons, as he ought, if Antony were guilty of any wrong, and since he +has further mentioned me in a calumnious fashion, as if he could not have +exhibited his cleverness without heedlessly insulting one or two persons, +it behooves me also to set aside the imputation against Antony and to +bring counter-charges against the speaker. I would not have his innate +impudence fail of a response nor let my silence aid him by incurring the +suspicion of a guilty conscience; nor would I have you, deceived by what +he said, come to a less worthy decision by accepting his private spleen +against Antony in exchange for the common advantage. [-2-] He wishes +to effect nothing else than that we should abandon looking out for the +safest course for the commonwealth and fall into discord again. It is not +the first time that he has done this, but from the outset, ever since he +had to do with politics, he has been continually causing disturbance one +way or the other. + +"Is he not the one who embroiled Caesar with Pompey and prevented Pompey +from becoming reconciled with Caesar? The one who persuaded you to pass +that vote against Antony by which he irritated Caesar, and persuaded +Pompey to leave Italy and transfer his quarters to Macedonìa? This proved +the chief cause of all the evils which befell us subsequently. Is not he +the one who killed Clodius by the hand of Milo, and slew Caesar by the +hand of Brutus? The one who made Catiline hostile to us and despatched +Lentulus without a trial? [-3-] Hence I should be very much surprised +at you, seeing that you then changed your mind about his conduct just +mentioned and made him pay the penalty for it, if you should now heed him +again, when his talk and actions are similar. Do you not see, too, that +after Caesar's death when our affairs were settled in a most tranquil way +by Antony, as not even his accuser can deny, the latter left town because +he deemed our life of harmony to be alien and dangerous to him? That when +he perceived that turmoil had again arisen, he bade a long farewell to +his son and to Athens, and returned? That he insults and abuses Antony, +whom he was wont to say he loved, and coöperates with Caesar, whose father +he killed? And if chance so favor, he will ere long attack Caesar also. +For the fellow is naturally distrustful and turbulent and has no ballast +in his soul, and he is always stirring things up and twisting about, +turning more ways than the sea-passage to which he fled and got the title +of deserter for it, asking all of you to take that man for friend or foe +whom he bids. + +[-4-] "For these reasons be on your guard against man. He is a juggler +and imposter and grows rich and strong from the ills of others, +blackmailing, dragging, tearing the innocent, as do dogs; but in the +midst of public harmony he is embarrassed and withers away. It is not +friendship or good-will among us that can support this kind of orator. +From what other source do you think he has become rich or from what other +source great? Certainly neither family nor wealth was bequeathed him by +his father the fuller, who was always trading in grapes and olives, a man +who was glad to make both ends meet by this and by his washing, and whose +time was taken up every day and night with the vilest occupations. The +son, having been brought up in them, not unnaturally tramples and dowses +his superiors, using a species of abuse invented in the workshops and on +the street corners. + +[-5-] "Now being of such an origin yourself, and after growing up naked +among your naked companions, picking up pig manure and sheep dung and +human excrement, have you dared, O most accursed wretch, first to slander +the youth of Antony who had the advantage of pedagogues and teachers as +his rank demanded, and next to impugn him because in celebrating the +Lupercalia, an ancestral festival, he came naked into the Forum? But I +ask you, you that always used all the clothes of others on account +of your father's business and were stripped by whoever met you and +recognized them, what ought a man who was not only priest but also leader +of his fellow priests to have done? Not to conduct the procession, not to +celebrate the festival, not to sacrifice according to ancestral custom, +not to appear naked, not to anoint himself? 'But it is not for that that +I censure him,' he answers, 'but because he delivered a speech and +that kind of speech naked in the Forum.' Of course this man has become +acquainted in the fuller's shop with all minute matters of etiquette, +that he should detect a real mistake and be able to rebuke it properly. + +[-6-] "In regard to this matter I will say later all that needs to be +said, but just now I want to ask the speaker a question or two. Is it +not true that you for your part were nourished by the ills of others and +educated in the misfortunes of your neighbors and for this reason are +acquainted with no liberal branch of knowledge, that you have established +a kind of association here and are always waiting, like the harlots, for +a man who will give something, and that having many men in your pay to +attract profit to you you pry into people's affairs to find out who has +wronged (or seems to have wronged) whom, who hates whom, and who is +plotting against whom? With these men you make common cause, and through +these men you are supported, selling them the hopes that chance bestows, +trading in the decisions of the jurors, deeming him alone a friend who +gives more and more, and all those enemies who furnish you no business or +employ some other advocate, while you pretend not even to know those who +are already in your clutch and affect to be bored by them, but fawn upon +and giggle at those just approaching, like the mistresses of inns? + +[-7-] How much better it were that you too should have been born +Bambalio,--if this Bambalio really exists,--than to have taken up such a +livelihood, in which it is absolutely inevitable that you should either +sell your speech in behalf of the innocent, or else preserve the guilty. +Yet you can not do even this effectively, though you wasted three years +in Athens. On what occasion? By what help? Why, you always come trembling +up to court as if you were going to fight in armor and after speaking a +few words in a low and half-dead voice you go away, not remembering a +word of the speech you practiced at home before you came, and without +finding anything to say on the spur of the moment. In making affirmations +and promises you surpass all mankind in audacity, but in the contests +themselves beyond uttering some words of abuse and defamation you are +most weak and cowardly. Do you think any one is ignorant of the fact that +you never delivered one of those wonderful speeches of yours that you +have published, but wrote them all up afterward, like persons who form +generals and masters-of-horse out of day? If you feel doubtful of this +point, remember how you accused Verres,--though, to be sure, you only +gave him an example of your father's trade, when you made water. + +[-8-] "But I hesitate, for fear that in saying precisely what fits your +case I may seem to be uttering words that are unfitting for myself.[14] +This I will pass over; and further, by Jupiter, also the affairs of +Gabinius, against whom, you prepared accusers and then pled his cause in +such a way that he was condemned; and the pamphlets which you compose +against your friends, in regard to which you feel yourself so guilty +that you do not dare to make them public. Yet it is a most miserable and +pitiable state to be in, not to be able to deny these charges which are +the most disgraceful conceivable to admit. But I will leave these to one +side and bring forward the rest. Well, though we did grant the trainer, +as you say, two thousand plethra of the ager Leontinus, we still learned +nothing adequate from it.[15] But who should not admire your system of +instruction? And what is it? You are ever jealous of your superiors, +you always toady to the prominent man, you slander him who has attained +distinction, you inform against the powerful and you hate equally all the +excellent, and you pretend love only for those through whom you may do +some mischief. This is why you are always inciting the younger against +their elders and lead those who trust you even in the slightest into +dangers, where you desert them. [-9-] A proof of this is, that you have +never accomplished any achievement worthy of a distinguished man either +in war or in peace. How many wars have we won under you as praetor and +what kind of territory did we acquire with you as consul? Your private +activity all these years has consisted in continually deceiving some of +the foremost men and winning them to your side and managing everything +you like, while publicly you have been shouting and bawling out at random +those detestable phrases,--'I am the only one that loves you,' or, if it +should so chance, 'And what's-his-name, all the rest, hate you,' and 'I +alone am friendly to you, all the rest are engaged in plots,' and other +such stuff by which you fill some with elation and conceit, only to +betray them, and scare the rest so that you gain their attachment. If any +service is rendered by any one whomsoever of the whole people, you lay +claim to it and write your own name upon it, repeating: 'I moved it, I +proposed it, it was through me that this was done so.' But if anything +happens that ought not to have occurred, you take yourself out of the way +and censure all the rest, saying: 'You see I wasn't praetor, you see +I wasn't envoy, you see I wasn't consul.' And you abuse everybody +everywhere all the time, setting more store by the influence which +comes from appearing to speak your mind boldly than by saying what duty +demands: and you exhibit no important quality of an orator. [-10-] What +public advantage has been preserved or established by you? Who that +was really harming the city have you indicted, and who that was really +plotting against us have you brought to light? To neglect the other +cases,--these very charges which you now bring against Antony are of such +a nature and so many that no one could ever suffer any adequate penalty +for them. Why, then, if you saw us being wronged by him at the start, as +you assert, did you never attack or accuse him at the time, instead of +telling us now all the transgressions he committed when tribune, all his +irregularities when master of horse, all his villanies when consul? You +might at once, at the time, in each specific instance, have inflicted the +appropriate penalty upon him, if you had wanted to show yourself in very +deed a patriot, and we could have imposed the punishment in security +and safety during the course of the offences themselves. One of two +conclusions is inevitable,--either that you believed this to be so at the +time and renounced the idea of a struggle in our behalf, or else that you +could not prove any of your charges and are now engaged in a reckless +course of blackmail. + +[-11-] "That this is so I will show you clearly, Conscript Fathers, by +going over each point in detail. Antony did say some words during his +tribuneship in Caesar's behalf: Cicero and some others spoke in behalf of +Pompey. Why now does he accuse him of preferring one man's friendship, +but acquit himself and the rest who warmly embraced the opposite cause? +Antony, to be sure, hindered at that time some measures adverse to Caesar +from being passed: and Cicero hindered practically everything that was +known to be favorable to Caesar. 'But Antony obstructed,' he replies, 'the +public judgment of the senate.' Well, now, in the first place, how could +one man have had so much power? Second, if he had been condemned for +this, as is said, how could he have escaped punishment? 'Oh, he fled, he +fled to Caesar and got out of the way.' Of course you, Cicero, did not +'leave town' just now, but you fled, as in your former exile.[16] Don't +be so ready to apply your own shame to all of us. To flee is what you +did, in fear of the court, and pronouncing condemnation on yourself +beforehand. Yes, to be sure, an ordinance was passed for your recall; how +and for what reasons I do not say, but at any rate it was passed, and you +did not set foot in Italy before the recall was granted. But Antony both +went away to Caesar to inform him what had been done and returned, without +asking for any decree, and finally effected peace and friendship with him +for all those that were found in Italy. And the rest, too, would have had +a share in it, if they had not taken your advice and fled. [-12-] Now in +view of those circumstances do you dare to say he led Caesar against his +country and stirred up the civil war and became more than any one else +responsible for the subsequent evils that befell us? Not so, but you, +who gave Pompey legions that belonged to others and the command, and +undertook to deprive Caesar even of those that had been given him: it was +you, who agreed with Pompey and the consuls not to accept the offers made +by Caesar, but to abandon the city and the whole of Italy: you, who did +not see Caesar even when he entered Rome, but had run off to Pompey +and into Macedonia. Not even to him, however, did you prove of any +assistance, but you neglected what was going on, and then, when he met +with misfortune, you abandoned him. Therefore you did not aid him at the +outset on the ground that he had the juster cause, but after setting +in motion the dispute and embroiling affairs you lay in wait at a safe +distance for a favorable turn; you at once deserted the man who failed, +as if that somehow proved him guilty, and went over to the victor, as if +you deemed him more just. And in addition to your other defects you are +so ungrateful that not only are you not satisfied to have been preserved +by him, but you are actually displeased that you were not made master of +the horse. + +[-13-] "Then with this on your conscience do you dare to say that Antony +ought not to have held the office of master of the horse for a year, and +that Caesar ought not to have remained dictator for a year? But whether it +was wise or necessary for these measures to be framed, at any rate they +were both passed, and they suited us and the people. Censure these men, +Cicero, if they have transgressed in any particular, but not, by Jupiter, +those whom they have chosen to honor for showing themselves worthy of +so great a reward. For if we were forced by the circumstances that then +surrounded us to act in this way and contrary to good policy, why do you +now lay this upon Antony's shoulders, and why did you not oppose it then +if you were able? Because, by Jupiter, you were afraid. Then shall you, +who were at that time silent, obtain pardon for your cowardice, and shall +he, because he was preferred before you, submit to penalties for his +excellence? Where did you learn that this was just, or where did you read +that this was lawful? + +[-14-] "'But he did not rightly use his position as master of horse.' +Why? 'Because,' he answers, 'he bought Pompey's possessions.' How many +others are there who purchased numberless articles, no one of whom +is blamed? That was the purpose in confiscating certain articles and +exposing them in the market and proclaiming them by the voice of the +public crier, to have somebody buy them. 'But Pompey's goods ought not to +have been sold.' Then it was we who erred and did wrong in confiscating +them; or (to clear your skirts and ours) it was at least Caesar who acted +irregularly, he who ordered this to be done: yet you did not censure him +at all. I maintain that in this charge he is proven to be absolutely +beside himself. He has brought against Antony two quite opposite +accusations,--one, that after helping Caesar in very many ways and +receiving in return vast gifts from him he was then required under +compulsion to surrender the price of them, and the second, that he +inherited naught from his father, spent all that he had like Charybdis +(the speaker is always bringing in some comparison from Sicily, as if we +had forgotten that he had been exiled there), and paid the price of all +that he purchased. + +[-15-] "So in these charges this remarkable orator is convicted of +violently contradicting himself and, by Jupiter, again in the following +statements. At one time he says that Antony took part in everything +that was done by Caesar and by this means became more than any one else +responsible for all our internal evils, and again he charges him with +cowardice, reproaching him with not having shared in any other exploits +than those performed in Thessaly. And he makes a complaint against him to +the effect that he restored some of the exiles and finds fault with him +because he did not secure the recall of his uncle; as if any one believes +that he would not have restored him first of all, if he had been able to +recall whomsoever he pleased, since there was no grievance on either side +between them, as this speaker himself knows. Indeed, though he told many +wretched lies about Antony, he did not dare to say anything of that kind. +But he is utterly reckless about letting slip anything that comes to his +tongue's end, as if it were mere breath. + +[-16-] "Why should one follow this line of refutation further? Turning +now to the fact that he goes about with such a tragic air, and has but +this moment said in the course of his remarks that Antony rendered the +sight of the master of the horse most oppressive by using everywhere +and under all circumstances the sword, the purple, the lictors, and the +soldiers at once, let him tell me clearly how and in what respect we have +been wronged by this. He will have no statement to make; for if he had +had, he would have sputtered it out before anything else. Quite the +reverse of his charge is true. Those who were quarreling at that time +and causing all the trouble were Trebellius and Dolabella: Antony did no +wrong and was active in every way in our behalf, so much so that he was +entrusted by us with guarding the city against those very men, and not +only did this remarkable orator not oppose it (he was there) but even +approved it. Else let him show what syllable he uttered on seeing the +licentious and accursed fellow (to quote from his abuse), besides doing +nothing that the occasion required, securing also so great authority from +you. He will have nothing to show. So it looks as if not a word of what +he now shouts aloud was ventured at that time by this great and patriotic +orator, who is everywhere and always saying and repeating: 'I alone am +contending for freedom, I alone speak freely for the democracy; I cannot +be restrained by favor of friends or fear of enemies from looking out for +your advantage; I, even if it should be my lot to die in speaking in your +behalf, will perish very gladly.' And his silence was very natural, for +it occurred to him to reflect that Antony possessed the lictors and the +purple-bordered vesture in accordance with the customs of our ancestors +in regard to masters of horse, and that he was using the sword and the +soldiers perforce against the rebels. For what most excessive outrages +would they not have committed but for his being hedged about with these +protections, when some of them so despised him as it was? + +[-17-] "That these and all his other acts were correct and most +thoroughly in accord with Caesar's intention the facts themselves show. +The rebellion went no further, and Antony, far from paying a penalty for +his course, was subsequently appointed consul. Notice, I beg of you, how +he administered this office of his. You will find, if you scrutinize the +matter minutely, that its tenure proved of great value to the city. +His traducer, knowing this, could not endure his jealousy but dared to +slander him for those deeds which he would have longed to do himself. +That is why he introduced the matter of his stripping and anointing and +those ancient fables, not because there was any pertinence in them now, +but in order to obscure by external noise his opponent's consummate skill +and success. Yet this same Antony, O thou earth, and ye gods (I shall +call louder than you and invoke them with greater justice), saw that the +city was already in reality under a tyranny through the fact that all +the legions obeyed Caesar and all the people together with the senate +submitted to him to such an extent that they voted among other measures +that he should be dictator for life and use the appurtenances of a king. +Then he showed Caesar his error most convincingly and restrained him most +prudently, until the latter, abashed and afraid, would not accept either +the name of king or the diadem, which he had in mind to bestow upon +himself even against our will. Any other man would have declared that +he had been ordered to do it by his master, and putting forward the +compulsion as an excuse would have obtained pardon for it,--yes, indeed, +he would, when you think of what kind of votes we had passed at that time +and what power the soldiers had secured. Antony, however, because he was +thoroughly acquainted with Caesar's disposition and accurately aware of +all he was preparing to do, by great good judgment succeeded in turning +him aside from his course and retarding his ambitions. The proof of it +is that afterward he no longer behaved in any way like a monarch, but +mingled publicly and unprotected with us all; and that accounts most of +all for the possibility of his meeting the fate that he did. + +[-18-] "This is what was done, O Cicero or Cicerulus or Ciceracius or +Ciceriscus or Graeculus[17] or whatever you like to be called, by the +uneducated, the naked, the anointed man: and none of it was done by you, +the clever, the wise, the user of much more olive oil than wine, you who +let your clothing drag about your ankles not, by Jupiter, as the dancers +do, who teach you intricacies of reasoning by their poses, but in order +to hide the ugliness of your legs. Oh no, it's not through modesty that +you do this, you who delivered that long screed about Antony's habits. +Who is there that does not see these soft clothes of yours? Who does not +scent your carefully combed gray locks? Who is there unaware that you put +away your first wife who had borne you two children, and at an advanced +age married another, a mere girl, in order that you might pay your debts +out of her property? And you did not even retain her, to the end that you +might keep Caerellia fearlessly, whom you debauched when she was as much +older than yourself as the maiden you married was younger, and to whom +you write such letters as a jester at no loss for words would write if +he were trying to get up an amour with a woman seventy years old. +This, which is not altogether to my taste, I have been induced to say, +Conscript Fathers, in the hope that he should not go away without getting +as good as he sent in the discussion. Again, he has ventured to reproach +Antony for a little kind of banquet, because he, as he says, drinks +water, his purpose being to sit up at night and compose speeches against +us,--though he brings up his son in such drunkenness that the latter is +sober neither night nor day. Furthermore he undertook to make derogatory +remarks about Antony's mouth, this man who has shown so great +licentiousness and impurity throughout his entire life that he would not +keep his hands off even his closest kin, but let out his wife for hire +and deflowered his daughter. + +[-18-] "These particulars I shall leave as they stand and return to the +point where I started. That Antony against whom he has inveighed, seeing +Caesar exalted over our government, caused him by granting what seemed +personal favors to a friend not to put into effect any of the projects +that he had in mind. Nothing so diverts persons from objects which they +may attain without caring to secure them righteously, as for those who +fear such results to appear to endure the former's conduct willingly. +These persons in authority have no regard for their own consciousness of +guilt, but if they think they have been detected, they are ashamed and +afraid: thereafter they usually take what is said to them as flattery and +believe the opposite, and any action which may result from the words as +a plot, being suspicious in the midst of their shame. Antony knew +this thoroughly, and first of all he selected the Lupercalia and that +procession in order that Caesar in the relaxation of his spirit and the +fun of the affair might be rebuked with immunity, and next he selected +the Forum and the rostra that his patron might be shamed by the very +places. And he fabricated the commands from the populace, in order that +hearing them Caesar might reflect not on what Antony was saying at the +time, but on what the Roman people would order a man to say. How could +he have believed that this injunction had really been laid upon any one, +when he knew that the people had not voted anything of the kind and did +not hear them shouting out. But it was right for him to hear this in the +Roman Forum, where we had often joined in many deliberations for freedom, +and beside the rostra from which we had sent forth thousands and +thousands of measures in behalf of the democracy, and at the festival of +the Lupercalia, in order that he should remember Romulus, and from the +mouth of the consul that he might call to mind the deeds of the early +consuls, and in the name of the people, that he might ponder the fact +that he was undertaking to be tyrant not over Africans or Gauls or +Egyptians, but over very Romans. These words made him turn about; they +humiliated him. And whereas if any one else had offered him the diadem, +he might have taken it, he was then stopped short by that speech and felt +a shudder of alarm. + +"These, then are the deeds of Antony: he did not uselessly break a leg, +in order himself to escape, nor burn off a hand, in order to frighten +Porsenna, but by his cleverness and consummate skill he put an end to +the tyranny of Caesar better than any spear of Decius and better than the +sword of Brutus. [-20-] But you, Cicero, what did you effect in your +consulship, not to mention wise and good things, that was not deserving +of the greatest punishment? Did you not throw our city into uproar and +party strife when it was quiet and harmonious, and fill the Forum and +Capitol with slaves, among others, that you had called to your aid? Did +you not ruin miserably Catiline, who was overanxious for office, but +otherwise guilty of no violence? Did you not pitiably destroy Lentulus +and his followers, who were not guilty, not tried, and not convicted, in +spite of the fact that you are always and everywhere prating interminably +about the laws and about the courts? If any one should take these phrases +from your speeches, there is nothing left. You censured Pompey because +he conducted the trial of Milo contrary to legalized precedent: yet you +afforded Lentulus no privilege great or small that is enjoined in these +cases, but without a speech or trial you cast him into prison, a man +respectable, aged, whose ancestors had given many great pledges that he +would be friendly to his country, and who by reason of his age and his +character had no power to do anything revolutionary. What trouble did he +have that would have been cured by the change of condition? What blessing +did he possess that would not certainly be jeopardized by rebellion? What +arms had he collected, what allies had he equipped, that a man who had +been consul and was praetor should be so pitilessly and impiously cast +into a cell without being allowed to say a word of defence or hear a +single charge, and die there like the basest criminals? For this is what +this excellent Tullius most of all desired,--that in [the Tullianum,] the +place that bears his name, he might put to death the grandson of that +Lentulus once became the head of the senate. [-21-] What would he +have done if he had obtained authority to bear arms, seeing that he +accomplished so many things of such a nature by his words alone? These +are your brilliant achievements, these are your great exhibitions of +generalship; and not only were you condemned for them by the rest, but +you were so ready to vote against your own self in the matter that you +fled before your trial came on. Yet what greater demonstration of your +bloodguiltiness could there be than that you came in danger of perishing +at the hands of those very persons in whose behalf you pretended you had +done this, that you were afraid of the very ones whom you said you had +benefited by these acts, and that you did not wait to hear from them or +say a word to them, you clever, you extraordinary man, you aider of other +people, but secured your safety by flight as if from a battle? And you +are so shameless that you have undertaken to write a history of these +events that I have related, whereas you ought to have prayed that no +other man even should give an account of any of them: then you might at +least derive this advantage, that your doings should die with you and no +memory of them be transmitted to posterity. Now, gentlemen, if you want +to laugh, listen to his clever device. He set himself the task of writing +a history of the entire existence of the city (for he pretends to be a +sophist and poet and philosopher and orator and historian), and he began +not from the founding of it, like the rest are similarly busied, but from +his own consulship, so that he might proceed backwards, making that the +beginning of his account, and the kingdom of Romulus the end. + +[-22-] "Tell me now, you who write such things and do such things, what +the excellent man ought to say in popular address and do in action: for +you are better at advising others about any matter whatsoever than at +doing your own duty, and better at rebuking others than at reforming +yourself. Yet how much better it were for you instead of reproaching +Antony with cowardice to lay aside yourself that effeminacy both of +spirit and of body, instead of bringing a charge of disloyalty against +him to cease yourself from doing anything disloyal or playing the +deserter, instead of accusing him of ingratitude to cease yourself from +wronging your benefactors! For this, I must tell you, is one of his +inherent defects, that he hates above all those who have done him any +favor, and is always fawning upon somebody else but plotting against +these persons. To leave aside other instances, he was pitied and +preserved by Caesar and enrolled among the patricians, after which he +killed him,--no, not with his own hand (he is too cowardly and womanish), +but by persuading and making ready others who should do it. The men +themselves showed that I speak the truth in this. When they ran out into +the Forum with their naked blades, they invoked him by name, saying +'Cicero!' repeatedly, as you all heard. His benefactor, Caesar, then, he +slew, and as for Antony from whom he obtained personally safety and +a priesthood when he was in danger of perishing at the hands of the +soldiers in Brundusium, he repays him with this sort of thanks, by +accusing him for deeds with which neither he himself nor any one else +ever found any fault and attacking him for conduct which he praises in +others. Yet he sees this Caesar, who has not attained the age yet to hold +office or have any part in politics and has not been chosen by you, sees +him equipped with power and standing as the author of a war without our +vote or orders, and not only has no blame to bestow, but pronounces +laudations. So you perceive that he investigates neither what is just +with reference to the laws nor what is useful with reference to the +public weal, but simply manages everything to suit his own will, +censuring in some what he extols in others, spreads false reports against +you, and calumniates you gratuitously.[-23-] For you will find that all +of Antony's acts after Caesar's demise were ordered by you. To speak about +the disposition of the funds and the examination of the letters I deem to +be superfluous. Why so? Because first it would be the business of the one +who inherited his property to look into the matter, and second, if there +was any truth in the charge of malfeasance, it ought to have been +stopped then on the moment. For none of the transactions was carried on +underhandedly, Cicero, but they were all recorded on tablets, as you +yourself affirm. If Antony committed his many wrongs so openly and +shamelessly as you say, and plundered the whole of Crete on the pretext +that in accord with Caesar's letters it had been left free after the +governorship of Brutus, though the latter was later given charge of it by +us, how could you have kept silent and how could any one else have borne +it? But these matters, as I said, I shall pass over; for the majority of +them have not been mentioned individually, and Antony is not present, +who could inform you exactly of what he has done in each instance. As to +Macedonia and Gaul and the remaining provinces and legions, yours are +the decrees, Conscript Fathers, according to which you assigned to the +various governors their separate charges and delivered to Antony Gaul, +together with the soldiers. This is known also to Cicero. He was there +and helped vote for all of them just like you. Yet how much better it +would have been for him then to speak in opposition, if any item of +business was not going as it should, and to instruct you in these matters +that are now brought forward, than to be silent at the time and allow +you to make mistakes, and now nominally to censure Antony but really to +accuse the senate! + +[-24-] "Any sensible person could not assert, either, that Antony forced +you to vote these measures. He himself had no band of soldiers so as to +compel you to do anything contrary to your inclinations, and further the +business was done for the good of the city. For since the legions had +been sent ahead and united, there was fear that when they heard of +Caesar's assassination they might revolt, put some inferior man at their +head, and begin to wage war again: so it seemed good to you, taking a +proper and excellent course, to place in command of them Antony the +consul, who was charged with the promotion of harmony, who had rejected +the dictatorship entirely from the system of government. And that is the +reason that you gave him Gaul in place of Macedonia, that he should stay +here in Italy, committing no harm, and do at once whatever errand was +assigned him by you. + +[-25-] "This I have said to you that you may know that you decided +rightly. For Cicero that other point of mine was sufficient,--namely, +that he was present during all these proceedings and helped us to pass +the measures, though Antony had not a soldier at the time and could not +have brought to bear on us pressure in the shape of any terror that would +have made us neglect a single point of our interest. But even if you were +then silent, tell us now at least: what ought we to have done under the +circumstances? Leave the legions leaderless? Would they have failed +to fill both Macedonia and Italy with countless evils? Commit them to +another? And whom could we have found more closely related and suited +to the business than Antony, the consul, the director of all the city's +affairs, the one who had taken such good care of harmony among us, the +one who had given countless examples of his affection for the State? Some +one of the assassins, perhaps? Why, it wasn't even safe for them to live +in the city. Some one of the party opposed to them? Everybody suspected +those people. What other man was there surpassing him in esteem, +excelling him in experience? Or are you vexed that we did not choose you? +What kind of administration would you have given? What would you not have +done when you got arms and soldiers, considering that you occasioned so +many and so great instances of turmoil in your consulship as a result of +these elaborate antitheses, which you have made your specialty, of which +alone you were master. [-26-] But I return to my point that you were +present when it was being voted and said nothing against it, but assented +to all the measures as being obviously excellent and necessary. You did +not lack opportunity to speak; indeed you roared out considerable that +was beside the purpose. Nor were you afraid of anybody. How could you, +who did not fear the armed warrior, have quailed before the defenceless +man? Or how have feared him alone when you do not dread him in the +possession of many soldiers! Yes, you also give yourself airs for +absolutely despising death, as you affirm. + +"Since these facts are so, which of the two, senators, seems to be in the +wrong, Antony, who is managing the forces granted him by us, or Caesar, +who is surrounded with such a large band of his own? Antony, who has +departed to take up the office committed to him by us, or Brutus, who +prevents him from setting foot in the country? Antony, who wishes to +compel our allies to obey our decrees, or they, who have not received the +ruler sent them by us but have attached themselves to the man who was +voted against? Antony, who keeps our soldiers together, or the soldiers, +who have abandoned their commander? Antony, who has introduced not one of +these soldiers granted him by us into the city, or Caesar, who by money +persuaded those who had long ago been in service to come here? I think +there is no further need of argument to answer the imputation that he +does not seem to be managing correctly all the duties laid upon him by +us, and to show that these men ought to suffer punishment for what they +have ventured on their own responsibility. Therefore you also secured the +guard of soldiers that you might discuss in safety the present situation, +not on account of Antony, who had caused no trouble privately nor +intimidated you in any way, but on account of his rival, who both had +gathered a force against him and has often kept many soldiers in the city +itself. + +[-27-] "I have said so much for Cicero's benefit, since it was he who +began unfair argument against us. I am not generally quarrelsome, as he +is, nor do I care to pry into others' misdeeds, as he continually gives +himself airs for doing. Now I will tell you what advice I have to give, +not favoring Antony at all nor calumniating Caesar or Brutus, but planning +for the common advantage, as is proper. I declare that we ought not yet +to make an enemy of either of these men in arms nor to enquire exactly +what they have been doing or in what way. The present crisis is not +suitable for this action, and as they are all alike our fellow-citizens, +if any one of them fails the loss will be ours, or if any one of them +succeeds his aggrandizement will be a menace to us. Wherefore I believe +that we ought to treat them as friends and citizens and send messengers +to all of them alike, bidding them lay down their arms and put themselves +and their legions in our hands, and that we ought not yet to wage war on +any one of them, but after their replies have come back approve those who +are willing to obey us and fight against the disobedient. This course is +just and expedient for us,--not to be in a hurry or do anything rashly, +but to wait and after giving the leaders themselves and their soldiers an +opportunity to change their minds, then, if in such case there be need of +war, to give the consuls charge of it. + +[-28-] "And you, Cicero, I advise not to show a womanish sauciness nor +to imitate Bambalio even in making war[18] nor because of your private +enmity toward Antony to plunge the whole city publicly again into danger. +You will do well if you even become reconciled to him, with whom you have +often enjoyed friendly intercourse. But even if you continue embittered +against him, at least spare us, and do not after acting as the promoter +of friendship among us then destroy it. Remember that day and the speech +which you delivered in the precinct of Tellus, and yield a little to this +goddess of Concord under whose guidance we are now deliberating, and +avoid discrediting those statements and making them appear as if not +uttered from a sincere heart, or by somebody else on that occasion. This +is to the advantage of the State and will bring you most renown. Do not +think that audacity is either glorious or safe, and do not feel sure +of being praised just for saying that you despise death. Such men all +suspect and hate as being likely to venture some deed of evil through +desperation. Those whom they see, however, paying greatest attention to +their own safety they praise and laud, because such would not willingly +do anything that merited death. Do you, therefore, if you honestly +wish your country to be safe, speak and act in such a way as will both +preserve yourself and not, by Jupiter, involve us in your destruction!" + +[-29-] Such language from Calenus Cicero would not endure. He himself +always spoke his mind intemperately and immoderately to all alike, but he +never thought he ought to get a similar treatment from others. On this +occasion, too, he gave up considering the public interest and set himself +to abusing his opponent until that day was spent, and naturally for +the most part uselessly. On the following day and the third many other +arguments were adduced on both sides, but the party of Caesar prevailed. +So they voted first a statue to the man himself and the right to +deliberate among the ex-quaestors as well as of being a candidate for the +other offices ten years sooner than custom allowed, and that he should +receive from the City the money which he had spent for his soldiers, +because he had equipped them at his own cost for her defence: second, +that both his soldiers and those that had abandoned Antony should have +the privilege of not fighting in any other war and that land should be +given them at once. To Antony they sent an embassy which should order him +to give up the legions, leave Gaul, and withdraw into Macedonia--and to +his followers they issued a proclamation to return home before a given +day or to know that they would occupy the position of enemies. Moreover +they removed the senators who had received from him governorships over +the provinces and resolved that others should be sent in their place. +These measures were ratified at that time. Not long after, before +learning his decision, they voted that a state of rebellion existed, +changed their senatorial garb, gave charge of the war against him to the +consuls and Caesar (a kind of pretorian office), and ordered Lepidus and +Lucius Munatius Plancus, who was governing a portion of Transalpine Gaul, +to render assistance. + +[-30-] In this way did they themselves furnish an excuse for hostility +to Antony, who was without this anxious to make war. He was pleased to +receive news of the decrees and forthwith violently reproached the envoys +with not treating him rightly or fairly as compared with the youth +(meaning Caesar). He also sent others in his turn, so as to put the blame +of the war upon the senators, and make some counter-propositions which +saved his face but were impossible of performance by Caesar and those who +sided with him. He intended not to fulfill one of their demands, well +aware that they too would not take up with anything that he submitted. He +promised, however, that he would do all that they had determined, that he +himself might have a refuge in saying that he would have done it, while +at the same time his opponent's party would be before him in becoming +responsible for the war, by refusing the terms he laid before them. In +fine, he said that he would abandon Gaul and disband his legions, if they +would grant these soldiers the same rewards as they had voted to Caesar's +and would elect Cassius and Marcus Brutus consuls. He brought in the +names of these men in his request with the purpose that they should +not harbor any ill-will toward him for his operations against their +fellow-conspirator Decimus. + +[-31-] Antony made these offers knowing well that neither of them would +be acted upon. Caesar would never have endured that the murderers of his +father should become consuls or that Antony's soldiers by receiving the +same as his own should feel still more kindly toward his rival. Nor, as a +matter of fact, were his offers ratified, but they again declared war +on Antony and gave notice to his associates to leave him, appointing a +different day. All, even such as were not to take the field, arrayed +themselves in military cloaks, and they committed to the consuls the care +of the city, attaching to the decree the customary clause "to the end +that it suffer no harm." And since there was need of large funds for the +war, they all contributed the twenty-fifth part of the property they +owned and the senators also four asses[19] per tile of all the houses in +the city that they themselves owned or dwelt in belonging to others. The +very wealthy besides donated no little more, while many cities and +many individuals manufactured gratuitously weapons and other necessary +accoutrements for a campaign. The public treasury was at that time so +empty that not even the festivals which were due to fall during that +season were celebrated, except some small ones out of religious scruple. +[-32-] These subscriptions were given readily by those who favored Caesar +and hated Antony. The majority, however, being oppressed by the campaigns +and the taxes at once were irritated, particularly because it was +doubtful which of the two would conquer but quite evident that they would +be slaves of the conqueror. Many of those, therefore, that wished Antony +well, went straight to him, among them tribunes and a few praetors: others +remained in their places, one of whom was Calenus, but did all that they +could for him, some things secretly and other things with an open defence +of their conduct. Hence they did not change their costume immediately, +and persuaded the senate to send envoys again to Antony, among them +Cicero: in doing this they pretended that the latter might persuade him +to make terms, but their real purpose was that he should be removed from +their path. He too reflected on this possibility and becoming alarmed +would not venture to expose himself in the camp of Antony. As a result +none of the other envoys set out either. + +[-33-] While this was being done portents of no small moment again +occurred, significant for the City, and for the consul Vibius himself. +In the last assembly before they set out for the war a man with the +so-called sacred disease[20] fell down while Vibius was speaking. Also a +bronze statue of him which stood at the porch of his house turned around +of itself on the day and at the hour that he started on the campaign, and +the sacrifices customary before war could not be interpreted by the seers +by reason of the quantity of blood. Likewise a man who was just then +bringing him a palm slipped in the blood which had been shed, fell, and +defiled the palm. These were the portents in his case. Now if they had +befallen him when a private citizen, they would have pertained to him +alone, but since he was consul they had a bearing on all alike. They +included the following incidents: the figure of the Mother of the Gods on +the Palatine formerly facing the east turned around of its own accord +to the west; that of Minerva held in honor near Mutina, where the most +fighting was going on, sent forth after this a quantity of blood and +milk; furthermore the consuls took their departure just before the Feriae +Latinae; and there is no case where this happened that the forces fared +well. So at this time, too, both the consuls and a vast multitude of the +people perished, some immediately and some later, and also many of the +knights and senators, including the most prominent. For in the first +place the battles, and in the second place the assassinations at home +which occurred again as in the Sullan régime, destroyed all the flower of +them except those actually concerned in the murders. + +[-34-] Responsibility for these evils rested on the senators themselves. +For whereas they ought to have set at their head some one man of superior +judgment and to have coöperated with him continuously, they failed to do +this, but made protégés of a few whom they strengthened against the +rest, and later undertook to overthrow these favorites as well, and +consequently they found no one a friend but all hostile. The comparative +attitude of men toward those who have injured them and toward their +benefactors is different, for they remember a grudge even against their +wills but willingly forget to be thankful. This is partly because they +disdain to appear to have been kindly treated by any persons, since +they will seem to be the weaker of the two, and partly because they are +irritated at the idea that they will be thought to have been injured by +anybody with impunity, since that will imply cowardice on their part. +So those senators by not taking up with some one person, but attaching +themselves to one and another in turn, and voting and doing now something +for them, now something against them, suffered much because of them +and much also at their hands. All the leaders had one purpose in the +war,--the abolition of the popular power and the setting up of a +sovereignty. Some were fighting to see whose slaves they should be, and +others to see who should be their master; and so both of them equally +wrought havoc, and each of them won glory according to fortune, which +varied. The successful warriors were deemed shrewd and patriotic, and the +defeated ones were called both enemies of their country and pestilential +fellows. + +[-35-] This was the state that the Roman affairs had at that time +reached: I shall now go on to describe the separate events. There seems +to me to be a very large amount of self-instruction possible, when one +takes facts as the basis of his reasoning, investigates the nature of +the former by the latter, and then proves his reasoning true by its +correspondence with the facts. + +The precise reason for Antony's besieging Decimus in Mutina was that +the latter would not give up Gaul to him, but he pretended that it was +because Decimus had been one of Caesar's assassins. For since the true +cause of the war brought him no credit, and at the same time he saw the +popular party flocking to Caesar to avenge his father, he put forward this +excuse for the conflict. That it was a mere pretext for getting control +of Gaul he himself made plain in demanding that Cassius and Marcus Brutus +be appointed consuls. Each of these two utterances, of the most opposite +character as they were, he made with an eye to his own advantage. Caesar +had begun a campaign against his rival before the war was granted him by +the vote, but had done nothing worthy of importance. When he learned +of the decrees passed he accepted the honors and was glad, especially +because when he was sacrificing at the time of receiving the distinction +and authority of praetor the livers of all the victims, twelve in number, +were found to be double. He was impatient, to be sure, at the fact that +envoys and proposals had been sent also to Antony, instead of unrelenting +war being declared against him at once, and most of all because he +ascertained that the consuls had forwarded some private despatch to his +rival about harmony, that when some letters sent by the latter to certain +senators had been captured these officials had handed them to the persons +addressed, concealing the transaction from him, and that they were not +carrying on the war zealously or promptly, making the winter their +excuse. However, as he had no means of making known these facts,--for he +did not wish to alienate them, and on the other hand he was unable to use +any persuasion or force,--he stayed quiet himself in winter quarters in +Forum Cornelium, until he became frightened about Decimus. [-36-] The +latter had previously been vigorously fighting Antony off. On one +occasion, suspecting that some men had been sent into the city by him +to corrupt the soldiers, he called all those present together and after +giving them a few hints proclaimed by herald that all the men under arms +should go to one side of a certain place that he pointed out and the +private citizens to the other side of it: in this way he detected and +arrested Antony's followers, who were isolated and did not know which way +to turn. Later he was entirely shut in by a wall; and Caesar, fearing he +might be captured by storm or capitulate through lack of provisions, +compelled Hirtius to join a relief party. Vibius was still in Rome +raising levies and abolishing the laws of Antony. Accordingly, they +started out and without a blow took possession of Bononia, which had been +abandoned by the garrisons, and routed the cavalry who later confronted +them: by reason of the river, however, near Mutina and the guard beside +it they found themselves unable to proceed farther. They wished, +notwithstanding, even so to make known their presence to Decimus, that +he might not in undue season make terms, and at first they tried sending +signals from the tallest trees. But since he did not understand, they +scratched a few words on a thin sheet of lead, and rolling it up like a +piece of paper gave it to a diver to carry across under water by night. +Thus Decimus learned at the same time of their presence and their promise +of assistance, and sent them a reply in the same fashion, after which +they continued uninterruptedly to communicate all their plans to each +other. + +[-37-] Antony, therefore, seeing that Decimus was not inclined to yield, +left him to the charge of his brother Lucius, and himself proceeded +against Caesar and Hirtius. The two armies faced each other for a number +of days and a few insignificant cavalry battles occurred, with honors +even. Finally the Celtic cavalry, of whom Caesar had gained possession +along with the elephants, withdrew to Antony's side again. They had +started from the camp with the rest and had gone on ahead as if intending +to engage separately those of the enemy who came to meet them; but after +a little they turned about and unexpectedly attacked those following +behind (who did not stand their ground), killing many of them. After this +some foraging parties on both sides fell to blows and when the remainder +of each party came to the rescue a sharp battle ensued between the two +forces, in which Antony was victorious. Elated by his success and in +the knowledge that Vibius was approaching he assailed the antagonists' +fortification, thinking possibly to destroy it beforehand and make the +rest of the conflict easier. They, in consideration of their disaster and +the hope which Vibius inspired, kept guard but would not come out for +battle. Hence Antony left behind there a certain portion of his army with +orders to come to close quarters with them and so make it appear as much +as possible that he himself was there and at the same time to take +good care that no one should fall upon his rear. After issuing these +injunctions he set out secretly by night against Vibius, who was +approaching from Bononia. By an ambush he succeeded in wounding the +latter severely, in killing the majority of his soldiers and confining +the rest within their ramparts. He would have annihilated them, had +he proceeded to besiege them for any time at all. As it was, after +accomplishing nothing at the first assault he began to be alarmed lest +while he was delaying he should receive some setback from Caesar and the +rest; so he again turned against them. Wearied by the journey both ways +and by the battle he was also in doubt whether he should find that his +opponents had conquered the force hostile to them; and in this condition +he was confronted by Hirtius and suffered a decisive defeat. For when +Hirtius and Caesar perceived what was going on, the latter remained to +keep watch over the camp while the former set out against Antony. [-38-] +Upon the latter's defeat not only Hirtius was saluted as imperator by +the soldiers and by the senate, but likewise Vibius, though he had +fared badly, and Caesar who had done no fighting even. To those who had +participated in the conflict and had perished there was voted a public +burial, and it was resolved that the prizes of war which they had taken +while alive should be restored to their fathers and sons. + +Following this official action Pontius Aquila, one of the assassins and +a lieutenant of Decimus, conquered in battle Titus Munatius Plancus, who +opposed him; and Decimus, when a certain senator deserted to Antony, +so far from displaying anger toward him sent back all his baggage and +whatever else he had left behind in Mutina, the result being that the +affection of many of Antony's soldiers grew cool, and some of the nations +which had previously sympathized with him proceeded to rebel: Caesar and +Hirtius, however, were elated at this, and approaching the fortifications +of Antony challenged him to combat; he for a time was alarmed and +remained quiet, but later when some reinforcements sent by Lepidus came +to him he took courage. Lepidus himself did not make it clear to which +of the two sides he sent the army: he thought well of Antony, who was a +relative, but had been summoned against him by the senate; and for these +reasons he made plans to have a refuge in store with both parties, by not +giving to Marcus Silanus, the commander, orders that were in the least +clear. But he, doubtless knowing well his master's frame of mind, went on +his own responsibility to Antony. [-39-] So when the latter had been thus +assisted he became bold and made a sudden sally from the gates: there was +great slaughter on both sides, but at last he turned and fled. + +Up to this time Caesar was being strengthened by the people and the +senate, and because of this expected that among other honors to be +bestowed he would be forthwith appointed consul. It happened that Hirtius +perished in the occupation of Antony's camp and Vibius died of his wounds +not long after, so that Caesar was charged with having caused their death +that he might succeed to the office. But the senate had previously, while +it was still uncertain which of the two would prevail, done away with all +the privileges which formerly, granted to any person beyond the customs +of the forefathers, had paved the way to sovereignty: they voted that +this edict should apply to both parties, intending by it to anticipate +the victor, while laying the blame upon the other, who should be +defeated. First they forbade any one to hold office more than a year, and +second that any superintendent of grain supplies or commissioner of food +should be chosen. When they ascertained the outcome, they rejoiced at +Antony's defeat, changed their raiment once more, and celebrated a solemn +thanksgiving for sixty[21] days. All those arrayed on his side they held +in the light of enemies, and took possession of their property as they +did of the leader's. [-40-] Nor did they propose that Caesar any longer +should receive any great reward, but even undertook to overthrow him, by +allowing Decimus to secure all the prizes for which he was hoping. They +voted Decimus not only the right of sacrifice but a triumph and gave him +charge of the rest of the war and of the legions,--those of Vibius and +others. Upon the soldiers that had been besieged with him they resolved +that eulogies should be bestowed and all the other rewards which +had formerly been offered to Caesar's men, although these troops had +contributed nothing to the victory, but had merely beheld it from the +walls. Aquila, who had died in the battle, they honored with an image, +and restored to his heirs the money which he had expended from his own +purse for the equipment of Decimus's soldiers. In a word, practically +every advantage that had been given Caesar against Antony was voted to +others against the man himself. And to the end that no matter how much he +might wish it he should not be able to do any harm, they armed all his +enemies against him. To Sextus Pompey they entrusted the fleet, to Marcus +Brutus Macedonia, and to Cassius Syria together with the war against +Dolabella. They would certainly have further deprived him of the forces +that he had, but they were afraid to vote this openly, owing to their +knowledge that his soldiers were devoted to him. Still, even so, they +strove to set his followers at variance with one another and with him. +They did not wish to approve and honor all of them, for fear they should +fill them with too great conceit, nor again to dishonor and neglect all, +for fear they should alienate them the more and as a consequence force +them to agree together. Hence they adopted a middle course, and by +approving some of them and others not, by allowing some to wear an olive +garland at the festivals and others not, and furthermore by voting to +some money to the extent of twenty-five hundred denarii and to others +not a farthing, they hoped to bring about between them and by that means +weaken them. [-41-] Those charged with these commissions also they sent +not to Caesar but to the men in the field. He became enraged at this, but +nominally allowed the envoys to mix with the army without his presence, +though he sent word beforehand that no answer should be given and that +he himself should be at once sent for. So when he came into the camp and +joined them in listening to the despatches, he succeeded in conciliating +them much more by that very action. Those who had been preferred in honor +were not so delighted at this precedence as they were suspicious of the +affair, particularly as a result of Caesar's influence. And those who had +been slighted were not at all angry at their comrades, but added their +doubts of the sincerity of the decrees, imputing their dishonor to all +and sharing their anger with them. The people in the City, on learning +this, though frightened did not even so appoint him consul, for which he +was most anxious, but granted him the distinction of consular honors, so +that he might now record his vote along with the ex-consuls. When he took +no account of this, they voted that he should be made a praetor of the +first rank and subsequently also consul. In this way did they think they +had handled Caesar cleverly as if he were in reality a mere youth and +child, as they were always repeating. He, however, was exceedingly vexed +at their general behavior and especially at this very fact that he was +called child, and so made no further delay, but turned against their +camps and powers. With Antony he secretly arranged a truce, and he +assembled the men who had escaped from the battle, whom he himself had +conquered and the senate had voted to be enemies, and in their presence +made many accusations against both the senate and the people. + +[-42-] The people in the City on hearing this for a time held him in +contempt, but when they heard that Antony and Lepidus had become of one +mind they began again to court his favor,--for they were in ignorance of +the propositions he had made to Antony,--and assigned to him charge of +the war against the two. Caesar was accordingly ready to accept even this +if he could be made consul for it. He was working in every way to be +elected, through Cicero among others, and so earnestly that he promised +to make him his colleague. When he was not even then chosen, he made +preparations, to be sure, to carry on war, as had been decreed, but +meanwhile arranged that his own soldiers (of their own motion, of course) +should suddenly take an oath not to fight against any legion that had +been Caesar's. This had a bearing on Lepidus and Antony, since the +majority of their adherents were of that class. So he waited and sent +as envoys to the senate on this business four hundred of the soldiers +themselves. + +[-43-] This was the excuse that they had for an embassy, but in addition +they demanded the money that had been voted them and urged that Caesar be +appointed consul. While the senators were postponing their reply, which +required deliberation, as they said, they asked (naturally on the +instructions from Caesar) that amnesty be granted to some one who had +embraced Antony's cause. They were not really anxious to obtain it, but +wanted to test the senators and see if they would grant the request, or, +if such were not the issue, whether to pretend to be displeased about +it would serve as a starting point for indignation. They failed to +gain their petition, for while no one spoke against it there were many +preferring the same request on behalf of others and thus among a mass of +similar representations their demand also was rejected on some plausible +excuse. Then they openly showed their anger, and one of them issued from +the senate-chamber and grasping a sword (they had gone in unarmed) said: +"If you do not grant the consulship to Caesar, this shall grant it." And +Cicero interrupting him answered: "If you exhort in this way, he will get +it." Now for Cicero this instrument had destruction in readiness. Caesar +did not censure the soldier's act, but made a complaint because they had +been obliged to lay aside their arms on entering the senate and because +one of them was asked whether they had been sent by the legions or by +Caesar. He summoned in haste Antony and Lepidus (whom he had attached to +him through friendship for Antony), and he himself, pretending to have +been forced to such measures by his soldiers, set out with all of them +against Rome. [-44-] Some[22] of the knights and others who were present +they suspected were acting as spies and they consequently slew them, +besides injuring the lands of such as were not in accord with them and +doing much other damage with this excuse. The senators on ascertaining +their approach sent them their money before they came near, hoping that +when the invaders received that they might retire, and when they still +pressed on they appointed Caesar consul. Nothing, however, was gained by +this step. The soldiers were not at all grateful to them for what +they had done not willingly but under compulsion, but were even more +emboldened, in the idea that they had thoroughly frightened them. +Learning of this the senate altered its policy and bade the host not +approach the city but remain over one hundred and fifty stadia from +it. They themselves also changed their garb again and committed to +the praetors the care of the city, as had been the custom. And besides +garrisoning other points they occupied Janiculum in advance with the +soldiers that were at hand and with others from Africa. + +[-45-] While Caesar was still on the march this was the condition of +things; and all the people who were at that time in Rome with one accord +sought a share in the proceedings, as the majority of men are wont to be +bold until they come in sight and have a taste of dangers. When, however, +he arrived in the suburbs, they were alarmed, and first some of the +senators, later many of the people, went over to his side. Thereupon +the praetors also came down from Janiculum and surrendered to him their +soldiers and themselves. Thus Caesar took possession of the city without a +blow and was appointed consul also by the people, though two proconsuls +were chosen to hold the elections; it was impossible, according to +precedent, for an interrex to be created for so short a period merely to +superintend the comitia, because many men who held the curule offices +were absent from the city. They endured having the two proconsuls named +by the praetor urbanus rather than to have the consuls elected under his +direction, because now these proconsular officials would limit their +activities to the elections and consequently would appear to have been +invested with no powers outlasting them.[23] This was of course done +under pressure of arms. Caesar, that he might appear to not to have used +any force upon them, did not enter the assembly,--as if it was his +presence that any one feared instead of his power. + +[-46-] Thus he was chosen consul, and there was given him as a +fellow-official--perhaps one ought to say _under_-official--Quintus +Pedius. He was very proud of this fact that he was to be consul at an +earlier age than it had ever been the lot of any one else, and further +that on the first day of the elections, when he had entered the Campus +Martius, he saw six vultures, and later while haranguing the soldier +twelve others. For, comparing it with Romulus and the omen that had +befallen the latter, he began to expect that he should obtain his +sovereignty. He did not, however, simply on the ground that he had +already been given the distinction of the consular honors, assume +distinction as being consul for the second time. This custom was since +then observed in all similar cases to our own day. The emperor Severus +was the first to change it; for he honored Plautianus with the consular +honors and afterward introduced him to the senate and appointed him +consul, proclaiming that he was entering the consulship the second time. +In imitation of him the same thing was done in other instances. Caesar, +accordingly, arranged affairs in general in the city to suit his taste, +and gave money to the soldiers, to some what had been voted from the +funds prescribed, and to the rest individually from his private funds, as +the story went, but in reality from the public store. + +In this way and for the reasons mentioned did the soldiers receive the +money on that occasion. But some of them got a wrong idea of the matter +and thought it was compulsory for absolutely all the citizen forces at +all times to be given the twenty-five hundred denarii, if they went to +Rome under arms. For this reason the followers of Severus who had come to +the city to overthrow Julianus behaved most terrifyingly both to their +leader himself and to us, while demanding it. And they were won over by +Severus with two hundred and fifty denarii, while people in general were +ignorant what claim was being set up. + +[-47-] Caesar while giving the soldiers the money also expressed to them +his fullest and sincerest thanks. He did not even venture to enter +the senate-chamber without a guard of them. To the senate he showed +gratitude, but it was all fictitious and pretended. For he was accepting +as if it were a favor received from willing hands what he had attained +by violence. And they actually took great credit to themselves for their +behavior, as if they had given him the office voluntarily; and moreover +they granted to him whom previously they had not even wished to choose +consul the right after his term expired to be honored, as often as he +should be in camp, above all those who were consuls at one time or +another. To him on whom they had threatened to inflict penalties, because +he had gathered forces on his own responsibility without the passing of +any vote, they assigned the duty of collecting others: and to the man for +whose disenfranchisement and overthrow they had ordered Decimus to +fight with Antony they added Decimus's legions. Finally he obtained the +guardianship of the city, so that he was able to do everything that he +wished according to law, and he was adopted into Caesar's family in the +regular way, as a consequence changing his name. He had, as some think, +been even before this accustomed to call himself Caesar, as soon as this +name was bequeathed to him together with the inheritance. He was not, +however, exact about his title, nor did he use the same one in dealing +with everybody until at this time he had ratified it in accordance with +ancestral custom, and was thus named, after his famous predecessor, Gaius +Julius Caesar Octavianus. For it is the custom when a person is adopted +for him to take most of his appellation from his adopter but to keep one +of his previous names slightly altered in form. This is the status of the +matter, but I shall call him not Octavianus but Caesar, because this name +has prevailed among all such as secure dominion over the Romans. He took +another one in addition, namely _Augustus_, and therefore the subsequent +emperors assume it. That one will be given when it comes up in the +history, but until then the title Caesar will be sufficient to show that +Octavianus is indicated. + +[-48-] This Caesar, then, as soon as he had conciliated the soldiers and +enslaved the senate, turned himself to avenging his father's murder. As +he was afraid of somehow causing an upheaval among the populace in the +pursuit of this business he did not make known his intention until he had +seen to the payment of the bequests made to them. When they had been made +docile by means of the money, although it belonged to the public funds +and had been collected on the pretext of war, then at length he began to +follow up the assassins. In order that this procedure of his might not +appear to be characterized by violence but by justice, he proposed a law +about their trial and tried the cases in their absence. The majority of +them were out of town and some even held governorships over provinces. +Those who were present also did not come forward, by reason of fear, and +withdrew unobserved. Consequently they were convicted by default, and +not only those who had been the actual murderers of Caesar and their +fellow-conspirators, but many others who so far from plotting against +Caesar, had not even been in the city at the time. This action was +directed chiefly against Sextus Pompey. The latter though he had had no +share whatever in the attack was nevertheless condemned because he had +been an enemy. Those adjudged guilty were debarred from fire and water +and their property was confiscated. The provinces,--not only those which +some of them were governing, but all the rest,--were committed to the +friends of Caesar. + +[-49-] Among those held liable was also Publius Servilius Casca, the +tribune. He had suspected Caesar's purpose in advance, before he entered +the city, and had quietly slipped away. For this act he was at once +removed from his office, on the charge of having left the city contrary +to precedent, by the populace convened by his colleague Publius Titius; +and in this way he was condemned. When Titius not long after died, the +proverbial fate that had been observed from of old was once more in +evidence. No one up to that time who had expelled a colleague had lived +the year out: but first Brutus after the expulsion of Collatinus died in +his turn, then Gracchus was stabbed after expelling Octavius, and Cinna +who put Marullus and Flavus out of the way not long after perished. This +has been the general experience. + +Now the assassins of Caesar had many accusers who were anxious to +ingratiate themselves with his son, and many who were persuaded so to +act by the rewards offered. They received money from the estate of the +convicted man and the latter's honors and office, if he had any, and +exemption from further service in the army, applicable to themselves +and their children and grandchildren. Of the jurors the majority voted +against the accused out of fear of Caesar and a wish to please him, +generally hinting that they were justified in doing this. Some cast their +votes in consideration of the law enacted about punishing the culprits, +and others in consideration of the arms of Caesar. And one, Silicius +Corona, a senator, voted outright to acquit Marcus Brutus. He made a +great boast of this at the time and secretly received approval from the +rest: that he was not immediately put to death gained for Caesar a great +reputation for toleration, but later he was executed as the result of a +proscription. + +[-50-] After accomplishing this Caesar's next step was naturally a +campaign against Lepidus and Antony. Antony on fleeing from the battle +described had not been pursued by Caesar on account of the war being +entrusted to Decimus; and the latter had not pursued because he did not +wish a rival to Caesar to be removed from the field. Hence the fugitive +collected as many as he could of the survivors of the battle and came +to Lepidus, who had made preparations to march himself into Italy in +accordance with the decree, but had again been ordered to remain where he +was. For the senators, when they ascertained that Silanus had embraced +Antony's cause, were afraid that Lepidus and Lucius Plancus might also +coöperate with him, and sent to them to say that they had no further need +of them. To prevent their suspecting anything ulterior and consequently +causing trouble they ordered them to help in building homes for the men +once driven out of Vienna (in Gallia Narbonensis) by the Allobroges +and then located between the Rhone and the Arar, at their confluence. +Therefore they submitted, and founded the so-called Lugudunum, now known +as Lugdunum. They might have entered Italy with their arms, had they +wished, for the decrees by this time exerted a very weak influence upon +such as had troops, but, with an eye to the outcome of the war Antony was +conducting, they wished to appear to have yielded obedience to the senate +and incidentally to strengthen their position. [-51-] Indeed, Lepidus +censured Silanus severely for making an alliance with Antony, and when +the latter himself came would not hold conversation with him immediately, +but sent a despatch to the senate containing an accusation of his own +against him, and for this stand he received praise and command of the +war against Antony. Hence the first part of the time he neither admitted +Antony nor repelled him, but allowed him to be near and to associate with +his followers; he would not, however, hold a conference with him. But +when he ascertained Antony's agreement with Caesar, he then came to terms +with both of them himself. Marcus Juventius,[24] his lieutenant, learned +what was being done and at first tried to alter his purpose; then, when +he did not succeed in persuading him, he made away with himself in the +sight of the soldiers. For this the senate voted eulogies and a statue to +Juventius and a public funeral, but Lepidus they deprived of his image +which stood upon the rostra and made him an enemy. They also set a +certain day for his comrades and threatened them with war if they should +not abandon him before that day. Furthermore they changed their +clothing again,--they had resumed citizen's apparel in honor of Caesar's +consulship,--and summoned Marcus Brutus and Cassius and Sextus to proceed +against them. When the latter seemed likely to be too slow in responding, +they committed the war to Caesar, being ignorant of the conspiracy +existing. [-52-] He nominally received it, in spite of having made +his soldiers give voice to a sentiment previously mentioned,[25] but +accomplished no corresponding results. This was not because he had +formed a compact with Antony and through him with Lepidus,--little he +cared for that fact,--but because he saw they were powerful and knew +their purposes were linked by the bands of kinship, and he could not use +force with them; and besides he cherished hopes of bringing about +through them the downfall of Cassius and Brutus, who were already very +influential, and subsequently of wearing them out one against the other. +Accordingly, even against his will he kept his covenant with them and +directed his efforts to effecting a reconciliation for them with the +senate and with the people. He did not himself propose the matter, lest +some suspicion of what had really taken place should arise, but he set +out as if to make war on them, while Quintus urged, as if it were his own +idea, that amnesty and restoration be granted them. He did not secure +this, however, until the senate had communicated it to the supposedly +ignorant Caesar and he had unwillingly agreed to it, compelled, as he +alleged, by the soldiers. + +[-53-] While this was being done Decimus at first set forth in the +intention of making war upon the pair, and associated with him Lucius +Planeus, since the latter had been appointed in advance as his colleague +for the following year. Learning, however, of his own condemnation and of +their reconciliation he wished to lead a campaign against Caesar, but was +abandoned by Plancus who favored the cause of Lepidus and Antony. Then he +decided to leave Gaul and hasten into Macedonia on land through Illyricum +to Marcus Brutus, and sent ahead some of the soldiers while he was +engaged in finishing some business he had in hand. But they embraced +Caesar's cause, and the rest were pursued by Lepidus and Antony and then +were won over through the agency of others. So, being deserted, he was +seized by a personal foe. When he was about to be executed he complained +and lamented so loudly that one Helvius Blasio, who was kindly disposed +to him from association on campaigns, in his sight voluntarily slew +himself first. + +[-54-] So Decimus afterward died also. Antony and Lepidus left +lieutenants in Gaul and themselves proceeded to join Caesar in Italy, +taking with them the larger and the better part of their armies. They did +not trust him very far and wished not to owe him any favor, but to seem +to have obtained amnesty and restoration on their own merits and by their +own strength, and not through him. They also hoped to become masters of +whatever they desired, of Caesar and the rest in the City, by the size +of their armies. With such a feeling they marched through the country, +according it friendly treatment. Still, it was damaged by their numbers +and audacity no less than if there had been a war. They were met near +Bononia by Caesar with many soldiers: he was exceedingly well prepared to +defend himself against them, if they should offer any violence. Yet at +this time he found no need of arms to oppose them. They really hated +one another bitterly, but because they had just about equal forces and +desired one another's assistance to take vengeance first on the rest of +their enemies, they entered upon a simulated agreement. [-55-] They came +together to confer, not alone but bringing an equal number of soldiers, +on a little island in the river that flows past Bononia, with the +understanding that no one else should be present on either side. First +they withdrew to a distance from the various followers and searched one +another carefully to make sure that no one had a dagger hidden under his +arm. Then they considered at leisure different points and in general made +a solemn compact for securing sovereignty and overthrowing enemies. +But to prevent its appearing that they were headed straight toward an +oligarchy and so envy and opposition arise on the part of the people at +large, the three were to be chosen in common as a kind of commissioners +and correctors for the administration and settlement of affairs. This +office was not to be perpetual, but for five years, under the general +proviso that they should manage all questions, whether they made any +communication about them to the people and the senate or not, and give +the offices and other honors to whomsoever they pleased. The private +arrangement, however, in order that they should not be thought to be +appropriating the entire sovereignty, was that both Libyas, Sardinia, and +Sicily should be given to Caesar, all of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis to +Lepidus, and the rest of Gaul south and north of the Alps to Antony to +rule. The former was called Gallia Togata, as I have said, because it +seemed to be more peaceful than the other divisions, and because the +dwellers there already employed Roman citizen-garb: the other was termed +Gallia Comata because the Gauls there mostly let their hair grow long, +and were in this way distinguished from the others. [-56-] So they made +these allotments, for the purpose of securing the strongest provinces +themselves and giving others the impression that they were not +striving for the whole. A further agreement was that they should cause +assassinations of their enemies, that Lepidus after being appointed +consul in Decimus's stead should keep guard over Rome and the remainder +of Italy, and that the others should make an expedition against Brutus +and Cassius. They also pledged themselves to this course by oath. After +this, in order to let the soldiers hear and be witnesses of the terms +they had made, they called them together and made known to them in +advance all that it was proper and safe to tell them. Meanwhile the +soldiers of Antony, of course at the latter's direction, committed to +Caesar's charge the daughter of Fulvia (Antony's wife), whom she had +by Clodius,--and this in spite of Caesar's being already betrothed to +another. He, however, did not refuse her; for he did not think this +inter-marriage would hinder him at all in the designs which he had +against Antony. Among other points for his reflection was his knowledge +that his father Caesar had not failed to carry out all of his plans +against Pompey, in spite of the relationship between the two. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +47 + +The following is contained in the Forty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus came to Rome and instituted a reign of +slaughter (chapters 1-19). + +About Brutus and Cassius and what they did before the battle of Philippi +(chapters 20-36). + +How Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Caesar and perished (chapters +37-49). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gaius Vibius Pansa +and Aulus Hirtius, together with one additional year, in which there were +the following magistrates here enumerated: + +M. Aemilius M.F. Lepidus cos. (II), L. Munatius L.F. Plancus. (B.C. 42 = +a. u. 712.) + + +(_BOOK 47, BOISSEVAIN._) + + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +[-1-] After forming these compacts and taking mutual oaths they hastened +to Rome under the assumption that they were all going to rule on equal +terms, but each one had the intention of getting the entire power +himself. Yet they had learned in advance very clearly before this, but +most plainly at this time, what would be the future. In the case of +Lepidus a serpent coiled about a centurion's sword and a wolf that +entered his camp and his tent while he was eating dinner and knocked +down the table indicated at once power and disappointment as a result of +power: in that of Antony milk flowing about the ramparts and a kind of +chant echoing about at night signified gladness of heart and destruction +succeeding it. These portents befell them before they entered Italy. In +Caesar's case at the very time after the covenant had been made an eagle +settled upon his tent and killed two crows that attacked it and tried to +pluck out its feathers,--a sign which granted him victory over his two +rivals. + +[-2-] So they came to Rome, first Caesar, then the others, each one +separately, with all their soldiers, and immediately through the tribunes +enacted such laws as pleased them. The orders they gave and force that +they used thus acquired the name of law and furthermore brought them +supplications; for they required to be besought earnestly when they were +to pass any measures. Consequently sacrifices were voted for them as +if for good fortune and the people changed their attire as if they had +secured prosperity, although they were considerably terrified by the +transactions and still more by omens. For the standards of the army +guarding the city were covered with spiders, and weapons were seen +reaching up from earth to heaven while a great din resounded from them, +and in the shrines of Aesculapius bees gathered in numbers on the roof and +crowds of vultures settled on the temple of the Genius Populi and on that +of Concord. [-3-] And while these conditions still remained practically +unchanged, those murders by proscription which Sulla had once caused were +put into effect and the whole city was filled with corpses. Many were +killed in their houses, many in the streets, and scattered about in the +fora and near the temples: the heads of such were once more attached to +the rostra and their trunks flung out to be devoured by the dogs and +birds or cast into the river. Everything that had been done before in +the days of Sulla found a counterpart at this time, except that only two +white tablets were posted, one for the senators and one for the rest. The +reason for this I have not been able to learn from any one else nor to +find out myself. The cause which one might have imagined, that fewer were +put to death, is least of all true: for many more names were listed, +because there were more leaders concerned. In this respect, then, the +case differed from the murders that had earlier taken place: but that the +names of those prominent were not posted with the rabble, but separately, +appeared very nonsensical to the men who were to be murdered in the same +way. Besides this no few other very unpleasant conditions fell to their +lot, although the former régime, one would have said, had left nothing to +be surpassed. [-4-] But in Sulla's time those guilty of such murderous +measures had some excuse in their very hardihood: they were trying the +method for the first time, and not with set intentions; hence in most +cases they behaved less maliciously, since they were acting not according +to definite plans but as chance dictated. And the victims, succumbing +to sudden and unheard of catastrophes, found some alleviation in the +unexpectedness of their experience. At this time, on the other hand, +they were executing in person or beholding or at least understanding +thoroughly by fresh descriptions merely deeds that had been dared before; +in the intervals, expecting a recurrence of similar acts, some were +inventing various new methods to employ, and others were becoming +afflicted by new fears that they too should suffer. The perpetrators +resorted to most unusual devices in their emulation of the outrages of +yore and their consequent eagerness to add, through the resources of art, +novel features to their attempts. The others reflected on all that they +might suffer and hence even before their bodies were harmed their spirits +were thoroughly on the rack, as if they were already undergoing the +trial. [-5-] Another reason for their faring worse on this occasion than +before was that previously only Sulla's own enemies and the foes of the +leaders associated with him were destroyed: among his friends and the +people in general no one perished at his bidding; so that except the very +wealthy,--and these can never be at peace with the stronger element +at such a time,--the remainder took courage. In this second series of +assassinations, however, not only the men's enemies or the rich were +being killed, but also their best friends and quite without looking for +it. On the whole it may be said that almost nobody had incurred the +enmity of those men from any private cause that should account for +his being slain by them. Politics and compromises regarding posts of +authority had created both their friendships and their violent hatreds. +All those that had aided or assisted one of the group in any way the +others held in the light of an enemy. So it came about that the same +persons had become friends to some one of them, and enemies to the entire +body, so that while each was privately quelling his antagonists, they +destroyed the dearest friends of all in general. In the course of their +joint negotiations[26] they made a kind of account of who was on their +side and who was opposed, and no one was allowed to take vengeance on one +of his own enemies who was a friend of another without giving up some +friend in his turn: and because of their anger over what was past and +their suspicion of the future they cared nothing about the preservation +of an associate in comparison with vengeance on an adversary, and so gave +them up without much protest. [-6-] Thus they offered one another staunch +friends for bitter enemies and implacable foes for close comrades; and +sometimes they exchanged even numbers, at others several for one or fewer +for more, altogether carrying on the transactions as if at a market, and +overbidding one another as at an auction room. If some one was found just +equivalent to another and the two were ranked alike, the exchange was a +simple one; but all whose value was raised by some excellence or esteem +or relationship could be despatched only in return for several. As there +had been civil wars, lasting a long time and embracing many events, not +a few men during the turmoil had come into collision with their nearest +relatives. Indeed, Lucius Caesar, Antony's uncle, had become his enemy, +and Lepidus's brother, Lucius Paulus, hostile to him. The lives of these +were saved, but many of the rest were slaughtered even in the houses of +their very friends and relatives, from whom they especially expected +protection and honor. And in order that no person should feel less +inclined to kill any one out of fear of being deprived of the rewards +(remembering that in the time of Sulla Marcus Cato, who was quaestor, had +demanded of some of the murderers all they had received for their +work), they proclaimed that the name of no proscribed person should be +registered in the public records. On this account they slew ordinary +citizens more readily and made away with the prosperous, even though they +had no dislike for a single one of them. For since they stood in need +of vast sums of money and had no other source from which to satisfy the +desire of their soldiers, they affected a kind of common enmity against +the rich. Among the other transgressions they committed in the line of +this policy was to declare a mere child of age, so that they might kill +him as already exercising the privileges of a man. + +[-7-] Most of this was done by Lepidus and Antony. They had been honored +by the former Caesar for a very long time and as they had been in office +and holding governorships most of the period they had many enemies. It +appeared as if Caesar had a part in the business merely because of his +sharing the authority, for he himself was not at all anxious to kill any +large number. He was not naturally cruel and had been brought up in +his father's ways. Moreover, as he was young and had just entered the +political arena, there was no inevitable necessity for his bitterly +hating many persons, and he wished to have people's affection. This is +indicated by the fact that from the time he broke off his joint rulership +with his colleagues and held the power alone he did nothing of the sort. +And at this time he not only refrained from destroying many but preserved +a large number. Those also who betrayed their masters or friends he +treated most harshly and those who helped anybody most leniently. An +instance of it occurs in the case of Tanusia, a woman of note. She +concealed her husband Titus Vinius, who was proscribed, at first in a +chest at the house of a freedman named Philopoemen[27] and so made it +appear that he had been killed. Later she waited for a national festival, +which a relative of hers was to direct, and through the influence of his +sister Octavia brought it about that Caesar alone of the three entered the +theatre. Then she sprang up and informed him of the deception, of which +he was still ignorant, brought in the very chest and led from it her +husband. Caesar, astonished, released all of them (death being the penalty +also for such as concealed any one) and enrolled Philopoemen among the +knights. + +[-8-] He, then, saved the lives of as many as he could. Lepidus allowed +his brother Paulus to escape to Miletus and toward others was not +inexorable. But Antony killed savagely and relentlessly not only those +whose names had been posted, but likewise those who had attempted to +assist any of them. He had their heads in view when he happened to be +eating and sated himself to the fullest extent on this most unholy and +pitiable sight. Fulvia also put to death many herself both by reason of +enmity and on account of their money, and some with whom her husband was +not acquainted. When he saw the head of one man, he exclaimed: "I didn't +know about him!" Cicero's head also being brought to them (he had been +overtaken and slain while trying to flee), Antony uttered many bitter +reproaches against him and then ordered it to be exposed on the rostra +more prominently than the rest, in order that he might be seen in the +place from which he used to be heard inveighing against him,--together +with his right hand, just as it had been cut off. Before it was taken +away Fulvia took it in her hands and after abusing it spitefully and +spitting upon it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out +the tongue, which she pierced with the brooches that she used for her +hair, at the same time uttering many brutal jests. Yet even this pair +saved some persons from whom they got more money than they could expect +to obtain by their death. But in order that the places for their names +on the tablets might not be empty, they inscribed others in their stead. +Except that Antony did release his uncle at the earnest entreaty of his +mother Julia he performed no other praiseworthy act. + +[-9-] For these causes the murders had great variety of detail, and the +rescues that fell to the lot of some were of many kinds. Numbers were +ruined by their most intimate friends, and numbers were saved by their +most inveterate foes. Some slew themselves and others were given freedom +by the very pursuers, who approached as if to murder them. Some who +betrayed masters or friends were punished and others were honored for +this very reason: of those who helped others to survive some paid the +penalty and others received rewards. Since there was not one man but +three, who were acting in all cases each according to his own desire and +for his private advantage, and since the same persons were not enemies or +friends of the whole group, since, also, two of them might be anxious for +some one to be saved whom the third wished to destroy, or for some one +to perish whom the third wished to survive, many complicated situations +resulted, according as they felt good-will or hatred toward any one. +[-10-] I, accordingly, shall omit an accurate and detailed description of +all the events,--it would be a vast undertaking and would not add much +to the history,--but shall relate what I deem to be most worthy of +remembrance. Here is one. + +A slave had hidden his master in a cave, and then, when even so through +another's information he was likely to perish, this slave changed clothes +with him and wearing his master's apparel confronted the pursuers as the +man himself and was slain. So they were turned aside, thinking they had +despatched the desired man, but he when they had departed made his escape +to some other place. + +Or a second. Another slave had likewise changed his entire accoutrement +with his master, and entered a covered litter which he made the other +help to carry. When they were overtaken the one in the litter was killed +without being even looked at, and the master, as a baggage-carrier, +was saved. Those services were rendered by those servants to their +benefactors in return for some kindness previously received. + +There was also a branded runaway who so far from betraying the man who +had branded him very willingly preserved him. He was detected in carrying +him away and was being pursued, when he killed somebody who met him by +chance and gave the latter's clothes to his master. Having then placed +him upon a pyre he himself took his master's clothing and ring and going +to meet the pursuers pretended that he had killed the man while fleeing. +Because of his spoils and the marks of the branding he was believed and +both saved the person in question and was himself honored. + +The names connected with the above anecdotes have not been preserved. +But in the case of Hosidius Greta his son arranged a funeral for him as +though already dead and preserved him in that way. Quintus Cicero, the +brother of Marcus, was secretly led away by his child and saved, so far +as his rescuer's responsibility went. The boy concealed his father so +well that he could not be discovered and when tormented for it by all +kinds of torture did not utter a syllable. His father, learning what was +being done, was filled at once with admiration and pity for the boy, +and therefore came voluntarily to view and surrendered himself to the +slayers. + +[-11-] This gives an idea of the greatness of the manifest achievements +of virtue and piety at the time. It was Popillius Laenas who killed +Marcus Cicero, in spite of the latter's having done him favors as his +advocate; and in order that he might depend not wholly on hearsay but +also on the sense of sight to establish himself as the murderer of the +orator, he set up an image of himself wearing a crown beside his victim's +head, with an inscription that gave his name and the service rendered. By +this act he pleased Antony so much that he secured more than the price +offered. Marcus Terentius Varro was a man who had given no offence, but +as his appellation was identical with that of one of the proscribed, +except for one name, he was afraid that, this might lead him to suffer +such a fate as did Cinna. Therefore he issued a statement making known +this fact; he was tribune at the time. For this he became the subject of +much idle amusement and laughter. The uncertainty of life, however, was +evidenced by the very fact that Lucius Philuscius, who had previously +been proscribed by Sulla and had escaped, had his name now inscribed +again on the tablet and perished, whereas Marcus Valerius Messala, +condemned to death by Antony, not only continued to live in safety but +was later appointed consul in place of Antony himself. Thus many survive +from inextricable difficulties and no fewer are ruined through a spirit +of confidence. Hence a man ought not to be alarmed to the point of +hopelessness by the calamities of the moment, nor to be elated to +heedlessness by temporary exultation, but by placing his hope of the +future half-way between both to make reliable calculations for either +event. [-12-] This is the way it befell at that time: very many of those +not proscribed were involved in the downfall of others on account of +spite or money, and very many whose names were proclaimed not only +survived but returned to their homes again, and some of them even held +offices. They had a refuge, of course, with Brutus and Cassius and +Sextus, and the majority directed their flight toward the last mentioned. +He had been chosen formerly to command the fleet and had held sway for +some time on the sea, so that he had surrounded himself with a force of +his own, though he was afterward deprived of his office by Caesar. He had +occupied Sicily, and then, when the order of proscription was passed +against him, too, a host of assassinations took place, he aided greatly +those who were in like condition. Anchoring near the coast of Italy he +sent word to Rome and to the other cities offering among other things to +those who saved anybody double the reward advertised for murdering the +same and promising to the men themselves a reception and assistance and +money and honors. [-13-] Therefore great numbers came to him. I have +not even now recorded the precise total of those who were proscribed or +slaughtered or who escaped, because many names originally inscribed on +the tablets were erased and many were later inscribed in their place, and +of these not a few were saved while many outside of these succumbed. +It was not even allowed anybody to mourn for the victims, but several +perished from this cause also. And finally, when the calamities broke +through all the pretence they could assume and no one even of the most +stout-hearted could any longer wear an air of indifference to them, but +in all their work and conversation their countenances were overcast and +they were not intending to celebrate the usual festival at the beginning +of the year, they were ordered by a public notice to appear in good +spirits, on pain of death if they should refuse to obey. So they were +forced to rejoice over the common evils as over blessings. Yet why need I +have mentioned it, when they voted to those men (the triumvirs, I mean) +civic crowns and other distinctions as to benefactors and saviors of +the State? They did not think of being held to blame because they were +killing a few, but wished to receive additional praise for not putting +more out of the way. And to the populace they once openly stated that +they had emulated neither the cruelty of Marius and Sulla so as to incur +hatred, nor the mildness of Caesar so as to be despised and as a result +become objects of a conspiracy. + +[-14-] Such were the conditions of the murders; but many other unusual +proceedings took place in regard to the property of persons left alive. +They actually announced, as if they were just and humane rulers, that +they would give to the widows of the slain their dowries, to the male +children a tenth, and to the female children a twentieth of the property +of each one's father. This was not, however, granted save in a few +cases: of the rest all the possessions without exception were ruthlessly +plundered. In the first place they levied upon all the houses in the City +and those in the rest of Italy a yearly rent, which was the entire amount +from dwellings which people had let, and half from such as they occupied +themselves, with reference to the value of the domicile. Again, from +those who had lands they took away half of the proceeds. Besides, they +had the soldiers get their support free from the cities in which they +were wintering, and distributed them to various rural districts, +pretending that they were sent to take charge of confiscated territory +or that of persons who still opposed them. For this last class they had +termed likewise enemies because they had not changed their attitude +before the appointed day. So that the whole country outside the towns was +also pillaged. The autocrats allowed the soldiers to do this to the end +that, having their pay before the work, they might devote all their +energy to their commanders' interests, and promised to give them cities +and lands: And with this in view they further assigned to them persons to +divide the land and settle them. The mass of the soldiers was made loyal +by this course: of the more prominent they tempted some with the goods of +those that had been despatched by lowering the price on certain articles +and granting others to them free, and others they honored with the +offices and priesthoods of the victims. The commanders, to make sure that +they themselves should get the finest both of lands and buildings and +give their followers what they pleased, gave notice that no one else +should frequent the auction room unless he wanted to buy something: +whoever did so should die. And they handled bona fide purchasers in such +a way that the latter discovered nothing and paid the very highest price +for what they wanted, and consequently had no desire to buy again. + +[-15-] This was the course followed in regard to possessions. As to the +offices and priesthoods of such as had been put to death they distributed +them not in the fashion prescribed by law but however it suited them. +Caesar resigned the office of consul, giving up willingly that which he +had so desired as to make war for it, and his colleague gave up his +place, whereupon they appointed Publius Ventidius, though praetor, and one +other; and to the former's praetorship they promoted one of the aediles. +Afterward they removed all the praetors (who held office five days longer +than Ventidius) and sent them to be governors of the provinces, while +they installed others in their places. Some laws were abolished and +others introduced instead. + +And, in brief, they ordered everything else +just as seemed good to them. They did not, to be sure, lay claim to +titles which were offensive and had been therefore done away with, but +they managed matters according to their own wish and desire, so that +Caesar's sovereignty by comparison appeared all gold. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +In addition to transacting that year the business mentioned, they voted a +temple to Serapis and Isis. [-16-] When Marcus Lepidus and Lucius Plancus +became consuls tablets were again exposed, not bringing death to any +one any longer, but defrauding the living of their property. They were +collecting funds because they were in need of more money, due to the fact +that they owed large sums to large numbers of soldiers, were expending +considerable on works undertaken by the latter, and thought they should +lay out far more still on wars in prospect. The fact that those taxes +which had been formerly abrogated were now again put in force or +established on a new basis, and the institution of joint contributions, +many of which kept being levied on the land and on the servants, +displeased people moderately, it can not be denied. But to have those who +were in the slightest degree still prosperous, not only of the senators +or knights but even among the freedmen, and men and women alike, +bulletined on the tablets and another tenth of their wealth confiscated +disturbed all beyond measure. For it was only nominally that a tenth of +his property was exacted from each one: in reality not so much as a tenth +was left. They were not ordered to contribute a stated amount according +to the value of their possessions, but they had the duty of estimating +their own goods and then, being accused of not having made a fair +estimate, they lost the rest besides. + +[-17-] If any still escaped this somehow, yet they were brought into +straits by the assessments, and as they were terribly destitute of money +they too were in a way deprived of everything. Moreover, the following +device, distressing to hear but most distressing in practice, was put +into operation. Whoever of them wished was allowed by abandoning his +property afterward to make a requisition for one-third of it, which meant +getting nothing and also having trouble. For when they were being +openly and violently despoiled of two-thirds, how should they get back +one-third, especially since goods were being sold for an infinitesimal +price? In the first place, since many wares were being advertised for +sale at once and the majority of men were without gold or silver, and the +rest did not dare to buy because it would look as if they had something +and they would place in jeopardy the remnant of their wealth, the prices +were relaxed: in the second place, everything was sold to the soldiers +far below its value. Hence no one of the private citizens saved anything +worth mentioning. In addition to other drains they surrendered servants +for the fleet, buying them if they had none, and the senators repaired +the roads at their individual expense. Only those who wielded arms +enjoyed superlative wealth. _They_, to be sure, were not satisfied with +their pay, though it was in full, nor with their outside perquisites, +though of vast extent, nor with the very large prizes bestowed for the +murders, nor with the acquisition of lands, which was made almost without +cost to them. But in addition some would ask for and receive all the +property of the dying, and others still forced their way into the +families of such as were old and childless. To such an extent were they +filled with greed and shamelessness that one man asked from Caesar himself +the property of Attia, Caesar's mother, who had died at the time and had +been honored by a public burial. + +[-18-] While these three men were behaving in this wise, they were also +magnifying the former Caesar to the greatest degree. As they were all +aiming at sole supremacy and were all striving for it, they vindictively +pursued the remainder of the assassins, apparently in the idea that they +were preparing from afar immunity for themselves in what they were doing, +and safety; and everything which tended to his honor they readily took +up, in expectation of some day being themselves deemed worthy of similar +distinctions: for this reason they glorified him by the decrees which had +been passed, and by others which they now added to them. On the first day +of the year they themselves took an oath and made others swear that they +would consider binding all his acts; this action is still taken in the +case of all officials who successively hold power, or again of those +who lived in his era, and have not been dishonored. They also laid the +foundation of a hero-shrine in the Forum, on the spot where he had been +burned, and escorted a kind of image of him at the horse-races together +with a second statue of Venus. In case news of a victory came from +anywhere they assigned the honor of a thanksgiving to the victor by +himself and to Caesar, though dead, by himself. They compelled everybody +to celebrate his birthday wearing laurel and in good spirits, passing +a law that all others, neglected it, were accursed before Jupiter and +before him while any senators or their sons should forfeit twenty-five +myriads of denarii. Now it happened that the Ludi Apollinares fell on the +same day, and they therefore voted that his natal feast should be held +on the previous day,[28] because (they said) there was an oracle of the +Sibyl forbidding a festival to be celebrated during that twenty-four +hours to any god except Apollo. [-19-] Besides granting him these +privileges they regarded the day on which he had been murdered (on which +there was always a regular meeting of the senate) as a dies nefas. The +room in which he had been murdered they closed immediately and later +transformed it into a privy. They also built the Curia Julia, called +after him, next to the so-named Comitium, as had been voted. Besides, +they forbade any likeness of him, because he was in very truth a god, to +be carried at the funerals of his relatives, which ancient custom was +still being observed. And they enacted that no one who took refuge in his +shrine to secure immunity should be banished or stripped of his goods,--a +right given to no one of the gods even, save to such as had a place in +the days of Romulus. Yet after men began to gather there the place had +inviolability in name without its effects; for it was so fenced about +that no one at all could any longer enter it. + +In addition to those gifts to Caesar they allowed the vestal virgins to +employ one lictor each, because one of them had been insulted, owing to +not being recognized, while returning home from dinner toward evening. +The offices in the City they assigned for a greater number of years in +advance, thus at the same time giving honor through the expected offices +to those fitted for them and retaining a grasp on affairs for a longer +time by means of those who were to hold sway. + +[-20-] When this had been accomplished, Lepidus remained there, as I have +said, to take up the administration of the City and of the rest of Italy, +and Caesar and Antony started on their campaign. Brutus and Cassius had at +first, after the compact made by them with Antony and the rest, gone +into the Forum and discharged the activities of praetorship with the same +diligence as before. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +But when some began to be displeased at the killing of Caesar, they +withdrew, pretending to be in haste to reach the governorships abroad to +which they had been appointed. Cassius, who was praetor urbanus,[29] had +not yet finished his duties in connection with the Ludi Apollinares. +However, though absent he accomplished that task most brilliantly through +the medium of his fellow-praetor Antony, and did not himself sail away +from Italy at once, but lingered with Brutus in Campania, to watch the +course of events. And in their capacity as praetors they sent a certain +number of letters to Rome to the people, until such time as Caesar +Octavianus began to aspire to public position and to win the affections +of the populace. Then, in despair of the republic and fear of him, they +set sail. The Athenians gave them a splendid reception; for though they +were indeed honored by nearly everybody else for what they had done, the +inhabitants of this city voted them bronze images beside that of +Harmodius and that of Aristogeiton, as having emulated them. [-21-] +Meanwhile, learning that Caesar was making progress they neglected the +Cretans and Bithynians, to whom they were directing their course, for +among them they saw no aid forthcoming worthy the name: but they turned +to Syria and to Macedonia, which did not, to be sure, appertain to them +in the least, because they were teeming with money and troops for +the occasion. Cassius proceeded to the Syrian country, because its +inhabitants were acquainted with him and friendly as a result of his +campaign with Crassus, while Brutus united Greece and Macedonia. The +inhabitants would have followed him anywhere because of the glory of his +deeds and in the hope of similar achievements, and they were further +influenced by the fact that he had acquired numerous soldiers, some +survivors of the battle of Pharsalus, who were still at this time +wandering about in that region, and others who either by reason of +disease or because of want of discipline had been left behind from the +contingent that took the field with Dolabella. Money came to him, too, +from Trebonius in Asia. So without the least effort, perhaps because it +contained no force worth mentioning, he by this means gained the country +of Greece. He reached Macedonia at the time that Gaius Antonius had just +arrived and Quintus Hortensius, who had governed it previously, was about +to lay down his office. However, he experienced no trouble. The departing +official embraced his cause at once, and Antonius was weak, being +hindered by Caesar's supremacy in Rome from performing any of the duties +belonging to his office. The neighboring territory of Illyricum was +governed by Vatinius, who came thence to Dyrrachium and occupied it in +advance. He was a political adversary of Brutus, but could not injure him +at all, for his soldiers, who disliked him and furthermore despised him +by reason of a disease, went over to the other side. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +Brutus, taking charge of these, led an expedition against Antonius, who +was in Apollonia: the latter came out to meet him, whereupon Brutus won +over his soldiers and confined him within the walls, whither he fled +before him. After this Antonius was by betrayal taken alive, but no harm +was done to him. [-22-] Close upon this success the victor acquired all +of Macedonia and Epirus, and then despatched a letter to the senate, +stating what had been accomplished, and placing himself, the provinces, +and the soldiers at its disposal. The senators, who by chance already +felt suspicious of Caesar, praised him strongly and bade him govern all +that region. When, then, he had confirmed his leadership by the decree, +he himself felt more encouraged and he found his subjects ready to +support him unreservedly. For a time he communicated with Caesar, when the +latter appeared to be hostile to Antony, urging him to resist his enemy +and be reconciled with him (Brutus), and he was making preparations to +sail to Italy because the senate summoned him. After Caesar, however, +had matters thoroughly in hand in Rome, and proceeded openly to take +vengeance on his father's slayers, Brutus remained where he was, +deliberating how he should successfully ward off the other's attack when +it occurred: and besides managing admirably the other districts as well +as Macedonia, he calmed the minds of his legions when they had been +thrown into a state of discontent by Antonius. [-23-] For the latter, +although his conqueror had not even deprived him of a praetor's +perquisites, did not enjoy keeping quiet in safety and honor, but +connived at a revolt among the soldiers of Brutus. Being discovered at +this work before he had done any great harm, he was stripped of his +praetor's insignia, and delivered to be guarded without confinement that +he might not cause an uprising. Yet not even then did he remain quiet, +but concocted more schemes of rebellion than ever, so that some of the +soldiers came to blows with one another and others started for Apollonia +after Antonius himself, in the intention of rescuing him. This, however, +they were unable to do: Brutus had learned in advance from some +intercepted letters what was to be done and by putting him into an +enclosed chair got him out of the way on the pretence that he was moving +a sick man. The soldiers, not being able to find the object of their +search, in fear of Brutus seized a point of high ground commanding the +city. Brutus induced them to come to an understanding, and by executing a +few of the most audacious and dismissing others from his service he set +matters in such a light that the men arrested and killed those sent away, +on the ground that they were most responsible for the sedition, and asked +for the surrender of the quaestor and the lieutenants of Antonius. [-24-] +Brutus did not give up any of the latter, but put them aboard boats with +the avowed intention of drowning them, and so conveyed them to safety. +Fearing, however, that when they should hear the next news of more +terrifying transactions in Rome they might change their attitude, he +delivered Antonius to a certain Gaius Clodius to guard, and left him at +Apollonia. Meanwhile Brutus himself took the largest and strongest part +of the army and retired into upper Macedonia, whence he later sailed to +Asia, to the end that he might remove his men as far as possible from +Italy and support them on the subject territory there. Among other allies +whom he won over at this time was Deiotarus, although he was of a great +age and had refused assistance to Cassius. While he was delaying here a +plot was formed against him by Gellius Poplicola, and Mark Antony sent +some men to attempt to rescue his brother. Clodius, accordingly, as +he could not guard his prisoner safely, killed him, either on his own +responsibility, or according to instructions from Brutus. For the story +is that at first the latter made his safety of supreme importance, but +later, learning that Decimus had perished, cared nothing more about it. +Gellius was detected, but suffered no punishment. Brutus released him +because he had always held him to be among his best friends and knew that +his brother, Marcus Messala, was on very close terms with Cassius. The +man had also attacked Cassius, but had suffered no evil in that case, +either. The reason was that his mother Polla learned of the plot in +advance, and being very fearful lest Cassius should be overtaken by his +fate (for she was very fond of him) and lest her son should be detected, +voluntarily informed Cassius of the plot herself beforehand, and received +the preservation of her son as a reward. His easy escapes, however, did +not improve him at all, and he deserted his benefactors to join Caesar +and Antony. [-25-] As soon as Brutus learned of the attempt of Mark +Antony and of the killing of his brother, he feared that some other +insurrection might take place in Macedonia during his absence, and +immediately hastened to Europe. On the way he took charge of the +territory which had belonged to Sadalus (who died childless and left it +to the Romans), and invaded the country of the Bessi, to see if he could +at the same time recompense them for the trouble they were causing and +surround himself with the name and reputation of imperator, which would +enable him to fight more easily against Caesar and Antony. Both projects +he accomplished, being chiefly aided by Rhascuporis, a certain prince. +After going thence into Macedonia and making himself master of everything +there, he withdrew again into Asia. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-26-] Brutus besides doing this had stamped upon the coins which were +being minted his own likeness and a helmet and two daggers, indicating by +this and by the inscription that in company with Cassius he had liberated +his country. At that same period Cassius had crossed over to Trebonius in +Asia ahead of Dolabella, and after securing money from him and a number +of the cavalry whom Dolabella had sent before him into Syria attached +to his cause many others of the Asiatics and Cilicians. As a result he +brought Tarcondimotus[30] and the people of Tarsus into the alliance, +though they were reluctant. For the Tarsians were so devoted to the +former Caesar (and out of regard for him to the second also) that they +had changed the name of their city to Juliopolis after him. This done, +Cassius went to Syria, and without striking a blow assumed entire +direction of the nations and the legions. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 710)] + +The situation in Syria at that time was this. Caecilius Bassus, a knight, +who had made the campaign with Pompey and in the retreat had arrived +at Tyre, continued to spend his time there, incognito. On 'Change. Now +Sextus was governing the Syrians, for Caesar, since he was quaestor and +also a relative of his, had entrusted to his care all Roman interests +in that quarter on the occasion of his own march from Egypt against +Pharnaces. So Bassus at first remained quiet, satisfied to be allowed to +live: when, however, some similar persons had associated themselves with +him and he had attracted to his enterprise various soldiers of Sextus +who at various times came there to garrison the city, and likewise many +alarming reports kept coming in from Africa about Caesar, he was no longer +pleased with existing circumstances but raised a rebellion, his aim being +either to help the followers of Scipio and Cato and the Pompeians or to +clothe himself in some authority. Sextus discovered him before he had +finished his preparations, but he explained that he was collecting this +body as an auxiliary force for Mithridates of Pergamum against Bosporus; +his story was believed, and he was released. So after this he forged an +epistle, which he pretended had been sent to him by Scipio, in which he +announced that Caesar had been defeated and had perished in Africa and +stated that the governorship of Syria had been assigned to him. His next +step was to use the forces he had in readiness for occupying Tyre and +from there he approached the camp of Sextus. In the attack on the latter +which followed Bassus was defeated and wounded. Consequently, after this +experience, he no longer employed violent tactics, but sent messages to +his opponent's soldiers, and in some way or other so prevailed over some +of them that they took upon themselves the murder of Sextus. + +[-27-] The latter out of the way the usurper gained possession of all his +army except some few. The soldiers wintering in Apamea withdrew before +he reached them toward Cilicia, and were pursued but were not won over. +Bassus returned to Syria, where he was named commander, and he conquered +Apamea so as to have it as a base for warfare. He enlisted not only the +free but the slave fighting population, gathered money, and accumulated +arms. While he was thus engaged one Gaius Antistius invested the position +he was holding, and the two had a nearly even struggle in which neither +party succeeded in gaining any great advantage. Thereupon they parted, +without any definite truce, to await the bringing up of allies. The +troops of Antistius were increased by such persons in the vicinity as +favored Caesar and soldiers that had been sent by him from Rome, those of +Bassus by Alchaudonius the Arabian. The latter was the leader who had +formerly made an arrangement with Lucullus, as I mentioned,[31] and +later joined with the Parthian against Crassus. On this occasion he was +summoned by both sides, but entered the space between the city and the +camps and before making any answer auctioned off his services; and as +Bassus offered more money he assisted him, and in the battle wrought +great havoc with his arrows. The Parthians themselves, too, came at the +invitation of Bassus, but on account of the winter failed to remain with +him for any considerable time, and hence did not accomplish anything of +importance. This commander, then, had his own way for a time, but was +later again held in check by Marcius Crispus[32] and Lucius Staius +Murcus. + +[-28-] Things were in this condition among them when Cassius came on the +scene and at once conciliated all the cities through the reputation of +what he had done in his quaestorship and his other fame, and attached the +legions of Bassus and of the rest without additional labor. While he +was encamped in one spot with all of them a great downpour from the sky +suddenly occurred, during which wild swine rushed into the camp through +all the gates at once, overturning and mixing up everything there. Some, +accordingly, inferred from this that his power was only temporary and +that disaster was subsequently coming. Having secured possession of Syria +he set out into Judea on learning that the followers of Caesar left behind +in Egypt were approaching. Without effort he enlisted both them and the +Jews in his undertaking. Next he sent away without harming in the least +Bassus and Crispus and such others as did not care to share the campaign +with him; for Staius he preserved the rank with which he had come there +and besides entrusted to him the fleet. + +Thus did Cassius in brief time become strong: and he sent a despatch to +Caesar about reconciliation and to the senate about the situation, couched +in similar language to that of Brutus. Therefore the senate confirmed his +governorship of Syria and voted for the war with Dolabella. [-29-] The +latter had been appointed to govern Syria and had started out while +consul, but he proceeded only slowly through Macedonia and Thrace into +the province of Asia and delayed there also. While he was still there +he received news of the decree, and did not go forward into Syria but +remained where he was, treating Trebonius in such a way as to make him +believe most strongly that Dolabella was his friend. Trebonius had his +free permission to take food for his soldiers and to live on intimate +terms with him. When his dupe became in this way imbued with confidence +and ceased to be on his guard, Dolabella by night suddenly seized Smyrna, +where the other was, slew him, and hurled his head at Caesar's image, and +thereafter occupied all of Asia. When the Romans at home heard of this +they declared war against him; for as yet Caesar had neither conquered +Antony nor obtained a hold upon affairs in the City. The citizens also +gave notice to Dolabella's followers of a definite day before which they +must leave off friendship with him, in order to avoid being regarded also +in the light of enemies. And they instructed the consuls to carry on +opposition to him and the entire war as soon as they should have brought +their temporary business to a successful conclusion (not knowing yet that +Cassius held Syria). But in order that he should not gain still greater +power in the interval they gave the governors of the neighboring +provinces charge of the matter. Later they learned the news about +Cassius, and before anything whatever had been done by his opponents at +home they passed the vote that I cited. [-30-] Dolabella, accordingly, +after becoming in this way master of Asia came into Cilicia while Cassius +was in Palestine, took over the people of Tarsus with their consent, +conquered a few of Cassius's guards who were at Aegeae, and invaded Syria. + +From Antioch he was repulsed by the contingent guarding the place, but +gained Laodicea without a struggle on account of the friendship which its +inhabitants felt for the former Caesar. Upon this he spent some days in +acquiring new strength,--the fleet among other reinforcements came to +him speedily from Asia,--and crossed over into Aradus with the object +of getting both money and ships from the people also. There he was +intercepted with but few followers and ran into danger. He had escaped +from this when he encountered Cassius marching toward him, and gave +battle, which resulted in his own defeat. He was then shut up and +besieged in Laodicea, where he was entirely cut off from the land, to +be sure (Cassius being assisted by some Parthians among others), but +retained some power through the Asiatic ships and the Egyptian ones which +Cleopatra had sent him, and furthermore by means of the money which came +to him from her. So he carried on marauding expeditions until Staius got +together a fleet, and sailing into the harbor of Laodicea vanquished the +ships that moved out to meet him, and barred Dolabella from the sea also. +Then, prevented on both sides from bringing up supplies, he was led by +lack of necessaries to make a sortie. However, he was quickly hurled back +within the fortress, and seeing that it was being betrayed he feared +that he might be taken alive, and so despatched himself. His example was +followed by Marcus Octavius, his lieutenant. These were deemed worthy of +burial by Cassius, although they had cast out Trebonius unburied. The men +who had participated in the campaign with them and survived obtained both +safety and amnesty, in spite of having been regarded as enemies by the +Romans at home. Nor yet did the Laodiceans suffer any harm beyond being +obliged to contribute money. But for that matter no one else, though many +subsequently plotted against Cassius, was chastised. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +[-31-] While this was going on the people of Tarsus had attempted to keep +from the passage through the Taurus Tillius Cimber, an assassin of Caesar +who was then governing Bithynia and was hurrying forward to help Cassius. +Out of fear, however, they abandoned the spot and at the time made a +truce with him, because they thought him strong, but afterward they +perceived the small number of his soldiers and neither took him into +their city nor furnished him provisions. He constructed a kind of fort +over against them and set out for Syria, believing it to be of more +importance to aid Cassius than himself to destroy their city. They then +made an attack upon this and got possession of it, after which they +started for Adana, a place on their borders always at variance with them, +giving as an excuse that it was following the cause of Cassius. The +latter, when he heard of it, first, while Dolabella was still alive sent +Lucius Rufus against them, but later came himself, to find that they had +already capitulated to Rufus without a struggle. Upon them he inflicted +no severe penalty save to take away all their money, private and public. +As a result, the people of Tarsus received praise from the triumvirate, +who now held sway in Rome, and were inspired with hope of obtaining some +return for their losses. Cleopatra also, on account of the detachment +she had sent to Dolabella, was granted the right to have her son called +King of Egypt. This son, whom she named Ptolemy, she also pretended was +sprung from Caesar, and she was therefore wont to address him as Caesarion. + +[-32-] Cassius when he had settled matters in Syria and in Cilicia +came to meet Brutus in Asia. For when they learned of the union of the +triumvirs and what the latter were doing against them, they came +together there and made common cause more than ever. As they had a like +responsibility for the war and looked forward to a like danger and did +not even now recede from their position regarding the freedom of the +people, and as they were eager also to overthrow their opponents, three +in number and the authors of such deeds, they could plan and accomplish +everything in common with much greater zest. To be brief, they resolved +to enter Macedonia and to hinder the others from crossing over there, or +else to cross into Italy before the others started. Since the men were +said to be still settling affairs in Rome and it was thought likely that +they should have their hands full with Sextus, lying in wait near by, +they did not carry out their plans immediately. Instead, they went about +themselves and sent others in various directions, winning over such as +were not yet in accord with them, and gathering money and soldiers. +[-33-] In this way nearly all the rest, even those who had before paid no +attention to them, at once made agreements with them; but Ariobarzanes, +the Rhodians, and the Lycians, though they did not oppose them, were +still unwilling to form an alliance with them. These were therefore +suspected by Brutus and Cassius of favoring their antagonists, since they +had been well treated by the former Caesar, and fear was entertained by +the two leaders lest when they themselves departed this group should +cause some turmoil and lead the rest to revolt. Hence they determined to +turn first in the direction of these doubtful parties, hoping that since +they were far stronger in point of weapons and were willing to bestow +favors ungrudgingly they might soon either persuade or force them to +join. The Rhodians, who had so great an opinion of their seamanship that +they anticipated Cassius by sailing to the mainland and displayed to his +army the fetters they were bringing with the idea that they were going to +capture many alive, were yet conquered by him, first in a naval battle +near Myndus and later close to Rhodes itself. The commanding officer was +Staius, who overcame their skill by the number and size of his ships. +Thereupon Cassius himself crossed over to their island, where he met with +no resistance, possessing, as he did, their goodwill because of the stay +he had made there in the interests of his education. And he did them no +hurt except to appropriate their ships and money and holy and sacred +vessels,--all save the chariot of the Sun. Afterward he arrested and +killed Ariobarzanes. + +[-34-] Brutus overcame in battle the public army of the Lycians which +confronted him near the borders, and entering the citadel at the same +time as the fugitives captured it at a single stroke; the majority of +the cities he brought to his side, but Xanthus he shut up in a state of +siege. Suddenly the inhabitants made a sortie, and themselves rushed +in with them, and once inside arrows and javelins at once rendered his +position very dangerous. He would, indeed, have perished utterly, had +not his soldiers pushed their way through the very fire and unexpectedly +attacked the assailants, who were light-armed. These they hurled back +within the walls and themselves rushed in with them, and once inside cast +some of the fire on several houses, terrifying those who saw what was +being done, and giving those at a distance the impression that they had +simply captured everything. The result was that the natives of their own +accord helped set fire to the rest, and most of them slew one another. +Next Brutus came to Patara and invited the people to conclude friendship; +but they would not obey, for the slaves and the poorer portion of the +free population, who had received in advance for their services the +former freedom, the latter remission of debts, prevented any compact +being made. So at first he sent them the captive Xanthians, to whom many +of them were related by marriage, in the hope that through these he might +bring them to terms. When they yielded none the more, in spite of his +giving to each man gratuitously his own kin, he erected a kind of +salesroom in a safe spot under the very wall, where he led each one of +the prominent men past and auctioned him off, to see if by this means at +least he could gain the Patareans. They were as little inclined as ever +to make concessions, whereupon he sold a few and let the rest go. When +those within saw this, they no longer were stubborn, but forthwith +attached themselves to his cause, regarding him as an upright man; and +they were punished only in a pecuniary way. The people of Myra took the +same action when after capturing their general at the harbor he then +released him. Similarly in a short time he secured control of the rest. + +[-35-] When both had effected this they came again into Asia; and all the +suspicious facts they had heard from slanderous talk which will arise +under such conditions they brought up in common, one case at a time, +and, after they were settled, hastened into Macedonia. They had been +anticipated by Gaius Norbanus and Decidius Saxa, who had crossed over +into Ionium before Staius reached there, had occupied the whole country +as far as Pangaeum, and had encamped near Philippi. This city is located +close beside Mount Pangaeum and close beside Symbolon. Symbolon is a +name they give the place for the reason that the mountain mentioned +corresponds (_symballei_) to another that rises in the interior; and it +is between Neapolis and Philippi. The former was near the sea, across +from Thasos, while the latter has been built within the mountains on the +plain. Saxa and Norbanus happened to have occupied the shortest path +across, therefore Brutus and Cassius did not even try to get through that +way, but went around by a longer path,--the so-called Crenides.[33] +Here, too, they encountered a guard, but overpowered it, got inside the +mountains, approached the city along the high ground, and there encamped +each one apart,--if we are to follow the story. As a matter of fact they +bivouacked in one spot. In order that the soldiers might preserve better +discipline and be easier to manage, the camp was made up of two separate +divisions: but as all of it, including the intervening space, was +surrounded by a ditch and a rampart, the entire circuit belonged to both, +and from it they derived safety in common. [-36-] They were far superior +in numbers to their adversaries then present and by that means got +possession of Symbolon, having first ejected the inhabitants. In this way +they were able to bring provisions from the sea, over a shorter stretch +of country, and had only to make a descent from the plain to get them. +For Norbanus and Saxa did not venture to offer them battle with their +entire force, though they did send out horsemen to make sorties, wherever +opportunity offered. Accomplishing nothing, however, they were rather +careful to keep their camp well guarded than to expose it to danger, +and sent in haste for Caesar and Antony. These leaders on learning that +Cassius and Brutus were for some time busy with the Rhodians and the +Lycians had thought that their adversaries would have more fighting on +their hands there, and so instead of hastening had sent Saxa and Norbanus +forward into Macedonia. On finding out that their representatives were +caught they bestowed praise on the Lycians and Rhodians, promising to +make them a present of money, and they themselves at once set out from +the city. Both, however, encountered a delay of some time,--Antony near +Brundusium, because blocked by Staius, and Caesar near Rhegium, having +first turned aside to meet Sextus, held Sicily and was making an attempt +on Italy. [-37-] When it seemed to them to be impossible to dislodge him, +and the case of Cassius and Brutus appeared to be more urgent, they left +a small part of their army to garrison Italy and with the major portion +safely crossed the Ionian sea. Caesar fell sick and was left behind at +Dyrrachium, while Antony marched for Philippi. For a time he was a source +of some strength to his soldiers, but after laying an ambush for some of +the opposite party that were gathering grain and failing in his attempt +he was no longer of good courage himself. Caesar heard of it and feared +either possible outcome, that his colleague should be defeated in a +separate attack or again that he should conquer: in the former event he +felt that Brutus and Cassius would attain power, and in the latter that +Antony would have it all himself; therefore he made haste though still +unwell. At this action the followers of Antony also took courage. And +since it did not seem safe for them to refuse to encamp together, they +brought the three divisions together to one spot and into one stronghold. +While the opposing forces were facing each other sallies and excursions +took place on both sides, as chance dictated. For some time, however, no +ordered battle was joined, although Caesar and Antony were exceedingly +anxious to bring on a conflict. Their forces stronger than those of their +adversaries, but they were not so abundantly supplied with provisions, +because their fleet was away fighting Sextus and they were therefore not +masters of the sea. + +[-38-] Hence these men for the reasons specified and because of Sextus, +who held Sicily and was making an attempt on Italy, were excited by +the fear that while they delayed he might capture Italy and come +into Macedonia. Cassius and Brutus had no particular aversion to a +battle,--they had the advantage in the number of soldiers, though the +latter were deficient in strength,--but some reflection on their own +condition and that of their opponents showed them that allies were being +added to their own numbers every day and that they had abundant food by +the help of the ships; consequently they put off action in the hope of +gaining their ends without danger and loss of men. Because they were +lovers of the people in no pretended sense and were contending with +citizens, they consulted the interests of the latter no less than those +of their own associates, and desired to afford preservation and liberty +to both alike. For some time, therefore, they waited, not wishing to +provoke a contest with them. The troops, however, being composed mostly +of subject nations, were oppressed by the delay and despised +their antagonists who, apparently out of fear, offered within the +fortifications the sacrifice of purification, which regularly precedes +struggles. Hence they urged a battle and spread a report that if there +should be more delay, they would abandon the camp and disperse; and at +this the leaders, though against their will, went to meet the foe. + +[-39-] You might not unnaturally guess that this struggle proved +tremendous and surpassed all previous civil conflicts of the Romans. +This was not because these contestants excelled those of the old days in +either the number or the valor of the warriors, for far larger masses +and braver men than they had fought on many fields, but because on this +occasion they contended for liberty and for democracy as never before. +And they came to blows with one another again later just as they had +previously. But the subsequent struggles they carried on to see to whom +they should belong: on this occasion the one side was trying to bring +them into subjection to sovereignty, the other side into a state of +autonomy. Hence the people never attained again to the absolute right +of free speech, in spite of being vanquished by no foreign nation (the +subject population and the allied nations then present on both sides were +merely a kind of complement of the citizen army): but the people at once +gained the mastery over and fell into subjection to itself; it defeated +itself and was defeated; and in that effort it exhausted the democratic +element and strengthened the monarchical. I do not say that the people's +defeat at that time was not beneficial. (What else can one say regarding +those who fought on both sides than that the Romans were conquered and +Caesar was victorious?) They were no longer capable of concord in the +established form of government; for it is impossible for an unadulterated +democracy that has grown to acquire domains of such vast size to have +the faculty of moderation. After undertaking many similar conflicts +repeatedly, one after another, they would certainly some day have been +either enslaved or ruined. + +[-40-] We may infer also from the portents which appeared to them on that +occasion that the struggle between them was clearly tremendous. Heaven, +as it is ever accustomed to give indications before most remarkable +events, foretold to them accurately both in Rome and in Macedonia all the +results that would come from it. In the City the sun at one time appeared +diminished and grew extremely small, and again showed itself now huge, +now tripled in form, and once shone forth at night. Thunderbolts +descended on many spots, and most significantly upon the altar of Jupiter +Victor; flashes darted hither and thither; notes of trumpets, clashing of +arms, and cries of camps were heard by night from the gardens of Caesar +and of Antony, located close together beside the Tiber. Moreover a dog +dragged the body of a dog to the temple of Ceres, where he dug the earth +with his paws and buried it. A child was born with hands that had ten +fingers, and a mule gave birth to a prodigy of two species. The front +part of it resembled a horse, and the rest a mule. The chariot of Minerva +while returning to the Capitol from a horse-race was dashed to pieces, +and the statue of Jupiter at Albanum sent forth blood at the very time +of the Feriae from its right shoulder and right hand. These were advance +indications to them from Heaven, and the rivers also in their land gave +out entirely or began to flow backward. And any chance deeds of men +seemed to point to the same end. During the Feriae the prefect of the city +celebrated the festival of Latiaris,[34] which neither belonged to him +nor was ordinarily observed at that time, and the plebeian aediles +offered to Ceres contests in armor in place of the horse-race. This was +what took place in Rome, where certain oracles also both before the +events and pertaining to them were recited, tending to the downfall +of the democracy. In Macedonia, to which Pangeaum and the territory +surrounding it are regarded as belonging, bees in swarms pervaded the +camp of Cassius, and in the course of its purification some one set the +garland upon his head wrong end foremost, and a boy while carrying +a Victory in some procession, such as the soldiers inaugurate, fell +down.[35] But the thing which most of all portended destruction to them, +so that it became plain even to their enemies, was that many vultures and +many other birds, too, that devour corpses gathered only above the heads +of the conspirators, gazing down upon them and squawking and screeching +with terrible and bloodcurdling notes. + +[-41-] To that party these signs brought evil, while the others, so far +as we know, were visited by no omen, but saw some such, visions as the +following in dreams. A Thessalian dreamed that the former Caesar had +bidden him tell Caesar that the battle would occur on the second day +after that one, and that he should resume some of the insignia which his +predecessor wore while dictator: Caesar therefore immediately put his +father's ring on his finger and wore it often afterward. That was the +vision which that man saw, whereas the physician who attended Caesar +thought that Minerva enjoined him to lead his patient, though still in +poor health, from his tent and place him in line of battle: and by this +act he was saved. In most cases safety is the lot of such as remain in +the camp and of those in the fortifications, while danger accompanies +those who proceed into the midst of weapons and battles; but this was +reversed in the case of Caesar. It was quite visibly the result of his +leaving the rampart and mingling with the fighting men that he survived, +although from sickness he stood with difficulty even without his arms. + +[-42-] The engagement was of the following nature. No arrangement had +been made as to when they should enter battle, yet as if by some compact +they all armed themselves at dawn, advanced into the square intervening +between them quite leisurely, as though they were competitors in games, +and there were quietly marshaled. When they stood opposed advice was +given partly to the entire bodies and partly to individuals of both +forces by the generals and lieutenants and subalterns. They made many +suggestions touching the immediate danger and many adapted to the future, +words such as men would speak who were to encounter danger on the moment +and were endeavoring to anticipate troubles to come. For the most part +the speeches were very similar, inasmuch as on both sides alike there +were Romans together with allies. Still, there was a difference. The +officers of Brutus offered their men the prizes of liberty and democracy, +of freedom from tyrants and freedom from masters; they pointed out to +them the excellencies of equality in government, and all the unfairness +of monarchy that they themselves had experienced or had heard in other +cases; they called to the attention of the soldiers the separate details +of each system and besought them to strive for the one, and to take care +not to endure the other. The opposing officers urged their army to take +vengeance on the assassins, to possess the property of their antagonists, +to be filled with a desire to rule all of their race, and (the clause +which inspired them most) they promised to give them five thousand +denarii apiece. [-43-] Thereupon they first sent around their +watchwords,--the followers of Brutus using "Liberty," and the others +whatever happened to be given out,--and then one trumpeter on each side +sounded the first note, followed by the blare of the remainder. Those in +front sounded the "at rest" and the "ready" signal on their trumpets in +a kind of circular spot, and then the rest came in who were to rouse +the spirit of the soldier and incite them to the onset. Then there was +suddenly a great silence, and after waiting a little the leaders issued a +clear command and the lines on both sides joined in a shout. After that +with a yell the heavy-armed dashed their spears against their shields and +hurled the former at each other, while the slingers and the archers sent +their stones and missiles. Then the two bodies of cavalry trotted forward +and the contingents shielded with breastplates following behind joined in +hand to hand combat. [-44-] They did a great deal of pushing and a great +deal of stabbing, looking carefully at first to see how they should wound +others and not be wounded themselves; they desired both to kill their +antagonists and to save themselves. Later, when their charge grew fiercer +and their spirit flamed up, they rushed together without stopping to +consider, and paid no more attention to their own safety, but would even +sacrifice themselves in their eagerness to destroy their adversaries. +Some threw away their shields and seizing hold of those arrayed opposite +them either strangled[36] them in their helmets and struck them from the +rear, or snatched away their defence in front and delivered a stroke on +their breasts. Others took hold of their swords and then ran their +own into the bodies of the men opposite, who had been made as good as +unarmed. And some by exposing some part of their bodies to be wounded +could use the rest more readily. Some clutched each other in an embrace +that prevented the possibility of striking, but they perished in the +intertwining of swords and bodies. Some died of one blow, others of many, +and neither had any perception of their wounds, dying too soon to feel +pain, nor lamented their taking off, because they did not reach the point +of expressing grief. One who killed another thought in the excessive joy +of the moment that he could never die. Whoever fell lost consciousness +and had no knowledge of his state. [-45-] Both sides remained stubbornly +in their places and neither side retired or pursued, but there, just as +they were, they wounded and were wounded, slew and were slain, until late +in the day. And if all had contested with all, as may happen under such +circumstances, or if Brutus had been arrayed against Antony and Cassius +against Caesar, they would have proved equally matched. As it was, Brutus +forced the invalid Caesar from his path, while Antony overruled Cassius, +who was by no means his equal in warfare. At this juncture, because not +all were conquering the other side at once, but both parties were in turn +defeated and victorious, the results[37] were practically the same. Both +had conquered and had been defeated, each had routed their adversaries +and had been routed, pursuits and flights had fallen to the lot of both +alike and the camps on both sides had been captured. As they were many +they occupied a large expanse of plain, so that they could not see each +other distinctly. In the battle each one could recognize only what was +opposite him, and when the rout took place each side fled the opposite +way to its own fortifications, situated at a distance from each +other, without stopping to look back. Because of this fact and of the +immeasurable quantity of dust that rose they were ignorant of the +termination of the battle, and those who had conquered thought they had +been victorious over everything, and those who were defeated deemed they +had been worsted everywhere. They did not learn what had happened until +the ramparts had been laid in ruins, and the victors on each side on +retiring to their own head-quarters encountered each other. + +[-46-] So far, then, as the battle was concerned, both sides both +conquered thus and were defeated. At this time they did not resume the +conflict, but as soon as they had retired and beheld each other and +recognized what had taken place, they both withdrew, not venturing +anything further. They had beaten and had proved inferior to each other. +This was shown first by the fact that the entire ramparts of Caesar +and Antony and everything within them had been captured. (That proved +practically the truth of the dream, for if Caesar had remained in his +place, he would certainly have perished with the rest.) It was shown +again in the fate of Cassius. He came away safe from the battle, but +stripped of his fortifications he had fled to a different spot, and +suspecting that Brutus, too, had been defeated and that several of the +victors were hastening to attack him he made haste to die. He had sent a +certain centurion to view the situation and report to him where Brutus +was and what he was doing. This man fell in with some horsemen whom +Brutus had dispatched to seek his colleague, turned back with them and +proceeded leisurely, with the idea that there was hurry, because no +danger presented itself. Cassius, seeing them afar off, suspected they +were enemies and ordered Pindarus, a freedman, to kill him. The centurion +on learning that his leader's death was due to his dilatoriness slew +himself upon his body. + +[-47-] Brutus immediately sent the body of Cassius secretly to Thasos. He +shrank from burying it upon the ground, for fear the army would be filled +with grief and dejection at sight of the preparations. The remainder +of his friend's soldiers he took under his charge, consoled them in a +speech, won their devotion by a gift of money to make up for what they +had lost, and then transferred his position to their enclosure, which +was more suitable. From there he started out to harass his opponents in +various ways, especially by assaulting their camp at night. He had no +intention of joining issue with them again in a set battle, but had great +hopes of overcoming them without danger by the lapse of time. Hence he +tried regularly to startle them in various ways and disturb them by +night, and once by diverting the course of the river he washed away +considerable of their wall. Caesar and Antony were getting short of both +food and money, and consequently gave their soldiers nothing to replace +what had been seized and carried off. Furthermore, the force that was +sailing to them in transports from Brundusium had been destroyed by +Staius. Yet they could not safely transfer their position to any other +quarter nor return to Italy, and so, even as late as this, they set all +their hopes upon their weapons,--hopes not merely of victory but even +of preservation. They were eager to meet the danger before the naval +disaster became noised abroad among their opponents and their own men. +[-48-] As Brutus evinced an unwillingness to meet them in open fight, +they somehow cast pamphlets over his palisade, challenging his soldiers +either to embrace their cause (promises being attached) or to come into +conflict if they had the least particle of strength. During this delay +some of the Celtic force deserted from their side to Brutus, and Amyntas, +the general of Deiotarus, and Rhascuporis deserted to them. The latter, +as some say, immediately returned home. Brutus was afraid, when this +happened, that there might be further similar rebellion and decided to +join issue with them. And since there were many captives in his camp, and +he neither had any way to guard them during the progress of the battle, +and could not trust them to refrain from doing mischief, he despatched +the majority of them, contrary to his own inclination, being a slave in +this matter to necessity; but he was the more ready to do it because of +the fact that his opponents had killed such of his soldiers as had been +taken alive. After doing this he armed his men for battle. When the +opposing ranks were arrayed, two eagles that flew above the heads of the +two armies battled together and indicated to the combatants the outcome +of the war. The eagle on the side of Brutus was beaten and fled: and +similarly his heavy-armed force, after a contest for the most part even, +was defeated, and then when many had fallen his cavalry, though it fought +nobly, gave way. Thereupon the victors pursued them, as they fled, this +way and that, but neither killed nor captured any one; and then they kept +watch of the separate contingents during the night and did not allow them +to unite again. + +[-49-] Brutus, who had reached in flight a steep and lofty spot, +undertook to break through in some way to the camp. In this he was +unsuccessful, and on learning that some of his soldiers had made terms +with the victors he had no further hope, but despairing of safety and +disdaining capture he himself also took refuge in death. He uttered aloud +this sentence of Heracles: + + "Unhappy Virtue, thou wert but a name, while I, + Deeming thy godhead real, followed thee on, + Who wert but Fortune's slave." [38] + +Then he called one of the bystanders to kill him. His body received +burial by Antony,--all but his head, which was sent to Rome: but as the +ships encountered a storm during the voyage across from Dyrrachium that +was thrown into the sea. At his death the mass of his soldiers, on +amnesty being proclaimed for them, immediately transferred their +allegiance. Portia perished by swallowing red-hot charcoal. Most of the +prominent men who had held any offices or belonged to the assassins or +the proscribed, straightway killed themselves, or, like Favonius, were +captured and destroyed: the remainder at this time escaped to the sea and +thereafter joined Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +48 + +The following is contained in the Forty-eighth of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar contended with Fulvia and Lucius Antonius (chapters 1-16). + +How Sextus Pompey occupied Sicily (chapters 17-23). + +How the Parthians occupied the country to the edge of the Hellespont +(chapters 24-26). + +How Caesar and Antony reached an agreement with Sextus (chapters 27-38). + +How Publius Ventidius conquered the Parthians and recovered Asia +(chapters 39-42). + +How Caesar began to make war upon Sextus (chapters 43-48). + +About Baiae (chapters 49-54). + +Duration of time five years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +L. Antonius M. F. Pietas, P. Servilius P. F. Isauricus consul (II).(B.C. +41 = a. u. 713.) + +Cn. Domitius M. F Calvinus [consul] (II), C. Asinius|| Cn. F. Pollio. +(B.C. 40 = a. u. 714.) + +L. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Calvisius||[39] C. F. Sabinus. (B.C. 39 = +a. u. 715.) + +Appius Claudius C. F. Pulcher, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus. (B.C. 38 = a. +u. 716.) + +M. Vipsanius L. F. Agrippa, L. Caninius L. F. Gallus. (B.C. 37 = a. u. +717.) + + +(_BOOK 48, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 42(_a. u_.712)] + +[-1-] So perished Brutus and Cassius, slain by the swords with which they +had despatched Caesar. The rest also who had shared in the plot against +him were all except a very few destroyed, some previously, some at this +time, and some subsequently. Justice and the Divine Will seemed to sweep +onward and lead forward to such a fate the men who had killed their +benefactor, one who had attained such eminence in both excellence and +good fortune. Caesar and Antony for the moment secured an advantage over +Lepidus, because he had not shared the victory with them; yet they +were destined ere long to turn their arms against each other. It is a +difficult matter for three men or two that are equal in rank and have +come into power over such vast interests as a result of war to be of one +accord. Hence, whatever they had gained for a time while in harmony for +the purpose of the overthrow of their adversaries they now began to +set up as prizes in their rivalry with each other. They immediately +redistributed the empire, so that Spain and Numidia fell to Caesar, Gaul +and Africa to Antony; they further agreed that in case Lepidus showed any +vexation at this Africa should be evacuated for him. [-2-] This was all +they could allot between them, since Sextus was still occupying Sardinia +and Sicily, and other regions outside of Italy were in a state of +turmoil. About the peninsula itself I need say nothing, for it has always +remained a kind of choice exception in such divisions: and not even now +did they talk as if they were struggling to obtain it, but to defend it. +So, leaving these other regions to be common property, Antony took it +upon himself to settle affairs of nations that had fought against them +and to collect the money which had been offered to the soldiers in +advance: Caesar was charged with curtailing the power of Lepidus, if he +should make any hostile move, with conducting the war against Sextus, and +with assigning to those of his campaigners who had passed the age limit +the land which he had promised them; and these he forthwith dismissed. +Furthermore he sent with Antony two legions of his followers, and his +colleague sent word that he would give him in return an equal number +of those stationed at that tune in Italy. After making these compacts +separately, putting them in writing, and sealing them, they exchanged the +documents, to the end that if any transgression were committed, it might +be proved from the very records. Thereupon Antony set out for Asia and +Caesar for Italy. [-3-] Sickness attacked the latter violently on the +journey and during the voyage, giving rise in Rome to an expectation of +his death. They did not believe, however, that he was lingering so +much by reason of ill health as because he was devising some harm, and +consequently they expected to fall victims to every possible persecution. +Yet they voted to these men many honors for their victory, such as would +have been given assuredly to the others, had they conquered; in such +crises it is ever the case that all trample on the loser and honor the +victor; and in particular they decided, though against their will, to +celebrate thanksgivings during practically the entire year. This +Caesar ordered them outright to do in gratitude for vengeance upon the +assassins. At any rate during his delay all sorts of stories were +current, and all sorts of behavior resulted. For example, some spread a +report that he was dead, and aroused delight in many breasts: others +said he was planning some evil, and filled numerous persons with fear. +Therefore some hid their property and took care to protect themselves, +and others considered in what way they might make their escape. Others, +and the majority, not being able to apprehend anything clearly by reason +of their excessive fear, prepared to meet a certain doom. The confident +element was extremely small, and its numbers few. In the light of the +former frequent and diverse destruction of both persons and possessions +they expected that anything similar or still worse might happen, because +now they had been utterly vanquished. Wherefore Caesar, in dread that +they might take some rebellious step, especially since Lepidus was there, +forwarded a letter to the senate urging its members to be of good cheer, +and further promising that he would do everything in a mild and humane +way, after the manner of his father. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_.713)] + +[-4-] This was what then took place. The succeeding year Publius +Servilius and Lucius Antonius nominally became consuls, but in reality it +was the latter and Fulvia. She, the mother-in-law of Caesar and wife of +Antony, had no respect for Lepidus because of his slothfulness, and +herself managed affairs, so that neither the senate nor the people dared +transact any business contrary to her pleasure. Actually, when Lucius +himself was anxious to have a triumph over certain peoples dwelling in +the Alps, on the ground that he had conquered them, for a time Fulvia +opposed him and no one would grant it; but when her favor was courted and +she permitted it, all voted for the measure: therefore it was nominally +Antonius ... over the people whom he said he had vanquished (in reality +he had done nothing deserving a triumph nor had any command at all in +those regions),--but in truth Fulvia ...[40] and had the procession. And +she assumed a far prouder bearing over the affair than did he, because +she had a truer cause; to give any one authority to hold a triumph was +greater than to celebrate it by securing the privilege from another. +Except that Lucius donned the triumphal apparel, mounted the chariot, and +performed the other rites customary in such cases, Fulvia herself seemed +to be giving the spectacle, employing him as her assistant. It took +place on the first day of the year, and Lucius, just as Marius had done, +exulted in the circumstance that he held it on the first day of the month +that he began to be consul. Moreover he exalted himself even above his +predecessor, saying that he had voluntarily laid aside the decorations of +the procession and had assembled the senate in his street dress, whereas +Marius had done it unwillingly. He added that the latter had received a +crown from almost nobody, whereas he obtained many, and particularly from +the people, tribe by tribe, as had never been the case with any former +triumphator. (It was done by the aid of Fulvia and by the money which he +had secretly given some persons to spend.) + +[-5-] It was in this year that Caesar arrived in Rome, and, after taking +the usual steps to celebrate the victory, turned his attention to the +administration and despatch of business. For Lepidus through fear of him +and out of his general weakness of heart had not rebelled; and Lucius and +Fulvia, on the supposition that they were relatives and sharers in his +supremacy were quiet,--at least at first. As time went on they became at +variance, the persons just mentioned because they did not get a share in +the portion of lands to be assigned which belonged to Antony, and Caesar +because he did not get back his troops from the other two. Hence their +kinship by marriage was dissolved and they were brought to open warfare. +Caesar would not endure the domineering ways of his mother-in-law, and, +choosing to appear to be at odds with her rather than with Antonius, sent +back her daughter, whom he declared on oath to be still a virgin. In +pursuing such a course he was careless whether it should be thought +that the woman had remained a virgin in his house so long a time for +common-place reasons, or whether it should seem that he had planned the +situation considerably in advance, as a measure of preparation for the +future. After this action there was no longer any friendship between +them. Lucius together with Fulvia attempted to get control of affairs, +pretending to be doing this in behalf of Marcus, and would yield to Caesar +on no point: therefore on account of his devotion to his brother he took +the additional title of Pietas. Caesar naturally found no fault with +Marcus, not wishing to alienate him while he was attending to the nations +in Asia, but reproached and resisted the pair, giving out that they were +behaving in all respects contrary to their brother's desire and were +eager for individual supremacy. + +[-6-] In the land allotments both placed the greatest hope of power, and +consequently the beginning of their quarrel was concerned with them. +Caesar for his part wished to distribute the territory to all such as had +made the campaign with himself and Antony, according to the compact +made with them after the victory, that by so doing he might win their +good-will: the others demanded to receive the assignment that appertained +to their party and settle the cities themselves, in order that they might +get the power of these settlements on their side. It seemed to both to +be the simplest method to grant the land of the unarmed to those who +had participated in the conflict. Contrary to their expectation great +disturbance resulted and the matter took the aspect of a war. For at +first Caesar was for taking from the possessors and giving to the veterans +all of Italy (except what some old campaigner had received as a gift or +bought from the government and was now holding), together with the bands +of slaves and other wealth. The persons deprived of their property were +terribly enraged against him, and caused a change of policy. Fulvia and +the consul now hoped to find more power in the cause of the others, the +oppressed, and consequently neglected those who were to receive the +fields, but turned their attention to that party which was of greater +numbers and was animated by a righteous indignation at the deprivation +they were suffering. Next they took some of them individually, aided and +united them, so that the men who were before afraid of Caesar now that +they had got leaders became courageous and no longer gave up any of their +property: they thought that Marcus, too, would approve their course. +[-7-] Among these, therefore, Lucius and Fulvia secured a following, and +still made no assault upon the adherents of Caesar. Their attitude was not +that there was no need for the soldiers to receive allotments, but +they maintained that the goods of their adversaries in the combat were +sufficient for them; especially they pointed out lands and furniture, +some still being held intact, others that had been sold, of which they +declared the former ought to be given to the men outright and in the +second case the price realized should be presented to them. If even this +did not satisfy them, they tried to secure the affection of them all by +holding out hopes in Asia. In this way it quickly came about that Caesar, +who had forcibly robbed the possessors of any property and caused +troubles and dangers on account of it to all alike, found himself +disliked by both parties; whereas the other two, since they took nothing +from anybody and showed those who were to receive the gifts a way to the +fulfillment of the pledges from already existing assets and without a +combat, won over each of the bodies of men. As a result of this and +through the famine which was trying them greatly at this time, because +the sea off Sicily was in control of Sextus, and the Ionian Gulf was +in the grasp of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Caesar found himself in a +considerable dilemma. For Domitius was one of the assassins, and, having +escaped from the battle fought at Philippi, he had got together a small +fleet, had made himself for a time master of the Gulf, and was doing the +greatest damage to the cause of his opponents. + +[-8-] There was not only this to trouble Caesar greatly but also the fact +that in the disputes which had been inaugurated between the ex-soldiers +and the senators as well as the rest of the multitude that possessed +lands,--and these proved very numerous because the contestants were +struggling for the greatest interests,--he could not attach himself to +either side without danger. It was impossible for him to please both. The +one side wished to run riot, the other to be unharmed: the one side to +get the other's property, the other to hold what belonged to it. As +often as he gave the preference to the interests of this party or that, +according as he found it necessary, he incurred the hatred of the others: +and he did not meet with so much gratitude for the favors he conferred as +with anger for what he failed to yield. Those benefited took all that was +given them as their due and regarded it as no kindness, and the opposite +party was wrathful because robbed of their own belongings. And as a +result he continued to offend either this group or the other, at one +time reproached with being a friend of the people and again with being +a friend of the army. He could make no headway, and further learned by +actual experience that arms had no power to hold those injured friendly +toward him, and that it was possible for all such as would not submit to +perish by the use of weapons, but out of the question for any one to be +forced to love a person whom he will not. After this, though reluctantly, +he stopped taking anything from the senators; previously he used to deem +it his right to distribute everything that was theirs, asking seriously: +"From what source else shall we pay the prizes of war to those who have +served?"--as if any one had commanded him to wage war or to make such +great promises. He also kept his hands off the valuables,--whatever +costly objects women had for dowries, or others had less in value than +the land individually given to the old soldiers. [-9-] When this was done +the senate and the rest, finding nothing taken from them, became fairly +resigned to his rule, but the veterans were indignant, regarding his +sparingness and the honor shown to the others to be their own dishonor +and loss, since they were to receive less. They killed not a few of the +centurions and the other intimates of Caesar who tried to restrain +them from mutiny, and came very near compassing their leader's own +destruction, using every plausible excuse possible for their anger. They +did not cease their irritation till the land that belonged to their +relatives and the fathers and sons of those fallen in battle but was held +by somebody else was granted to these three classes freely. This measure +caused the soldier element to become somewhat more conciliatory, but that +very thing produced vexation again among the people. The two used to come +in conflict and there was continual fighting amongst them, so that many +were wounded and killed on both sides alike. The one party was superior +by being equipped with weapons and having experience in wars, and the +other by its numbers and the ability to pelt opponents from the roofs. +Owing to this a number of houses were burned down, and to those dwelling +in the city rent was entirely remitted to the extent of five hundred +denarii, while for those in the rest of Italy it was reduced a fourth for +one year. For they used to fight in all the cities alike, wherever they +fell in with each other. + +[-10-] When this took place constantly and soldiers sent ahead by Caesar +into Spain made a kind of uprising at Placentia and did not come to +order until they received money from the people there, and they were +furthermore hindered from crossing the Alps by Calenus and Ventidius, +who held Farther Gaul, Caesar became afraid that he might meet with some +disaster and began to wish to be reconciled with Fulvia and the consul. +He could not accomplish anything by sending messages personally and with +only his own authorization, and so went to the veterans and through them +attempted to negotiate a settlement. Elated at this they took charge of +those who had lost their land, and Lucius went about in every direction +uniting them and detaching them from Caesar, while Fulvia occupied +Praeneste, had senators and knights for her associates, and was wont to +conduct all her deliberations with their help, even sending orders to +whatever points required it. Why should any one be surprised at this, +when she was girt with a sword, and used to pass the watchwords to the +soldiers, yes, often harangued them,--an additional means of giving +offence to Caesar? [-11-] The latter, however, had no way to overthrow +them, being far inferior to them not only in troops, but in good-will on +the part of the population; for he caused many distress, whereas they +filled every one with hope. He had often privately through friends +proposed reconciliation to them, and when he accomplished nothing, he +sent envoys from the number of the veterans to them. He expected by +this stroke pretty surely to obtain his request, to adjust present +difficulties, and to gain a strength equal to theirs for the future. And +even though he should fail of these aims, he expected that not he but +they would bear the responsibility for their quarrel. This actually took +place. When he effected nothing even through the soldiers, he despatched +senators, showing them the covenants made between himself and Antony, and +offering the envoys as arbitrators of the differences. But his opponents +in the first place made many counter-propositions, demands with which +Caesar was sure not to comply, and again, in respect to everything that +they did said they were doing it by the orders of Mark Antony. So that +when nothing was gained in this way either, he betook himself once more +to the veterans. [-12-] Thereupon these assembled in Rome in great +numbers, with the avowed intention of making some communication to the +people and the senate. But instead of troubling themselves about this +errand they collected on the Capitol and commanded that the compacts +which Antony and Caesar made be read to them. They ratified these +agreements and voted that they should be made arbitrators of the +differences existing. After recording these acts on tablets and sealing +them they delivered them to the vestal virgins to keep. To Caesar, who was +present, and to the other party by an embassy they gave orders to meet +for adjudication at Gabii on a stated day. Caesar showed his readiness to +submit to arbitration, and the others promised to put in an appearance, +but out of fear or else perhaps disdain did not come. (For they were wont +to make fun of the warriors, calling them among other names _senatus +caligatus_ on account of their use of military boots.) So they condemned +Lucius and Fulvia as guilty of some injustice, and gave precedence to the +cause of Caesar. After this, when the latter's adversaries had deliberated +again and again, they took up the war once more and did not make ready +for it in any quiet fashion. Chief among their measures was to secure +money from sources, even from temples. They took away all the votive +offerings that could be turned into bullion, those deposited in Rome +itself as well as those in the rest of Italy that was under their +control. Both money and soldiers came to them also from Gallia Togata, +which had been included by this time in the domain of Italy, to the end +that no one else, under the plea that it was a single district, should +keep soldiers south of the Alps. + +[-13-] Caesar, then, was making preparations, and Fulvia and Lucius were +gathering hoards of supplies and assembling forces. Meanwhile both sent +embassies and despatched soldiers and officers in every direction, and +each managed to seize some places beforehand and was repulsed from +others. The most of these transactions, and those connected with no great +or important occurrence, I shall pass over, and briefly relate the points +which are of chief value. + +Caesar made an expedition against Nursia, among the Sabini, and routed the +garrison encamped before it but was repulsed from the city by Tisienus +Gallus. Accordingly, he went over into Umbria and laid siege to Sentinum, +but failed to capture it. Lucius had meanwhile been sending on one excuse +and another soldiers to his friends in Rome, and then coming suddenly on +the scene himself conquered the cavalry force that met him, hurled the +infantry back to the wall, and after that took the city, since those that +had been there for some days helped the defenders within by attacking the +besiegers. Lepidus, to whom had been entrusted the guarding of the place, +made no resistance by reason of his inherent slothfulness, nor did +Servilius the consul, who was too easy-going. On ascertaining this Caesar +left Quintus Salvidienus Rufus to look after the people of Sentinum, and +himself set out for Rome. Hearing of this movement Lucius withdrew in +advance, having had voted to him the privilege of going out on some war. +Indeed, he delivered an address in soldier's costume, which no one else +had done. Thus Caesar was received into the capital without striking a +blow, and when he did not capture the other by pursuit, he returned and +kept a more careful watch over the city. Meantime, as soon as Caesar had +left Sentinum, Gaius Furnius the guarder of the fortifications had issued +forth and pursued him a long distance, and Rufus unexpectedly attacked +the citizens within, captured the town, plundered, and burned it. The +inhabitants of Nursia came to terms--and suffered no ill treatment; when, +however, after burying those that had fallen in the battle which had +taken place between themselves and Caesar, they inscribed on their tombs +that they had died contending for liberty, an enormous fine was imposed +upon the people, so that they abandoned their city and entire country +together. + +[-14-] While they were so engaged, Lucius on setting out from Rome after +his occupancy had proceeded toward Gaul: his road was blocked, however, +and so he turned aside to Perusia, an Etruscan city. There he was cut off +first by the lieutenants of Caesar and later by Caesar himself, and was +besieged. The investing of the place proved a long operation: the +situation is naturally a strong one and had been amply stocked with +provisions; and horsemen sent out by him before he was entirely hemmed +in harassed his antagonists greatly while many others, moreover, from +various sections vigorously defended him. Many attempts were made upon +the besieged individually and there was sharp fighting close to the +walls, until the followers of Lucius in spite of being generally +successful were nevertheless overcome by hunger. The leader and some +others obtained pardon, but most of the senators and knights were put +to death. And the story goes that they did not merely suffer death in a +simple form, but were led to the altar consecrated to the former Caesar +and there sacrificed,--three hundred[41] knights and many senators, among +them Tiberius Cannutius who formerly during his tribuneship had assembled +the populace for Caesar Octavianus. Of the people of Perusia and the rest +there captured the majority lost their lives, and the city itself, except +the temple of Vulcan and statue of Juno, was entirely destroyed by fire. +This piece of sculpture was preserved by some chance and was brought to +Rome in accordance with a vision that Caesar saw in a dream: there it +accorded those who desired to undertake the task permission to settle the +city again and place the deity on her original site,--only they did not +acquire more than seven and one-half stadia of the territory. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +[-15-] When that city had been captured during the consulship of Gnaeus +Calvinus and Asinius Pollio,--the former holding office the second +time,--other posts in Italy partly perforce and partly voluntarily +capitulated to Caesar. For this reason Fulvia with her children made her +escape to her husband, and many of the other foremost men made their +way some to him and some to Sextus in Sicily. Julia, the mother of the +Antonii, went there at first and was received by Sextus with extreme +kindness; later she was sent by him to her son Marcus, carrying +propositions of friendship and with envoys whom she was to conduct to his +presence. In this company which at that time turned its steps away from +Italy to Antony was also Tiberius Claudius Nero. He was holding a kind of +fort in Campania, and when Caesar's party got the upper hand set out with +his wife Livia Drusilla and with his son Tiberius Claudius Nero. This +episode illustrated remarkably the whimsicality of fate. This Livia who +then fled from Caesar later on was married to him, and this Tiberius who +then escaped with his parents succeeded him in the office of emperor. + +[-16-] All this was later. At that time the inhabitants of Rome resumed +the garb of peace, which they had taken off without any decree, under +compulsion from the people; they gave themselves up to merrymaking, +conveyed Caesar in his triumphal robe into the city and honored him with +a laurel crown, so that he enjoyed this decoration as often as the +celebrators of triumphs were accustomed to use it. Caesar, when Italy +had been subdued and the Ionian Gulf had been cleared,--for Domitius +despairing of continuing to prevail any longer by himself had sailed away +to Antony,--made preparations to proceed against Sextus. When, however, +he ascertained his power and the fact that he had been in communication +with Antony through the latter's mother and through envoys, he feared +that he might get embroiled with both at once; therefore preferring +Sextus as more trustworthy or else as stronger than Antony he sent him +his mother Mucia and married the sister of his father-in-law, Lucius +Scribonius Libo, in the hope that by the aid of his kindness and his +kinship he might make him a friend. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +[-17-] Sextus, after he had originally left Spain according to his +compact with Lepidus and not much later had been appointed admiral, was +removed from his office by Caesar. For all that he held on to his fleet +and had the courage to sail to Italy; but Caesar's adherents were already +securing control of the country and he learned that he had been numbered +among the assassins of Caesar's father. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +Therefore he kept away from the mainland but sailed about among the +islands, maintaining a sharp watch on what was going on and supplying +himself with food without resort to crimes. As he had not taken part in +the murder he expected to be restored by Caesar himself. When, however, +his name was exposed on the tablet and he knew that the edict of +proscription was in force against him also, he despaired of getting back +through Caesar and put himself in readiness for war. He had triremes +built, received the deserters, made an alliance with the pirates, and +took under his protection the exiles. By these means in a short time he +became powerful and was master of the sea off Italy, so that he made +descents upon the harbors, cut loose the boats, and engaged in pillage. +As matters went well with him and his activity supplied him with soldiers +and money, he sailed to Sicily, where he seized Mylae and Tyndaris without +effort but was repulsed from Messana by Pompeius Bithynicus, then +governor of Sicily. Instead of retiring altogether from the place, he +overran the country, prevented the importation of provisions, gained the +ascendancy over those who came to the rescue,--filling some with fear +of suffering a similar hardship, and damaging others by some form of +ambuscade,--won over the quaestor together with the funds, and finally +obtained Messana and also Bithynicus, by an agreement that the latter +should enjoy equal authority with him. The governor suffered no harm, at +least for the time being: the others had their arms and money taken from +them. His next step was to win over Syracuse and some other cities, +from which he gathered more soldiers and collected a very strong fleet. +Quintus Cornificius also sent him quite a force from Africa. + +[-18-] While he was thus growing strong, Caesar for a time took no action +in the matter, both because he despised him and because the business in +hand kept him occupied. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +But when owing to the famine the deaths in the City became numerous and +Sextus commenced to make attempts on Italy also, Caesar began to have a +small fleet equipped and sent Salvidienus Rufus with a large force ahead +to Rhegium. Rufus managed to repel Sextus from Italy and when the latter +retired into Sicily he undertook to manufacture boats of leather, similar +to those adapted to ocean sailing. He made a framework of light rods for +the interior and stretched on the outside an uncured oxhide, making an +affair like an oval shield. For this he got laughed at and decided that +it would be dangerous for him to try to use them in crossing the strait, +so he let them go and ventured to undertake the passage with the fleet +that had been equipped and had arrived. He was not able, however, to +accomplish his purpose, for the number and size of his ships were no +match for the skill and daring of the enemy. This took place in the +course of Caesar's expedition into Macedonia, and he himself was an +eye-witness of the battle; the result filled him with chagrin, most of +all because he had been defeated in this their first encounter. For this +reason he no longer ventured, although the major part of his fleet had +been preserved, to cross over by main force: he frequently tried to +effect it secretly, feeling that if he could once set foot on the island, +he could certainly conquer it with his infantry; after a time, since the +vigilant guard kept in every quarter prevented him from gaining anything, +he ordered others to attend to the blockade of Sicily and he himself went +to meet Antony at Brundusium. whence with the aid of the ships he crossed +the Ionian Gulf. [-19-] Upon his departure Sextus occupied all of the +island and put to death Bithynicus on the charge that the latter had +plotted against him. He also produced a triumphal spectacle and had a +naval battle of the captives in the strait close to Rhegium itself, so +that his opponents could look on; in this combat he had wooden boats +contend with others of leather, in the intention of making fun of Rufus. +After this he built more ships and dominated the sea all round about, +acquiring some renown, in which he took pride, based on the assumption +that he was the son of Neptune, and that his father had once ruled the +whole sea. So he fared as long as the resistance of Cassius and Brutus +held out. When they had perished, Lucius Staius and others took refuge +with him. He was at first glad to receive this ally and incorporated the +troops that Staius led in his own force: subsequently, seeing that the +new accession was an active and high-spirited man, he executed him on a +charge of treachery. Then he acquired the other's fleet and the mass of +slaves who kept arriving from Italy and gained tremendous strength. So +many persons, in fact, deserted that the vestal virgins prayed in the +name of the sacrifices that their desertions might be restrained. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +[-20-] For these reasons and because he gave the exiles a refuge, was +negotiating friendship with Antony, and plundering a great portion of +Italy, Caesar felt a wish to become reconciled with him. When he failed +of that he ordered Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to wage war against him, and +himself set out for Gaul. Sextus when he heard of that kept watch of +Agrippa, who was busy superintending the Ludi Apollinares. This person +was praetor at the time, holding a brilliant position in many ways because +he was such an intimate friend of Caesar, and for two days he had been +conducting the horse-race and enjoyed the so-called "Troy contest," +carried on by children of the nobility, which added to his glory. While +he was so engaged Sextus crossed over into Italy and remained there +carrying on marauding expeditions until Agrippa arrived. Then, after +leaving a garrison at certain points, he sailed back again.--Caesar had +formerly tried, as has been described, to get possession of Gaul through +others, but had not been able on account of Calenus and the rest who +followed Antony's fortunes. But now he occupied it in person, for he +found Calenus dead of a disease and acquired his army without difficulty. +Meanwhile, seeing that Lepidus was vexed at being deprived of the office +that belonged to him, he sent him to Africa; for he proposed, by being +the sole bestower of that position, instead of allowing Antony to share +in the appointment, to gain in a greater degree Lepidus's attachment. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-21-] As I have remarked, [42] the Romans had two provinces in that part +of Libya. The governors, before the union of the three men, were Titus +Sextius over the Numidian region, and Cornificius with Decimus Laelius +over the rest; the former was friendly to Antony, the latter two to +Caesar. For a time Sextius waited in the expectation that the others, +who had a far larger force, would invade his domain, and prepared to +withstand them there. When they delayed, he began to disdain them; and +he was further elated by a cow, as they say, that uttered human speech +bidding him lay hold of the prize before him, and by a dream in which a +bull that had been buried in the city of Tucca seemed to urge him to dig +up its head and carry it about on a spear-shaft, since by this means he +should conquer. Without hesitation, then, especially when he found the +bull in the spot where the dream said it was, he invaded Africa first +himself. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +At the beginning he occupied Adrymetum and +some few other places, taken by surprise at his sudden assault. Then, +while in an unguarded state because of this very success, he was ambushed +by the quaestor, lost a large portion of his army, and withdrew into +Numidia. His misfortune had happened to occur when he was without the +protection of the bull's head, and he therefore ascribed his defeat to +that fact and made preparations to take the field again. Meantime his +opponents anticipated him by invading his domain. While the rest were +besieging Cirta, the quaestor with the cavalry proceeded against him, +overcame him in a few cavalry battles, and won over the other +quaestor. After these experiences Sextius, who had secured some fresh +reinforcements, risked battle again, conquered the quaestor in his +turn, and shut up Laelius, who was overrunning the country, within his +fortifications. He deceived Cornificius, who came to the defence of his +colleague, making him believe that the latter had been captured, and +after thus throwing him into a state of dejection defeated him. So +Cornificius met his death in battle, and Laelius, who made a sally with +the intention of taking the enemy in the rear, was also slain. + +[-22-] When this had been accomplished, Sextius occupied Africa and +governed both provinces without interference, until Caesar according to +the covenant made by him with Antony and Lepidus took possession of the +office and assigned Gaius Fuficius Fango to take charge of the people; +then the governor voluntarily gave up the provinces. When the battle with +Brutus and Cassius had been fought, Caesar and Antony redistributed the +world, Caesar taking Numidia for his share of Libya, and Antony Africa. +Lepidus, as I have stated,[43] had power among the three only in name, +and often was not recorded in the documents even to this extent. When, +therefore, this occurred Fulvia bade Sextius resume his rule of Africa. +He was at this time still in Libya, making the winter season his plea, +but in reality his lingering there was due to his certain knowledge that +there would be some kind of upheaval. As he could not persuade Fango to +give up the country, he associated himself with the natives, who detested +their ruler; he had done evil in his office, for he was one of that +mercenary force, many of whose members, as has been stated in my +narrative,[44] had been elected even into the senate. At this turn of +affairs Fango retired into Numidia, where he accorded harsh treatment to +the people of Cirta because they despised him on seeing his condition. +There was also one Arabio who was a prince among the barbarians dwelling +close at hand, who had first helped Laelius and later attached himself +to Sextius: him he ejected from his kingdom, when he refused to make +an alliance with him. Arabio fled to Sextius and Fango demanded his +surrender. When his request was refused, he grew angry, invaded Africa +and did some damage to the country: but Sextius took the field against +him, and he was defeated in conflicts that were slight but numerous; +consequently he retired again into Numidia. Sextius went after him and +was in hopes of soon vanquishing him, especially with the aid of Arabio's +horse, but he became suspicious of the latter and treacherously murdered +him, after which he accomplished for the time being nothing further. For +the cavalry, enraged at Arabio's death, left the Romans in the lurch and +most of them took the side of Fango. [-23-] After these skirmishes they +concluded friendship, agreeing that the cause for war between them had +been removed. Later Fango watched until Sextius, trusting in the truce, +was free from fear, and invaded Africa. Then they joined battle with each +other, and at first both sides conquered and were beaten. The one leader +prevailed through the Numidian horsemen and the other through his citizen +infantry, so that they plundered each other's camps, and neither knew +anything about his fellow-soldiers. When as they retired they ascertained +what had happened, they came to blows again, the Numidians were routed, +and Fango temporarily fled to the mountains. During the night some +hartbeestes ran across the hills, and thinking that the enemy's cavalry +were at hand he committed suicide. Thus Sextius gained possession of +nearly everything without trouble, and subdued Zama, which held out +longest, by famine. Thereafter he governed both the provinces again until +such time as Lepidus was sent. Against him he made no demonstration, +either because he thought the step had the approval of Antony, or because +he was far inferior to him in troops. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +He remained quiet, pretending that the necessity was a favor to himself. +In this way Lepidus took charge of both provinces. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +[-24-] About this same period that the above was taking place, and after +the battle the scene of which was laid at Philippi, Mark Antony came +to the mainland of Asia and there by visiting some points himself and +sending deputies elsewhere he levied contributions upon the cities +and sold the positions of authority. Meanwhile he fell in love with +Cleopatra, whom he had seen in Cilicia, and no longer gave a thought to +honor but was a slave of the fair Egyptian and tarried to enjoy her love. +This caused him to do many absurd things, one of which was to drag her +brothers from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and put them to death. +Finally, leaving Plancus in the province of Asia and Saxa in Syria, he +started for Egypt. Many disturbances resulted from this action of his: +the Aradii, islanders, would not yield any obedience to the messengers +sent by him to them after the money and also killed some of them, and the +Parthians, who had previously been restless, now assailed the Romans more +than ever. Their leaders were Labienus and Pacorus the latter the son of +King Orodes, and the former a child of Titus Labienus. I will narrate how +he came among the Parthians and what he did in conjunction with Pacorus. +He was by chance an ally of Brutus and Cassius and had been sent to +Orodes before the battle to secure some help: he was detained by him a +long time (over three lines starting at line beginning "constant ill +treatment"): and his presence ignored, because the king hesitated to +conclude the alliance with him yet feared to refuse. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u._ 713)] + +Subsequently, when news of the defeat was brought and it appeared to be +the intention of the victors to spare no one who had resisted them, he +remained among the barbarians, choosing to live with them rather than +perish at home. This Labienus, accordingly, as soon as he perceived +Antony's relaxation, his passion, and his journeying into Egypt, +persuaded the Parthian monarch to make an attempt upon the Romans. He +said that their armies had been partly ruined, partly damaged, and that +the remainder of the warriors were in revolt and would again be at war. +Therefore he advised the king to subjugate Syria and the adjoining +districts, while Caesar was detained in Italy and with Sextus, and Antony +abandoned himself to love in Egypt. He promised that he would act as +leader in the war, and announced that in this way he could detach many of +the provinces, inasmuch as they were hostile to the Romans owing to the +latter's constant ill treatment of them. + +[-25-] By such words Labienus persuaded Orodes to wage war and the king +entrusted to him a large force and his son Pacorus, and with them invaded +Phoenicia. They marched to Apamea and were repulsed from the wall, but +won over the garrisons in the country without resistance. These had +belonged to the troops that followed Brutus and Cassius. Antony had +incorporated them in his own forces and at this time had assigned them to +garrison Syria because they knew the country. So Labienus easily won over +these men, since they were well acquainted with, him, all except Saxa, +their temporary leader. He was a brother of the general and was quaestor, +and hence he alone refused to join the Parthian invaders. Saxa the +general was conquered in a set battle through the numbers and ability +of the cavalry, and when later by night he made a dash from his +entrenchments to get away, he was pursued. His flight was due to his fear +that his associates might take up with the cause of Labienus, who labored +to prevail upon them by shooting various pamphlets into the camp. +Labienus took possession of these men and slew the greater part, then +captured Apamea, which no longer resisted when Saxa had fled into +Antioch, since he was believed to be dead; he later captured Antioch, +which the fugitive had abandoned, and at last, pursuing him in his flight +into Cilicia, seized the man himself and killed him. [-26-] Upon his +death Pacorus made himself master of Syria and subjugated all of it +except Tyre. This city the Romans that survived and the natives who sided +with them had occupied in advance, and neither persuasion nor force +(for Pacorus had no fleet) could prevail against them. They accordingly +remained secure from capture. The rest Pacorus gained and then invaded +Palestine, where he removed from office Hyrcanus, to whom the affairs of +the district had been entrusted by the Romans, and set up his brother +Aristobulus[45] as ruler instead because of the enmity existing between +them. Meantime Labienus had occupied Cilicia and had obtained the +allegiance of the cities of the mainland except Stratonicea; Plancus in +fear of him had crossed over to the islands: most of these towns he took +without conflict, but Mylasa and Alabanda with great peril. These cities +had accepted garrisons from him, but murdered them on the occasion of +a festival and revolted. For this he himself punished the people of +Alabanda when he had captured it, and razed to the ground Mylasa, +abandoned by the dwellers there. Stratonicea he besieged for a long time, +but was unable to capture it in any way. + +In satisfaction of the defections mentioned he continued to levy money +and rob the temples; and he named himself imperator and Parthicus,--the +latter being quite the opposite of the Roman custom, in that he took his +title from those he had led against his countrymen: whereas regularly +it would imply that he had conquered the Parthians instead of citizens. +[-28-] Antony kept hearing of these operations as he did of whatever else +was being done, such as matters in Italy, of which he was not in the +least ignorant; but in each instance he failed to make a timely defence, +for owing to passion and drunkenness he devoted no thought either to his +allies or to his enemies. While he had been classed as a subordinate and +was pursuing high prizes, he gave strict attention to his task: when, +however, he attained power, he no longer gave painstaking care to any +single matter but joined in the wanton life of Cleopatra and the rest of +the Egyptians until he was entirely undone. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +Rather late he was at last forced to bestir himself and sailed to Tyre +with the announcement that he was going to aid it, but on seeing that the +remainder of the country had been occupied before his coming, he deserted +the inhabitants on the pretext that he had to wage war against Sextus. On +the other hand he excused his dilatoriness with regard to the latter by +bringing forward the activity of the Parthians. So on account of Sextus +he gave no assistance to his allies and on account of his allies no +assistance to Italy, but coasted along the mainland as far as Asia and +crossed into Greece. There, after meeting his mother and wife, he made +Caesar his enemy and cemented a friendship with Sextus. After this he went +over to Italy and got possession of Sipontum but besieged Brundusium, +which refused to come to terms with him. + +[-28-] While he was thus engaged, Caesar, who had already arrived from +Gaul, had collected his forces and had sent Publius Servilius Rullus to +Brundusium, and Agrippa against Sipontum. The latter took the city by +storm, but Servilius was suddenly attacked by Antony who destroyed many +and won over many others. The two leaders had thus broken out into open +war and proceeded to send about to the cities and to the veterans, or to +any place whence they thought they could get any aid. All Italy was again +thrown into turmoil and Rome especially; some were already choosing one +side or the other, and others were hesitating. While the chief figures +themselves and those who were to follow their fortunes were in a quiver +of excitement, Fulvia died in Sicyon,--the city where she was staying. +Antony was really responsible for her death through his passion for +Cleopatra and the latter's lewdness. But at any rate, when this news was +announced, both sides laid down their arms and effected a reconciliation, +either because Fulvia had actually been the original cause of their +variance or because they chose to make her death an excuse in view of the +fear with which each inspired the other and the equality of their forces +and hopes. The arrangement made allotted to Caesar Sardinia, Dalmatia, +Spain and Gaul, and to Antony all the districts that belonged to the +Romans across the Ionian Sea, both in Europe and in Asia. The provinces +in Libya were held by Lepidus, and Sicily by Sextus. + +[-29-] The government they divided anew in this way and the war against +Sextus they made a common duty, although Antony through messengers had +taken oaths before him against Caesar. And it was chiefly for this reason +that Caesar had schooled himself to receive under a general amnesty all +those who had gone over to the enemy in the war with Lucius, Antony's +brother, some among them, Domitius particularly, who had been of the +assassins, as well as all those whose names had been posted on the +tablets or had in any way coöperated with Brutus and Cassius and later +embraced the cause of Antony. So great is the irony to be found in +factions and wars; for those in power decide nothing according to +justice, but determine on friend and foe as their temporary needs and +advantages demand. Therefore they regard the same men now as enemies, now +as useful helpers, according to the occasion. + +[-30-] When they had reached this agreement in the camp outside +Brundusium, they entertained each other, Caesar in a soldierly, Roman +fashion, and Antony with Asiatic and Egyptian manners. As it appeared +that they had become reconciled, the soldiers who were at that time +following Caesar surrounded Antony and demanded of him the money which +they had promised them before the battle of Philippi. It was for this +he had been sent into Asia, to collect as much as possible. And when he +failed to give them anything, they would certainly have done him some +harm, if Caesar had not restrained them by feeding them with new hopes. +After this experience, to guard against further unruliness, they sent +those soldiers who were clearly disqualified by age into the colonies, +and then took up the war anew. For Sextus had come into Italy according +to the agreement made between himself and Antony, intending with the +latter's help to wage war against Caesar: when he learned that they had +settled their difficulties he himself went back into Sicily, but ordered +Menas, a freedman of his on whom he placed great reliance, to coast about +with a portion of the fleet and damage the interests of the other side. +He, accordingly, inflicted injury upon considerable of Etruria and +managed to capture alive Marcus Titius, the son of Titius who had been +proscribed and was then with Sextus; this son had gathered ships for +enterprises of his own and was blockading the province of Narbonensis. +Titius underwent no punishment, being preserved for his father's sake and +because his soldiers carried the name of Sextus on their shields: he did +not, however, recompense his benefactor fairly, but fought him to the +last ditch and finally slew him, so that his name is remembered among the +most prominent of his kind. Menas besides the exploits mentioned sailed +to Sardinia and had a conflict with Marcus Lurius, the governor there; +and at first he was routed, but later when the other was pursuing him +heedlessly he awaited the attack and contrary to expectations won a +victory in turn. Thereupon his enemy abandoned the island and he occupied +it. All the towns capitulated, save Caralis, which he took by siege: +it was there that many fugitives from the battle had taken refuge. He +released without ransom among others of the captives Helenus, a freedman +of Caesar in whom his master took especial delight: he thus laid up for +himself with that ruler a kindness long in advance by way of preparing a +refuge for himself, if he should ever need aught at Caesar's hands. + +[-31-] He was occupied as above described. And the people in Rome refused +to remain quiet since Sardinia was in hostile hands, the coast was being +pillaged, and they had been cut off from importation of grain, while +famine and the great number of taxes of all sorts that were being imposed +and the "contributions," in addition, that were laid upon such as +possessed slaves irritated them greatly. As much as they were pleased +with the reconciliation of Antony and Caesar,--for thought that harmony +between these men meant peace for themselves,--they were equally or more +displeased at the war the two men were carrying on against Sextus. But +a short time previously they had brought the two rulers into the city +mounted on horses as if at a triumph, and had bestowed upon them the +triumphal robe precisely similar to that worn by persons celebrating, had +made them view the festivals from their chairs of state and had hastened +to espouse to Antony, when once her husband was dead, Octavia the sister +of Caesar, though she was then pregnant. Now, however, they changed their +behavior to a remarkable degree. At first forming in groups or gathering +at some spectacle they urged Antony and Caesar to secure peace, crying out +a great deal to this effect. When the men in power would not heed them, +they fell at odds with them and favored Sextus. They talked frequently in +his behalf, and at the horse-races honored by a loud clapping of hands +the statue of Neptune carried in the procession, evincing great pleasure +at it. When for some days it was not brought in, they took stones and +drove the officials from the Forum, threw down the images of Caesar and +Antony, and finally, on not accomplishing anything in this way even, +rushed violently upon them as if to kill them. Caesar, although his +followers were wounded, rent his clothes and betook himself to +supplicating them, whereas Antony presented a less yielding front. Hence, +because the wrath of the populace was aroused to the highest pitch and +it was feared that they would commit some violence, the two rulers were +forced unwillingly to make propositions of peace to Sextus. + +[-32-] Meantime they removed the praetors and the consuls though it was +now near the close of the year, and appointed others instead, caring +little that these would have but a few days to hold office. (One of those +who at this time became consuls was Lucius Cornelius Balbus, of Gades, +who so much surpassed the men of his generation in wealth and munificence +that at his death he left a bequest of twenty-five denarii to each of the +Romans.) They not only did this, but when an aedile died on the last day +of the year, they chose another to fill out the closing hours. It was at +this same time that the so-called Julian supply of water was piped into +Rome and the festival that had been vowed for the successful completion +of the war against the assassins was held by the consuls. The duties +belonging to the so-called Septemviri were performed by the pontifices, +since none of the former was present: this was also done on many other +occasions. + +[-33-] Besides these events which took place that year Caesar gave a +public funeral to his pedagogue Sphaerus, who had been freed by him. Also +he put to death Salvidienus Rufus, suspected of plotting against him. +This man was of most obscure origin, and while he was a shepherd a flame +had issued from his head. He had been so greatly advanced by Caesar that +he was made consul without even being a member of the senate, and his +brother who died before him had been laid to rest across the Tiber, a +bridge being constructed for this very purpose. But nothing human is +lasting, and he was finally accused in the senate by Caesar himself and +executed as an enemy of his and of the entire people; thanksgivings +were offered for his downfall and furthermore the care of the city was +committed to the triumvirs with the customary admonition, "that it should +suffer no harm." + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_. 713)] + +In the year previous to this men belonging to the order of knights had +slaughtered wild beasts at the horse-race which came in the course of +the Ludi Apollinares, and an intercalary day was inserted, contrary to +custom, in order that the market held every nine days should not fall +on the first day of the following year,--something which was strictly +forbidden from very early times. Naturally the day had to be subtracted +again later, in order that the calendar should run according to the +system devised by the former Caesar. The domain of Attalus and of +Deiotarus, who had both died in Gaul, was given to a certain Castor. Also +the so-called Lex Falcidia, which has the greatest force even still +in regard to the succession to inheritances, was enacted by Publius +Falcidius, a tribune: its terms are that if an heir feels oppressed in +any way, he may secure at least a fourth, of the property left behind by +surrendering the rest. + +[B.C. 39 (_a. u_. 715)] + +[-34-] These were the events of the two years; the next season, when +Lucius Marcius and Gaius Sabinus held the consulship, the acts of the +triumvirs from the time they had formed a close combination received +ratification at the hands of the senate, and certain further taxes were +imposed by them, because the expenditures proved far greater than had +been allowed for in the time of the former Caesar. For they were expending +vast sums, especially upon the soldiers, and were ashamed of being the +only ones to lay out money contrary to custom. Then I might mention that +Caesar now for the first time shaved his beard, and held a magnificent +entertainment himself besides granting all the other citizens a festival +at public expense. He also kept his chin smooth afterward, like the rest; +he was already beginning to conceive a passion for Livia, and for this +reason divorced at once Scribonia, who had borne him a daughter. Hence, +as the expenditures grew far greater than before, and the revenues were +not anywhere sufficient but at this time came in in even smaller amounts +by reason of the factional disputes, they introduced certain new taxes; +and they enrolled in the senate as many persons as possible, not only +from among the allies or soldiers, or sons of freedmen, but even slaves. +At any rate one Maximus, when about to become quaestor, was recognized by +his master and taken away. And he incurred no injury through having dared +to stand for the office: but another who had been caught serving as a +praetor, was hurled down the rocks of the Capitol, having been +first freed, that there might be some legal justification for his +punishment[46]. + +[-35-] The expedition which Antony was getting in readiness against the +Parthians afforded them some excuse for the mass of prospective senators. +The same plea permitted them to extend all the offices for a number of +years and that of consul to eight full years, rewarding some of those who +had coöperated with them, and bringing others to trial. They chose not +two annual consuls, as had been the custom, but now for the first time +several, and on the very day of the elections. Formerly, to be sure, some +had held office after others who had neither died nor been removed for +disenfranchisement or in any other way: but those persons had become +officials as suited those who had been elected for the entire year, +whereas now no magistrate was chosen to serve for a year, but first one, +then another would be appointed for different divisions of the entire +time. Also the men first to enter upon office were accustomed to hold the +title of the consulship through the entire year as is now done: the rest +were accorded the same title by the dwellers in the capital themselves +and by the people in the rest of Italy during each period of their office +(as is also now the custom), but those in outside nations knew few or +none of them and therefore called them lesser consuls. + +[-36-] This was the situation at home when the leaders first made +proposals to Sextus through companions as to how and on what terms they +could effect a reconciliation; afterward the parties concerned held a +conference near Misenum. The two from the capital took their stand on the +land, the other on a kind of mound constructed for his safety in the sea, +by which it was purposely surrounded, not far from them. There was also +present the entire fleet of Sextus and the entire infantry force of the +other two; and not that merely, but the one command had been drawn up on +the shore and the other on the ships, both fully armed, so that this very +fact made it perfectly evident to all that it was from fear of their +accoutrement and from necessity, that the two rulers were making peace +because of the people and Sextus because of his adherents. The compact +was framed upon the following conditions,--that the deserters from +among the slaves should be free and that all those driven out, save +the assassins, should be restored. The latter, of course, they had to +exclude, but in reality several of them were destined to return. Sextus +himself, indeed, was thought to have been one of them. It was recorded, +at any rate, that all the rest save those mentioned should be allowed to +return under a general amnesty and with a right to a quarter of their +confiscated property; that tribuneships, praetorships and priesthoods +should be given to some of them immediately; that Sextus himself should +be chosen consul and be appointed augur, should obtain seventeen hundred +and fifty myriads of denarii from his paternal estate, and should govern +Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea for five years, not receiving deserters nor +acquiring more ships nor keeping any garrisons in Italy, but bending +his efforts to secure peace on the sea for the peninsula, and sending a +stated amount of grain to the people of the City. They limited him to +this period of time because they wished it to appear that they also were +holding merely a temporary and not an unending authority. + +[-37-] After settling and drafting these compacts they deposited the +documents with the priestesses,--the vestal virgins,--and then exchanged +pledges and treated one another as friends. Upon this a tremendous and +inextinguishable shout arose from the mainland and the ships at once. For +many soldiers and many individuals who were present suddenly uttered a +cry in unison because they were terribly tired of the war and vehemently +desired peace. And the mountains resounded so that great panic and alarm +were spread, and many died of fright at the very reverberation, while +others perished by being trampled under foot and suffocated. Those who +were in the small boats did not wait to reach the land itself but jumped +out into the sea and the rest rushed out into the breakers. Meantime +they embraced one another while swimming and threw their arms around one +another's necks under water, making a diversified picture accompanied by +diversified sounds. Some knew that their relatives and associates were +living and seeing them present gave way to unrestrained joy. Others, +thinking that those dear to them had died previously, saw them now +unexpectedly and for a long time knew not what to do but were rendered +speechless, distrusting their sight yet praying that it might be true; +and they were not sure of them until they had called their names and had +heard them say something. They rejoiced as if the men had been brought +to life again, but as they were forced to share their pleasure with a +multitude they did not continue without tears. Again, some who were +unaware that their loved ones had perished and thought they were alive +and present sought for them and went about asking every one they met +regarding them. As long as they could learn nothing they were like +maniacs and were torn different ways, both hoping to find them and +fearing that they were dead,--not able to despair in view of their desire +nor to indulge in grief in view of their hope. On learning at last the +truth they would tear their hair and rend their clothing, calling upon +the lost by name as if they could hear anything and giving way to grief +as if their friends were just dead and lying there somewhere. And if any +of them were affected in no such way, they were at least disturbed by the +experiences of the rest. They either rejoiced with somebody in joy or +grieved with somebody in pain, and so, even if they were free from +personal interest, yet they could not remain indifferent on account of +their connection with the rest. As a result there was no possibility of +their being either sated or ashamed, because they were all affected in +the same way, and they spent the entire day as well as the greater part +of the night in this behavior. + +[-38-] After this the parties chiefly concerned as well as the rest +received one another and inaugurated entertainments in turn, first +Sextus on the ship and then Caesar and Antony on the shore. Sextus so far +surpassed them in power that he would not disembark to meet them on the +mainland until they had gone aboard his boat. In the course of this +proceeding, however, he refused to murder them both in the small boat +with only a few followers, though he might easily have done so and Menas +advised it[47]. To Antony, who had possession of his ancestral home at +Carinae (the spot so named is in the city of Rome), he uttered a jest +in the happiest manner, saying that he was entertaining them at +Carinae,--that is, on the "keels of ships," which is the meaning of the +word in Latin. Nevertheless he did not act in any way as if he bore +malice toward them, and on the following day he was feasted in turn and +betrothed his daughter to Marcus Marcellus, the nephew of Caesar. + +[-39-] This war, then, had been deferred: that of Labienus and the +Parthians came to an end in the following way. Antony himself returned +from Italy to Greece and delayed there a very long time, satisfying his +desires and harming the cities, to the end that they should be delivered +to Sextus in the weakest possible condition. He lived during this time in +many ways contrary to the customs of his country. He called himself the +younger Dionysus and insisted on being called so by others. When the +Athenians in view of this and his other behavior betrothed Athena to him, +he declared he accepted the marriage and he exacted from them a dowry of +one hundred myriads. While he was occupied in this way he sent Publius +Ventidius before him into Asia. The latter came upon Labienus before +his presence was announced and terrified him by the suddenness of his +approach and by his legions; for the Parthian leader was separated from +the members of his tribe and had only soldiers from the neighborhood. +Ventidius found that he would not even risk a conflict and so pushed him +back and pursued him into Syria, taking the lightest part of his fighting +force with him on the expedition. He overtook him near the Taurus range +and allowed him to proceed no farther, and they encamped there quietly +for several days. Labienus awaited the Parthians and Ventidius the +heavy-armed soldiers. [-40-] Both came at once during the same days and +Ventidius through fear of the barbarian cavalry remained on the high +ground, where he was encamped. The Parthians, because of their numbers +and because they had conquered once before, despised their opponents and +rode up to the hill at dawn, before joining Labienus; as no one came out +to meet them, they attacked it, charging straight up the incline. When +they were in that position the Romans rushed out and easily routed them, +as it was down-hill. Many of the assailants were killed in conflict, but +still more in turning back were confused with one another; for some had +already been routed and others were coming up. The survivors took refuge +not with Labienus but in Cilicia. Ventidius pursued them as far as the +camp, and there, seeing Labienus, stopped. The latter marshaled his +forces as if to offer him battle, but perceiving that his soldiers were +dejected by reason of the flight of the barbarians he did not then +venture any opposition and when night came he attempted to escape in +some direction. Ventidius learned beforehand from deserters of the +contemplated move and by posting ambushes killed many in the retreat and +took possession of the rest, who were abandoned by Labienus. The latter +by changing his dress reached safety and for some time escaped detection +in Cilicia. Later he was captured by Demetrius, a freedman of the former +Caesar, who had at this time been assigned to Cyprus by Antony. He learned +that Labienus was in hiding and made a search for him, which resulted in +the fugitive's arrest. + +[-41-] After this Ventidius recovered Cilicia and attended himself to +the administration of this district, but sent ahead Pompaedius Silo with +cavalry to Amanus. This is a mountain on the border between Cilicia and +Syria, and contains a pass so narrow that a wall and gates were once +built across it and the place received its name from that fact. Silo, +however, found himself unable to occupy it and ran in danger of being +annihilated by Phranapates, lieutenant of Pacorus, who was guarding the +passage. And that would have been his fate, had not Ventidius by chance +come upon him when he was fighting and defended him. He attacked the +barbarians, who were not looking for his arrival and were likewise fewer +in number, and slew Phranapates and many others. In this way he gained +Syria deserted by the Parthians,--all except the district of the +Aradii,--and subsequently without effort occupied Palestine, by scaring +away from it King Antigonus. Besides accomplishing this he exacted large +sums of money from the rest individually, and large sums also from +Antigonus and Antiochus and Malchus the Nabathaean, because they had +given help to Pacorus. Ventidius himself received no reward for these +achievements from the senate, since he was acting not with full powers, +but as a lieutenant: Antony, however, obtained praise and thanksgivings. +As for the Aradii, they were afraid that they might have to pay the +penalty for what they had ventured against Antony, and would not come to +terms though they were besieged by him for a time; later they were with +difficulty captured by others. + +[-40-] About this same time an uprising took place in Parthian Illyricum, +but was put down by Pollio after some conflicts. There was another on the +part of the Ceretani in Spain, and they were subjugated by Calvinus after +he had had some little preliminary successes and also a preliminary +setback; this last was occasioned by his lieutenant, who was ambuscaded +by the barbarians and deserted by his soldiers. Their leader undertook +no operation against the enemy until he had punished them. Calling +them together as if for some other purpose he had the rest of the army +surround them; and out of two companies of a hundred he chose out every +tenth man for punishment and chastised the centurion who was serving in +the so-called primus pilus as well as many others. After doing this and +gaining, like Marcus Crassus, a renown for his disciplining the army, he +set out against his opponents and with no great difficulty vanquished +them. He obtained a triumph in spite of the fact that Spain was assigned +to Caesar; for the rulers could at will grant the honors to those who +served as their lieutenants. The money customarily given by the cities +for the purpose Calvinus took only from the Spanish towns, and of it he +spent a part on the festival but the greater portion on the palace. It +had been burned down and he built it up, adorning it splendidly at the +dedication with various objects and with images, in particular, which he +asked from Caesar, implying that he would send them back. Though asked +for them later, he did not return them, excusing himself by a witticism. +Pretending that he had not enough assistants, he said: "Send some men and +take them." Caesar shrank from seizure of sacred things and hence allowed +them to remain as votive offerings. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-43-] This is what happened at that time. Now in the consulship of +Appius Claudius and Gaius Norbanus, who were the first to have two +quaestors apiece as associates, the populace revolted against the tax +gatherers, who oppressed them severely, and came to blows with the men +themselves, their assistants, and the soldiers that helped them to exact +the money; and sixty-seven praetors one after another were appointed and +held office. One who was chosen to be quaestor while still reckoned as +a child then on the next day obtained the standing of a iuvenis: and +another person who had been enrolled in the senate desired to fight in +the arena. He was prevented, however, from doing this, and an act was +passed prohibiting any senator from taking part in gladiatorial combats, +any slave from serving as lictor, and any burning of dead bodies from +being carried on within fifteen stadia of the city. + +Many things of a portentous nature had come to pass even before that time +(such as olive oil spouting beside the Tiber), and many, also, precisely +then. The tent of Romulus was burned as a result of some ritual which the +pontifices were performing in it; a statue of Virtus, standing before +some of the gates, fell upon its face; and certain persons rendered +inspired by the Mother of the Gods declared that the goddess was angry +with them. On this point the Sibylline books were consulted. They made +the same statements and prescribed that the statue be taken down to +the sea and purified with water from it. In obedience to the order the +goddess went very far indeed out into the surges, where she remained an +extremely long time and returned only quite late,--her action causing the +Romans no little fear, so that they did not recover courage until four +palm trees grew up round about her temple and in the Forum. + +[-44-] Besides these occurrences at the time Caesar married Livia. She was +the daughter of Livius Drusus, who had been among those proscribed by the +tablet and had committed suicide after the defeat in Macedonia, and +the wife of Nero, whom she had accompanied in his flight, as has been +related. She was also in the sixth month with child from him. When Caesar +accordingly hesitated and enquired of the pontifices whether it was +permissible to wed her while pregnant, they answered that if the origin +of the foetus were doubtful, the marriage should be put off, but if it +were definitely admitted, nothing prevented an immediate consummation. +Perhaps they really found this among the ordinances of the forefathers, +but certainly they would have said so even had they not found it. The +woman was given in marriage by her husband himself, as some father might +do. And the following incident occurred at the marriage feast. One of the +prattling boys, such as women frequently keep about them naked to play +with,[48] on seeing Livia reclining in one place with Caesar and Nero in +another with some man, went up to her and said: "What are you doing here, +mistress? For your husband," pointing him out, "is reclining over there." +After these events, when the woman went to live with Caesar, she gave +birth to Claudius Drusus Nero. Caesar took him and sent him to his father, +making this entry in the records, that Caesar returned to its father Nero +the child borne by Livia, his own wife. Nero died not long after and left +Caesar himself as guardian to this boy and to Tiberius: the populace had a +good deal to say about this, among other things that the prosperous have +children in three months; and this saying passed into a proverb. + +[-45-] At just about the same time that this was going on in the city +Bogud the Moor sailed to Spain, acting either on instructions from Antony +or on his own motion, and did much damage, receiving also considerable +injury in return: meantime the people of his own land in the neighborhood +of Tingi rose against him, and so he evacuated Spain but failed to win +back his own domain. For the adherents of Caesar in Spain and Bocchus came +to the aid of the rebels and proved too much for him. Bogud departed to +join Antony, while Bocchus forthwith took possession of his kingdom, and +this act was afterward confirmed by Caesar. The Tingitanians were given +citizenship. + +At this time and even earlier Sextus and Caesar had broken out into war; +for since they had come to an agreement not of their own free will or +choice but under compulsion, they did not abide by it any time at all, +so to speak, but broke the truce at once and stood opposed. They were +destined to come to war under any conditions, even if they had found no +excuse; their alleged grievances, however, were the following. Menas, who +was at this time still in Sardinia, as if he were a kind of praetor, had +incurred the suspicion of Sextus by his release of Helenus and because he +had been in communication with Caesar, and he was slandered to some extent +by his peers, who envied his position of power. He was therefore summoned +by Sextus on the pretext that he should give an account of the grain and +money of which he had charge; instead of obeying he seized and killed +the men sent to him on this errand, and after negotiating with Caesar +surrendered to him the island, the fleet together with the army, and +himself. Caesar was glad to see him and declared that Sextus was harboring +deserters contrary to the treaty, having triremes built, and keeping +garrisons in Italy: and so far from giving up Menas on demand, he +supported him in great honor, gave him the decoration of gold rings, and +enrolled him in the order of the knights. The matter of the gold rings +is as follows. Of the ancient Romans no one,--not to mention such as had +once been slaves,--who had grown up as a free citizen even, was allowed +to wear gold rings, save senators and knights,--as has been stated. +Therefore they are given to those freedmen whom the man in power may +select; although they may use gold in other ways, this is still an +additional honor and distinguishes them as superior, or as capable, +through having been freed, of becoming knights. + +[-46-] Such is the matter in question. Sextus, having this as a reproach +against Caesar, and the further facts that Achaea had been impoverished +and the rights agreed upon were not granted either to him or to the +restored exiles, sent to Italy Menecrates, another freedman of his, and +had him ravage Volturnum and other parts of Campania. Caesar on learning +this took the documents containing the treaty from the vestal virgins and +sent for Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus did not at once obey. Antony came to +Brundusium from Greece where, by chance, he still was: but before he met +Caesar, who was in Etruria, he became alarmed because a wolf had entered +his head-quarters and killed soldiers; so he sailed back to Greece again, +making the urgency of the Parthian situation his excuse. Caesar, however +much he felt that he had been abandoned by his colleague with the purpose +that he should face the difficulties of the war alone, nevertheless +showed no anger openly. Sextus kept repeating that Antony was not for +punishing him and set himself more zealously to the task in hand. Finally +he sailed against Italy, landed at different points, inflicted much +injury and endured much in return. Meantime off Cyme there was a naval +battle between Menecrates and Calvisius Sabinus. In this several ships of +Caesar were destroyed, because he was arrayed against expert seafarers; +but Menecrates out of rivalry attacked Menas and perished, making the +loss of Sextus an equal one. For this reason the latter laid no claim to +victory and Caesar consoled himself over the defeat. [-47-] He happened at +this time to be in Rhegium, and the party of Sextus feared he would cross +over into Sicily; and being somewhat disheartened, too, at the death +of Menecrates, they set sail from Cyme. Sabinus pursued them as far +as Scyllaeum, the Italian promontory, without trouble. But, as he was +rounding that point, a great wind fell upon him, hurling some of the +ships against the promontory, sinking others out at sea, and scattering +all the rest. Sextus on ascertaining this sent the fleet under command of +Apollophanes against them. He, discovering Caesar coasting along somewhere +in these parts with the intention of crossing into Sicily along with +Sabinus, made a dash upon him. Caesar had the ships come to anchor, +marshaled the heavy-armed soldiers upon them, and at first made a noble +resistance. The ships were drawn up with prows facing outward and so +offered no safe point for attack, but being shorter and higher could do +more hurt to those that approached them, and the heavy-armed fighters, +when they could come in conflict with the enemy, proved far superior. +Apollophanes, however, transferred such as were wounded and were in +difficulty from time to time to other ships assigned for the purpose, by +backing water, and took on board fresh men; he also made constant charges +and used missiles carrying fire, so that his adversary was at last +routed, fled to the land, and came to anchor. When even then the pursuers +pressed him hard, some of Caesar's ships suddenly cut their anchors and +unexpectedly offered opposition. It was only this and the fact that night +interrupted operations that kept Apollophanes from burning some of the +ships and towing all the rest away. + +[-48-] After this event an ill-fated wind on the following day fell upon +Caesar and Sabinus as they were anchored together and made their previous +reverse seem small. The fleet of Sabinus suffered the less, for Menas, +being an old hand on the sea, foresaw the storm. He immediately stationed +his ships out at sea, letting them ride with slack anchors some distance +apart, so that the ropes should not be stretched and break; then he rowed +directly against the wind, and in this way no rope was strained, and he +remained constantly in the same position, recovering by the use of the +oars all the distance which he lost by the impetus of the wind. The +remaining commanders, because they had gone through a severe experience +the day before, and as yet had no precise knowledge of nautical matters, +were cast out upon the shore close by and lost many ships. The night, +which had been of the greatest aid to them before, was now among the +chief agencies in promoting disaster. All through it the wind blew +violently, tearing the vessels from their anchors and dashing them +against the rocks. That of course was the end of them, and the sailors +and marines likewise perished without hope of rescue, since the darkness +prevented them from seeing ahead and they could not hear a word because +of the uproar and the reverberation from the mountains, especially since +the wind smote them in the face. So it was that Caesar despaired of Sicily +and was satisfied to guard the coast country: Sextus on the other hand +was still more elated, believing himself in very truth to be the son of +Neptune, and he put on a dark blue robe besides, as some relate, casting +horses as well as men alive into the straits. He plundered and harassed +Italy himself, sending Apollophanes to Libya. The latter was pursued by +Menas, who overtook and injured him. The islands round about Sicily went +over to the side of Sextus, whereupon Caesar seized the territory of the +Lipareans in advance and ejecting them from the island conveyed them to +Campania, where he forced them to live in Neapolis so long as the war +should continue. [-49-] Meantime he kept having boats made throughout +almost all of Italy and collected slaves for rowers first from his +friends, who were supposed to give willingly, and then from the +rest,--senators and knights and well-to-do private citizens. He also +assembled heavy-armed troops and gathered money from all citizens, +allies, and subjects, both in Italy and abroad. + +This year and the following he spent on the construction of ships and the +gathering and training of rowers. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +He himself oversaw and arranged these details and all other matters in +Italy and in Gaul (where there was a slight uprising). To Agrippa he +entrusted the equipment of the boats. He sent for this man, who was +fighting against the revolted Gauls, at the time when he had been the +second of the Romans to cross the Rhine for purposes of warfare, and he +honored him by bestowing a triumph and bidding him to secure the +building and training of the fleet. Agrippa,--he was consul with Lucius +Gallus,--would not hold the triumph, deeming it disgraceful for him to +exalt himself when Caesar had fared poorly, but set to work heart and soul +to fit out the fleet. All along the coasts of Italy vessels were taking +shape; but since no shore was found safe for them to ride at anchor,--the +majority of the coast land being still in those days without harbors,--he +conceived and executed a magnificent enterprise which I shall describe at +some length, showing its nature and the present characteristics of the +locality where it took place. + +[-50-] At Cyme in Campania, between Misenum and Puteoli, there is a +crescent-shaped spot. It is shut in by small hills, bare except in a +few places, and the sea there forms a kind of triple bay. The first is +outside and near the cities; the second is separated from it by a small +passage; and the third, like a real harbor, is seen far back. The last +named is called Avernus, and the middle bay Lucrinus: the outer one +belongs to the Tyrrhenian Sea and takes its name from that water. In this +roadstead within the other two, which had but narrow entrances then, +Agrippa, by cutting channels close along the shore through the land +separating Lucrinus from the sea on each side, produced harbors affording +most safe anchorage for ships. While the men were working a certain image +situated above Avernus, either of Calypso to whom this place, whither +they say Odysseus also sailed, is devoted, or to some other heroine, was +covered with sweat like a human body. [-51-] Now what this imported I +cannot say; but I will go on to tell of everything else worth reporting +which I saw in that place. These mountains close to the inner bodies of +water have springs full of both fire and water in considerable quantity +mixed together. Neither of the two elements is anywhere to be found by +itself (that is, neither pure fire or cold water alone is to be seen) but +from their association the water is heated and the fire moistened. The +former on its way down the foothills to the sea runs into reservoirs and +the inhabitants conduct the steam from it through pipes into rooms set +up high, where they use the steam for vapor baths. The higher it ascends +from the earth and from the water, the dryer it becomes. Costly apparatus +has been installed for turning both the fire and the vapor to practical +use; and they are very well suited for employment in the conduct of daily +life and also for effecting cures. + +Now besides these products that mountain makes an earth, the peculiar +nature of which I am going to describe. Since the fire has not the power +of burning (for by its union with, the water all its blazing qualities +are extinguished) but is still able to separate and melt the substances +with which it comes in contact, it follows that the oily part of the +earth is melted by it, whereas the hard and what I might call the bony +part of it is left as it was. Hence the masses of earth necessarily +become porous and when exposed to the dry air crumble into dust, but when +they are placed in a swirl of water and sand grow into a solid piece; as +much of them as is in the liquid hardens and petrifies. The reason for +this is that the brittle element in them is disintegrated and broken up +by the fire, which possesses, the same nature, but by the admixture of +dampness is chilled, and so, being compressed all over, through and +through, becomes indissoluble. Such is Baiae, where Agrippa as soon as he +had constructed the entrances collected ships and rowers, of which he +fortified the former with armor and trained the latter to row on wooden +benches. + +[-52-] Now the population of Rome was being disturbed by signs. Among the +various pieces of news brought to them was one to the effect that many +dolphins battled with one another and perished near Aspis, the African +city. And in the vicinity of the City blood descended from heaven and was +smeared all about by the birds. When at the Ludi Romani not one of the +senators was entertained on the Capitol, as had been the custom, they +took this, too, as a portent. Again, the incident that happened to Livia +caused her pleasure, but inspired the rest with terror. A white bird +carrying a sprig of fruited laurel had been thrown by an eagle into her +lap. As this seemed to be a sign of no small importance, she took care of +the bird and planted the laurel. The latter took root and grew, so that +it amply supplied those who were afterward to celebrate triumphs; and +Livia was destined to hold Caesar's power in a fold of her robe and to +dominate him in everything. + +[-53-] The rest, however, in the City had their peace of mind thoroughly +shattered by this and the differences between officials. Not only the +consuls and praetors but even the quaestors were arrayed against one +another, and this lasted for some time. The reason was that all were +anxious not so much to hold office a longer time at home as to be counted +among the ex-officials and secure the outward honors and influence that +belonged to that class. They were no longer chosen for any specified +time, but took just long enough to enter upon the title of the office and +resign, whenever it so seemed good to those in power. Many did both +on the same day. Some actually had to abandon hope of offices through +poverty, and in this I am not speaking of those then supporting Sextus, +who had been disenfranchised as if by some principle of right. But +we have the case of a certain Marcus Oppius who through lack of means +desired to resign the aedileship,--both he and his father had been among +the proscribed,--and the populace would not permit it, but contributed +money for his various necessities of life and the expenses of his office. +And the story goes that some criminals, too, really came into the theatre +in masks as if they were actors and left their money there with the rest. +So this man was loved by the multitude while in life and at his death not +long after was carried to the Campus Martius and there burned and buried. +The senate was indignant at the utter devotion of the masses to him and +took up his bones, on the plea that it was impious for them to lie in +that consecrated spot; they were persuaded by the pontifices to make this +declaration although they buried many other men there both before and +after. + +[-54-] At this same period Antony came into Italy again from Syria. The +reason he gave was that he intended to bear his share of the war against +Sextus because of Caesar's mishaps; he did not, however, stay by his +colleague, but, having come to spy upon his actions rather than to +accomplish anything, he gave him some ships and promised to send others, +in return for which he received heavy-armed infantry and set sail +himself, stating that he was going to conduct a campaign against the +Parthians. Before he departed they presented to each other their mutual +grievances, at first through friends and then personally. As they had no +leisure for war together they became reconciled in a way, chiefly through +the instrumentality of Octavia. In order that they might be bound by +still more ties of relationship Caesar betrothed his daughter to Antyllis, +Antony's son, and Antony betrothed to Domitius, though he had been an +assassin of Caesar and had been proscribed to die, his own daughter, borne +to him by Octavia. This was all mutual pretence. They had no intention of +carrying out any of these unions, but were acting a part in view of the +needs of the existing situation. Furthermore Antony sent Octavia herself +at once from Corcyra to Italy, that she might not share his danger while +he was warring against the Parthians. Besides the above negotiations at +that time they removed Sextus from his priesthood as well as from the +consulship to which he had been appointed, and granted themselves chief +authority for another five years, since the first period had elapsed. +After this Antony hastened to Syria and Caesar gave his attention to the +war. Nearly everything went as he wished, but Menas, who was naturally +untrustworthy and always followed the fortunes of the stronger, and was +further vexed because he held no office but had been made a subordinate +of Sabinus, deserted again to Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +49 + +The following is contained in the Forty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar conquered Sextus and overthrew Lepidus (chapters 1-18). + +How Ventidius conquered and slew Pacorus and expelled the Parthians, +driving them across the Euphrates (chapters 19-21). + +How Antony was defeated by the Parthians (chapters 22-33). + +How Caesar subjugated the Pannonians (chapters 34-38). + +How Antony by guile captured Artavasdes, the king of Armenia (chapters +39-41). + +How the Portico of Paulus was consecrated (chapter 42). + +How Mauritania Caesariensis became Roman property (chapters 43, 44). + +Duration of time four years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated. + +L. Gellius L. F. Poplicola, M. Cocceius Nerva. (B.C. 36 = a. u. 718.) + +L. Cornificius L. F., Sextusi Pompeius Sexti F. (B.C. 35 = a. u. 719.) + +M. Antonius M. F. (II), L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (B.C. 34 = a. u. 720.) + +Caesar (II), L. Volcacius L. F. Tullus. (B.C. 33 = a. u. 721.) + + +(_BOOK 49, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 36 (a. u. 718)] + +[-1-] This happened in the winter when Lucius Gellius and Cocceius Nerva +became consuls. Caesar, when his fleet had been made ready and spring set +in, started from Baise and coasted along Italy, having great hopes of +encompassing Sicily on all sides. For he was sailing thither with many +ships and those of Antony were already in the strait. Also Lepidus, +though reluctantly, had promised to assist him. His greatest ground of +confidence lay in the height of the vessels and the thickness of the +timbers. They had been built unusually stout and unusually high so as +to carry the largest number of marines possible; indeed, they were +surmounted by towers, in order that the conflict might be waged from a +higher point, as if from a wall: they were further intended to resist +the rammings of antagonists and to bend aside their beaks by making the +collision more violent. With such calculations Caesar was hastening to +Sicily. As he was passing the promontory of Palinurus, so-called, a great +storm fell upon him. This destroyed many ships, and Menas coming upon the +rest in confusion burned a number and towed away the rest. And had he not +again changed sides on the promise of immunity and through some other +hopes, besides betraying the whole fleet that he commanded by receiving +some triremes that simulated desertion, Caesar's voyage to Sicily on this +occasion also would have proved fruitless. Menas's action was due to the +fact that he was not allowed by Sextus to fight against Lepidus and was +under suspicion in nearly every way. Caesar was then extremely glad to +receive him, but trusted him no longer. He first repaired the damaged +ships, freed the slaves that served on the triremes, and assigned the +spare seamen, (many of whom when their vessels were destroyed in the +wreck had dived and escaped by swimming) to Antony's fleet, which was +short of men. Then he came to Lipara, and leaving there Agrippa and the +ships, returned to the mainland with the intention of transporting the +infantry across into Sicily, when an opportunity should arise. + +[-2-] On learning this Sextus himself lay quietly at anchor off Messana, +watching for his attempt to cross, and ordered Demochares to anchor +opposite Agrippa at Mylae. This pair spent most of the time in testing +each other's strength according as each one would temporarily give way +a little; yet they did not dare to risk an engagement with their entire +armaments. They were not acquainted with each other's forces and on both +sides they figured everything about their opponents as being greater and +more terrible than the reality. Finally Agrippa comprehended that it +was not advantageous for him to delay,--for the adherents of Sextus, +occupying a friendly position, had no need to hurry,--and taking the best +of his ships set out for Mylae to spy out the numbers of the enemy. As he +could not see them all and no one of them manifested any inclination to +come out into the open sea, he despised them, and on his return made +preparations to sail against Mylae on the following day with all his +ships. Demochares came to much, the same conclusion. He had the idea that +the ships which had approached him were the only ones, and seeing that +they sailed very slowly by reason of their size he sent for Sextus by +night and made preparations to assail Lipara itself. When day broke, they +were sailing against each other, expecting to meet inferior numbers. +[-3-] As they came near together and each contrary to his expectations +saw that his opponents were many more than he had thought, they were at +first both alike thrown into confusion, and some even backed water. Then, +fearing flight more than battle, because in the latter they hoped to +prevail, but in the former they expected to be utterly destroyed, they +moved toward each other and joined in conflict on the sea. The one side +surpassed in the number of its ships, the other in the experience of its +sailors: to the first the height of the vessels, the thickness of the +catheads and the towers were a help, but charges straight ahead furthered +the progress of the second, and the strength of Caesar's marines was +matched by the daring of their antagonists; for the majority of them, +being deserters from Italy, were quite desperate. As a result, possessing +the mutual advantages and deficiencies which I have mentioned, they had +equal power contributed by their evenly balanced equipment, and so their +contest was close for a very long period. The followers of Sextus alarmed +their opponents by the way they dashed up the waves: and they knocked +holes in some ships by assailing them with a rush and bursting open the +parts outside the oars, but as they were struck from the towers in the +combat and brought alongside by grappling irons, they suffered no less +harm than they inflicted. The Caesarians, also, when they came into close +conflict and had crossed over to the hostile ships, proved superior; but +as the enemy leaped out into the sea whenever the boats sank, and by +their swimming well and being lightly equipped succeeded easily in +climbing upon others, the attackers were at a corresponding disadvantage. +Meantime the rapidity with which the ships of the one party could sail +proved an offset to the solidity of those on the other side, and the +heaviness of the latter counterbalanced the agility of the former. [-4-] +Late in the day, near nightfall, Caesar's party finally conquered, +but instituted no pursuit: the reason as it appears to me and may be +conjectured from probability was that they could not overtake the fleeing +ships and were afraid of running aground in the shallows, with which they +were unacquainted, near the coast. Some say that Agrippa because he was +battling for Caesar and not for himself thought it sufficient merely to +rout his adversaries. For he had been in the habit of saying to his most +intimate associates that the majority of those holding sovereign power +wish no one to display more ability than themselves; and that they +attended personally to nearly all such matters as afford them a conquest +without effort, but assign the less favorable and more complicated +business to others. And if they ever are forced to entrust some choice +enterprise to their assistants, they are irritated and displeased at the +latter's renown. They do not pray that these subordinates may be defeated +and fare badly, yet they do not choose to have them win a complete +success and secure glory from it. His advice therefore was that the +man who intended to survive must relieve his masters of the annoyance +incident to such undertakings and still reserve for them the successful +completion of the work. As for me, I know that the above is regularly +true and that Agrippa paid attention to it, but I am not setting down +that on that particular occasion this was the cause of his failure to +pursue. For he was not able, no matter how much he might have desired it, +to follow up the foe. + +[-5-] While the naval battle was in progress, Caesar, as soon as he +perceived that Sextus was gone from Messana and that the strait was +destitute of guards, did not let slip this opportunity of the war but +immediately embarked on Antony's vessels and crossed to Tauromenium. Yet +this seizure of the opportunity was not accompanied by good fortune. No +one prevented him from sailing or disembarking, and he constructed his +camp, as he had done everything else, at leisure. When, however, the +naval battle had ended, Sextus got back to Messana with speed, and +learning of Caesar's presence he quickly filled the ships with fresh +warriors and assailed him with the vessels and also with his heavy-armed +men on land. Caesar did not come out to fight the latter, but sailed out +against Sextus through contempt of the few opposing ships and because +they had been previously defeated: then it was that he lost the majority +of his fleet and barely avoided destruction himself. He could not even +escape to his own men that were in Sicily but was glad to reach the +mainland in safety. He was himself then in security, but was mightily +disturbed at seeing his army cut off on the island. His confidence was +not restored until a fish of its own accord jumped out of the sea and +fell at his feet. By this incident his spirits were invigorated and he +believed the soothsayers who had told him that he should make Sicily his +slave. + +[-6-] Caesar in haste sent for Agrippa to render aid to them, and meantime +they were being besieged. When, provisions began to fail them and no +rescuing force appeared, Cornificius their leader became afraid that if +he stayed where he was he should in the course of time be compelled by +hunger to yield to the besieging party; and he reflected that while he +delayed there in that way none of the enemy would come into conflict with +him, because he was stronger in point of heavy-armed infantry, but if +he should go forward in any direction one of two things would +happen,--either they would be attacked by the enemy and come off +victorious, or, if their adversaries were unwilling to do this, they +would retire to a place of safety, get a supply of provisions, and obtain +some help from Caesar or from Agrippa. Therefore he burned all the vessels +which had survived from the sea-fight and had been cast up against the +ramparts, and started out himself as if to proceed to Mylae. Both cavalry +and light-armed troops attacked him from a distance (not daring to come +to close quarters) and proved frightfully troublesome to him. For the +enemy came close, whenever there was good opportunity, and again turned +back with rapidity. But his men, being heavy-armed, could not pursue them +in any way owing to the weight of their armor, and were endeavoring to +protect the unarmed, who had been saved from the fleet. As a result they +were continually suffering disastrously and could do no damage in return; +for, in case they made a rush upon any group, they would put the foe to +flight, but not being able to pursue farther they found themselves in +a worse plight on their return, since by their sortie they had been +isolated. They endured the greatest hardship throughout their entire +journey, but chiefly in crossing the rivers. Then their adversaries +hemmed them in as they were going along rapidly, in disorder, a few at a +time, as usual on such occasions, and struck them in favorable spots that +they saw exposed. They were shot at, moreover, whenever they encountered +places that were muddy or where the current was strong, and when they +happened to be stuck for a moment or were carried down stream. [-7-] +This the enemy did for three whole days and on the last demoralized them +completely, especially since Sextus with his heavy-armed contingent had +been added to their attacking force. Consequently the Caesarians no longer +mourned such as were perishing but counted them fortunate to escape from +further torment, and in their hopelessness wished that they, too, were +among those already dead, wounded were far more in number than those +died, and being struck from a distance with stones and javelins and +receiving no blow from near at hand their wounds were in many places, +and not as a rule favorably located. These men were themselves in great +distress and they caused the survivors far more trouble than did the +enemy. For if they were carried they usually brought about the death of +the men supporting them, and if they were left behind, they threw the +whole army into dejection by their laments. The detachment would have +perished utterly, had not the foe, though reluctantly, taken their hands +off them. Agrippa, after winning the naval battle, had sailed back +to Lipara, but when he learned that Sextus had fled to Messana and +Demochares had gone off in some other direction, he crossed over to +Sicily, occupied Mylae and Tyndaris, and sent food and soldiers to the +other party. Sextus, thinking that Agrippa himself would come likewise, +became frightened and beat a hasty retreat before his approach, even +abandoning some baggage and supplies in his fortifications. The followers +of Cornificius obtained from these ample support and made their way in +safety to Agrippa. Caesar received them back with praises and gifts, +although he had treated them after the victory of Agrippa in a very +supercilious manner, thinking the latter had finished the war. +Cornificius, indeed, prided himself so much upon his preservation of the +soldiers, that in Rome, whenever he went out of his house to dine, he +always returned home on the back of an elephant. + +[-8-] Caesar after this entered Sicily and Sextus encamped opposite him in +the vicinity of Artemisium. They did not have any great battle at +once, but indulged in a few slight cavalry skirmishes. While they were +stationed there in hostile array Sextus received as an accession Tisienus +Gallus, and Caesar Lepidus with his forces. Lepidus had encountered the +storm which I mentioned, and also Demochares, and he had lost a number +of ships: he did not come to Caesar immediately, but on account of his +reverse or to the end that his colleague should face difficulties by +himself or in the wish to draw Sextus away from him he had made an +assault on Lilybaeum. Gallus was sent thither by Sextus and contended +against him. From there both the contestants, as they accomplished +nothing, went to Artemisium. Gallus proved a source of strength to +Sextus, but Lepidus quarreled with Caesar; he claimed the privilege of +managing everything on equal terms with Caesar as his fellow-commander, +whereas he was employed by him entirely in the capacity of lieutenant: +therefore he inclined to favor Sextus and secretly held communication +with him. Caesar suspected this, but dared not give expression to his +doubts and alienate him openly, nor could he safely conceal his thoughts: +he felt it would look suspicious if he should not consult him at all and +that it would be dangerous to reveal all his plans. Hence he determined +to dispose of the uncertainty as quickly as possible, before there was +any rebellion, though for most reasons there was no need of particular +haste. He had as much food and as much money as Sextus, and therefore +hoped to overthrow him without effort before a great while. Still, when +he had once reached this decision, he himself led out his land force and +marshaled it in front of the camp, while simultaneously Agrippa sailed +close in and lay at anchor. Sextus, whose forces were far inferior to +theirs, would not oppose them on either element. This lasted for several +days. Finally, Pompey became afraid that he might be despised for his +behavior and be deserted by his allies, hence he gave orders for the +ships to weigh anchor; in these he reposed his chief trust. + +[-9-] When the signal was raised and the trumpet gave the first call, +all the boats joined battle near the land and the infantry force of +both alike was marshaled at the very edge of the breakers, so that the +spectacle was a most notable one. The whole sea in that vicinity was full +of ships,--they were so many that they formed a long line,--and the +land just back of it was occupied by the armed men, while that further +removed, but adjoining, was taken up by the rest of the throng that +followed each side. Wherefore, though the struggle seemed to be between +the fighters on the ships alone, in reality the others too participated. +For those on the ships contended more valiantly in order to exhibit +their prowess to those beholding them, and the latter, in spite of being +considerably separated from them, nevertheless in watching the men in +action were themselves in a way concerned in the conflict. The battle was +for a long time an even one, the fighting being precisely similar to +that in previous encounters, and the men on shore followed it with minds +equally intent. They were very hopeful of having the whole war settled by +this engagement: yet they felt encouraged even should that not prove the +case, the one party expecting that if they should conquer then no further +labor of importance would be theirs, and that if they should prevail on +this occasion they would incur no further danger of defeat. Accordingly, +in order that they might keep their eyes fixed upon the action and not +incommode those taking part in it they were silent or employed but little +shouting. Their cries were directed to the combatants or were addressed +by way of invocation to the gods; such as got the upper hand received +praise and such as gave way abuse, and besides uttering many exhortations +to their warriors they shouted not a little against each other, wishing +their own men to hear more easily what was said, and their opponents to +catch familiar words less frequently. + +[-10-] While the two sides were equally matched, these were the +conditions among both parties alike and they even tried to show by +gestures of the whole body that they could see and understand. When, +however, the adherents of Sextus were routed, then in unison and with +one impulse the one side raised the paean and the others a wail of +lamentation. The soldiers as if they too had shared defeat at once +retired to Messana. Caesar took up such of the vanquished as were cast on +shore and went into the sea itself to set on fire all the vessels +that ran aground in shoal water; thus there was no safety for such as +continued to sail, for they would be disabled by Agrippa, nor for such as +tried to land anywhere, for they were destroyed by Caesar, except for +a few that made good their escape to Messana. In this hard position +Demochares on the point of being taken slew himself and Apollophanes who +had his ship unscathed and might have fled went over to Caesar. The same +was done by others,--by Gallus and all the cavalry that followed him +and subsequently by some of the infantry. [-11-] This most of all caused +Sextus to despair of the situation, and he resolved to flee. He took his +daughter and certain other persons, his money and the rest of his chief +valuables, put them by night aboard of such ships as sailed best out of +the number that had been preserved, and departed. No one pursued him, for +his sailing had been secret and Caesar was temporarily in the midst of +great disturbance. + +Lepidus had attacked Messana and on being admitted to the town set fire +to some of it and pillaged other portions. When Caesar on ascertaining +this came up quickly and withstood him, he was alarmed and slipped out +of the city, but encamped on a strong hill and made complaints about his +treatment; he detailed all the slights he had received and demanded +all that had been conceded to him according to their first compact and +further laid claim to Sicily, on the ground that he had helped subdue +it. He sent some men to Caesar with these charges and challenged him +to submit to arbitration: his forces consisted of troops which he had +brought in from Libya and all of those who had been left behind in +Messana; for he had been the first to enter it and had suggested to them +some hopes of a change in the government. [-12-] Caesar made no answer +to it, thinking that he had justice all on his side and in his weapons, +since he was stronger than his rival. He immediately set out, however, +against him with some few followers, expecting to alarm him by his +suddenness,--Lepidus not being of an energetic nature,--and to win over +his soldiers. On account of the fewness of the men accompanying him they +thought when he entered the camp that he was on a peaceful errand. But +as his words were not at all to their liking, they became irritated and +attacked him, even killing some of the men: he himself quickly received +aid and was saved. After this he came against them once more with his +entire army, shut them within their ramparts, and besieged them. This +made them afraid of capture, and without creating any general revolt, +through dread of Lepidus, they individually, a few at a time or one by +one, deserted him and transferred their allegiance. In this way he too +was compelled on his own initiative to array himself in mourning garments +and become a suppliant of Caesar. As a result Lepidus was shorn of all +authority and could not even live in Italy without a guard. Of those who +had been enlisted in the cause of Sextus, members of the senatorial or +equestrian classes were punished, save a few, while in the case of the +rank and file all free citizens were incorporated in the legions of +Caesar, and those that had been slaves were given back to their masters +for vengeance: in case no master could be found for any one of them, he +was impaled. Of the cities some voluntarily opened their gates to the +victor and received pardon, and others resisted him and were disciplined. + +[-13-] While Caesar was thus occupied his soldiers revolted. Being so many +they drew encouragement from their very numbers and when they stopped +to think of their dangers and the hopes that rested on them they became +insatiable in the matter of rewards, and gathering in groups they +demanded whatever each one longed for. When their talk had no +effect,--for Caesar since no enemy longer confronted him made light of +them,--they became clamorous. Setting before him all the hardships they +had endured and bringing to his notice any promise he had ever made them +they uttered many threats besides, and thought to render him willy-nilly +their slave. As they gained nothing this way, they demanded with much +heat and deafening shouts to be relieved at least from further service, +saying they were worn out. This was not because they really wished to be +free from it, for most of them were in their prime, but because they had +an inkling of the coming conflict between Caesar and Antony and for that +reason set a high value upon themselves. And what they could not obtain +by requests they expected they could secure by threatening to abandon +him. Not even this, however, served their purpose. Caesar would not yield +to them, even if he knew for an absolute certainty that the war was going +to occur and clearly understood their wishes. He did not think it proper +for a commander to do anything against his will under compulsion from +the soldiers, because they would be sure, if he did, to want to get the +advantage of him again in some other matter. [-14-] So he pretended that +their request was a fair one and their desire only human and dismissed +first those that had accompanied him in the campaign against Antony at +Mutina, and next, since the rest were troublesome, all of them who had +been ten years in the service. And in order to restrain the remainder he +gave further notice that he would no longer employ any one of them, no +matter how much such a person might wish it. On hearing this they uttered +not another word, but began to exhibit great devotion toward him because +he announced that he would give to the men that had been released,--not +to all, save to the first of them, but to the worthiest,--everything that +he had promised, and would assign them land. They were also influenced by +the fact that he gave to all of them five hundred denarii and to those +who had been victors in the sea-fight a crown of olive besides. After +this he inspired them all personally with great hopes and the centurions +with the idea that he would appoint them to the senatorial bodies in +their native lands. Upon his lieutenants he bestowed various gifts and +upon Agrippa a golden crown adorned with beaks of ships,--a decoration +given to nobody before or since. And it was later ratified by a decree +that as often as any persons celebrated a triumph, wearing[49] the laurel +crown, Agrippa should always wear this trophy of the naval encounter. In +this way Caesar calmed the soldiers temporarily. The money he gave them at +once and the land not much later. And since what was still held by the +government at the time did not suffice, he bought more in addition, +especially considerable from the Campanians dwelling in Capua, since +their city needed a number of settlers. To them he also gave in return +the so-called Julian supply of water, one of their chief sources of pride +at all times, and the Gnosian territory,[50] from which they still gather +harvests. + +That took place later. At the time under discussion he administered the +government in Sicily and through Statilius Taurus won both the Libyas +without a struggle and sent back to Antony a number of ships equivalent +to those lost. [-15-]Meantime conditions in Etruria which had been full +of rebellion regained a state of quiet when the inhabitants heard of his +victory. The people of the capital unanimously bestowed laudations upon +him and images, the right to front seats and an arch surmounted by a +trophy, as well as the privilege of riding into the city on horseback, of +wearing the laurel crown on all occasions, and of holding a banquet with +his wife and children in the precinct of the Capitoline Jupiter on the +anniversary of the day that he had conquered, which was to be a perpetual +day of thanksgiving. This is what they granted him directly after the +victory. The persons to announce it were, first, a soldier stationed in +the city, who on the very day in question had become possessed by some +god and after saying and doing many unusual things finally ran up to +the temple on the Capitol and laid his sword at the feet of Jupiter to +signify that there would be no further use for it; after that came the +rest who had been present at the action and had been sent to Rome by +Caesar. When he arrived himself he assembled them according to ancestral +custom outside the pomerium, gave them an account of what had been done, +and renounced some of the honors voted him. He then remitted the tribute +called for by the registered lists and everything else that was owing the +government since before the period of the civil wars, abolished certain +taxes, and refused to accept the priesthood of Lepidus, which was offered +to him; for it was not lawful to take away the appointment from a man +still alive. At this time they voted him many other distinctions. Some at +once declared that this striking magnanimity of his at this time was due +to the calumnies of Antony and of Lepidus and was intended to lay the +blame of former unjust behavior upon them alone. Others said that since +he was unable in any way to collect the debts he made of the people's +impotency a favor that cost him nothing. In spite of this various talk +that gained currency in different quarters they now resolved that a house +be presented to him from the public treasury. He had made the place on +the Palatine which he had bought to erect a structure public property, +and had consecrated it to Apollo, because a thunderbolt descended upon +it. Hence they voted him the house and protection from any insult by deed +or word. Any one who committed such an offence was to be bound by the +same penalties as prevailed in the case of a tribune. For he received +permission to sit upon the same benches with them. + +[-16-] These were the gifts bestowed upon Caesar by the senate. As for +him, he enrolled among the augurs above the proper number, Valerius +Messala, whom he previously in the proscriptions condemned to death, made +the people of Utica citizens, and gave orders that no one should wear +purple clothing except senators and such as held public office. For it +had been already appropriated by ordinary individuals in a few cases. In +this same year there was no aedile owing to a lack of candidates, and the +praetors and the tribunes performed the aediles' duties: also no praetor +urbanus was appointed for the Feriae, but some of the regular praetors +discharged his functions. Other matters in the city and in the rest of +Italy were under the charge of one Gaius Maecenas, a knight, both then and +for a long time afterward. + +[-17-] Now Sextus after taking ship from Messana was afraid of pursuit +and suspected that there might be some act of treachery on the part of +his retinue. Therefore he gave notice to them that he was going to sail +seaward, but when he had extinguished the light which flagships exhibit +during night voyages for the purpose of having the rest follow close +behind, he coasted along Italy, then went over to Corcyra and from there +came to Cephallenia. Here the remainder of his vessels, which had +by chance been driven from the course by a storm, joined him again. +Accordingly, after calling them together, he took off his general's +uniform and made an address of which the substance was that while they +remained together they could render no lasting aid to one another or +escape detection, but if they scattered they could more easily make +good their escape; and he advised each man to look out individually and +separately for his own safety. The majority were led to give ear to his +arguments and they departed in different directions, while he with the +remainder crossed over to Asia with the intention of going straight to +Antony. When he reached Lesbos and learned that the latter had gone on +a campaign against the Medes and that Caesar and Lepidus had become +estranged, he decided to winter in the country. The Lesbians, indeed, +out of affectionate remembrance for his father were ready to receive and +detain him. He ascertained, however, that Antony had met with a mishap in +Media, and reflected further that Gaius Furnius, temporarily the governor +of Asia, was not friendly to him. Hence he did not remain, but hoping to +succeed to Antony's leadership because a number of men had come to him +from Sicily and still others had rallied around him, some drawn by the +glamour of his father's renown and some who were seeking a livelihood, he +resumed the outfit of a general and continued his preparations to occupy +the opposite shore. [-18-] Meantime Antony had got back again into +friendly territory and on learning what Sextus was doing promised he +would grant him amnesty and favor, if he would lay down his arms. Sextus +wrote back to the effect that he would obey him, but did not do so, +because he felt a contempt for the man, inspired by his recent disasters, +and because he immediately set off for Egypt. Hence he held to his +previous design and entered into negotiations with the Parthians. Antony +ascertained this, but without turning back sent against him the fleet and +Marcus Titius, who had formerly come to him from Sextus and was still +with him. Sextus received information of this move in advance, and in +alarm, since his preparations were not yet complete, abandoned his +anchorage. He went forward then, taking the course which seemed most +likely to afford escape, and reached Nicomedea, where he was overtaken. +At this he opened negotiations with Antony, placing some hope in him +because of the kindness which had been shown him. When the chieftain, +however, refused to enter into a truce with him without first taking +possession of the ships and the rest of his force, Sextus despaired of +safety by sea, put all of his heavier baggage into the ships (which he +thereupon burned) and proceeded inland. Titius and Furnius pursued him, +and overtaking him at Midaeium in Phrygia surrounded him and captured him +alive. When Antony learned this he at first under the influence of anger +sent a despatch that the captive should be put to death, but again not +long after repenting[51] ... that his life should be spared....[51] Now +the bearer of the second letter came in before the first, and later +Titius received the epistle in regard to killing him. Thinking, +therefore, that it was really the second, or else knowing the truth but +not caring to heed it, he followed the order of the arrival of the +two, but not their manifest intention. So Sextus was executed in the +consulship of Lucius Cornificius and one Sextus Pompeius. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +Caesar held a horse-race in honor of the event, and set up for Antony +a chariot in front of the rostra and images in the temple of Concord, +giving him also authority to hold banquets there with his wife and +children, this being similar to the decree that had once been passed +in his own honor. He pretended to be still Antony's friend and was +endeavoring to console him for the disasters inflicted by the Parthians +and in that way to cure any jealousy that might be felt at his own +victory and the decrees which followed it. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-19-]This was what Caesar did: Antony's experience with the barbarians +was as follows. Publius Ventidius heard that Pacorus was gathering an +army and was invading Syria, and became afraid, since the cities had not +grown quiet and the legions were still scattered in winter-quarters, and +so he acted as follows to delay him and make the assembling of an army +a slow process. He knew that a certain prince Channaeus, with whom he +enjoyed an acquaintance, was rather disposed to favor the Parthian cause. +Ventidius, then, honored him as if he had his entire confidence and took +him as an adviser in some matters where he could not himself be injured +and would cause Channaeus to think he possessed his most hidden secrets. +Having reached this point he affected to be afraid that the barbarians +might abandon the place where they customarily crossed the Euphrates near +where the city Zeugma is located, and use some other road farther down +the river. The latter, he said, was in a flat district convenient for the +enemy, whereas the former was hilly and suited _them_ best. He persuaded +the prince to believe this and through the latter deceived Pacorus. The +Parthian leader took the route through the flat district, where Ventidius +kept pretending he hoped he would not go, and as this was longer than the +other it gave the Roman time to assemble his forces. [-20-] So he met +Pacorus when he had advanced to Cyrrestician Syria and conquered him. For +he did not prevent them from crossing the river, and when they had got +across he did not at once attack them, so that they imputed sloth +and weakness to the Romans and therefore marched against the Roman +fortification, although on higher ground, expecting to take it without +resistance. When a sally was suddenly made, the attacking party, being +cavalry, was driven back without effort down the slope. At the foot they +defended themselves valiantly,--the majority of them were in armor,--but +were confused by the unexpectedness of the onslaught and stumbling over +one another were damaged most of all by the heavy-armed men and the +slingers. The latter struck them, from a distance with powerful weapons +and proved a very great annoyance. The fall of Pacorus at this critical +juncture injured them most of all. As soon as they saw that their leader +had perished, a few steadily contended over his body, but when these were +destroyed all the rest gave way. Some of them desired to escape homeward +across the bridge and were not able, being cut off and killed before they +could reach it, and others fled for refuge to Antiochus in Commagene. +Ventidius easily reduced the rest of the places in Syria, whose attitude +had depended on the outcome of the war, by sending the monarch's head +about through the different cities; their doubtful allegiance had been +due to their extreme love for Pacorus because of his justness and +mildness,--a love which had equaled that bestowed by them upon any +previous sovereign. The general himself led an expedition against +Antiochus on the plea that he had not delivered up the suppliants, but +really because of his money, of which he had vast stores. + +[-21-] When he had progressed so far Antony suddenly came upon him, and +so far from being pleased was actually jealous of his having gained some +reputation by his own efforts. Consequently he removed him from his +command and employed him on no other business either at the time or +later, though he obtained thanksgivings for both achievements and a +triumph for his assistant's work. The Romans of the capital voted these +honors to Antony as a result of his prominence and in accordance with +law, because he was commander: but they voted them also to Ventidius, +since they thought that he had paid the Parthians in full through the +death of Pacorus for the disasters that Roman arms had incurred in the +time of Crassus, especially since both events had befallen on the same +day of the corresponding years. And it turned out that Ventidius alone +celebrated the triumph, even as the victory had been his alone, for +Antony met an untimely fate, and he acquired a greater reputation from +this fact and the irony of fortune alike. He himself had once marched in +procession with the other captives at the triumph of Pompeius Strabo, +and now he was the first of the Romans to celebrate a triumph over the +Parthians. + +[-22-] This took place at a later period: at the time mentioned Antony +attacked Antiochus, shut him up in Samosata and proceeded to besiege +him. As he accomplished nothing and the time was spent in vain, and he +suspected that the soldiers felt coldly toward him on account of his +dishonoring Ventidius, he secretly opened negotiations with the foe, +and made fictitious agreements with him so that he might have a fair +appearing reason for withdrawal. In the end Antony got neither hostages +(except two and these of little importance) nor the money which he had +demanded, but he granted Antiochus the death of one Alexander, who had +earlier deserted from him to the Roman side. After doing this he set out +for Italy, and Gaius Sosius received from him the governorship of Syria +and Cilicia. This man subdued the Aradii, who had been besieged up to +this time and had been reduced to hard straits by famine and disease, and +conquered Antigonus in battle after killing the Roman guards that he kept +about him, and reduced him by siege when he took refuge in Jerusalem. The +Jews had committed many outrages upon the Romans,--for the race is very +bitter when aroused to anger,--but they suffered far more themselves. The +first of them were captured fighting for the precinct of their god, and +later the rest on the day even then called the day of Saturn. And so +great still were their religious scruples that the men who had been first +captured along with the temple obtained leave from Sosius when the day of +Saturn came around again, and went up with the remaining population into +the building, where they performed all the customary rites. These people +Antony entrusted to one Herod to govern, and Antigonus he bound to +a cross and flogged,--treatment accorded to no other king by the +Romans,--and subsequently slew him. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +[-23-] This was the course of events in the days of Claudius and +Norbanus: the following year the Romans accomplished nothing worthy +of note in Syria. Antony arrived in Italy and returned again to the +province, consuming the entire season: and Sosius, because he would +be advancing his master's interests and not his own, and furthermore +dreading his jealousy and anger, spent the time in devising means not for +achieving success and drawing down his enmity, but for pleasing him by +remaining quiet. Parthian affairs with no outside interference underwent +a severe revolution from the following cause. Orodes their king succumbed +to age and grief for Pacorus combined, and while still alive delivered +the government to Phraates, the eldest of his remaining children. He +in his discharge of it proved himself the most impious of men. He +treacherously murdered his brothers, sons of the daughter of Antiochus, +because they were his superiors in excellence and (on their mother's +side) in family: when Antiochus chafed under this outrage he killed him +in addition and after that destroyed the noblest men in the remaining +population and kept committing many other abuses. Consequently a number +of the more prominent persons abandoned him and betook themselves to +various places, some going to Antony, among whom was Monaeses. This +happened in the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus. + +[B.C. 36 (_a. u_. 718)] + +[-24-] During the remainder of winter, when Gallus and Nerva were +holding office, Publius Canidius Crassus made a campaign against the +Iberians that inhabit this portion of the world, conquered in battle +their king Pharnabazus and brought them into alliance; with this king he +invaded Albanis, the adjoining country, and, after overcoming the +dwellers there and their king Zober, conciliated them likewise. Antony +was elated at this and furthermore based great hopes upon Monaeses, who +had promised him to lead his army and bring over to him most of Parthia +without conflict. Hence the Roman took up the war against the Parthians +in earnest and besides making various presents to Monaeses gave him three +Roman cities to govern until he should finish the war, and promised him +in addition the Parthian kingdom. While they were so occupied Phraates +became terrified, especially because the Parthians took the flight of +Monaeses very much amiss, and he opened negotiations with him, offering +him anything whatever, and so persuaded him to return. When Antony found +this out, he was naturally angry, but did not kill Monaeses although the +latter was still in his power; for he felt sure he could not win the +confidence of any other of the barbarians, in case he should do such a +thing, and he wanted to try a little trick against them. He accordingly +released Monaeses, apparently supposing the latter was going to bring the +Parthian affairs under his control, and sent envoys with him to Phraates. +Nominally he was arranging for peace on the condition of getting back the +standards and the prisoners captured in the disaster of Crassus, +intending to take the king off his guard while the latter was expecting +a pacific settlement; but in fact he was putting everything in readiness +for war. [-25-] And he went as far as the Euphrates, thinking it was +free of guards. When, however, he found that whole region carefully +guarded, he turned aside from it, but led a campaign against Artavasdes, +the king of the Medes, persuaded thereto by the king of Greater Armenia, +who had the same name and was an enemy of the aforementioned. Just as he +was he at once advanced toward Armenia, and learning there that the Mede +had gone a considerable distance from his own land in the discharge of +his duties as an ally of the Parthian king, he left behind the beasts of +burden and a portion of the army with Oppius Statianus, giving orders +for them to follow, and himself taking the cavalry and the strongest of +the infantry hurried on in the confidence of seizing all his opponent's +strongholds at one blow; he assailed Praaspa, the royal residence, +heaped up mounds and made constant attacks. When the Parthian and the +Medan kings ascertained this, they left him to continue his idle +toil,--for the walls were strong and many were defending them,--but +assailed Statianus off his guard and wearied on the march and slew the +whole detachment except Polemon, king of Pontus, who was then +accompanying the expedition. Him alone they took alive and released in +exchange for ransom. They were able to accomplish this because the +Armenian king was not present at the battle; but though he might have +helped the Romans, as some say, he neither did this nor joined Antony, +but retired to his own country. [-26-] Antony hastened at the first +message sent him by Statianus to go to his assistance, but was too +late. For except corpses he found no one. This outcome caused him fear, +but, inasmuch as he fell in with no barbarian, he suspected that they had +departed in some direction through terror, and this lent him new courage. +Hence when he met them a little later he routed them, for his slingers +were numerous, and as the latter could shoot farther than would the bows +they inflicted severe injury upon the men in armor. However, he did not +kill any remarkable number of them, because the barbarians could ride +fast. So he proceeded again against Praaspa and besieged it, though he +did no great damage to the enemy; for the men inside the walls repulsed +him vigorously, and those outside could not easily be entrapped into a +combat. Thus he lost many of his own men in searching for and bringing +provisions, and many by his own discipline. At first, as long as they +could get their food from somewhere in the neighborhood, they had no +difficulty about either undertaking: they could attend to the siege and +safely secure supplies both at once. When, however, all material at hand +had been used up, and the soldiers were obliged to go to some distance, +it happened to them that if few were sent anywhere, not only did they not +bring anything, but they perished as well; if a number were sent, they +left the wall destitute of besiegers and meantime lost many men and many +engines at the hands of the barbarians, who would make a sortie against +them. [-27-] For this reason Antony gave them all barley instead of wheat +and destroyed every tenth man in some instances: indeed, the entire force +which was supposed to be besieging endured the hardships of persons +besieged. The men within the walls watched carefully for opportunities +to make sallies; and those outside harassed fearfully the Romans that +remained in position as often as they became separated, accomplishing +this by making a sudden charge and wheeling about again in a narrow +space: this force outside did not trouble the food trains while the +latter were en route to the villages, but would fall upon them +unexpectedly when scattered in the homeward march. But since Antony even +under these conditions maintained his place before the city, Phraates, +fearing that in the long run he might do it some harm either by himself +or through securing some allied force, secretly sent some men to open +negotiations with him and persuaded him by pretending that it would be +very easy to secure peace. After this, when men were sent to him by +Antony, he held a conference with them seated upon a golden chair and +twanging his bowstring; he first inveighed against them at length, but +finally promised that he would grant peace, if they would straightway +remove their camp. On hearing this Antony was both alarmed at his +boastfulness and ready to believe that a truce could be secured if he +himself should shift his position: hence he withdrew without destroying +any of his implements of siege but behaved as if in friendly territory. +[-28-] When he had done this and was awaiting the truce, the Medes +burned the engines and scattered the mounds, while the Parthians made +no proposition to him respecting peace but suddenly attacked him and +inflicted very serious damage. He found out that he had been deceived +and did not venture to employ any further envoys, being sure that the +barbarians would not agree to any reasonable terms, and not wishing to +cast the soldiers into dejection by failing to arrange a truce. Therefore +he resolved, since he had once started, to hurry on into Armenia. His +troops took another road, since the one by which they had come they +believed to have been blocked entirely, and on the way their sufferings +were unusually great. They came into unknown regions where they wandered +at random, and furthermore the barbarians seized the passes in advance of +their approach, digging trenches outside of some and building palisades +in front of others, spoiled the water-courses everywhere, and drove +away the flocks. In case they ever got a chance to march through more +favorable territory, the enemy would turn them aside from such places by +false announcements that they had been occupied beforehand, and caused +them to take different roads along which ambuscades had been previously +posted, so that many perished through such mishaps and many of hunger. +[-29-] As a result there were some desertions, and they would all have +gone over, had not the barbarians shot down before the eyes of the others +any who dared to take this course. Consequently the men refrained from +this, and from Fortune's hands obtained the following relief. One day +when they fell into an ambush and were struck with fast-flying arrows, +they suddenly made by joining shields the _testudo_, and rested their +left knees on the ground. The barbarians had never seen anything of the +kind before and thought that they had fallen from their wounds and needed +only one finishing blow; so they threw aside their bows, leaped from +their horses, and drawing their daggers came close to put an end to them. +At this the Romans rose to their feet, spread out the phalanx at a word, +and each one attacked the man nearest and facing him; thus they cut down +great numbers since they were contending armed against an unprotected +foe, men prepared against men off their guard, heavy infantry against +archers, Romans against barbarians. All the survivors immediately retired +and no one followed them for the future. + +[-30-] This _testudo_ and the way in which it is formed deserve a word of +explanation. The baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry +are marshaled in the center of the army. Those infantrymen who use the +oblong, hollow, grooved shields are drawn up around the edges, making a +rectangular figure; and, facing outward with spear-points projecting,[52] +they enclose the rest. The other infantrymen, who have flat shields, form +a compact body in the center and raise their shields above themselves and +above all the rest, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part +of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of formation are +under shelter from missiles. It is so marvelously strong that men can +walk upon it, and when ever they get into a hollow, narrow passage, even +horses and vehicles can be driven over it. Such is the method of +this arrangement, and this shows why it has received the title of +_testudo_,[53]--with reference to its strength and to the excellent +shelter it affords. They use it in two ways: either they approach some +fort to assault it, often even enabling men to scale the very walls, +or where sometimes they are surrounded by archers they all bend +together,--even the horses being taught to kneel and recline,--and +thereby cause the foe to think that they are exhausted; then, when the +others draw near, they suddenly rise, to the latter's great alarm. + +[-31-] The _testudo_, then, is the kind of device just described. As for +Antony, he suffered no further harm from the enemy, but underwent severe +hardships by reason of the cold. It was now winter, and the mountain +districts of Armenia, through which, as the only route open to him, he +was actually thankful to be able to proceed, are never free from snow +and ice. The wounds, of which the men had many, there created especial +discomfort. So many kept perishing and were continually rendered useless +for fighting that he would not allow reports of each individual case, but +forbade any one to bring him any such news; and although he was angry +with the Armenian king for deserting them, and anxious to take vengeance +on him, he nevertheless humiliated himself before the monarch and paid +court to him for the purpose of obtaining provisions and money from him. +Finally, as the soldiers could not hold out to march farther, in the +winter time, too, and were at any rate going to have their hardships for +nothing since he was minded to return to Armenia before a great while, he +flattered the prince tremendously and made him many attractive promises, +to get him to allow the men to winter where they were; he said that in +the spring he would make another campaign against the Parthians. Money +also came to him from Cleopatra, so that to each of the infantrymen was +given one hundred denarii[54] and to the rest a proportionate allowance. +But inasmuch as the amount sent was not enough for them he paid the +remainder from his own funds, and though the expense was his own he gave +Cleopatra the credit of the favor. For he both solicited contributions +from his friends and levied a great deal of money upon the allies. + +[-32-] Following these transactions he departed for Egypt. Now the Romans +at home were not ignorant of anything that had taken place in spite of +the fact that his despatches did not contain the truth; for he concealed +all his unpleasant experiences and some of them he described as just the +opposite, making it appear that he was progressing famously: but, for all +that, rumor reported the truth and Caesar and his circle investigated it +carefully and discussed it. They did not, however, make public their +evidence, but instead sacrificed cattle and held festivals. Since Caesar +at that time was still getting the worst of it against Sextus, the truth +of the facts could not be rendered fitting or opportune. Besides his +above actions Antony assigned positions of government, giving Gaul to +Amyntas, though he had been only the secretary of Deiotarus, and also +adding to his domain Lycaonia with portions of Pamphylia, and bestowing +upon Archelaus Cappadocia after driving out Ariarathes. This Archelaus on +his father's side belonged to those Archelauses who had contended against +the Romans, but on his mother's side was the son of Glaphyra, an hetaera. +It is quite true that for these appointments Antony, who could be very +magnanimous in dealing with the possessions of other people, was somewhat +less ill spoken of among the soldiers. + +But in the matter of Cleopatra he incurred outspoken dislike because +he had taken into his family children of hers,--the elder ones being +Alexander and Cleopatra, twins at a birth, and the younger one Ptolemy, +called also Philadelphus,--and because he had granted to them a great +deal of Arabia, both the district of Malchus and that of the Ituraeans +(for he executed Lysanias, whom he had himself made king over them, +on the charge that he had favored Paccrus) and also a great deal of +Phoenicia and Palestine together with parts of Crete, and Cyrene and +Cyprus. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +[-33-] These are his acts at that time: the following year, when Pompeius +and Cornificius were consuls, he attempted to conduct a campaign against +the Armenian prince; and as he placed no little hope in the Mede, because +the latter was indignant at Phraates owing to not having received from +him much of the spoils or any other honor, and was anxious to punish the +Armenian king for bringing in the Romans, Antony sent Polemon to him and +requested friendship and alliance. And he was so well satisfied with the +business that he both made terms with the Mede and later gave Polemon +Lesser Armenia as a reward for his embassy. First he summoned the +Armenian to Egypt as a friend, intending to seize him there without +effort and make away with him; but when the prince suspected this and did +not obey, he plotted to deceive him in another fashion. He did not openly +evince anger toward him, in order not to alienate him, but to the end +that he might find his foe unprepared set sail from Egypt with the avowed +object of making one more campaign against the Parthians. On the way +Antony learned that Octavia was arriving from Rome, and went no farther, +but returned; this he did in spite of having at once ordered her to go +home and later accepting the gifts which she sent, some of them being +soldiers which she had begged from her brother for this very purpose. + +[-34-] As for him, he became more than ever a slave to the passion and +wiles of Cleopatra. Caesar meantime, since Sextus had perished and affairs +in Libya required settlement, went to Sicily as if intending to take ship +thither, but after delaying there found that the winter made it too late +for crossing. Now the Salassi, Taurisci, Liburni, and Iapudes had not for +a long time been behaving fairly toward the Romans, but had failed to +contribute revenue and sometimes would invade and harm the neighboring +districts. At this time, in view of Octavius's absence, they were openly +in revolt. Consequently he turned back and began his preparations against +them. Some of the men who had been dismissed when they became disorderly, +and had received nothing, wished to serve again: therefore he assigned +them to one camp, in order that being alone they might find it impossible +to corrupt any one else and in case they should wish to show themselves +rebellions might be detected at once. As this did not teach them +moderation any the more, he sent out a few of the eldest of them to +become colonists in Gaul, thinking that thus he would inspire the rest +with hopes and win their devotion. Since even then they continued +audacious, some of them paid the penalty. The rest displayed rage at +this, whereupon he called them together as if for some other purpose, had +the rest of the army surround them, took away their arms, and removed +them from the service. In this way they learned both their own weakness +and Caesar's force of mind, and so they really experienced a change of +heart and after urgent supplications were allowed to enter the service +anew. For Caesar, being in need of soldiers and fearing that Antony would +appropriate them, said that he pardoned them, and he found them most +useful for all tasks. + +[-35-] It was later that they proved their sincerity. At this time he +himself led the campaign against the Iapudes, assigning the rest of the +tribes to others to subdue. Those that were on his side of the mountains, +dwelling not far from the sea, he reduced with comparatively little +trouble, but he overcame those on the heights and beyond them with no +small hardship. They strengthened Metulum, the largest of their cities, +and repulsed many assaults of the Romans, burned to the ground many +engines and laid low Octavius himself as he was trying to step from a +wooden tower upon the circuit of the wall. Later, when he still did not +desist but kept sending for additional forces, they pretended to wish to +negotiate terms and received members of garrisons into their citadel. +Then by night they destroyed all of these and set fire to their houses, +some killing themselves and some their wives and children in addition, so +that nothing whatever remained for Caesar. For not only they but also +such as were captured alive destroyed themselves voluntarily shortly +afterward. + +[-36-] When these had perished and the rest had been subdued without +performing any exploit of note, he made a campaign against the +Pannonians. He had no complaint to bring against them, not having been +wronged by them in any way, but he wanted both to give his soldiers +practice and to support them abroad: for he regarded every demonstration +against a weaker party as just, when it pleased the man whom weapons made +their superior. The Pannonians are settled near Dalmatia close along +the Ister from Noricum to European Moesia and lead the most miserable +existence of mankind. They are not well off in the matter of land or sky, +they cultivate no olives or vines except to the slightest extent, and +these wretched varieties, since the greater part of their days is passed +in the midst of most rigorous winter, but they drink as well as eat +barley and millet. They have been considered very brave, however, during +all periods of which we have cognizance. For they are very quick to anger +and ready to slay, inasmuch as they possess nothing which can give them +a happy life. This I know not by hearsay or reading only, but I have +learned it from actual experience as their governor. For after my term as +ruler in Africa and in Dalmatia,--the latter position my father also held +for a time,--I was appointed[55] to Upper Pannonia, so-called, and hence +my record is founded on exact knowledge of all conditions among them. +Their name is due to the fact that they cut up a kind of toga in a way +peculiar to themselves into strips which they call _panni_, and then +stitch these together into sleeved tunics for themselves. + +They have been named so either for this or for some other reason; but +certain of the Greeks who were ignorant of the truth have spoken of them +as Paeones, which is an old word but does not belong there, but rather +applies to Rhodope, close to the present Macedonia, as far as the sea. +Wherefore I shall call the dwellers in the latter district Paeones, but +the others Pannonians, just as they themselves and as the Romans do. + +[-37-] It was against this people, then, that Caesar at that time +conducted a campaign. At first he did not devastate or plunder at all, +although they abandoned their villages in the plain. He hoped to make +them his subjects of their free will. But when they harassed him as he +advanced to Siscia, he became angry, burned their land, and took all +the booty he could. When he drew near the city the natives for a moment +listened to their rulers and made terms with him and gave hostages, but +afterward shut their gates and accepted a state of siege. They possessed +strong walls and were in general encouraged by the presence of two +navigable rivers. The one named the Colops[56] flows past the very +circuit of the wall and empties into the Savus not far distant: it +has now encircled the entire city, for Tiberius gave it this shape by +constructing a great canal through which it rejoins its ancient course. +At that time between the Colops on the one hand, which flowed on past +the very walls, and the Savus on the other, which flowed at a little +distance, an empty space had been left which had been buttressed with +palisades and ditches. Caesar secured boats made by the allies in that +vicinity, and after towing them through the Ister into the Savus, and +through that stream into the Colops, he assailed the enemy with infantry +and ships together, and had some naval battles on the river. For the +barbarians prepared in turn some boats made of one piece of wood with +which they risked a conflict; and on the river they killed besides many +others Menas the freedman of Sextus, and on the land they vigorously +repulsed the invader until they ascertained that some of their allies had +been ambushed and destroyed. Then in dejection they yielded. When they +had thus been captured the remainder of Pannonian territory was induced +to capitulate. + +[-38-] After this he left Fufius Geminus there with a small force and +himself returned to Rome. The triumph which had been voted to him +he deferred, but granted Octavia and Livia images, the right of +administering their own affairs without a supervisor, and freedom from +fear and inviolability equally with the tribunes. + +[B.C. 34 (_a. u._ 720)] + +In emulation of his father he had started out to lead an expedition into +Britain, and had already advanced into Gaul after the winter in which +Antony for the second time and Lucius Libo were consuls, when some of the +newly captured and Dalmatians with them rose in revolt. Geminus, although +expelled from Siscia, recovered the Pannonians by a few battles; and +Valerius Messala overthrew the Salassi and the rest who had joined them +in rebellion. Against the Dalmatians first Agrippa and then Caesar also +made campaigns. The most of them they subjugated after undergoing many +terrible experiences themselves, such as Caesar's being wounded, barley +being given to some of the soldiers instead of wheat, and others, who had +deserted the standards, being decimated: with the remaining tribes[57] +Statilius Taurus carried on war. + +[-39-] Antony meanwhile resigned his office as soon as appointed, putting +Lucius Sempronius Atratinus in his place; consequently some name the +latter and not the former in the enumeration of the consuls. In the +course of his efforts to take vengeance on the Armenian king with least +trouble to himself, he asked the hand of his daughter, pretending to want +to unite her in marriage to his son Alexander; he sent on this errand one +Quintus Deillius, who had once been a favorite of his, and promised to +give the monarch many gifts. Finally, at the beginning of spring, he came +suddenly into Nicopolis (founded by Pompey) and sent for him, stating +that he wanted to deliberate on and execute with his aid some measures +against the Parthians. The king suspecting the plot did not come, so he +sent Deillius to have another talk with him and marched with undiminished +haste toward Artaxata. In this way, after a long time, partly by +persuading him through friends, and partly by scaring him through his +soldiers, and writing and acting toward him in every way as thoroughly +friendly, he induced him to come into his camp. Thereupon the Roman +arrested him and at first keeping the prince without bonds he led him +around among the garrisons with whom his treasures were deposited, to see +if he could win them without a struggle. He made a pretence of having +arrested him for no other purpose than to collect tribute of the +Armenians that would ensure both his preservation and his sovereignty. +When, however, the guardians of the gold would have nothing to do with +him and the troops under arms chose Artaxes, the eldest of his children, +king in his stead, Antony bound him in silver chains. It seemed +disgraceful, probably, for one who had been a king to be made fast in +iron bonds. [-40-] After this, capturing some settlements peaceably and +some by force, Antony occupied all of Armenia, for Artaxes after fighting +an engagement and being worsted retired to the Parthian prince. After +doing this he betrothed to his son the daughter of the Median king with +the intention of making him still more his friend; then he left the +legions in Armenia and went once more to Egypt, taking the great mass of +booty and the Armenian with his wife and children. He sent them ahead +with the other captives for a triumph held in Alexandria, and himself +drove into the city upon a chariot, and among the other favors he granted +to Cleopatra he brought before her the Armenian and his family in golden +bonds. She was seated in the midst of the populace upon a platform plated +with silver and upon a gilded chair. The barbarians would not be her +suppliants nor do obeisance to her, though much coercion was brought to +bear upon them and hopes were held out to persuade them, but they merely +addressed her by name: this gave them a reputation for spirit, but they +were subject to a great deal of ill usage on account of it. + +[-41-] After this Antony gave an entertainment to the Alexandrians, and +in the assemblage had Cleopatra and her children sit by his side: also in +the course of a public address he enjoined that she be called Queen of +Monarchs, and Ptolemy (whom he named Caesarion) King of Kings. He then +made a different distribution by which he gave them Egypt and Cyprus. +For he declared that one was the wife and the other the true son of the +former Caesar and he made the plea that he was doing this as a mark of +favor to the dead statesman,--his purpose being to cast reproach in this +way upon Octavianus Caesar because he was only an adopted and not a real +son of his. Besides making this assignment to them, he promised to give +to his own children by Cleopatra the following lands,--to Ptolemy Syria +and all the region west of the Euphrates as far as the Hellespont, to +Cleopatra Libya about Cyrene, and to their brother Alexander Armenia and +the rest of the districts across the Euphrates as far as the Indi. The +latter he bestowed as if they were already his. Not only did he say this +in Alexandria, but sent a despatch to Rome, in order that it might secure +ratification also from the people there. Nothing of this, however, was +read in public. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Domitius and Sosius were consuls by that time and being extremely devoted +to him refused to accede to Caesar's urgent demands that they should +publish it to all. Though they prevailed in this matter Caesar won a +victory in turn by not having anything that had been written about the +Armenian king made known to the public. He felt pity for the prince +because he had been secretly in communication with him for the purpose of +injuring Antony, and he grudged the latter his triumph. While Antony was +engaged as described he dared to write to the senate that he wished to +give up his office and put all affairs into the hands of that body and of +the people: he was not really intending to do anything of the kind, but +he desired that under the influence of the hopes he roused they might +either compel Caesar, because on the spot, to give up his arms first, or +begin to hate him, if he would not heed them. + +[-42-] In addition to these events at that time the consuls celebrated +the festival held in honor of Venus Genetrix. During the Feriae, prefects, +boys and beardless youths, appointed by Caesar and sprung from knights +but not from senators, directed ceremonies. Also Aemilius Lepidus Paulus +constructed at his own expense the so-called _Porticus Pauli_ and +dedicated it in his consulship; for he was consul a portion of that +year. And Agrippa restored from his own purse the so-called Marcian +water-supply, which had been cut off by the destruction of the pipes, and +carried it in pipes to many parts of the city. These men, though rivals +in the outlay of their private funds, still dissembled the fact and +behaved sensibly: others who were holding even some most insignificant +office strove to get a triumph voted to themselves, some through Antony +and some through Caesar; and on this pretext they levied large sums upon +foreign nations for gold crowns. + +[B.C. 33 (_a. u._ 721)] + +[-43-] The next year Agrippa agreed to be made aedile and without taking +anything from the public treasury repaired all the public buildings +and all the roads, cleaned out the sewers, and sailed through them +underground into the Tiber. And seeing that in the hippodrome men made +mistakes about the number of turns necessary, he established the system +of dolphins and egg-shaped objects, so that by them the number of times +the track had been circled might be clearly shown. Furthermore he +distributed to all olive oil and salt, and had the baths open free of +charge throughout the year for the use of both men and women. In the +many festivals of all kinds which he gave (so many that the children of +senators could perform the "Troy" equestrian exercise), he also paid +barbers, to the end that no one should be at any expense for their +services. Finally he rained upon the heads of the people in the theatre +tickets that were good for money in one case, clothes in another, and +something else in a third, and he also would place various other large +stocks of goods in the squares and allow the people to scramble for them. +Besides doing this Agrippa drove the astrologers and charlatans from the +city. During these same days a decree was passed that no one belonging to +the senatorial class should be tried for piracy, and so those who were +under any such charge at the time were released and some were given +_carte blanche_ to commit crimes in future. Caesar became consul for the +second time with Lucius Tullus as his colleague, but on the very first +day, as Antony had done, he resigned; and with the sanction of the senate +he introduced some persons from the populace to the rank of patricians. +When a certain Lucius Asellius, who was praetor, on account of a long +sickness wished to lay down his office, he appointed his son in his +stead. And another praetor died on the last day of his term, whereupon +Caesar chose another for the remaining hours. At the decease of Bocchus +he gave his kingdom to no one else, but enrolled it among the Roman +provinces. And since the Dalmatians had been utterly subdued, he erected +from the spoils thus gained the porticoes and secured the collection of +books called the Octavian, after his sister. + +[-44-] Antony meantime had marched as far as the Araxes, presumably to +conduct a campaign against the Parthians, but was satisfied to arrange +terms with the Median monarch. They made a covenant to serve each other +as allies, the one against the Parthians and the other against Caesar, and +to cement the compact they exchanged some soldiers; the Median prince +received a portion of the newly acquired Armenia and Antony his daughter +Iotape, to be united in marriage with Alexander, and the military +standards taken in the battle with Statianus; after this Antony bestowed +upon Polemon, as I have stated, Lesser Armenia, both made Lucius Flavius +consul and removed him (as his colleague), and set out for Ionia and +Greece to wage war against Caesar. The Median at first, by employing the +Romans as allies, conquered the Parthians and Artaxes who came against +him; but as Antony sent for his soldiers and moreover retained those of +the prince, the latter was in turn defeated and captured, and so Armenia +was lost together with Media. + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY 50 + +The following is contained in the Fiftieth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar and Antony commenced hostilities against each other (chapters +1-14). + +How Caesar conquered Antony at Actium (chapters 15-35). + +Duration of time two years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Cn. Domitius L.F.Cn.N. Ahenobarbus, C. Sosius C.F. T.N. (B.C. 32 = a. u. +722.) + +Caesar (III), M. Valerius M.F. Messala Corvinus. (B.C. 31 = a. u. 723.) + + +(_BOOK 50, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[-1-] The Roman people had been robbed of democracy but had not become +definitely a monarchy: Antony and Caesar still controlled affairs on an +equal footing, had divided the management of most of them, and nominally +considered that the rest belonged to them in common, though in reality +they endeavored to appropriate each interest as fast as either was able +to gain any advantage over the other. Sextus had now perished, the +Armenian king had been captured, the parties hostile to Caesar were +silent, the Parthians showed no signs of restlessness, and so after this +they turned openly against each other and the people became entirely +enslaved. The causes for the war, or the pretexts, were as follows. +Antony charged against Caesar that he had removed Lepidus from his +position, and had taken possession of his territory and the troops +of both him and Sextus, which ought to have been common property. He +demanded the half of these as well as the half of the soldiers that had +been levied in the parts of Italy which belonged to both of them. Caesar's +charge against him was that he was holding Egypt and other countries that +he had not drawn by lot, had killed Sextus (whom he would willingly have +spared, he said), and by deceiving and binding the Armenian king had +caused much ill repute to attach to the Roman people. He, too, demanded +half of the spoils, and above all reproached him with Cleopatra and the +children of hers which he had seen fit to regard as his own, the gifts +bestowed upon them, and particularly that he called the boy such a name +as Caesarion and placed him in the family of Caesar. [-2-] These were their +mutual charges; and to a certain extent mutual rejoinders were made, some +sent by letter to each other and others given to the public, by Caesar +orally, by Antony in writing. On this pretext also they kept constantly +sending envoys back and forth, wishing to appear as far as possible +justified in the complaints they made and to reconnoitre each other's +position at the same time. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Meanwhile they were collecting money avowedly for some different purpose +and were making all other preparations for war as if against other +persons, until the time that Gnaeus Domitius and Gaius Sosius, both +belonging to Antony's party, became consuls. Then they made no further +concealment, but admitted their alienation outright. It happened in the +following way. + +Domitius did not openly attempt any radical measures, since he had had +the experience of many calamities. Sosius, however, had never experienced +such evils, and so on the very first day of the month he spoke at length +in praise of Antony and inveighed forcibly against Caesar. Indeed, he +would have immediately introduced measures against the latter, had not +Nonius Balbus, a tribune, prevented it. Caesar had suspected what he +was going to do and wished neither to permit it to come to pass nor by +offering opposition to appear to be commencing war; hence he did not +enter the senate at this time nor even live in the city at all, but +invented some excuse which took him out of town. He was not only +influenced by the above considerations but desired to deliberate at +leisure according to the reports brought to him and decide by mature +reflection upon the proper course. Later he returned and convened the +senate; he was surrounded by a guard of soldiers and friends who had +daggers concealed, and sitting between the consuls upon his chair of +state he spoke at length, and calmly, from where he sat regarding his own +position, and brought many accusations against Sosius and Antony. When +neither of the consuls themselves nor any one else ventured to utter a +word, he bade them come together again on a specified day, giving them to +understand that he would prove by certain documents that Antony was in +the wrong. The consuls did not dare to reply to him and could not endure +to be silent, and therefore secretly left the city before the time came +for them to appear again; after that they took their way to Antony, +followed by not a few of the senators who were left. Caesar on learning +this declared, to prevent its appearing that he had been abandoned by +them as a result of some injustice, that he had sent them out voluntarily +and that he granted the rest who so wished permission to depart unarmed +to Antony. + +[-3-] This action of theirs just mentioned was counterbalanced by the +arrival of others who had fled from Antony to Caesar--among them Titius +and Plancus, though they were honored by Antony among the foremost and +knew all his secrets. Their desertion was due to some friction between +themselves and the Roman leader, or perhaps they were disgusted in the +matter of Cleopatra: at any rate they left soon after the consuls had +taken the final step and Caesar in the latter's absence had convened the +senate and read and spoken all that he wished, upon hearing of which +Antony assembled a kind of senate from the ranks of his followers, and +after considerable talk on both sides of the question took up the war and +renounced his connection with Octavia. Caesar was very glad to receive the +pair and learned from them about Antony's condition, what he was doing, +what he had in mind, what was written in his will, and the name of the +man that had it; for they had taken part in sealing it. He became still +more violently enraged from this cause and did not shrink from searching +for the document, seizing it, and then carrying it into the senate and +subsequently the assembly, and reading it. The clauses contained in it +were of such a nature that his most lawless behavior brought upon him +no reproach from the citizens. The writer had asseverated the fact that +Caesarion was truly sprung from Caesar, had given some enormous presents to +his children by the Egyptian queen, who were being reared by him, and had +ordered that his body be buried in Alexandria and by her side. + +[-4-] This made the Romans in their indignation believe that the other +reports circulated were also true,--viz., that if Antony should prevail, +he would bestow their city upon Cleopatra and transfer the seat of power +to Egypt. And thereat they became so angry that all, not only such as +disliked him or were indifferent to the two men, censured him, but even +his most intimate friends did so severely. For in consternation at what +was read and eager to relieve themselves of the suspicion felt toward +them by Caesar, they said the same as the rest. They deprived him of the +consulship, to which he had been previously elected, and of all his +remaining authority. They did not declare him an enemy in so many words, +because they feared its effect on his adherents, since it would be +necessary that they also be held in the position of enemies in case they +should not abandon him; but by action they showed their attitude as +plainly as possible. For they voted to the men arrayed on his side pardon +and praise if they would abandon him, and declared war outright upon +Cleopatra, put on their military cloaks as though he were close at hand, +and went to the temple of Bellona where they performed through Caesar as +_fetialis_ all the rites preliminary to war in the customary fashion. +These were stated to refer to Cleopatra, but their real bearing was on +Antony. [-5-] She had enslaved him so absolutely that she persuaded him +to act as gymnasiarch[58] to the Alexandrians; and she was saluted by him +as "queen" and "mistress," had Roman soldiers in her body-guard, and all +of these inscribed her name upon their shields. She used to frequent the +market-place with him, joined him in the management of festivals, in the +hearing of lawsuits, and in riding; and in the cities she was actually +carried in a chair, while Antony accompanied her on foot along with the +eunuchs. He also termed his head-quarters "the palace", sometimes wore an +Oriental dagger at his belt, dressed in a manner not in accordance with +the customs of his native land, and let himself be seen even in public +upon a gilded couch and a chair of similar appearance. He joined her in +sitting for paintings and statues, he representing Osiris and Dionysus, +and she Selene and Isis. This more than all made him seem to have become +crazed by her through some enchantment. She so charmed and enthralled +not only him but all the rest who had any influence with him that she +conceived the hope of ruling the Romans, and made her greatest vow, +whenever she took any oath, that of dispensing justice on the Capitol. + +[-6-] This was the reason that they voted for war against Cleopatra, but +they made no such declaration against Antony, knowing well that he would +be made hostile in any case, for he was certainly not going to betray +her and espouse Caesar's cause. And they wished to have this additional +reproach to heap upon him, that he had voluntarily taken up war in behalf +of the Egyptian woman against his native country, though no ill treatment +had been accorded him personally at home. + +Now the men of fighting age were being rapidly assembled on both sides, +money was being collected from all quarters, and all warlike equipment +was being gathered with speed. The entire armament distinctly surpassed +in size anything previous. All the following nations coöperated with one +side or the other in this war. Caesar had Italy--he attached to his cause +even all those who had been placed in colonies by Antony, partly by +frightening them on account of their small numbers and partly by +conferring benefits; among other things that he did was to settle again +as an act of his own the men who inhabited Bononia, so that they might +seem to be his colonists. His allies, then, were Italy, Gaul, Spain, +Illyricum, the Libyans,--both those who had long since accepted Roman +sway (except those about Cyrene), and those that had belonged to Bogud +and Bocchus,--Sardinia, Sicily, and the rest of the islands adjacent to +the aforementioned divisions of the mainland. On Antony's side were the +regions obeying Rome in continental Asia, the regions of Thrace, Greece, +Macedonia, the Egyptians, the Cyrenaeans together with the surrounding +country, the islanders dwelling near them, and practically all the +princes and potentates who were neighbors to that part of the Roman +empire then under his control,--some taking the field themselves and +others being represented by troops. And so enthusiastic were the outside +contingents on both sides that they confirmed by oath their alliance with +each man. + +[-7-] Such was the strength of the contestants. Antony took an oath to +his own soldiers that he would fight without quarter and further promised +that within two months after his victory he would give up his entire +power and commit it to the senate and the people: some of them with +difficulty persuaded him to do so only when six months had elapsed, so +that he might be able to settle matters leisurely. And he, however far +he was from seriously contemplating such an act, yet made the offer to +strengthen the belief that he was certainly and without fail going to +conquer. He saw that his own force was much superior in numbers and +hoped to weaken that of his opponent by bribes. He sent gold in every +direction, most of all into Italy, and especially to Rome; and he tempted +his opponents individually, trying to win followers. As a result Caesar +kept the more vigilant watch and gave money to his soldiers. + +[-8-] Such was the vigor and the equipment of the two; and meantime all +sorts of stories were circulated by men, and from the gods also there +were many plain indications. An ape entered the temple of Ceres during +a certain service, and tumbled about everything in the building. An owl +flew first upon the temple of Concord and then upon practically all the +other holiest buildings, and finally after being driven away from every +other spot settled upon the temple of the Genius Populi and was not +caught, and did not depart until late in the day. The chariot of Jupiter +was demolished in the Roman hippodrome, and for many days a flash would +rise over the sea toward Greece and dart up into the firmament. Many +unfortunate accidents also were caused by storm: a trophy standing upon +the Aventine fell, a statue of Victory was dislodged from the back wall +of the theatre, and the wooden bridge was broken down completely. Many +objects were destroyed by fire, and moreover there was a fierce volcanic +discharge from Aetna which damaged cities and fields. On seeing and +hearing these things the Romans remembered also about the serpent, +because he too had doubtless indicated something about the situation +confronting them. A little before this a great two-headed serpent, +eighty-five feet long, had suddenly appeared in Etruria and after doing +much damage had been killed by lightning. This had a bearing upon all of +them. The chief force engaged on both sides alike was made up of Romans, +and many were destined at that juncture to perish in each army, and then +all of the survivors to become the property of the victor. Antony was +given omens of defeat beforehand by the children in Rome; without any +one's having suggested it they formed two parties, of which one called +itself the Antonians and the other the Caesarians, and they fought +with each other for two days, when those that bore Antony's name were +defeated. His death was portended by what happened to one of his images +set up as an offering in the temple of Jupiter at Albanum; although it +was stone it sent forth streams of blood. + +[-9-] All alike were excited over these events, yet in that year +nothing further took place. Caesar was busied settling matters in Italy, +especially when he discovered the presence of money sent by Antony, and +so could not go to the front before winter. His rival started out with +the intention of carrying the war into Italy before they suspected his +movements, but when he came to Corcyra and ascertained that the advance +guard of ships sent to reconnoitre his position was hiding in the +vicinity of the mountains of Ceraunia, he conceived the idea that Caesar +himself with all his fleet had arrived; hence he would proceed no +farther. Instead, he sailed back to the Peloponnesus, the season being +already late autumn, and passed the winter at Patrae, distributing the +soldiers in every direction to the end that they might keep guard over +the various districts and secure more easily an abundance of provisions. +Meanwhile volunteers from each party went over to both sides, senators +as well as others, and Lucius Messius was caught as a spy by Caesar. He +released the man in spite of his being one of those previously captured +at Perusia, but first showed him all his power. To Antony Caesar sent +a letter, bidding him either withdraw from the sea a day's journey on +horseback, and grant him the free privilege of coming to him by boat on +condition that they should meet within five days, or else to cross over +to Italy himself on the same terms. Antony made a great deal of fun of +him and said: "Who will be our arbitrator, if the compact is transgressed +in any way?" And Caesar did not expect that his demands would receive +compliance, but hoped to inspire his own soldiers with courage and his +opponents with terror by this act. + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u._ 723)] + +[-10-] As consuls for the next year after this Caesar and Antony had been +appointed at the time when they settled the offices for eight years at +once[59]; and this was the last year of the period: and as Antony had +been deposed,--a fact which I stated,[60]--Valerius Messala, who had once +been proscribed by them,[61] became consul with Caesar. About this time a +madman rushed into the theatre at one of the festivals, seized the crown +of the former Caesar and put it on, whereupon he was torn to pieces by the +bystanders. A wolf that darted into the temple of Fortune was caught and +killed, and at the hippodrome during the very contest of the horses a dog +overpowered and devoured another dog. Fire also consumed a considerable +portion of the hippodrome, the temple of Ceres, another shrine dedicated +to Spes, besides a large number of other structures. The freedmen were +thought to have caused this. All of them who were in Italy and possessed +property worth five myriads[62] or more had been ordered to contribute +an eighth of it. The result was numerous riots, murders, and firing of +buildings on their part, and they were not brought to order until they +were subdued by armed force. After this the freedmen who held any land in +Italy grew frightened and kept quiet: they had been ordered, too, to give +a quarter of their annual income, and though they were on the point of +rebelling against this extortion, they were not bold enough after the +demonstration mentioned to show further insubordination, but reluctantly +made their contribution without disputing the matter. Therefore it was +believed that the fire was due to a plot originated by the freedmen: yet +this did not prevent it from being recorded among the great portents, +because of the number of buildings burned. + +[-11-] Disregarding such omens as had appeared to them they neither felt +fear nor displayed less hostility but spent the winter in employing spies +and annoying each other. Caesar had set sail from Brundusium and proceeded +as far as Corcyra, intending to attack the ships near Actium while off +their guard, but he encountered rough weather and received damage which +caused him to withdraw. When spring came, Antony made no move at any +point: the crews that manned the triremes were made up of all kinds of +nations, and as they had been wintering at a distance from him they had +secured no practice and had been diminished in numbers by disease and +desertions; Agrippa also had seized Methone by storm, had killed Bogud +there, was watching for merchant vessels to come to land, and was making +descents from time to time on various parts of Greece, which caused +Antony extreme disturbance. Caesar in turn was encouraged by this and +wished to employ as soon as possible the energy of the army, which was +trained to a fine point, and to carry on the war in Greece near his +rival's supporters rather than in Italy near Rome. Therefore he collected +all his soldiers who were of any value, and all of the men of influence, +both senators and knights, at Brundusium. He wished to have the first to +coöperate with him and to keep the second from being alone and acting in +any revolutionary way, but chiefly he wished to show mankind that the +largest and strongest element among the Romans was in accord with him. +Therefore he ordered all to bring with them a stated number of servants +and that, except the soldiers, they should also carry food for +themselves; after this with the entire array he crossed the Ionian Gulf. +[-12-] He was leading them not to the Peloponnesus or against Antony, but +to Actium, where the greater part of his rival's fleet was at anchor, to +see if he could gain possession of it, willing or unwilling, in advance. +Consequently he disembarked the cavalry under the shadow of the Ceraunian +mountains and sent them to the point mentioned, while he himself with his +ships seized Corcyra, deserted by the garrisons within it, and came to +a stop in the so-called Sweet Harbor: it is so named because it is made +sweet by the river emptying into it. There he established a naval station +and from there he set out to sail to Actium. No one came out to meet him +or would hold parley with him, though he urged them to do one of two +things,--come to an agreement or come into battle. But the first +alternative they would not accept through distrust, nor the second, +through fear. He then occupied the site where Nicopolis now stands and +took up a position on a high piece of ground there from which there is a +view over all the outer sea near Paxa, over the inner Ambracian Gulf, and +the intermediary water (on which are the harbors near Nicopolis) alike. +This spot he strengthened and constructed walls from it down to Comarus, +the outer harbor, so that he commanded Actium with his camp and his +fleet, by land and sea. I have heard the report that he transferred +triremes from the outer sea to the gulf through the fortifications, using +newly flayed hides smeared with olive oil instead of hauling-engines. +However, I can find no exploit recorded of these ships in the gulf and +therefore I am unable to trust the tradition; for it was certainly no +small task to draw triremes on hides over a long and uneven tract of +land. Still, it is said to have been performed. Actium is a place sacred +to Apollo and is located in front of the mouth of the narrows leading +into the Ambracian Gulf opposite the harbors at Nicopolis. These narrows +are of uniform breadth, though closely confined, for a long distance, and +both they and all the waters outside the entrance are fit for ships to +come to anchor in and lie in wait. This space the adherents of Antony had +occupied in advance, had built towers on each side of the mouth, and had +taken up the intervening space with ships so that they could both sail +out and retreat with security. The men were bivouacked on the farther +side of the narrows, along by the sanctuary, on an extensive level area +quite suitable for either battle or encampment. The nature of the place +made them far more subject to disease both in winter and in summer. + +[-13-] As soon as Antony ascertained Caesar's arrival, he did not delay, +but hastened to Actium with his followers. He reached there in a short +time but did not at once risk an encounter, though Caesar was constantly +marshaling his infantry in front of the camp, often making dashes at them +with his ships and beaching their transports; for his object was to join +battle with only such as were present, before Antony's entire command +assembled. For this very reason the latter was unwilling to risk his all, +and he had recourse for several days to trials and skirmishes until he +had gathered his legions. With these, especially since Caesar no longer +displayed an equal readiness to assail them, he crossed the narrows and +encamped not far from him, after which he sent cavalry around the gulf +and besieged him on both sides. Caesar himself remained quiet, and did not +take any risks which he could avoid, but sent a detachment into Greece +and Macedonia with the intention of drawing Antony off in that direction. +While they were so engaged Agrippa sailed suddenly to Leucas and captured +the vessels there, took Patrae by conquering Quintus Nasidius in a fight +at sea, and later also reduced Corinth. Following upon these events +Marcus Titius and Statilius Taurus made a sudden charge upon Antony's +cavalry, which they defeated, and won over Philadelphus, king of +Paphlagonia. Meantime, also, Gnaeus Domitius, having some grievance +against Cleopatra, transferred his allegiance and proved, indeed, of no +service to Caesar (for he fell sick and died not long after), but still +created the impression that his desertion was due to despair of the +success of the party on whose side he was ranged. Many others followed +his example, so that Antony was no longer equally imbued with courage but +was suspicious of everybody. It was after this that he tortured and +put to death Iamblichus, king of some of the Arabians, and others, and +delivered Quintus Postumius, a senator, to his servants to be placed on +the rack. Finally he became afraid that Quintus Deillius and Amyntas the +Gaul, who happened to have been sent into Macedonia and Thrace after +mercenaries, would espouse Caesar's cause, and he started to overtake +them, pretending that he wished to render them assistance in case any +hostile force should attack. And meantime a battle at sea occurred. +[-14-] Lucius Tarius,[63] with a few ships was anchored opposite Sosius, +and the latter hoped to achieve a notable success by attacking him before +Agrippa, to whom the whole fleet had been entrusted, should arrive. +Accordingly, after waiting for a thick mist, so that Tarius should not +become aware of their numbers beforehand and flee, he set sail suddenly +just before dawn and immediately at the first assault routed his opponent +and pursued him, but failed to capture him; for Agrippa by chance met +Sosius on the way, so that he not only gained nothing from the victory +but perished[64] together with Tarcondimotus and many others. + +Antony, because of his conflict and because he himself on his return had +been defeated in a cavalry battle by Caesar's advance guard, no longer +thought it well to encamp in two different places, but during the night +left the redoubt which was near his opponents and retired to the other +side of the narrows, where the larger part of his army had bivouacked. +When provisions also began to fail him because he was cut off from +foraging, he held a council to deliberate whether they should remain in +position and hazard an encounter or transfer their post somewhere else +and make the war a long one. [-15-] After several had given opinions +the advice of Cleopatra prevailed,--that the choicest sites be given in +possession of garrisons and that the rest of the force weigh anchor with +them for Egypt. She held this view as a result of being disturbed by +omens. Swallows had built their nests about her tent and on the flagship +on which she sailed, and milk and blood together had dripped from +beeswax. Their images with the forms of gods which the Athenians had +placed on their Acropolis were hurled down by thunderbolts into the +Theatre. This and the consequent dejection and listlessness of the army +began to alarm Cleopatra and she filled Antony with fears. They did not +wish, however, to sail out either secretly or openly as fugitives, for +fear they should strike terror to the hearts of their allies, but rather +with preparations made for a naval battle, in order that they might +equally well force their way through in case there should be any +resistance. Therefore they chose out first the best of the vessels, since +the sailors had become fewer by death and desertion, and burned the rest; +next they secretly put all their most prized valuables aboard of them by +night. When the boats were ready, Antony gathered his soldiers and spoke +as follows:-- + +[-16-] "All provisions that I was required to make for the war have +received due attention, fellow-soldiers, in advance. First, there is your +immense throng, all the chosen flower of our dependents and allies; and +to such a degree are you masters of every form of combat recognized among +us that alone by yourselves you are formidable to adversaries. Then +again, you yourselves can see how large and how fine a fleet we have and +how many fine hoplites, cavalry, slingers, peltasts, archers, mounted +archers. Most of these classes are not found at all on the other side, +and so far as they are found they are much fewer and weaker than +ours. The funds of the enemy are small, though obtained by forced +contributions, and can not last long, while they have rendered the +contributors better disposed toward us than toward the men who took them; +hence the population is in no way favorable to the oppressors and is +moreover on the point of open revolt. Our treasury, filled from abundant +resources, has harmed no one and will aid all of us. [-17-] In addition +to these considerations so numerous and of such great importance I am +on general principles disinclined to make any bombastic statement +about myself. Yet since this too is one of the factors contributing +to supremacy in war and is believed among all men to be of greatest +importance,--I mean that men who are to fight well must secure an +excellent general--necessity itself has rendered quite indispensable +some remarks about myself, their purpose being to enable you to realize +still more the fact that not only are you such soldiers that you could +conquer even without a good leader, but I am such a leader that I can +win even with poor soldiers. I am at that age when persons attain their +greatest perfection both of body and intellect and suffer deterioration +neither through the rashness of youth nor the feebleness of old age, but +are strongest because in a condition half-way between the two. Moreover I +possess such a nature and such a training that I can with greatest ease +discern what requires to be done and make it known. Experience, which +causes even the ignorant and the uneducated to appear to be of some +value, I have been acquiring through my whole political and whole +military career. From boyhood till now I have been continually exercised +in similar pursuits; I have been much ruled and done much ruling, from +which I have learned on the one hand what kind of orders and of what +magnitude must be issued, and on the other how far and in what way one +must render obedience. I have been subject to terror, to confidence: as a +result I have made it my custom neither to entertain any fear too readily +nor to venture on any hazard too heedlessly. I have met with good +fortune, I have met with failure: consequently I find it possible to +avoid both despair and excess of pride. + +[-18-] "I speak to you who know these facts and make you who hear them +my witnesses not in the intention of uttering idle boasts about +myself,--your consciousness of the truth being sufficient glory for +me,--but to the end that you may in this way bring home to yourselves +how much better we are equipped than our opponents. For, while they are +inferior to us in quantity both of soldiers and of money and in diversity +of equipment, in no one respect are they so strikingly lacking as in the +age and inexperience of their general. About him I need in general make +no exact or detailed statement, but to sum up I will say this, which you +all understand, that he is a veritable weakling in body and has never +himself been victor in any important battle either on land or on the sea. +Indeed, at Phillipi and in the same conflict I won the day, whereas he +was defeated. + +"To this degree do we differ from each other, and usually victories fall +to the better equipped. And if they have any strength at all, you would +find it to exist in their heavy-armed force on land; as for their ships, +they will not so much as be able to sail out against us. You yourselves +can of course see the size and stoutness of our vessels, which are such +that if the enemy's were equivalent to them in number, yet because of +these advantages the foe could do no damage either by charges from the +side or by charges from the front. For first the thickness of the timbers +and second the very height of the ships would certainly check them, even +if there were no one on board to defend them. Where will any one find a +chance to assail ships which carry so many archers and slingers striking +assailants, moreover, from the towers up aloft? If any one should +approach, how could he fail to get sunk by the very number of the oars +or how could he fail to be plunged under water when shot at by all the +warriors on the decks and in the towers? [-19-] Do not think that they +have any nautical ability because Agrippa won a sea-fight off Sicily: +they contended not against Sextus but against his slaves, not against a +like equipment with ours but against one far inferior. If, again, any one +makes much of their good fortune in that combat, he is bound to take into +equal consideration the defeat which Caesar himself suffered at the hands +of Sextus. By this comparison he will find that conditions are not the +same, but that all our advantages are more numerous and greater than +theirs. And, in general, how large a part does Sicily form of the whole +empire and how large a fraction of our equipment did the troops of Sextus +possess, that any one should properly fear Caesar's armament, which is +precisely the same as before and has grown neither larger nor better, +just on account of his good luck, instead of taking courage from the +defeat that he endured? Reflecting on this fact I have not cared to +risk our first engagement with the infantry, where they appear to have +strength in a way, in order that no one of you should be liable to +discouragement as a result of any failure in that department: instead, +I have chosen to begin with the ships where we are strongest and have a +vast superiority over our antagonists, to the end that after a victory +with these we may despise the infantry. You know well that the whole +outcome of the war depends on each side on our fleets. If we come out +victorious in this engagement, we shall suffer no harm from any of the +rest but cut them off on a kind of islet,--for all surrounding regions +are in our possession,--and without effort subdue them, if in no other +way, by hunger. + +[-20-] "Now I do not think that further words are necessary to tell you +that we shall be struggling not for small or unimportant interests, but +it will prove true that if you are zealous you will obtain the greatest +rewards, but if careless will suffer the most frightful misfortunes. +What would they not do to us, if they should prevail, when they killed +practically all the followers of Sextus that had been of any prominence, +and even destroyed many followers of Lepidus that coöperated with Caesar's +party? But why should I mention this, seeing that they have removed +Lepidus, who was guilty of no wrong and was further their ally, from +all his powers as general and keep him under guard as if he were some +captive? They have further hounded for money all the freedmen in Italy +and likewise other men who possess any land to such an extent as to +force some of them to take up arms, with the consequence that not a few +perished. Is it possible that those who spared not their allies will +spare us? Will those who seized for funds the property of their own +adherents refrain from our wealth? Will they show humanity as victors who +before victory have committed every conceivable outrage? Not to spend +time in speaking of the concerns of other people, I will enumerate the +audacity that they have displayed toward us who stand here. Who was +ignorant that I was chosen a partner and colleague of Caesar and received +charge of the management of public affairs equally with him, received +similar honors and offices, and have been a great while now in possession +of them? Yet of all of them, so far as is in his power, I have been +deprived; I have become a private citizen instead of a leader, an outcast +from the franchise instead of consul, and this not by the action of the +people or the senate but by his own act and that of his adherents, who do +not comprehend that they are preparing a sovereign for themselves first +of all. For how could one speak of enactments of people and senate, when +the consuls and some others fled straightway from the city, in order +to escape casting any such vote? How will that man spare either you or +anybody else, when he dared while I was alive, in possession of such +great power, a victor over the Armenians, to seek for my will, take it by +violence from those who had received it, open it, and read it publicly? +And how will he manifest any humanity to others with whom he has no +connection, when he has shown himself such a man toward me,--his friend, +his table companion, his relative? + +[-21-] "Now in case we are to draw any inferences from his decrees, he +threatens you openly, having made the majority of you enemies outright, +but against me personally no such declaration has been made, though he is +at war with me and is already acting in every way like one who has not +only conquered me but murdered me. Hence, when he treated me in such a +way whom he pretends not yet even at this day to regard as an enemy, he +will surely not keep his hands off you, with whom he clearly admits that +he is at odds. What does it signify that he is threatening us all alike +with arms but in his decree declares he is at war with some and not +with others? It is not, by Jupiter, with the intention of making any +distinction between us, or treating one class in one way and another in +another, if he prevails, but it is in order to set us at variance and in +collision and thus render us weaker. He is not unaware that while we are +in accord and doing everything as one body he can never in any way get +the upper hand, but if we quarrel, and some choose one policy and the +rest another, he may perhaps prevail. [-22-] It is for this reason that +he assumes this kind of attitude toward us. I and the Romans that cleave +to me foresee the danger, although so far as the decrees are concerned we +enjoy a kind of amnesty: we comprehend his plot and neither abandon you +nor look personally to our own advantage. In like manner you, too, whom +he does not even himself deny that he regards as hostile, yes, most +hostile, ought to bear in mind all these facts, and embracing common +dangers and common hopes coöperate in every way and show enthusiasm to an +equal degree in our enterprise and set over against each other carefully +first what we shall suffer (as I said), if defeated, and what we shall +gain, if victorious. For it is a great thing for us to escape being +worsted and so enduring any form of insult or rapacity, but greatest of +all to conquer and effect whatever any one of us may wish. On the other +hand, it is most disgraceful for us, who are so many and so valiant, who +have weapons and money and ships and horses, to choose the worse instead +of the better course, and when we might afford the other party liberty +to prefer to join them in slavery. Our aims are so utterly opposed that, +whereas he desires to reign as sovereign over you, I wish to free you and +them together, and this I have confirmed by oath. Therefore as men who +are to struggle for both sides alike and to win blessings that shall be +common to all, let us labor, fellow-soldiers, to prevail at the present +juncture and to gain happiness for all time." + +[-23-] After delivering a speech of this sort Antony put all his most +prominent associates aboard the boats, to prevent them from concerting +revolutionary measures when they got by themselves, as Deillius and some +other deserters had done; he also embarked great numbers of archers, +slingers, and hoplites. And since the defeat of Sextus had been largely +due to the size of Caesar's ships and the number of his marines, Antony +had equipped his vessels to surpass greatly those of his opponents, for +he had had constructed only a few triremes, but the rest were ships with +four banks and with ten banks, and represented all the remaining degrees +of capacity: upon these he had built lofty towers, and he had put aboard +a crowd of men who could fight from behind walls, as it were. Caesar for +his part was observing their equipment and making his preparations; when +he learned from Deillius and others their intention he himself assembled +the army and spoke to this effect:-- + +[-24-] "Having discovered, fellow-soldiers, both from what I have learned +from hearsay and from what I have tested by experience, that the most and +greatest military enterprises, or, indeed, I might say human affairs in +general, turn out in favor of those persons who both think and act in a +more just and pious manner, I am keeping this strictly in mind myself and +I advise you to consider it. No matter how numerous and mighty the force +we possess, no matter if it be such that even a man who chose the less +just of two courses might expect to win with its aid, nevertheless I base +my confidence far more upon the causes underlying the war than upon this +factor. For that we who are Romans and lords of the greatest and best +portion of the world should be despised and trodden under foot of an +Egyptian woman is unworthy of our fathers who overthrew Pyrrhus, Philip, +Perseus, Antiochus, who uprooted the Numantini and the Carthaginians, who +cut down the Cimbri and the Ambrones; it is unworthy also of ourselves +who have subjugated the Gauls, have subdued the Pannonians, have advanced +as far as the Ister, have crossed the Rhine, have gone over into Britain. +How could all those who have had a hand in the exploits mentioned fail +to grieve vehemently, if they should learn that we had succumbed to an +accursed woman? Should we not be guilty of a gross deviation from right +conduct, if, after surpassing all men everywhere in valor, we should then +bear humbly the insults of this throng, who, O Hercules, are Alexandrians +and Egyptians (what worse or what truer name could one apply to them?), +who serve reptiles and other creatures as gods, who embalm their bodies +to secure a reputation for immortality, who are most reckless in +braggadocio but most deficient in bravery, and worst of all are slaves +to a woman instead of a man? Yet these have dared to lay claim to our +possessions and to acquire them through us, evidently expecting that we +will give up the prosperity which we possess for them. [-25-] Who can +help lamenting to see Roman soldiers acting as body-guards of their +queen? Who can help groaning when he hears Roman knights and senators +flattering her like eunuchs? Who can help weeping when he both hears and +sees Antony himself, the man twice consul, often imperator, to whom was +committed in common with me the superintendence of the public business, +who was entrusted with so many cities, so many legions,--when he sees +that this man has now abandoned all his ancestors' habits of life, has +emulated all alien and barbaric customs, that he pays no honor to us or +to the laws or to his fathers' gods, but worships that wench as if she +were some Isis or Selene, calling her children Sun and Moon, and finally +himself bearing the title of Osiris and Dionysus, in consequence of which +he has bestowed entire islands and some of the continents, as though he +were master of the whole earth and the whole sea? I am sure that this +appears marvelous and incredible to you, fellow-soldiers: therefore you +ought to be the more indignant. For if that is actually so which you do +not even believe on hearing it, and if that man in his voluptuary career +commits acts at which any one who learns of them must grieve, would you +not properly become exceedingly enraged? + +[-26-] "Yet at the start I was so devoted to him that I gave him a share +of my leadership, married my sister to him, and granted him legions. Even +after this I felt so kindly, so affectionately toward him that I was +unwilling to wage war on him because of his insulting my sister, or +because he neglected the children she had borne him, or because he +preferred the Egyptian woman to her, or because he bestowed upon the +former's children practically all your possessions, or, in fine, for any +other reason. The cause is that, first of all, I did not think it proper +to assume the same attitude toward Antony as toward Cleopatra. I deemed +her by the very fact of her foreign birth to be at the outset hostile to +his career, but I believed that he, as a citizen, could be corrected. +Later I entertained the hope that if not voluntarily at least reluctantly +he might change his mind as a result of the decrees passed against her. +Consequently I did not declare war upon him. He, however, has looked +haughtily and disdainfully upon my efforts and will neither be released, +though we would fain release him, nor be pitied though we try to pity +him. He is either unreasonable or mad,--and this which I have heard I +do believe, that he has been bewitched by that accursed female,--and +therefore pays no heed to our kindness or humaneness, but being in +slavery to that woman he undertakes in her behalf both war and needless +dangers which are both against our interests and against those of his +country. What else, then, is our duty except to fight him back together +with Cleopatra? [-27-]Hence let no one call him a Roman but rather an +Egyptian, nor Antony but rather Serapio. Let no one think that he was +ever consul or imperator, but only gymnasiarch. He has himself of his own +free will chosen the latter title instead of the former, and casting away +all the august terms of his own land has become one of the cymbal players +from Canopus.[65] Again, let no one fear that he can give any unfavorable +turn to the war. Even previously he was of no ability, as you know +clearly who conquered him near Mutina. And even if once he did attain to +some capacity through campaigning with us, be well assured that he has +now ruined all of it by his changed manner of life. It is impossible for +one who leads an existence of royal luxury and coddles himself like a +woman to think any valorous thoughts or do valorous deeds, because it is +quite inevitable that a person takes the impress of the practices with +which he comes in contact. A proof of this is that in the one war which +he has waged in all this long time and the one campaign that he has made +he lost great numbers of citizens in the battles, returned in thorough +disgrace from Praaspa, and parted with very many additional men in +the flight. If any one of us were obliged to perform a set dance or +cordax[66] in an amusing way, such a person would surely yield the honors +to him; he has practiced this: but since it is a case of arms and +battle, what is there about him that any one should dread? His physical +condition? He has passed his prime and become effeminate. His strength of +mind? He plays the woman and has surrendered himself to unnatural lust. +His piety toward our gods? He is at war both with them and his country. +His faithfulness to his allies? But is any one unaware how he deceived +and imprisoned the Armenian? His liberal treatment of his friends? But +who has not seen the men who have miserably perished at his hands? His +reputation with the soldiers? But who even of them has not condemned him? +Evidence of their feeling is found in the fact that numbers daily come +over to our side. For my part I think that all our citizens will do this, +as on a former occasion when he was going from Brundusium into Gaul. So +long as they expected to get rich without danger, some were very glad +to cleave to him. But they will not care to fight against us, their own +countrymen, in behalf of what does not belong to them at all, especially +when they are given the opportunity to win without hazard both +preservation and prosperity by joining us. + +[-28-] "Some one may say, however, that he has many allies and a store of +wealth. Well, how we have been accustomed to conquer the dwellers on Asia +the mainland is known to Scipio Asiaticus the renowned, is known to Sulla +the fortunate, to Lucullus, to Pompey, to my father Caesar, and to your +own selves, who vanquished the supporters of Brutus and Cassius. This +being so, if you think their wealth is so much more than others', you +must be all the more eager to make it your own. It is but fair that for +the greatest prizes the greatest conflicts should be undergone. And I +can tell you nothing else greater than that prize which lies within your +grasp,--namely, to preserve the renown of your forefathers, to guard your +individual pride, to take vengeance on those in revolt against us, to +repulse those who insult you, to conquer and rule all mankind, to allow +no woman to make herself equal to a man. Against the Taurisci and Iapudes +and Dalmatians and Pannonians you yourselves now before me battled most +zealously and frequently for some few walls and desert land; you subdued +all of them though they are admittedly a most warlike race; and, by +Jupiter, against Sextus also, for Sicily merely, and against this very +Antony, for Mutina merely, you carried on a similar struggle, so that +you came out victorious over both. And now will you show any less zeal +against a woman whose plots concern all your possessions, and against +her husband, who has distributed to her children all your property, and +against their noble associates and table companions whom they themselves +stigmatize as 'privy' councillors? Why should you? Because of their +number? But no number of persons can conquer valour. Because of their +race? But they have practiced carrying burdens rather than warfare. +Because of their experience? But they know better how to row than how +to fight at sea. I, for my part, am really ashamed that we are going to +contend with such creatures, by vanquishing whom we shall gain no glory, +whereas if we are defeated we shall be disgraced. + +[-29-] "And surely you must not think that the size of their vessels or +the thickness of the timbers of their ships is a match for our valour. +What ship ever by itself either wounded or killed anybody? Will they not +by their very height and staunchness be more difficult for their rowers +to move and less obedient to their pilots? Of what use can they possibly +be to the fighting men on board of them, when these men can employ +neither frontal assault nor flank attack, manoeuvres which you know are +essential in naval contests? For surely they do not intend to employ +infantry tactics against us on the sea, nor on the other hand are they +prepared to shut themselves up as it were in wooden walls and undergo a +siege, since that would be decidedly to our advantage--I mean assaulting +wooden barriers. For if their ships remain in the same place, as if +fastened there, it will be possible for us to rip them open with our +beaks, it will be possible, too, to damage them with our engines from +a distance, and also possible to burn them to the water's edge with +incendiary missiles; and if they do venture to stir from their place, +they will not overtake anyone by pursuing nor escape by fleeing, since +they are so heavy that they are entirely too inert to inflict any damage, +and so huge that they are exceptionally liable to suffer it. + +[-30-] "Indeed, what need is there to spend time in speaking further of +them, when we have already often made trial of them, not only off Leucas +but also here just the other day, and so far from proving inferior to +them, we have everywhere shown ourselves superior? Hence you should be +encouraged not so much by my words as by your own deeds, and should +desire to put an end forthwith to the whole war. For be well assured that +if we beat them to-day we shall have no further trouble. For in general +it is a natural characteristic of human nature everywhere, that whenever +a man fails in his first contests he becomes disheartened with respect to +what is to come; and as for us, we are so indisputably superior to them +on land that we could vanquish them even if they had never suffered any +injury. And they are themselves so conscious of this truth--for I am not +going to conceal from you what I have heard--that they are discouraged at +what has already happened and despair of saving their lives if they stay +where they are, and they are therefore endeavouring to make their escape +to some place or other, and are making this sally, not with the desire to +give battle, but in expectation of flight. In fact, they have placed in +their ships the best and most valuable of the possessions they have with +them, in order to escape with them if they can. Since, then, they admit +that they are weaker than we, and since they carry the prizes of victory +in their ships, let us not allows them to sail anywhere else, but let +us conquer them here on the spot and take all these treasures away from +them." + +Such were Caesar's words. [-31-]After this he formed a plan to let them +slip by, intending to fall upon them from the rear: he himself by fast +sailing expected to capture them directly, and when the leaders had +plainly shown that they were attempting to run away he thought that the +remainder would make no contest about surrendering. He was restrained, +however, by Agrippa, who feared that they might not overtake the +fugitives, who would probably use sails, and he also felt some confidence +of conquering without much effort because meantime a squall of rain with +large quantities of spray had driven in the face of Antony's fleet alone +and had created disturbance all through it. Hence he abandoned this plan, +and after putting vast numbers of infantry aboard the ships himself +and placing all his associates into auxiliary boats for the purpose of +sailing about quickly, giving notice of requisite action to the warriors, +and reporting to him what he ought to know, he awaited the onset of the +foe. They weighed anchor to the sound of the trumpet and with ships +in close array drew up their line a little outside the narrows, not +advancing any farther: he in turn started out as if to come to close +quarters or even make them retire. When they neither made a corresponding +advance nor turned about, but remained in position and further made +their array extremely dense, he became doubtful what to do. Therefore he +ordered the sailors to let their oars rest in the water and waited for a +time: then suddenly at a given signal led forward both the wings and bent +around in the hope chiefly of surrounding the enemy, or otherwise of at +least breaking their formation. Antony was afraid of this movement of his +to wheel about and surround them, and hence adopted so far as he could +corresponding tactics, which brought him, though reluctantly, into close +combat. [-32-] So they attacked and began the conflict, both sides +uttering many exhortations in their own ranks as to both artifice and +zeal, and hearing many from the men on shore that shouted to them. The +struggle was not of a similar nature on the two sides, but Caesar's +followers having smaller and swifter ships went with a rush, and when +they rammed were fenced about on all sides to avoid being wounded. If +they sank any boat, well: if not, they would back water before a close +engagement could be begun, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly +again, or would let some go and turn their attention to others; and +having damaged them slightly, to whatever degree the limited time would +allow, they would proceed against others and then still others, in +order that their assault upon any vessel might be so far as possible +unexpected. Since they dreaded the defence of the enemy from a distance +and likewise the battle at close quarters, they delayed neither in the +approach nor in the encounter, but running up suddenly with the object of +arriving before the opposing archers could work, they would inflict some +wounds and cause a disturbance merely, so as to escape being held, and +then retire out of range. The enemy tried to strike the approaching +ships with many stones and arrows flying thick and fast, and to cast the +grapnels upon the assailants. And in case they could reach them, they got +the better of it, but if they missed, their boats would be pierced and +they begin to sink, or else in their endeavor to avoid this calamity they +would waste time and lay themselves open to attack on the part of some +others. For when two or three at once fell upon the same ship, part +would do all the damage they could and the rest suffer the brunt of the +injuries. On the one side the pilots and the rowers endured the most +annoyance and fatigue, and on the other the marines: and the one side +resembled cavalry, now making a charge, now withdrawing, on account of +the manoeuvres on their part in assaulting and backing water, and the +other was like heavy-armed men guarding against the approach of foes and +trying as much as possible to hold them. As a result they gained mutual +advantages: the one party fell unobserved upon the lines of oars +projecting from the ships and shattered the blades, whereas the other +party with rocks and engines from above tried to sink them. There +were also certain disadvantages: the one party could not injure those +approaching it, and the other party, if it failed to sink some vessels by +its ramming, was hemmed in and found no longer an equal contest. + +[-33-] The battle was an even one for a long time and neither antagonist +could get the upper hand, but the outcome of it was finally like this. +Cleopatra, riding at anchor behind the warriors, could not endure the +long, obscure uncertainty and delay, but harassed with worry (which was +due to her being a woman and an Egyptian) at the struggle which for so +long continued doubtful, and at the fearful expectancy on both sides, +suddenly herself started to flee and raised the signal for the remainder +of her subjects. So, as they at once raised their sails and sped out to +sea, while a wind of some force had by chance arisen, Antony thought they +were fleeing not at the bidding of Cleopatra, but through fear because +they felt themselves vanquished, and followed them. When this took place +the rest of the soldiers became both discouraged and confused, and rather +wishing themselves to escape likewise kept raising their sails, and the +others kept throwing the towers and the furnishings into the sea in order +to lighten the vessels and make good their departure. While they were +occupied in this way their adversaries fell upon them, not pursuing the +fugitives, because they themselves were without sails and prepared only +for a naval battle, and many contended with one ship, both from afar +and alongside. Then on the part of both alike the conflict became most +diverse and fierce. Caesar's men damaged the lower parts of the ships all +around, crushed the oars, knocked off the rudders, and climbed on the +decks, where they took hold of some and pulled them down, pushed off +others, and fought with still others, since they were now equal to them +in numbers. Antony's soldiers pushed them back with boathooks, cut them +down with axes, threw down upon them rocks and other masses of material +made ready for just this purpose, repulsed those that tried to climb up, +and joined issue with such as came close enough. + +And one viewing the business might have compared it, likening small +things to great, to walls or many thickset islands being besieged by sea. +Thus the one party strove to scale the boats like some land or fortress +and eagerly brought to bear everything that contributed to this result. +The others tried to repel them, devising every means that is commonly +used in such, a case. + +[-34-] As the fight continued equal, Caesar, at a loss what he should do, +sent for fire from the camp. Previously he had wished to avoid using +it, in order to gain possession of the money. Now he saw that it was +impossible for him to win in any other way, and had recourse to this, as +the only thing that would assist him. Thus another form of battle was +brought about. The assailants would approach their victims from many +directions at once, shoot blazing missiles at them, and hurl torches +fastened to javelins from their hands, and with the aid of engines threw +pots full of charcoal and pitch upon some boats from a distance. The +defenders tried to ward these off individually and when any of them flew +past and caught the timbers and at once started a great flame, as must be +the case in a ship, they used first the drinking-water which they carried +on board and extinguished some conflagrations: when that was gone they +dipped up the sea-water. And in case they could use great quantities of +it at once, they would stop the fire by main force: but they were unable +to do this everywhere, for they did not have many buckets or large ones, +and in their confusion brought them up half full, so that far from doing +any service they only quickened the flame. For salt water poured on +a fire in small quantities makes it burn up brightly. As they found +themselves getting the worst of it in this, they heaped on the blaze +their thick mantles and the corpses. For a time these checked the fire +and it seemed to abate; later, especially as the wind came upon it in +great gusts, it shot up more brilliant than ever and was increased by the +fuel. While only a part of a ship was burning, others stood by it and the +men would leap into it and hew down some parts and carry away others. +These detached parts some threw into the sea and others upon their +opponents, in case they could do them any damage. Others were constantly +going to the sound portion of the vessel and now more than ever they used +the grappling irons and the long spears with the purpose of attaching +some hostile ship to theirs and transferring themselves to it; or, if +that was out of the question, they tried to set it on fire likewise. +[-35-] But the hostile fleet was guarding against this very attempt and +none of it came near enough; and as the fire spread to the encircling +walls and descended to the flooring, the most terrible of fates +confronted them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the +smoke before the flame approached them, while others were roasted in the +midst of it as though in ovens. Others were cooked in their armor, which +became red-hot. There were still others, who, before suffering such a +death, or when they were half burned, threw off their armor and were +wounded by the men shooting from a distance, or again were choked by +leaping into the sea, or were struck by their opponents and drowned, or +were mangled by sea-monsters. The only ones to obtain an endurable death, +considering the sufferings round about, were such as killed one another +or themselves before any calamity befell them. These did not have to +submit to torture, and as corpses had the burning ships for their funeral +pyre. The Caesarians, who saw this, at first so long as any of the foe +were still able to defend themselves would not come near; but when the +fire began to consume the ships and the men so far from being able to do +any harm to an enemy could not even help themselves, they eagerly sailed +up to them to see if they could in any way gain possession of the money, +and they endeavored to extinguish the fire which they themselves had +caused. As a result many of them also perished in the course of their +plundering in the flame. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +51 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-first of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar after his victory at Actium transacted business requiring +immediate attention (chapters 1-4). + +About Antony and Cleopatra and their movements after the defeat (chapters +5-8). + +How Antony, defeated in Egypt, killed himself (chapters 9-14). + +How Caesar subdued Egypt (chapters 15-18). + +How Caesar came to Rome and conducted a triumph (chapters 19-21). + +How the Curia Julia was dedicated (chapter 22). + +How Moesia was reduced (chapters 23-27). + +Duration of time the remainder of the consulships of Caesar (3rd) and M. +Valerius Corvinus Messala, together with two additional years, in which +there were the following magistrates here enumerated: + +Caesar (IV), M. Licinius M.F. Crassus. (B.C. 30 = a. u. 724.) + +Caesar (V), Sextus Apuleius Sexti F. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + +(_BOOK 51, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u_. 723)] + +[-1-] Such was the naval battle which occurred between them on the second +of September. I have not elsewhere used a like expression, not being in +the habit of giving precise dates, but I do it here because then for +the first time Caesar alone held the entire power. Consequently the +enumeration of the years of his supremacy starts from precisely that day. +And before it had gone he set up as an offering to Apollo of Actium a +trireme, a four-banked ship, and so on up to one of ten banks, from the +captive vessels; and he built a larger temple. He also instituted a +quinquennial musical and gymnastic contest involving horseracing,--a +"sacred" festival, as they call all which include distribution of +food,--and entitled it Actia. Further, by gathering some settlers and +ousting others who dwelt nearby from their homes, he founded a city on +the site of the camp and named it Nicopolis.[67] On the spot where he +had had his tent he laid a foundation of square stones, and put there a +shrine of Apollo open to the sky, adorning it with the captured beaks. + +But this was done later. At the time he despatched one division of the +ships to pursue Antony and Cleopatra; so these followed in their wake, +but as it seemed impossible to overtake the fugitives they returned. With +his remaining vessels he took the enemy's ramparts, where no one opposed +him because of small numbers, and then overtook and without a battle got +possession of the other army which was retreating into Macedonia. Various +important contingents had already made their escape, the Romans to Antony +and the rest of the allies to their homes. The latter moreover evinced +no further hostility to Caesar, but both they and all the peoples who had +formerly belonged to Rome remained quiet, and some at once and others +later made terms. Caesar now proceeded to teach the cities a lesson +by levying money and taking away the remnant of authority over their +citizens that they possessed in their assemblies. From all the potentates +and kings, save Amyntas and Archelaus, he took all the lands that they +had received from Antony. Philopator son of Tarcondimotus, Lycomedes +ruler in a portion of Cappadocian Pontus, and Alexander the brother of +Iamblichus he even removed from their principalities. The last named, +because he had secured his appointment as a reward for accusing the +conqueror, he placed in his triumphal procession and afterward killed. +The kingdom of Lycomedes he gave to one Medeus, because the latter had +previous to the naval engagement detached the Mysians in Asia from Antony +and with them had waged war upon such as followed Antony's fortunes. The +people of Cydonea and Lampea he set free, because they had rendered him +some assistance, and he helped the Lampeans found anew their city, from +which they had been uprooted. As for the senators and knights and other +prominent men who had been active in Antony's cause, he imposed fines +upon many of them, executed many of them, and some he spared entirely. +Among the last Sosius was a distinguished example: for though he had +often fought against Caesar and now fled and hid himself, but was +subsequently discovered, his life was nevertheless preserved. Likewise +one Marcus Scaurus, a half-brother of Sextus on the mother's side, had +been condemned to death, but was later released for the sake of his +mother Mucia. Of those who underwent the extreme punishment the Aquilii +Flori and Curio were the most noted. The latter met death because he was +a son of the former Curio who had once been of great assistance to the +former Caesar. And the Flori both perished because Octavius commanded that +one of them should draw the lot to be slain. They were father and +son, and when the latter, before any drawing took place, voluntarily +surrendered himself to the executioner the former felt such great grief +that he died also by his own hand. + +[-3-] This, then, was the end of these persons. The mass of Antony's +soldiers was included in the ranks of Caesar's legions and later he sent +back to Italy the citizens over age of both forces, without giving any +of them anything, and the remainder he disbanded. They had shown an ugly +temper toward him in Sicily after the victory, and he feared they might +create a disturbance again. Hence he hastened before the least signs of +an uprising were manifested to discharge some entirely from the service +under arms and to scatter the great majority of the rest. As he was even +at this time suspicious of the freedmen, he remitted their one-quarter +contribution[68] which they were still owing of the money assessed upon +them. And they no longer bore him any malice for deprivations they had +endured, but rejoiced as if they had received as a gift what they had +not been obliged to contribute. The men still left in the rank and file +showed no disposition to rebel, partly because they were held in check +by their commanding officers, but mostly through hopes of the wealth of +Egypt. The men, however, who had helped Caesar to gain the victory and had +been dismissed from the service, were irritated at having obtained no +meed of valor, and not much later they began a revolutionary movement. +Caesar was suspicious of them, and fearing that they might despise +Maecenas, to whom at that time Rome and the remainder of Italy had been +entrusted, because he was a knight, he sent Agrippa to Italy as if on +some routine business. He also gave to Agrippa and to Maecenas so great +authority over everything that they might read beforehand the letters +which he often wrote to the senate and to various officials, and then +change whatever they wished in them. Therefore they received also from +him a ring, so that they should have the means of sealing the epistles. +He had had the seal which he used most at that time made double, with a +sphinx raised on both sides alike. Subsequently he had his own image made +in _intaglio_, and sealed everything with that. Later emperors likewise +employed it, except Galba. The latter gave his sanction with an ancestral +device which showed a dog bending forward from the prow of a ship. The +way that Octavius wrote both to these two magistrates and to the rest of +his intimate friends whenever there was need of forwarding information to +them secretly was to write in place of the proper letter in each word the +second one following. + +[-4-] Octavius, with the idea that there would be no more danger from the +veterans, administered affairs in Greece and took part in the Mysteries +of the two goddesses. He then went over into Asia and settled matters +there, all the time keeping a sharp lookout for Antony's movements. For +he had not yet received any definite information regarding the course his +rival had followed in his escape, and so he kept making preparations +to proceed against him, if he should find out exactly. Meantime the +ex-soldiers made an open demonstration, because he was so far separated +from them, and he began to fear that if they got a leader they might do +some damage. + +[B.C. 30 (_a. u._ 724)] + +Consequently he assigned to others the task of searching for Antony, and +hurried to Italy himself, in the middle of the winter of the year that he +was holding office for the fourth time, with Marcus Crassus. The latter, +in spite of having been attached to the cause of Sextus and of Antony, +was then his fellow consul without having even passed through the +praetorship. Caesar came, then, to Brundusium but progressed no farther. +The senate on ascertaining that his boat was Hearing Italy went there +to meet him, save the tribunes and two praetors, who by decree stayed at +home; and the class of knights as well as the majority of the people +and still others, some represented by embassy and many as voluntary +followers, came together there, so that there was no further sign of +rebellion on the part of any one, so brilliant was his arrival, and so +enthusiastic over him were the masses. They, too, some through fear, +others through hopes, others obeying a summons, had come to Brundusium. +To certain of them Caesar gave money, but to the rest who had been the +constant companions of his campaigns, he assigned land also. By turning +the townspeople in Italy who had sided with Antony out of their homes he +was able to grant to his soldiers their cities and their farms. To most +of the outcasts from the settlements he granted permission in turn to +dwell in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere. To the remainder he either +distributed or promised money for their land. Though he had now acquired +great sums by his victory, he was spending still more. For this reason +he advertised in the public market his own possessions and those of his +companions, in order that any one who desired to buy or claim any of them +might do so. Nothing was sold, however, and nothing repaid. Who, pray, +would have dared to undertake to do either? But he secured by this means +a reasonable excuse for a delay in carrying out his offers, and later he +discharged the debt out of the spoils of the Egyptians. + +[-5-] He settled this and the rest of the urgent business, and gave to +such as had received a kind of semi-amnesty the right to live in Italy, +not before permitted. After this he forgave the populace left behind +in Rome for not having come to him, and on the thirtieth day after his +arrival set sail again for Greece. In the midst of winter he dragged his +ships across the isthmus of the Peloponnesus and got back to Asia +so quickly that Antony and Cleopatra received each piece of news +simultaneously,--that he had departed and that he had returned. They, +on fleeing from the naval battle, had gone as far as the Peloponnesus +together. From there they sent away some of their associates,--all, in +fact, whom they suspected,--while many withdrew against their will, and +Cleopatra hastened to Egypt, for fear that her subjects might perhaps +revolt, if they heard of the disaster before her coming. In order to +make her approach safe, at any rate, she crowned her prows, as a sign +of conquest, with garlands, and had some songs of victory sung by +flute-players. When she reached safety, she murdered many of the foremost +men, who had ever been restless under her rule and were now in a state +of excitement at her disaster. From their estates and from various +repositories hallowed and sacred she gathered a vast store of wealth, +sparing not even the most revered of consecrated treasures. She fitted +out her forces and looked about for possible alliances. The Armenian king +she killed and sent his head to the Median, who might be influenced by +this act, she thought, to aid them. As for Antony, he sailed to Pinarius +Scarpus in Libya, and to the army previously collected under him there +for the protection of Egypt. This general, however, would[69] not receive +him and also slew the first men that Antony sent, besides destroying some +of the soldiers under his command who showed displeasure at this act. +Then Antony, too, proceeded to Alexandria, having accomplished nothing. + +[-6-] Now among the other preparations that they made for speedy warfare +they enrolled among the ephebi their sons, Cleopatra Caesarion and Antony +Antyllus, who was borne to him by Fulvia and was then with him. Their +purpose was to arouse interest among the Egyptians, who would feel that +they already had a man for king, and that the rest might recognize these +children as their lords, in case any untoward accident should happen to +the parents, and so continue the struggle. This proved the lads' undoing. +For Caesar, on the ground that they were men and held a certain form +of sovereignty, spared neither of them. But to return: the two were +preparing to wage war in Egypt with ships and infantry, and to this end +they called also upon the neighboring tribes and the kings that were +friendly to them. Nor did they relax their readiness also to sail to +Spain, if there should be urgent need, believing that they could alienate +the inhabitants of that land by their money if nothing more, and again +they thought of transferring the seat of the conflict to the Red Sea. To +the end that while engaged in these plans they might escape observation +for the longest possible time or deceive Caesar in some way or slay him by +treachery, they despatched men who carried letters to him in regard to +peace, but money for his followers. Meantime, also, unknown to Antony, +Cleopatra sent to him a golden scepter and a golden crown and the royal +throne, through which she signified that she delivered the government +to him. He might hate Antony, if he would only take pity on her. Caesar +accepted the gifts as a good omen, but made no answer to Antony. To +Cleopatra he forwarded publicly threatening messages and an announcement +that if she would renounce the use of arms and her sovereignty, he would +deliberate what ought to be done in her case. Secretly he sent word that, +if she would kill Antony, he would grant her pardon and leave her empire +unmolested. + +[-7-] While these negotiations were going on, the Arabians, influenced by +Quintus Didius, the governor of Syria, burned the ships which had been +built in the Arabian Gulf for the voyage to the Red Sea, and all the +peoples and the potentates refused their assistance. And it occurs to me +to wonder that many others also, though they had received many gifts from +Antony and Cleopatra, now left them in the lurch. The men, however, of +lowest rank who were being supported for gladiatorial combats showed +the utmost zeal in their behalf and contended most bravely. These were +practicing in Cyzicus for the triumphal games which they were expecting +to hold in honor of Caesar's overthrow, and as soon as they were made +aware of what had taken place, they set out for Egypt with the intention +of aiding their superiors. Many were their contests with Amyntas in Gaul, +and many with the children of Tarcondimotus in Cilicia, who had been +their strongest friends but now in view of the changed circumstances +had gone over to the other side; and many were their struggles against +Didius, who hindered them while passing through. They proved unable, +after all, to make their way to Egypt. Yet even when they had been +encompassed on all sides, not even then would they accept any terms of +surrender, though Didius made them many promises. They sent for Antony, +feeling that they could fight with him better in Syria: then, when he +neither came himself nor sent them any message, they decided that he had +perished, and reluctantly made terms with the condition that they should +never take part in a gladiatorial show. They received from Didius Daphne, +the suburb of Antioch, to dwell in, until the matter was called to +Caesar's attention. Then they were tricked (somewhat later) by Messala and +were sent in different directions under the pretext that they were to be +enlisted in different legions and were in some convenient way destroyed. + +[-8-] When Antony and Cleopatra heard from the envoys the commands which +Caesar issued regarding them, they sent to him again. The queen promised +that she would give him large amounts of money. Antony reminded him of +their friendship and kinship, and also made a defence of his association +with the Egyptian woman; he enumerated the occasions on which they had +helped each other gain the objects of their loves,[70] and all the wanton +pranks in which they two had shared as young men. Finally he surrendered +to him Publius Turullius, a senator, who had been an assassin of Caesar, +but was then living with him as a friend. He actually offered to commit +suicide, if in that way Cleopatra might be saved. Caesar put Turullius +to death; it happened that this man had cut wood for the fleet from the +forest of Asclepius in Cos, and by his punishment in the same place he +was thought to have paid the penalty to the god. But to Antony Caesar did +not even then answer a word. The latter consequently despatched a third +embassy, sending him his son Antyllus with considerable gold coin. His +rival accepted the money, but sent the boy back empty-handed and gave him +no answer. To Cleopatra, however, as the first time so the second and the +third time he sent many threats and promises alike. Yet he was afraid, +even so, that they might despair of in any way obtaining pardon from him +and so hold out, and that they would survive by their own efforts, or set +sail for Spain and Gaul, or destroy the money, the bulk of which he +heard was immense. Cleopatra had gathered it all in the monument she was +constructing in the palace; and she threatened to burn all of it with +her, in case she should miss the smallest of her demands. Octavius sent +therefore Thyrsus, a freedman of his, to speak to her kindly in every way +and to tell her further that it so happened that he was in love with her. +He hoped at least by this means, since she thought she had the power to +arouse passion in all mankind, that he might remove Antony from the scene +and keep her and her money intact. And so it proved. + +[-9-] Before quite all this had occurred Antony learned that Cornelius +Gallus had taken charge of Scarpus's army and with the men had suddenly +marched upon Paxaetonium and occupied it. Hence, though he wished to set +out and follow the summons of the gladiators, he did not go into Syria. +He proceeded against Gallus, believing that he could certainly win over +his soldiers without effort; they had been with him on campaigns and were +well disposed. At any rate he could subdue them by main strength, since +he was leading a large force both of ships and of infantry upon them. +However, he found himself unable even to hold converse with them, +although he approached their wall and shouted and hallooed. For Gallus by +ordering his trumpeters to sound their instruments all together gave no +one a chance to hear a word. Antony further failed in a sudden assault +and subsequently met a reverse with his ships. Gallus by night had chains +stretched across the mouth of the harbor under water and took no open +measures to guard against them but quite disdainfully allowed them to +sail freely in. When, however, they were inside, he drew up the chains by +means of machines and encompassing his opponent's ships on all sides,--on +land, from the houses, and on the sea,--he burned some and sank others. +The next event was that Caesar took Pelusium, pretendedly by storm, but +really betrayed by Cleopatra. She saw that no one came to her aid and +perceived that Caesar was not to be withstood; most important of all, +she heard the message sent to her by Thyrsus, and believed that she was +really the object of affection. Her confidence was strengthened first +of all by her wish that it be true, and second by the fact that she had +enslaved his father and Antony alike. As a result she expected that she +should gain not only forgiveness and sovereignty over the Egyptians, but +empire over the Romans as well. At once she yielded Pelusium to him. +After this, when he marched against the city, she secretly prevented the +Alexandrians from making a sortie, though she pretended to urge them +strongly to do so. + +[-10-] At the news about Pelusium Antony returned from Paraetonium and in +front of Alexandria met Caesar, who was exhausted from travel; he joined +battle with him, therefore, with his cavalry and was victorious. From +this success Antony gained courage, as also from his being able to shoot +arrows into his rival's camp carrying pamphlets which promised the men +fifteen hundred denarii; so he attacked also with his infantry and was +defeated. Caesar himself voluntarily read the pamphlets to his soldiers, +reproaching Antony the while, and led them to feel ashamed of treachery +and to acquire enthusiasm in his behalf. They gained by this in zeal, +both through indignation at being tempted and through their attempt to +show that they would not willingly gain a reputation for baseness. Antony +after his unexpected setback took refuge in his fleet and prepared to +have a combat on the water, or in any case to sail to Spain. Cleopatra +seeing this caused the ships to desert and she herself rushed suddenly +into the mausoleum pretending that she feared Caesar and desired by some +means to destroy herself before capture, but really as an invitation to +Antony to enter there also. He had an inkling that he was being betrayed, +but his infatuation would not allow him to believe it, and, as one might +say, he pitied her more than himself. Cleopatra was fully aware of this +and hoped that if he should be informed that she was dead, he would not +prolong his life but meet death at once. Accordingly, she hastened into +the monument with one eunuch and two female attendants and from there +sent a message to him to the effect that she had passed away. When he +heard it, he did not delay, but was seized with a desire to follow her in +death. Then first he asked one of the bystanders to slay him, but the +man drew a sword and despatched himself. Wishing to imitate his courage +Antony gave himself a wound and fell upon his face, causing the +bystanders to think that he was dead. An outcry was raised at his deed, +and Cleopatra hearing it leaned out over the top of the monument. By a +certain contrivance its doors once closed could not be opened again, but +above, near the ceiling, it had not yet been completed. That was where +they saw her leaning out and some began to utter shouts that reached the +ears of Antony. He, learning that she survived, stood up as if he had +still the power to live; but a great gush of blood from his wound made +him despair of rescue and he besought those present to carry him to the +monument and to hoist him by the ropes that were hanging there to elevate +stone blocks. This was done and he died there on Cleopatra's bosom. + +[-11-] She now began to feel confidence in Caesar and immediately made him +aware of what had taken place, but did not feel altogether confident +that she would experience no harm. Hence she kept herself within the +structure, in order that if there should be no other motive for her +preservation, she might at least purchase pardon and her sovereignty +through fear about her money. Even then in such depths of calamity she +remembered that she was queen, and chose rather to die with the name and +dignities of a sovereign than to live as an ordinary person. It should +be stated that she kept fire on hand to use upon her money and asps and +other reptiles to use upon herself, and that she had tried the latter +on human beings to see in what way they killed in each case. Caesar was +anxious to make himself master of her treasures, to seize her alive, and +to take her back for his triumph. However, as he had given her a kind +of pledge, he did not wish to appear to have acted personally as an +impostor, since this would prevent him from treating her as a captive and +to a certain extent subdued against her will. He therefore sent to her +Gaius Proculeius, a knight, and Epaphroditus, a freedman, giving them +directions what they must say and do. So they obtained an audience with +Cleopatra and after some accusations of a mild type suddenly laid hold +of her before any decision was reached. Then they put out of her way +everything by which she could bring death upon herself and allowed her +to spend some days where she was, since the embalming of Antony's body +claimed her attention. After that they took her to the palace, but did +not remove any of her accustomed retinue or attendants, to the end that +she should still more hope to accomplish her wishes and do no harm to +herself. When she expressed a desire to appear before Caesar and converse +with him, it was granted; and to beguile her still more, he promised that +he would come to her himself. + +[-12-] She accordingly prepared a luxurious apartment and costly couch, +and adorned herself further in a kind of careless fashion,--for her +mourning garb mightily became her,--and seated herself upon the couch; +beside her she had placed many images of his father, of all sorts, and in +her bosom she had put all the letters that his father had sent her. When, +after this, Caesar entered, she hastily arose, blushing, and said: "Hail, +master, Heaven has given joy to you and taken it from me. But you see +with your own eyes your father in the guise in which he often visited me, +and you may hear how he honored me in various ways and made me queen of +the Egyptians. That you may learn what were his own words about me, take +and read the missives which he sent me with his own hand." + +As she spoke thus, she read aloud many endearing expressions of his. And +now she would lament and caress the letters and again fall before his +images and do them reverence. She kept turning her eyes toward Caesar, and +melodiously continued to bewail her fate. She spoke in melting tones, +saying at one time, "Of what avail, Caesar, are these your letters? ," and +at another, "But in the man before me you also are alive for me." Then +again, "Would that I had died before you! ," and still again, "But if I +have him, I have you!" + +Some such diversity both of words and of gestures did she employ, at the +same time gazing at and murmuring to him sweetly. Caesar comprehended her +outbreak of passion and appeal for sympathy. Yet he did not pretend to do +so, but letting his eyes rest upon the ground, he said only this: "Be of +cheer, woman, and keep a good heart, for no harm shall befall you." She +was distressed that he would neither look at her nor breathe a word about +the kingdom or any sigh of love, and fell at his knees wailing: "Life for +me, Caesar, is neither desirable nor possible. This favor I beseech of you +in memory of your father,--that since Heaven gave me to Antony after him, +I may also die with my lord. Would that I had perished on the very instant +after Caesar's death! But since this present fate was my destiny, send me +to Antony: grudge me not burial with him, that as I die because of him, so +in Hades also I may dwell with him." + +[-13-] Such words she uttered expecting to obtain commiseration: Caesar, +however, made no answer to it. Fearing, however, that she might make away +with herself he exhorted her again to be of good cheer, did not remove +any of her attendants, and kept a careful watch upon her, that she might +add brilliance to his triumph. Suspecting this, and regarding it as worse +than innumerable deaths, she began to desire really to die and begged +Caesar frequently that she might be allowed to perish in some way, and +devised many plans by herself. When she could accomplish nothing, she +feigned to change her mind and to repose great hope in him, as well as +great hope in Livia. She said she would sail voluntarily and made ready +many treasured adornments as gifts. In this way she hoped to inspire +confidence that she had no designs upon herself, and so be more free from +scrutiny and bring about her destruction. This also took place. The other +officials and Epaphroditus, to whom she had been committed, believed +that her state of mind was really as it seemed, and neglected to keep +a careful watch. She, meanwhile, was making preparations to die as +painlessly as possible. First she gave a sealed paper, in which she +begged Caesar to order that she be buried beside Antony, to Epaphroditus +himself to deliver, pretending that it contained some other matter. +Having by this excuse freed herself of his presence, she set to her task. +She put on her most beauteous apparel and after choosing a most becoming +pose, assumed all the royal robes and appurtenances, and so died. + +[-14-] No one knows clearly in what manner she perished, for there were +found merely slight indentations on her arm. Some say that she applied +an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar or among some +flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a needle, with which she was +wont to braid her hair, with some poison possessed of such properties +that it would not injure the surface of the body at all, but if it +touched the least drop of blood it caused death very quickly and +painlessly. The supposition is, then, that previously it had been her +custom to wear it in her hair, and on this occasion after first making a +small scratch on her arm with some instrument, she dipped the needle in +the blood. In this or some very similar way she perished with her two +handmaidens. The eunuch, at the moment her body was taken up, presented +himself voluntarily to the serpents, and after being bitten by them +leaped into a coffin which had been prepared by him. Caesar on hearing of +her demise was shocked, and both viewed her body and applied drugs to +it and sent for Psylli,[71] in the hope that she might possibly revive. +These Psylli, who are male, for there is no woman born in their tribe, +have the power of sucking out before a person dies all the poison of +every reptile and are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such +creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their +offspring, the latter being thrown among serpents at once or having +serpents laid upon their swaddling-clothes. In such cases the poisonous +creatures do not harm the child and are benumbed by its clothing. This +is the nature of their function. But Caesar, when he could not in any way +resuscitate Cleopatra, felt admiration and pity for her and was himself +excessively grieved, as much as if he had been deprived of all the glory +of the victory. + +[-15-] So Antony and Cleopatra, who had been the authors of many evils +to the Egyptians and to the Romans, thus fought and thus met death. They +were embalmed in the same fashion and buried in the same tomb. Their +spiritual qualities and the fortunes of their lives deserve a word of +comment. + +Antony had no superior in comprehending his duty, yet he committed many +acts of folly. He was distinguished for his bravery in some cases, yet he +often failed through cowardice. He was characterized equally by greatness +of soul and a servile disposition of mind. He would plunder the property +of others, and still relinquish his own. He pitied many without cause and +chastised even a greater number unjustly. + +Consequently, though he rose from weakness to great strength, and from +the depths of poverty to great riches, he drew no profit from either +circumstance, but whereas he had hoped to hold the Roman power alone, he +actually killed himself. + +Cleopatra was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice, was ambitious +for renown, and most scornfully bold. By the influence of love she won +dominion over the Egyptians, and hoped to attain a similar position over +the Romans, but being disappointed of this she destroyed herself also. +She captivated two of the men who were the greatest Romans of her day, +and because of the third she committed suicide. + +Such were these two persons, and in this way did they pass from the +scene. Of their children Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was +betrothed to the daughter of Caesar, and had taken refuge in his father's +hero-shrine which Cleopatra had built. Caesarion was fleeing to Ethiopia, +but was overtaken on the road and murdered. Cleopatra was married to Juba +the son of Juba. To this man, who had been brought up in Italy and +had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave the maid and her ancestral +kingdom, and he granted them the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. To his +nieces, children of Antony by Octavia and reared by her, he assigned +money from their father's estate. He also ordered his freedmen to give at +once to Iullus, the child of Antony and Fulvia, everything which by law +they were obliged to bequeath him at their death. [-16-] As for the rest +who had until then been connected with Antony's cause, he punished some +and released others, either from personal motives or to oblige his +friends. And since there were found at the court many children of +potentates and kings who were being supported, some as hostages and +others for the display of wanton power, he sent some back to their homes, +joined others in marriage with one another, and kept possession of still +others. I shall omit most of these cases and mention only two. He freely +restored Iotape to the Median king, who had found an asylum with him +after the defeat, but refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be +sent him, because this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in +Armenia. This was the disposition he made of such captives. + +The Egyptians and Alexandrians were all spared, and Caesar did not injure +one of them. The truth was that he did not see fit to visit any extreme +vengeance upon so great a people, who might prove very useful to the +Romans in many ways. He nevertheless offered the pretext that he wished +to please their god Serapis, Alexander their founder, and, third, Areus +a citizen, who was a philosopher and enjoyed his society. The speech in +which he proclaimed to them his pardon he spoke in Greek, so that they +might understand him. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and also +touched it, at which a piece of the nose, it is said, was crushed. But he +would not go to see the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians +were extremely anxious to show them, for he said: "I wanted to see a +king, and not corpses." For the same reason he would not enter the +presence of Apis, declaring that he was "accustomed to worship gods and +not cattle." [-17-] Soon after he made Egypt tributary and gave it in +charge of Cornelius Gallus. In view of the populousness of both cities +and country, and the facile, fickle character of the inhabitants, and the +importance of grain supplies and revenue, so far from daring to entrust +the land to any senator he would not even grant one permission to live in +it, unless he made the concession to some one _nominatim_. On the other +hand, he did not allow the Egyptians to be senators in Rome, but +after considering individual cases on their merits he commanded the +Alexandrians to conduct their government without senators; with such +capacity for revolution did he credit them. And of the system then +imposed upon them most details are rigorously preserved to the present +day, but there are senators in Alexandria, beginning first under the +emperor Severus, and they also may serve in Rome, having first been +enrolled in the senate in the reign of his son Antoninus. + +Thus was Egypt enslaved. All of the inhabitants who resisted were subdued +after a time, as, indeed, Heaven very clearly indicated to them would +occur. For it rained not only water, where previously no drop had ever +fallen, but also blood. At the same time that this was falling from the +clouds glimpses were caught of armor. Elsewhere there was the clashing of +drums and cymbals and the notes of flutes and trumpets. A serpent of huge +size was suddenly seen and gave a hiss incredibly loud. Meanwhile comet +stars came frequently into view and ghosts of the dead took shape. The +statues frowned: Apis bellowed a lament and shed tears. Such was the +status of things in that respect. + +In the palace quantities of money were found. Cleopatra had taken +practically all the offerings from even the holiest shrines and so helped +to swell the spoils of the Romans, while the latter on their own part +incurred no defilement. Large sums were also obtained from every man +under accusation. More than that, all the rest against whom no personal +complaint could be brought had two-thirds of their property demanded of +them. Out of this all the soldiers got what was still owing to them, and +those who were with Caesar at that time secured in addition two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece for not plundering the city. All was made good +to those who had previously loaned anything, and to both senators and +knights who had taken part in the war great sums were given. In fine, the +Roman empire was enriched and its temples adorned. + +[-18-] After attending to the matters before mentioned Caesar founded +there also on the site of the battle a city and gave to it likewise a +name and dedicatory games, as in the previous instance. In regard to the +canals he cleared out some of them and dug others over again, and he also +settled important questions. Then he went through Syria into the province +of Asia and passed the winter there attending to the business of the +subject nations in detail and likewise to that of the Parthians. There +had been disputes among them and a certain Tiridates had risen against +Phraates; as long as Antony's opposition lasted, even after the naval +battle, Caesar had not only not attached himself to either side, though +they sought his alliance, but made no other answer than that he would +think it over. His excuse was that he was busy with Egypt, but in reality +he wanted them meantime to exhaust themselves by fighting against each +other. Now that Antony was dead and of the two combatants Tiridates, +defeated, had taken refuge in Syria, and Phraates, victorious, had sent +envoys, he negotiated with the latter in a friendly manner: and without +promising to aid Tiridates, he allowed him to live in Syria. He received +a son of Phraates as a mark of friendliness, and took the youth to Rome, +where he kept him as a hostage. + +[-19-] Meanwhile, and still earlier, the Romans at home had passed many +resolutions respecting the victory at sea. They granted Caesar a triumph +(over Cleopatra) and granted him an arch bearing a trophy at Brundusium, +and another one in the Roman Forum. Moreover, the lower part of the +Julian hero-shrine was to be adorned with the beaks of the captive ships +and a festival every five years to be celebrated in his honor. There +should be a thanksgiving on his birthday and on the anniversary of the +announcement of the victory: when he entered the city the (vestal virgin) +priestesses, the senate and the people, with their wives and children, +were to meet him. It is quite superfluous to mention the prayers, the +images, the privileges of front seats, and everything else of the sort. +At the very first they both voted him these honors, and either tore down +or erased the memorials that had lent Antony distinction. They declared +the day on which the latter had been born accursed and forbade the +employment of the surname Marcus by any one of his kin. His death was +announced during a part of the year when Cicero, the son of Cicero, was +consul; and on ascertaining this some believed it had come to pass not +without divine direction, since the consul's father had owed his death +chiefly to Antony. Then they voted to Caesar additional crowns and many +thanksgivings, and granted him among other rights authority to conduct a +triumph over the Egyptians also. For neither previously nor at that time +did they mention by name Antony and the rest of the Romans who had +been vanquished with him, and so imply that it was proper to hold a +celebration over them. The day on which Alexandria was captured they +declared fortunate and directed that for the years to come it should be +taken as the starting-point of enumeration by the inhabitants of that +town.[72] Also Caesar was to hold the tribunician power for life, to have +the right to defend such as called upon him for help both within the +pomerium and outside to the distance of eight half-stadia (a privilege +possessed by none of the tribunes), as also to judge appealed cases; and +a vote of his, like the vote of Athena,[73] was to be cast in all the +courts. In the prayers in behalf of the people and the senate petitions +should be offered for him alike by the priests and by the priestesses. +They also ordered that at all banquets, not only public but private also, +all should pour a libation to him. These were the resolutions passed at +that time. + +[B.C. 29 (_a. u._ 725)] + +[-20-] When he was consul for the fifth time with Sextus Apuleius, they +ratified all his acts by oath on the very first day of January. And when +the letter came regarding the Parthians, they decreed that he should +have a place in hymns along with the gods, that a tribe should be named +"Julian" after him, that he should wear the triumphal crown during the +progress of all the festivals, that the senators who had participated in +his victory should take part in the procession wearing purple-bordered +togas, and that the day on which he should enter the city should be +glorified by sacrifices by the entire population and be held ever sacred. +They further agreed that he might choose priests beyond the specified +number, as many and as often as he should wish. This custom was handed +down from that decision and the numbers have increased till they are +boundless: hence I need go into no particulars about the multitude of +such officials. Caesar accepted most of the honors (save only a few): +but that all the population of the city should meet him he particularly +requested might not occur. Yet he was pleased most of all and more than +at all the other decrees by the fact that the senators closed the gates +of Janus, implying that all their wars had ceased,--and took the "augury +of health," [74] which had all this period been omitted for reasons I have +mentioned. For there were still under arms the Treveri, who had brought +the Celts to help them, the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. These last +were subjugated by Statilius Taurus, and those first mentioned by Nonius +Gallus. There were numerous other disturbances going on in the isolated +districts. Since, however, nothing of importance resulted from any of +them, the Romans of that time did not consider that war was in progress +and I have nothing notable to record about them. Caesar meanwhile was +giving his attention to various business, and granted permission that +precincts dedicated to Rome and to Caesar his father,--calling him "the +Julian hero,"--should be set apart in Ephesus and in Nicaea. These +cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and in Bithynia +respectively. To these two divinities he ordered the Romans who dwelt +near them to pay honor. He allowed the foreigners (under the name of +"Hellenes") to establish a precinct to himself,--the Asians having +theirs in Pergamum and the Bithynians theirs in Nicomedea. This custom, +beginning with him, has continued in the case of other emperors, and +imperial precincts have been hallowed not only among Hellenic nations +but in all the rest which yield obedience to the Romans. In the capital +itself and in the rest of Italy there is no one, however, no matter how +great renown he has achieved, that has dared to do this. Still, even +there, after their death, honors as to gods are bestowed upon those who +have ruled uprightly, and hero-shrines are built. + +[-21-] All this took place in the winter, during which the Pergamenians +also received authority to celebrate the so-called "Sacred" contest in +honor of his temple. In the course of the summer Caesar crossed over to +Greece and on to Italy. Among the others who offered sacrifice, as +has been mentioned, when he entered the City, was the consul Valerius +Potitus. Caesar was consul all the year, as the two previous, but Potitus +was the successor of Sextus. It was he who publicly and in person +sacrificed oxen in behalf of the senate and of the people at Caesar's +arrival, something that had never before been done in the case of any +single man. After this his newly returned colleague praised and honored +his lieutenants, as had been the custom. Among the many marks of favor by +which Caesar distinguished Agrippa was the dark blue symbol[75] of naval +supremacy. To his soldiers also he made certain presents: to the people +he distributed a hundred denarii each, first to those ranking as adults, +and afterward to the children as a mark of his affection for his nephew +Marcellus. Further let it be noted that he would not accept from the +cities of Italy the gold to be used for the crowns. Moreover he paid +everything which he himself owed to any one and, as has been said, he did +not exact what the others were owing to him. All this caused the Romans +to forget every unpleasantness, and they viewed his triumph with +pleasure, quite as if the defeated parties had all been foreigners. So +vast an amount of money circulated through all the city alike that the +price of goods rose and loans which had previously been in demand at +twelve per cent. were now made at one-third that rate. The celebration +on the first day was in honor of the wars against the Pannonians and +Dalmatians, Iapudia and adjoining territory, and a few Celts and Gauls. +Graius Carrinas had subdued the Morini and some others who had risen +against Roman dominion, and had repulsed the Suevi, who had crossed the +Rhine to wage war. Therefore he too held a triumph, in spite of the fact +that his father had been put to death by Sulla and he himself had once +been prevented from holding office with the rest of his peers. Caesar +also held one since the credit of this victory properly pertained to his +position as imperator. + +These were the celebrations on the first day. On the second came the +commemoration of the naval victory at Actium; on the third that of the +subjugation of Egypt. All the processions proved notable by reason of the +spoils from this land,--so many had been gathered that they sufficed for +all the occasions,--but this Egyptian celebration was especially costly +and magnificent. Among other features a representation of Cleopatra upon +the bed of death was carried by, so that in a way she too was seen with +the other captives, and with Alexander, otherwise Helios, and Cleopatra, +otherwise Selene, her children, and helped to grace the triumph. Behind +them all Caesar came driving and did everything according to custom except +that he allowed his fellow-consul and the other magistrates, contrary +to custom, to follow him with the senators who had participated in the +victory. It had been usual for such dignitaries to lead and for only the +senators to follow.[76] + +[-22-] After completing this, he dedicated the temple of Minerva, called +also the Chalcidicum, and the Julian senate-house, which had been built +in honor of his father.[77] In it he set up the statue of Victory which +is still in existence, probably signifying that it was from her that he +had received his dominion. It belonged to the Tarentini, and had been +brought from there to Rome, where it was placed in the senate-chamber and +decked with the spoils of Egypt. The spoils were also employed at this +time for adorning the Julian hero-shrine, when it was consecrated. Many +of them were placed as offerings in it and others were dedicated to +Capitoline Jupiter and Juno and Minerva, while all the votive gifts that +were thought to have previously reposed there or were still reposing were +now by decree taken down as defiled. Thus Cleopatra, although defeated +and captured, was nevertheless glorified, because her adornments repose +in our temples and she herself is seen in gold in the shrine of Venus. + +At the consecration of the hero-shrine there were all sorts of contests, +and the children of the nobles performed the Troy equestrian exercise. +Men who were their peers also contended on chargers and pairs and +three-horse teams. A certain Quintus Vitellius, a senator, fought as a +gladiator. All kinds of wild beasts and kine were slain by the wholesale, +among them a rhinoceros and a hippopotamus, then seen for the first time +in Rome. Many have described the appearance of the hippo and it has been +seen by many more. As for the rhinoceros, it is in most respects like +an elephant, but has a projecting horn at the very tip of its nose and +through this fact has received its name. Besides the introduction of +these beasts Dacians and Suebi fought in throngs with each other. The +latter are Celts, the former a species of Scythian. The Suebi, to be +exact, dwell across the Rhine (though many cities elsewhere claim their +name), and the Dacians on both sides of the Ister. Such of them, however, +as live on this side of it and near the Triballic country are reckoned in +with the district of Moesia and are called Moesi save among those who +are in the very neighborhood. Such as are on the other side are called +Dacians, and are either a branch of the Getae or Thracians belonging to +the Dacian race that once inhabited Rhodope. Now these Dacians had before +this time sent envoys to Caesar: but when they obtained none of their +requests, they turned away to follow Antony. To him, however, they were +of no great assistance, owing to disputes among themselves. Some were +consequently captured and later set to fight the Suebi. + +The whole spectacle lasted naturally a number of days. There was no +intermission in spite of a sickness of Caesar's, but it was carried on +in his absence, under the direction of others. During its course the +senators on one day severally held banquets in the entrance to their +homes. Of what moved them to this I have no knowledge, for it has not +been recorded. Such was the progress of the events of those days. + +[-23-] While Caesar was yet in his fourth consulship Statilius Taurus had +both constructed at his own expense and dedicated with armed combat a +hunting-theatre of stone on the Campus Martius. On this account he was +permitted by the people to choose one of the praetors year after year. +During this same period Marcus Crassus was sent into Macedonia and Greece +and carried on war with the Dacians and Bastarnae. It has already been +stated who the former were and how they had been made hostile. The +Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians and at this time had crossed +the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them, then the Triballi +who live near it, and the Dardani who inhabit the Triballian country. +While they were so engaged they had no trouble with the Romans. But when +they crossed the Haemus and overran the portion of Thrace belonging to the +Dentheleti who had a compact with Rome, then Crassus, partly to defend +Sitas king of the Dentheleti, who was blind, but chiefly because of fear +for Macedonia, came out to meet them. By his mere approach, he threw them +into a panic and drove them from the land without a conflict. Next he +pursued them, as they were retiring homeward, gained possession of the +district called Segetica, and invading Moesia damaged that territory. He +made an assault upon a strong fortification, also, and though his advance +line met with a rebuff,--the Moesians making a sally against it, because +they thought these were all of the enemy,--still, when he came to the +rescue with his whole remaining army he both cut his opponents down in +open fight and annihilated them by an ambuscade. + +[-24-] While he was thus engaged, the Bastarnae ceased their flight and +remained near the Cedrus[78] river to watch what would take place. When, +after conquering the Moesians, the Roman general started against them, +they sent envoys forbidding him to pursue them, since they had done the +Romans no harm. Crassus detained them, saying he would give them their +answer the following day, and besides treating them kindly he made them +drunk, so that he learned all their plans. The whole Scythian race is +insatiable in the use of wine and quickly succumbs to its influence. +Crassus meanwhile, during the night, advanced to a wood, and after +stationing scouts in front of the forest made his army stop there. +Thereupon the Bastarnae, thinking the former were alone, made a charge +upon them, following them up also when the men retreated into the dense +forest, and many of the pursuers perished there as well as many others in +the flight which followed were obstructed by their wagons, which were +behind them, and owed their defeat further to their desire to save their +wives and children. Their king Deldo was slam by Crassus himself. The +armor stripped from the prince he would have dedicated as spolia opima +to Jupiter Feretrius, had he been a general acting on his own authority. +Such was the course of that engagement: of the remainder some took refuge +in a grove, which was set on fire all around, and others leaped into a +fort, where they were annihilated. Still others perished, either by being +driven into the Ister or after being scattered through the country. Some +survived even yet and occupied a strong post where Crassus besieged them +in vain for several days. Then with the aid of Roles, king of some of the +Getae, he destroyed them. Roles when he visited Caesar was treated as a +friend and ally for this assistance: the captives were distributed to the +soldiers. + +[-25-] After accomplishing this Crassus turned his attention to the +Moesians; and partly by persuading some of them, partly by scaring them, +and partly by the application of force he subjugated all except a very +few, though with labor and danger. Temporarily, owing to the winter, he +retired into friendly territory after suffering greatly from the cold, +and still more at the hands of the Thracians, through whose country, as +friendly, he was returning. Hence he decided to be satisfied with what +he had effected. For sacrifices and a triumph had been voted not only to +Caesar but to him also, though, according at least to some accounts, he +did not secure the title of imperator, but Caesar alone might apply it to +himself. The Bastarnae, however, angry at their disasters, on learning +that he would make no further campaigns against them turned again upon +the Dentheleti and Sitas, whom they regarded as having been the chief +cause of their evils. Then Crassus, though reluctantly, took the field +and by forced marches fell upon them unexpectedly, conquered, and +thereafter imposed such terms as he pleased. Now that he had once taken +up arms again he conceived a desire to recompense the Thracians, who had +harassed him during his retreat from Moesia; for news was brought at this +time that they were fortifying positions and were spoiling for a fight. +And he did subdue them, though not without effort, by conquering in +battle the Merdi and the Serdi and cutting off the hands of the captives. +He overran the rest of the country except the land of the Odrysae. These +he spared because they are attached to the service of Dionysus, and had +come to meet him on this occasion without arms. Also he granted them the +piece of land in which they magnify the god, and took it away from the +Bessi, who were occupying it. + +[-26-] While he was so occupied he received a summons from Roles, who had +become embroiled with Dapyx, himself also a king of the Getae. Crassus +went to help him and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon +the infantry he thoroughly terrified the latter, so that he carried the +battle no further but caused a great slaughter of the fugitives of both +divisions. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and +besieged him. During the investment some one from the walls saluted him +in Greek, and upon obtaining an audience arranged to betray the place. +The barbarians caught in this way turned upon one another, and Dapyx was +killed, besides many others. His brother, however, Crassus took alive and +not only did him no harm, but released him. + +At the close of this exploit he led his army against the cave called +Keiri. The natives in great numbers had occupied this place, which is +extremely large and so very strong that the tradition obtains that the +Titans after the defeat administered to them by the gods took refuge +there. Here the people had brought together all their flocks and their +other principal valuables. Crassus after finding all its entrances, which +are crooked and hard to search out, walled them up, and in this way +subjugated the men by famine. Upon this success he did not keep his hands +from the rest of the Getae, though they had nothing to do with Dapyx. He +marched upon Genoucla, the most strongly defended fortress of the kingdom +of Zuraxes, because he heard that the standards which the Bastarnae had +taken from Gaius Antonius near the city of the Istriani were there. His +assault was made both with the infantry and upon the Ister,--the city +being near the water,--and in a short time, though with much labor in +spite of the absence of Zuraxes, he took the place. The king as soon as +he heard of the Roman's approach had set off with money to the Scythians +to seek an alliance, and did not return in time. + +This he did among the Getae. Some of the Moesians who had been subdued +rose in revolt, and them he won back by the energy of others: [-27-] he +himself led a campaign against the Artacii and a few other tribes who +had never been captured and would not acknowledge his authority, priding +themselves greatly on this point and imbuing the rest with both anger and +a disposition to rebel. He brought them to terms partly by force, as +they did but little, and partly by the fear which the capture of some +inspired. This took a long time. I record the names, as the facts, +according to the tradition which has been handed down. Anciently Moesians +and Getae occupied all the land between the Haemus and the Ister. As time +went on some of them changed their names to something else. Since then +there have been included under the name of Moesia all the tribes which +the Savus by emptying into the Ister north of Dalmatia, Macedonia and +Thrace, separates from Pannonia. Two of the many nations found among +them are the Triballi, once so named, and the Dardani, who have the same +designation at present. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: The events, however, run over into the following year.] + +[Footnote 2: Interesting to compare are three citations from an unknown +Byzantine writer (in Excerpta cod. Paris, suppl. Gr. 607 A, edited by M. +Treu, Ohlau, 1880, p. 29 ff.), who seems to have used Dio as a source: + +a) The mother of Augustus just one day previous to her travail beheld in +a dream how her womb was snatched away and carried up into heaven. + +b) And in the same night as Octavius was born his father thought that the +sun rose from his wife's entrails. + +c) And a certain senator, Nigidius Figulus, who was an astrologer, asked +Octavius, the father of Augustus, why he was so slow in leaving his +house. The latter replied that a son had been born to him. Nigidius +thereupon exclaimed: "Ah, what hast thou done? Thou hast begotten a +master for us!" The other believing it and being disturbed wished to make +away with the child. But Nigidius said to him: "Thou hast not the power. +For it hath not been granted thee to do this."] + +[Footnote 3: Suetonius in relating this anecdote (Life of Augustus, +chapter 5) says that the senate-meeting in question was called to +consider the conspiracy of Catiline. Since, however, Augustus is on all +hands admitted to have been born a. d. IX. Kal. Octobr. and mention of +Catiline's conspiracy was first made in the senate a. d. XII. Kal. +Nov. (Cicero, Against Catiline, I, 3, 7), the claim of coincidence is +evidently based on error.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare again the same Byzantine writer quoted in footnote +to chapter 1,--two excerpts: + +d) Again, while he was growing up in the country, an eagle swooping down +snatched from his hands the loaf of bread and again returning replaced it +in his hands. + +e) Again, during his boyhood, Cicero saw in a dream Octavius himself +fastened to a golden chain and wielding a whip being let down from the +sky to the summit of the Capitol.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare Súetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 94] + +[Footnote 6: See footnote to Book Forty-three, chapter 42.] + +[Footnote 7: The senate-house already mentioned in Book Forty, chapter +50.] + +[Footnote 8: This word is inserted by Boissevain on the authority of a +symbol in the manuscript's margin, indicating a gap.] + + +[Footnote 9: Inserting with Reimar [Greek: proihemenos], to complete the +sense.] + +[Footnote 10: See Roscher I, col. 1458, on the Puperci Iulii. And compare +Suetonius, Life of Caesar, chapter 76.] + +[Footnote 11: For further particulars about Sex. Clodius and the _ager +Leontinus_ (held to be the best in Sicily, Cicero, Against Verres, III, +46) see Suetonius, On Rhetoric, 5; Arnobuis, V, 18; Cicero, Philippics, +II, 4, 8; II, 17; II, 34, 84; II, 39, 101; III, 9, 22.] + +[Footnote 12: Compare here (and particularly with, reference to the +plural _Spurii_) the passage in Cicero, Philippics, III, 44, 114: + +Quod si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e conspectu nostro abstulerunt, +at exemplum facti reliquerunt: illi, quod nemo fecerat, fecerunt: +Tarquinium Brutus bello est persecutus, qui tum rex fuit, cum esse Romae +licebat; Sp. Cassius, Sp. Maelius, M. Manlius propter suspitionem regni +appetendi sunt necati; hi primum cum gladiis non in regnum appetentem, +sed in regnum impetum fecerunt.] + +[Footnote 13: For the figure, compare Aristophanes, The Acharnians, vv. +380-381 (about Cleon): + + [Greek: dieballe chai pseudae chateglottise mou + chachychloborei chaplunen.]] + + +[Footnote 14: Dio has in this sentence imitated almost word for word the +utterance of Demosthenes, inveighing against Aischines, in the speech on +the crown (Demosthenes XVIII, 129).] + +[Footnote 15: Compare Book Forty-five, chapter 30.] + +[Footnote 16: There is a play on words here which can not be exactly +rendered. The Greek verb [Greek: _pheaegein_] means either "to flee" or +"to be exiled."] + +[Footnote 17: Various diminutive endings, expressing contempt.] + +[Footnote 18: The MS. reading is not wholly satisfactory here. Bekker, by +a slight change, would produce (after "Bambalio"): "nor by declaring war +because of," etc.] + +[Footnote 19: The Greek word is [Greek: obolos] a coin which in the fifth +century B.C. would have amounted to considerably more than the Roman +_as_; but as time went on the value of the [Greek: obolos] diminished +indefinitely, so that glossaries eventually translate it as _as_ in +Latin.] + +[Footnote 20: I. e., epilepsy.] + +[Footnote 21: Sturz changes this reading of _sixty_ days to _fifty_, +comparing Appian, Civil Wars, Book Three, chapter 74. Between the two +authorities it is difficult to decide, and the only consideration that +would incline one to favor Appian is the fact that he says this period of +fifty days was unusually long ("more than the Romans had ever voted upon +vanquishing the Celtae or winning any war"). Boissevain remarks that Dio +is not very careful about such details.] + +[Footnote 22: Adopting Reiske's reading, [Greek: _tinas_].] + +[Footnote 23: Compare here Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, 23, 644, 2 or 23, +663, 3), who says that since the only objection to be found with this +arrangement was that since the praetor urbanus could not himself conduct +the comitia, he ought not properly to have empowered others to do so.] + +[Footnote 24: _M. Juventius Laterensis._] + +[Footnote 25: This refers to the latter half of chapter 42, where Caesar +binds his soldiers by oath never to fight against any of their former +comrades.] + +[Footnote 26: [Greek: _pragmaton_] here is somewhat uncertain and might +give the sense "as a result of the troubles in which they had been +involved, one with another." Sturz and Wagner appear to have viewed it in +that light: Boissée and friends consulted by the translator choose the +meaning found in the text above.] + +[Footnote 27: The name of this freedman as given by Appian (Civil Wars, +IV, 44) is Philemon; but Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 27) agrees +with Dio in writing Philopoemen.] + +[Footnote 28: In B.C. 208 the Ludi Apollinares were set for July +thirteenth, but by the year B.C. 190 they occupied three days, and in +B.C. 42 the entire period of the sixth to the thirteenth of July was +allotted to their celebration. Now Caesar's birthday fell on July twelfth +and the day before that, July eleventh, would have conflicted quite as +much with the festival of Apollo. Hence this expression "the previous +day" must mean July fifth. (See Fowler's Roman Festivals, p. 174.)] + +[Footnote 29: There seems to be an error here made either by Dio or by +some scribe in the course of the ages. For, according to many reliable +authorities (Plutarch, Life of Brutus, chapter 21; Appian, Civil Wars, +Book Three, chapter 23; Cicero, Philippics, II, 13, 31, and X, 3, 7; id., +Letters to Atticus, Book Fifteen, letters 11 and 12), it was Brutus +and not Cassius who was praetor urbanus and had the games given in his +absence. Therefore the true account, though not necessarily the true +reading would say that "_Brutus_ was praetor urbanus," and (below) that he +"lingered in Campania with _Cassius_." + +See also Cobet, Mnesmosyne, VII, p. 22.] + +[Footnote 30: That this is the right form of the name is proved by the +evidence of coins, etc. In Caesar's Civil War, Book Three, chapter 4, +the same person is meant when it is said that _Tarcondarius Castor_ and +Dorylaus furnished Pompey with soldiers.] + +[Footnote 31: See Book Thirty-six, chapter 2 (end).] + +[Footnote 32: _Q. Marcius Crispus_. (The MSS. give the form _Marcus_, but +the identity of this commander is made certain by Cicero, Philippics, XI, +12, 30, and several other passages.)] + +[Footnote 33: I. e., "The Springs,"--a primitive name for Philippi +itself.] + +[Footnote 34: Iuppiter Latiaris was the protecting deity of Latium, and +his festival is practically identical with the _Feriae Latinae_. Roscher +(II, col. 688) thinks that Dio has here confused the praefectus urbi with +a special official (dictator feriarum Latinarum causa) appointed when +the consuls were unable to attend. Compare Book Thirty-nine, chapter 30, +where our historian does not commit himself to any definite name for this +magistrate.] + +[Footnote 35: "While carrying a golden Victory slipped and fell" is the +phrase in the transcript of Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 36: Reading [Greek: _aegchon_] (as Boissevain) in preference to +[Greek: _aegon_] or [Greek: _eilchon_].] + +[Footnote 37: Accepting Reiske's interpretative insertion, [Greek: +telos].] + +[Footnote 38: Among the Fragmenta Adespota in Nauck's _Fragmenta +Tragicorum Groecorum_ this is No. 374.] + +[Footnote 39: The names within these parallel lines are wanting in the +MS., but were inserted by Reimar on the basis of chapter 34 of this book, +and slightly modified by Boissevain.] + +[Footnote 40: Both MSS., the Mediceus and the Venetus, here exhibit a gap +of three lines.] + +[Footnote 41: Owing to an inaccuracy of spelling in the MSS. this number +has often been corrupted to "four hundred". The occurrence of "three +hundred" in Suetonius's account of the affair (Life of Augustus, chapter +15) assures us, however, that this reading is correct.] + +[Footnote 42: Compare Book Forty three, chapter 9 (§4).] + +[Footnote 43: Compare the first chapter of this Book.] + +[Footnote 44: Compare Book Forty-three, chapter 47 (and see also XLVIII, +33, and LII, 41).] + +[Footnote 45: This is an error either of Dio or of some copyist. The +person made king of the Jews at this time was in reality Antigonus the +son of Aristobulus and nephew of Hyrcanus. Compare chapter 41 of this +book, and Book Forty-nine, chapter 22. + +In this same sentence I read _[Greek: echthos]_ (as Boissevain and the +MSS.) in place of _[Greek: ethos]_.] + +[Footnote 46: Hurling from the Tarpeian rock was a punishment that might +be inflicted only upon freemen. Slaves would commonly be crucified or put +out of the way by some method involving similar disgrace.] + +[Footnote 47: After "Menas advised it" Zonaras in his version of Dio has: +"bidding him cut the ship's cable, if he liked, and sail away."] + +[Footnote 48: Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 83) also mentions this +fashion.] + +[Footnote 49: Verb suggested by Leunclavius.] + +[Footnote 50: This is the well known Gnosos in Crete. For further +information in regard to the matter see Strabo X, 4, 9 (p. 477) and +Velleius Paterculus, II, 81, 2.] + +[Footnote 51: There is at this point a gap of one line in the MSS.] + +[Footnote 52: Using Naber's emendation [Greek: probeblaemenoi].] + +[Footnote 53: The Latin word _testudo_, represented in Greek by the +precisely equivalent [Greek: chelonae] in Dio's narrative, means +"tortoise."] + +[Footnote 54: The amount is not given in the MSS. The traditional sum, +incorporated in most editions to fill the gap and complete the sense, is +_thirty-five_. "One hundred" is a clever conjecture of Boissevain's.] + +[Footnote 55: Probably in A.D. 227.] + +[Footnote 56: Called _Colapis_ by Strabo and Pliny.] + +[Footnote 57: A marginal note in Reimar's edition suggests amending the +rather abrupt [Greek: loipois] at this point to [Greek: Libournois] +("waged war with (i. e., against) thee Liburni"); and we might be tempted +to follow it, but for the fact that Appian uses language almost identical +with Dio's in his Illyrian Wars, chapter 27 ("He [Augustus] left +Statilius Taurus to finish the war").] + +[Footnote 58: The gymnasiarch was an essentially Greek official, but +might be found outside of Hellas in such cities as had come under Greek +influence. In Athens he exercised complete supervision of the gymnasium, +paying for training and incidentals, arranging the details of contests, +and empowered to eject unsuitable persons from the enclosure. We have +comparatively little information about his duties and general standing +elsewhere, but probably they were nearly the same. The office was +commonly an annual one. + +Antony did not limit to Alexandria his performance of the functions of +gymnasiarch. We read in Plutarch (Life of Antony, chapter 33) that at +Athens on one occasion he laid aside the insignia of a Roman general to +assume the purple mantle, white shoes, and the rods of this official; and +in Strabo (XIV, 5, 14) that he promised the people of Tarsos to preside +in a similar manner at some of their games, but the time came sent a +representative instead.--See Krause, _Gymnnastik und Agonistik der +Hellenen_, page 196.] + +[Footnote 59: See Book Forty-eight, chapter 35.] + +[Footnote 60: Chapter 4 of this book.] + +[Footnote 61: Cp. Book Forty-seven, chapter 11.] + +[Footnote 62: Sc. of denarii.] + +[Footnote 63: _L. Tarius Rufus._]: + +[Footnote 64: Dio in some unknown manner has at this point evidently +made a very striking mistake. Sosius was not killed in the encounter but +survived to be pardoned by Octavius after the latter's victory. And our +historian, who here says he perished, speaks in the next book (chapter 2) +of the amnesty accorded.] + +[Footnote 65: Canopus was only fifteen miles distant from Alexandria +(hence its pertinence here) and was noted for its many festivals and bad +morals,--the latter being superinduced by the presence in the city of a +large floating population of foreigners and sailors. The atmosphere of +the town (to compare small things with great) was, in a word, that of +Corinth.] + +[Footnote 66: The cordax was a dance peculiar to Greek comedy and of an +appropriately licentious character, resembling in some points certain of +the Oriental dances that survive to the present day.] + +[Footnote 67: Nicopolis, i. e., "City of Victory." The same name was +given by Pompey to a town founded after his defeat of Mithridates. (See +Book Thirty-six, chapter 50.)] + +[Footnote 68: An allusion to the second of the two taxes mentioned in +Book Fifty, chapter 10.] + +[Footnote 69: Verb supplied by R. Stephanus.] + +[Footnote 70: Cobet's interpretation (Mnemosyne X (N.S.), 1882).] + +[Footnote 71: Compare Pliny, Natural History, XXI, 78.] + +[Footnote 72: There is an ambiguous [Greek: aùrtuv] here. Only Boissée, +however, takes it to mean the Romans. Leonieenus, Sturz and Wagner +translate is as "Alexandrians."] + +[Footnote 73: A reminiscence of the _Eumenides_ of Aischylos.] + +[Footnote 74: See Glossary (last volume) and also compare the beginning +of chapter 24 in Book Thirty-seven.] + +[Footnote 75: Latin "vexillum caeruleum,"--a kind of flag or banner.] + +[Footnote 76: The custom was that the magistrates should issue from the +town to meet the triumphator and then march ahead of him. Octavius by +putting them behind him symbolized his position as chief citizen of the +State.] + +[Footnote 77: These buildings are mentioned together also in the +Monumentum Ancyranum (C:L., 1T:, part 2, pp. 780-781).] + +[Footnote 78: The name of this river is also spelled _Cebrus_.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. III, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10162 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a511ce --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #10162 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10162) diff --git a/old/10162-8.txt b/old/10162-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b78c380 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10162-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8690 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. III, by Cassius Dio + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dio's Rome, Vol. III + An Historical Narrative Originally Composed In Greek During + The Reigns Of Septimius Severus, Geta And Caracalla, Macrinus, + Elagabalus And Alexander Severus + +Author: Cassius Dio + +Release Date: November 21, 2003 [EBook #10162] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. III *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + DIO'S ROME + + + + AN HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK DURING THE REIGNS OF + SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS AND ALEXANDER + SEVERUS: + + + + AND + + + NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + + + BY + + HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting + Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + + + + THIRD VOLUME _Extant Books 45-51 (B.C. 44-29)_. + + + 1906 + + + + + VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Forty-five + +Book Forty-six + +Book Forty-seven + +Book Forty-eight + +Book Forty-nine + +Book Fifty + +Book Fifty-one + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +45 + +VOL. 3.--1 + +The following is contained in the Forty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +About Gaius Octavius, who afterward was named Augustus (chapters 1-9). + +About Sextus, the son of Pompey (chapter 10). + +How Caesar and Antony entered upon a period of hostility (chapters 11-17). + +How Cicero delivered a public harangue against Antony (chapters 18-47). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the year of the 5th dictatorship of C. +Iulius Caesar with M. Aemilius Lepidus, Master of the Horse, and of his 5th +consulship with Marcus Antonius. (B.C. 44 = a. u. 710.)[1] + + +(_BOOK 45, BOSSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_.710)] + +[-1-] This was Antony's course of procedure.--Gaius Octavius Copia,--this +was the name of the son of Caesar's niece, Attia,--came from Velitrae in +the Volscian country, and having been left without a protector by the +death of his father Octavius he was brought up in the house of his mother +and her husband, Lucius Philippus, but on attaining maturity spent his +time with Caesar. The latter, who was childless, based great hopes upon +him and was devoted to him, intending to leave him as successor to his +name, authority, and supremacy. He was influenced largely by Attia's +explicit affirmation that the youth had been engendered by Apollo. While +sleeping once in his temple, she said, she thought she had intercourse +with a serpent, and through this circumstance at the end of the allotted +time bore a son. Before he came to the light of day she saw in a dream +her womb lifted to the heavens and spreading out over all the earth; and +the same night Octavius thought the sun rose from her vagina. Hardly +had the child been born when Nigidius Figulus, a senator, straightway +prophesied for him sole command of the realm. [2] + +He could distinguish most accurately of his contemporaries the order of +the firmament and the mutations of the stars, what they accomplished +by separation and what by conjunctions, in their associations and +retirements, and for this reason had incurred the charge of practicing +some kind of forbidden pursuits. He accordingly met on that occasion +Octavius, who was somewhat tardy in reaching the senate on account of the +birth of the child,--there happened to be a meeting of the senate that +day,--and asked him why he was late. On learning the cause he cried out: +"You have begotten a master over us." [3] At that Octavius was alarmed and +wished to destroy the infant, but Nigidius restrained him, saying that +it was impossible for it to suffer any such fate. [-2-] This was the +conversation at that time. While the boy was growing up in the country an +eagle snatched from his hands a loaf of bread, and after soaring aloft +flew down and gave it back to him.[4] When he was a lad and staying in +Rome Cicero dreamed that the boy was let down by golden chains to the +summit of the Capitol and received a whip from Jupiter.[5] He did not +know who the youth was, but meeting him the next day on the Capitol +itself he recognized him, and told the vision to the bystanders. Catulus, +who had likewise never seen Octavius, beheld in a vision all the noble +children on the Capitol at the termination of a solemn procession to +Jupiter, and in the course of the ceremony the god cast what looked like +an image of Rome into that child's lap. Startled at this he went up into +the Capitol to offer prayers to the god, and finding there Octavius, who +had ascended the hill for some other reason, he compared his appearance +with the dream and was satisfied of the truth of the vision. When later +he had become a young man and was about to reach maturity, he was putting +on the dress of an adult when his tunic was rent on both sides from his +shoulders and fell to his feet. This event of itself not only had +no significance as forecasting any good fortune, but displeased the +spectators considerably because it had happened in his first putting on +the garb of a man: it occurred to Octavius to say: "I shall put the whole +senatorial dignity beneath my feet"; and the outcome proved in accordance +with his words. Caesar founded great hopes upon him as a result of +this, introduced him into the class of patricians and trained him for +rulership. In everything that is proper to come to the notice of one +destined to control so great a power well and worthily he educated him +with care. The youth was trained in oratorical speeches, not only in the +Latin but in this language [Greek], labored persistently in military +campaigns, and received minute instruction in politics and the science of +government. + +[-3-] Now this Octavius chanced at the time that Caesar was murdered to +be in Apollonia near the Ionic Gulf, pursuing his education. He had been +sent thither in advance to look after his patron's intended campaign +against the Parthians. When he learned of the event he was naturally +grieved, but did not dare at once to take any radical measures. He had +not yet heard that he had been made Caesar's son or heir, and moreover the +first news he received was to the effect that the people were of one mind +in the affair. When, however, he had crossed to Brundusium and had been +informed about the will and the people's second thought, he made no +delay, particularly because he had considerable money and numerous +soldiers who had been sent on under his charge, but he immediately +assumed the name of Caesar, succeeded to his estate, and began to busy +himself with the situation. [-4-] At the time he seemed to some to have +acted recklessly and daringly in this, but later as a result of his +good fortune and the successes he achieved he acquired a reputation for +bravery. In many instances in history men who were wrong in undertaking +some project have been famed for wisdom because they proved fortunate in +it: others who used the best possible judgment have had to stand a charge +of folly because they did not attain their ends. He, too, acted in a +blundering and dangerous way; he was only just past boyhood,--eighteen +years of age,--and saw that the succession to the inheritance and the +family was sure to provoke jealousy and censure: yet he started in +pursuit of objects that had led to Caesar's murder, and no punishment +befell him, and he feared neither the assassins nor Lepidus and Antony. +Yet he was not thought to have planned poorly, because he became +successful. Heaven, however, indicated not obscurely all the upheaval +that would result from it. As he was entering Rome a great variegated +iris surrounded the whole sun. + +[-5-] In this way he that was formerly called Octavius, but already at +this time Caesar, and subsequently Augustus, took charge of affairs and +settled them and brought them to a successful close more vigourously than +any mature man, more prudently than any graybeard. First he entered the +city as if for the sole purpose of succeeding to the inheritance, and as +a private citizen with only a few attendants, without any ostentation. +Still later he did not utter any threat against any one nor show that he +was displeased at what had occurred and would take vengeance for it. So +far from demanding of Antony any of the money that he had previously +plundered, he actually paid court to him although he was insulted and +wronged by him. Among the other injuries that Antony did him by both word +and deed was his action when the lex curiata was proposed, according to +which the transfer of Octavius into Caesar's family was to take place: +Antony himself, of course, was active to have it passed, but through some +tribunes he secured its postponement in order that the young man being +not yet Caesar's child according to law might not meddle with the property +and might be weaker in all other ways. [-6-] Caesar was restive under this +treatment, but as he was unable to speak his mind freely he bore it until +he had won over the crowd, by whose members he understood his father had +been raised to honor. He knew that they were angry at the latter's death +and hoped they would be enthusiastic over him as his son and perceived +that they hated Antony on account of his having been master of the horse +and also for his failure to punish the murderers. Hence he undertook to +become tribune as a starting point for popular leadership and to secure +the power that would result from it; and he accordingly became a +candidate for the place of Cinna, which was vacant. Though hindered +by Antony's clique he did not desist and after using persuasion upon +Tiberius Cannutius, a tribune, he was by him brought before the populace. +He took as an excuse the gift bequeathed by Caesar and in his speech +touched upon all the important points, promising that he would discharge +this debt at once, and gave them cause to hope for much besides. After +this came the festival appointed in honor of the completion of the temple +of Venus, which some, while Caesar was alive, had promised to celebrate, +but were now holding in, slight regard as they did the horse-race +connected with the Parilia;[6] and to win the favor of the populace he +provided for it at his private expense on the ground that it concerned +him because of his family. At this time out of fear of Antony he brought +into the theatre neither Caesar's gilded chair nor his crown set with +precious stones, though it was permitted by decree. [-7-] When, however, +a certain star through all those days appeared in the north toward +evening, some called it a comet, and said that it indicated the usual +occurrences; but the majority, instead of believing this, ascribed it +to Caesar, interpreting it to mean that he had become a god and had been +included in the number of the stars. Then Octavius took courage and set +up in the temple of Venus a bronze statue of him with a star above his +head. Through fear of the populace no one prevented this, and then, at +last, some of the earlier decrees in regard to honors to Caesar were put +into effect. They called one of the months July after him and in the +course of certain triumphal religious festivals they sacrificed during +one special day in memory of his name. For these reasons the soldiers +also, and particularly since some of them received largesses of money, +readily took the side of Caesar. + +Rumors accordingly went abroad, and it seemed likely that something +unusual would take place. This idea gained most headway for the reason +that when Octavius was somewhat anxious to show himself in court in an +elevated and conspicuous place, as he had been wont to do in his father's +lifetime, Antony would not allow it, but had his lictors drag him down +and drive him out. [-8-] All were exceedingly vexed, and especially +because Caesar with a view to casting odium upon his rival and arousing +the multitude would no longer even frequent the Forum. So Antony became +terrified, and in conversation with the bystanders one day remarked +that he harbored no anger against Caesar, but on the contrary owed him +affection, and felt inclined to dispel the entire cloud of suspicion. The +statement was reported to the other, they held a conference, and some +thought they had become reconciled. As a fact they understood each +other's dispositions accurately, and, thinking it inopportune at that +time to put them to the test, they came to terms by making a few mutual +concessions. For some days they were quiet; then they began to suspect +each other afresh as a result of either some really hostile action +or some false report of hostility,--as regularly happens under such +conditions,--and were again at variance. When men become reconciled after +a great enmity they are suspicious of many acts that contain no malice +and of many chance occurrences. In brief, they regard everything, in the +light of their former hostility, as done on purpose and for an evil +end. While they are in this condition those who stand on neutral ground +aggravate the trouble, irritating them still more by bearing reports to +and fro under the pretence of devotion. There is a very large element +which is anxious to see all those who have power at variance with one +another,--an element which consequently takes delight in their enmity and +joins in plots against them. And the party which has previously suffered +from calumny is very easy to deceive with words adapted to the purpose +by a band of friends whose attachment is not under suspicion. This also +accounts for the fact that these men, who did not trust each other +previously, became now even more estranged. + +[-9-] Antony seeing that Caesar was gaining ground attempted to attract +the populace by various baits, to see if he could detach the people from +his rival and number them among his own forces. Hence through Lucius +Antonius, his brother, who was tribune, he introduced a measure that +considerable land be opened for settlement, among the parcels being the +region of the Pontine marshes, which he stated had already been filled +and were capable of cultivation. The three Antonii, who were brothers, +all held office at the same time. Marcus was consul, Lucius tribune, and +Gaius praetor. Therefore they could very easily remove those who were +temporarily rulers of their allies and subjects (except the majority of +the assassins and some others whom they regarded as loyal) and choose +others in place of them: they could also grant some the right to hold +office for an unusually long term, contrary to the laws established by +Caesar. Also Macedonia, which fell to Marcus by lot, was appropriated +by his brother Gaius, but Marcus himself with the legions previously +despatched into Apollonia laid claim to Gaul on this side of the Alps, to +which Decimus Brutus had been assigned; the reason was that it seemed to +be very strong in resources of soldiers and money. After these measures +had been passed the immunity granted to Sextus Pompey by Caesar, as to all +the rest, was confirmed: he had already considerable influence. It was +further resolved that whatever moneys of silver or gold the public +treasury had taken from his ancestral estate should be restored. As +for the lands belonging to it Antony held the most of them and made no +restoration. + +[-10-] This was the business in which they were engaged. But I shall now +go on to describe how Sextus had fared. When he had fled from Corduba, he +first came to Lacetania and concealed himself there. He was pursued, to +be sure, but eluded discovery through the fact that the natives were +kindly disposed to him out of regard for his father's memory. Later, when +Caesar had started for Italy and only a small army was left behind in +Baetica, he was joined both by the native inhabitants and by those who +escaped from the battle, and with them he came again into Baetica, because +he thought it more suitable for the carrying on of war. There he gained +possession of soldiers and cities, particularly after Caesar's death, some +voluntarily and some by violence; the commandant in charge of them, Gaius +Asinius Pollio, held a force that was far from strong. He next set out +against Spanish Carthage, but since in his absence Pollio made an attack +and did some damage, he returned with a large force, met his opponent, +and routed him. After that the following accident enabled him to startle +and conquer the rest, as well, who were contending fiercely. Pollio had +cast off his general's cloak, in order to suffer less chance of detection +in his flight, and another man of the same name, a brilliant horseman, +had fallen. The soldiers, hearing the name of the latter, who was lying +there, and seeing the garment which had been captured, were deceived, and +thinking that their general had perished surrendered. In this way Sextus +conquered and held possession of nearly that entire region. When he was +now a powerful factor, Lepidus arrived to govern the adjoining portion of +Spain, and persuaded him to enter into an agreement on condition that he +should recover his father's estate. Antony, influenced by his friendship +for Lepidus and by his hostility toward Caesar, caused such a decree to be +passed. + +So Sextus, in this way and on these conditions, held aloof from Spain +proper. [-11-] Caesar and Antony in all their acts opposed each other, but +had not fallen out openly, and whereas in reality they were alienated +they tried to disguise the fact so far as appearances went. As a result +all other interests in the city were in a most undecided state and +condition of turmoil. People were still at peace and yet already at war. +Liberty led but a shadow existence, and the deeds done were the deeds +of royalty. To a casual observer Antony, since he held the consulship, +seemed to be getting the best of it, but the enthusiasm of the masses was +for Caesar. This was partly on his father's account, partly on account of +the hopes he held out to them, but above all because they were displeased +at the considerable power of Antony and were inclined to assist Caesar +while he was yet devoid of strength. Neither man had their affection, but +they were always eager for a change of administration, and it was their +nature to try to overthrow every superior force and to help any party +that was being oppressed. Consequently they made use of the two to suit +their own desires. After they had at this period humbled Antony through +the instrumentality of Caesar they next undertook to destroy the latter +also. Their irritation toward the men temporarily in power and their +liking for the weaker side made them attempt to overthrow the former. +Later they became estranged from the weaker also. Thus they showed +dislike for each of them in turn and the same men experienced their +affection and their hatred, their support and their active opposition. + +[-12-] While they were maintaining the above attitude toward Caesar and +Antony, the war began as follows. Antony had set out for Brundusium to +meet the soldiers who had crossed over from Macedonia. Caesar sent some +persons to that city with money, who were to arrive there before Antony +and win over the men, and himself went to Campania, where he collected +a large crowd of men, chiefly from Capua because the people there had +received their land and city from his father, whom he said he was +avenging. He made them many promises and gave them on the spot five +hundred denarii apiece. These men usually constituted the corps of +evocati, whom one might term in Greek "the recalled", because having +ended their service they have been recalled to it again. Caesar took +charge of them, hastened to Rome before Antony could make his way back, +and came before the people, who had been made ready for him by Cannutius. +There he called to their minds in detail all the excellent works his +father had done, made a considerable, though moderate, defence of +himself, and brought accusations against Antony. He also praised +the soldiers who had accompanied him, saying that they were present +voluntarily to lend aid to the city, that they had elected him to preside +over the State and that through his mouth they made known these facts to +all. For this speech he received the approbation of his following and of +the throng that stood by, after which he departed for Etruria with a view +to obtaining an accession to his forces from that country. + +[-13-] While he was doing this Antony had been at first kindly received +in Brundusium by the soldiers, because they expected they would secure +more from him than was offered them by Caesar. This belief was based +on the idea that he had possession of much more than his rival. When, +however, he promised to give each of them a hundred denarii, they raised +an outcry, but he reduced them to submission by ordering centurions as +well as others to be slain before the eyes of himself and his wife. For +the time being the soldiers were quiet, but on the way toward Gaul when +they arrived opposite the capital they revolted, and many of them, +despising the lieutenants that had been set over them, arrayed themselves +on Caesar's side. The so-called Martian and the fourth legion went over to +him in a body. He took charge of them and won their attachment by giving +money to all alike,--an act which added many more to his troops. He also +captured all the elephants of Antony, by confronting the train suddenly +as they were being conducted along. Antony stopped in Rome only long +enough to arrange a few affairs and to bind by oath all the rest of the +soldiers and the senators who were in their company; then he set out for +Gaul, fearing that that country too might indulge in an uprising. Caesar +without delay followed behind him. + +[-14-] Decimus Brutus was at this time governor of that province, and +Antony set great hopes upon him, because he had been a slayer of Caesar. +But it turned out as follows. Decimus did not look askance particularly +at Caesar, for the latter had uttered no threats against the assassins: on +the other hand, he saw that Antony was no more formidable a foe than his +rival, or, indeed, than himself or any of the rest who were in power as +a result of natural acquisitiveness; therefore he refused to give ground +before him. Caesar, when he heard this decision, was for some time at a +loss what course to adopt. The young man hated both Decimus and Antony +but saw no way in which he could contend against them both at once. He +was by no means yet a match for either one of the two, and he was further +afraid that if he risked such a move he should throw them into each +other's arms and face the united opposition of the two. After stopping to +reflect that the struggle with Antony was already begun and was urgent, +but that it was not yet a fitting season for taking vengeance for his +father, he decided to make a friend of Decimus. He understood well that +he should find no great difficulty in fighting against the latter, if +with his aid he could first overcome his adversaries, but that Antony +would be a powerful antagonist on any subsequent occasion. So much did +they differ from each other. [-15-] Accordingly he sent a messenger to +Decimus, proposing friendship and promising alliance, if he would refuse +to receive Antony. This proposal caused the people in the city likewise +to join in expressing their gratitude to Caesar. Just at this time the +year was drawing to a close and no consul was on the ground, Dolabella +having been previously sent by Antony to Syria. Eulogies, however, were +delivered in the senate by the members themselves and by the soldiers who +had abandoned Antony,--with the concurrence also of the tribunes. When +they entered upon the new year they decided, in order that they might +discuss freely existing conditions, to employ a guard of soldiers +at their meetings. This pleased nearly all who were in Rome at the +time,--for they cordially detested Antony,--but particularly Cicero. He, +on account of his bitter and long-standing hostility toward the man, paid +court to Caesar, and so far as he could, by speech and action, strove to +assist him in every way and to injure Antony. It was for this reason +that, when he had left the city to escort his son to Athens for the +benefit of his education, he had returned on ascertaining that the two +were publicly estranged. + +[-16-] Besides these events which took place that year Servilius +Isauricus died at a very advanced age. I have mentioned him both for that +fact and to show how the Romans of that period respected men who were +prominent through merit and hated those who behaved insolently, even on +the very slightest grounds. This Servilius while walking had once met on +the road a man on horseback, who so far from dismounting on his approach +spurned him violently aside. Later he recognized the fellow in a +defendant of a case in court, and when he mentioned the affair to the +judge, they paid no further attention to the man's plea, but unanimously +condemned him. + + +[B.C. 43 (_a u_. 711)] + +[-17-] In the consulship of Aldus Hirtius (who was now appointed consul +in spite of the fact that his father's name had been posted on the +tablets of Sulla), with his colleague Gaius Vibius, a meeting of the +senate was held and votes were taken for three successive days, including +the first of the month itself. As a result of the war which was upon them +and the portents, very numerous and extremely unfavorable, which took +place, they were so excited that they failed to pass over these _dies +nefasti_ on which they ought not to deliberate on any matter touching +their interests. Ominous had been the falling of great numbers of +thunderbolts, some of which descended on the shrine sacred to Capitoline +Jupiter, that stood in the temple of Victory. Also a great wind arose +which snapped and scattered the columns erected about the temple of +Saturn and the shrine of Fides, and likewise knocked down and shattered +the statue of Minerva the Protectress, which Cicero had set up on the +Capitol before his exile. This portended, of course, the death of Cicero +himself. Another thing that frightened the rest of the population was +a great earthquake which occurred, and the fact that a bull which was +sacrificed on account of it in the temple of Vesta leaped up after the +ceremony. In addition to these clear indications of danger a flash darted +across from the place of the rising sun to the place of its setting and a +new star was seen for several days. Then the light of the sun seemed to +be diminished and even extinguished, and at times to appear in three +circles, one of which was surmounted by a fiery crown of sheaves. This, +if anything, proved as clear a sign as possible to them. For three men +were in power,--I mean Caesar and Lepidus and Antony,--and of them Caesar +subsequently secured the victory. At the same time that these things +occurred all sorts of oracles tending to the downfall of the democracy +were recited. Crows, moreover, flew into the temple of the Dioscuri and +pecked out the names of the consuls and of Antony and of Dolabella, which +were inscribed there somewhere on a tablet. And by night dogs in large +numbers gathered throughout the city and especially near the house of the +high priest, Lepidus, and set up howls. Again, the Po, which had flooded +a large portion of the surrounding territory, suddenly receded and left +behind on the dry land a vast number of snakes. Countless fish were cast +up from the sea on the shore near the mouth of the Tiber. Succeeding +these terrors a plague spread over nearly the whole of Italy in a +malignant form, and in view of this the senate voted that the Curia +Hostilia[7] should be rebuilt and the spot where the naval battle had +taken place be filled up. However, the curse did not appear disposed to +rest even at this point, especially when during Vibius's conduct of the +initial sacrifices on the first of the month one of his lictors suddenly +fell down and died. Because of these events many men in the course of +those days took one side or the other in their speeches and advice, and +among the deliverances was the following, of Cicero:--[-18-] "You have +heard recently, Conscript Fathers, when I made a statement to you about +the matter, why I made preparations for my departure as if I were going +to be absent from the city a very long time and then returned rapidly +with the idea that I could benefit you greatly. I would not endure an +existence under a sovereignty or a tyranny, since under such forms of +government I can not enjoy the rights of free[8] citizenship nor speak +my mind safely nor die in a way that is of service to you; and again, if +opportunity is afforded to obey any of duty's calls, I would not shrink +from action, though it involved danger. I deem it the task of an upright +man equally to keep watch over himself for his country's interests +(guarding himself that he may not perish uselessly), and in this course +of action not to fail to say or do whatever is requisite, even if it be +necessary to suffer some harm in preserving his native land. + +[-19-] "These assumptions granted, a large degree of safety was afforded +by Caesar both to you and to me for the discussion of pressing questions. +And since you have further voted to assemble under guard, we must frame +all our words and behavior this day in such a fashion as to establish +the present state of affairs and provide for the future, that we may +not again be compelled to decide in a similar way about it. That our +condition is difficult and dangerous and requires much care and attention +you yourselves have made evident, if in no other way, at least by this +measure. For you would not have voted to keep the senate-house under +guard, if it had been possible for you to deliberate at all with your +accustomed orderliness, and in quiet, free from fear. It is necessary for +us even on account of the presence of the soldiers to accomplish some +measure of importance, that we may not incur the disgrace that would +certainly follow from asking for them as if we feared somebody, and then +neglecting affairs as if we were liable to no danger. We shall appear to +have acquired them only nominally in behalf of the city against Antony, +but to have given them in reality to him against our own selves, and it +will look as if in addition to the other legions which he gathers against +his country he needed to acquire these very men and so prevent your +passing any vote against him even to-day. + +[-20-] "Yet some have attained such a height of shamelessness as to dare +to say that he is not warring against the State and have credited you +with so great folly as to think that they will persuade you to attend to +their words rather than to his acts. But who would choose to desist from +regarding his performances and the campaign which he has made against our +allies without any orders from the senate or the people, the countries +which he is overrunning, the cities which he is besieging, and the hopes +upon which he is building in his entire course,--who would distrust, I +say, the evidence of his own eyes, and to his ruin yield credence to the +words of these men and their false statements, by which they put you off +with pretexts and excuses? + +I myself am far from asserting that in doing this he is carrying out any +legal act of administration. On the contrary, because he has abandoned +the province of Macedonia, which was assigned to him by lot, and because +he chose instead the province of Gaul, which in no way pertained to him, +and because he assumed control of the legions which Caesar had sent ahead +against the Parthians, keeping them about him though no danger threatens +Italy, and because he has left the city during the period of his +consulship to go about pillaging and injuring the country,--for all these +reasons I declare that he has long been an enemy of us all. [-21-] If you +did not perceive it immediately at the start or experience vexation +at each of his actions, he deserves to be hated all the more on +this account, in that he does not cease injuring you, who are so +long-suffering. He might perchance have obtained pardon for the errors +which he committed at first, but now by his perseverance in evil he has +reached such a pitch of knavery that he ought to be brought to book for +his former offences as well. And you ought to be especially careful in +regard to the situation, noticing and considering this point,--that the +man who has so often despised you in such weighty matters cannot submit +to be corrected by the same gentleness and kindliness that you have +shown, but must now against his will, even though never previously, be +chastised by force of arms. + +"And because he partly persuaded and partly compelled you to vote +him some privileges, do not think that this makes him less guilty or +deserving of less punishment. Quite the reverse,--for this very procedure +in particular he merits the infliction of a penalty: he determined from +the outset to commit many outrages, and after accomplishing some of them +through you, he employed against your own selves the resources which came +from you, which by deception, he forced you to vote to him, though you +neither knew nor foresaw any such result. On what occasion did you +voluntarily abolish the commands given by Caesar or by the lot to each +man, and allow this person to distribute many appointments to his friends +and companions, sending his brother Gaius to Macedonia, and assigning +Gaul to himself with the aid of the legions which he was not by any means +keeping to use in your defence? Do you not remember how, when he found +you startled at Caesar's demise, he carried out all the plans that +he chose, communicating some to you carefully dissimulated and at +inopportune moments, and on his own responsibility executing others that +inflicted injuries, while all his acts were characterized by violence? He +used soldiers, and barbarians at that, against you. And need any one be +surprised that in those days some vote was passed which should not have +been, when even now we have not obtained a free hand to speak and do what +is requisite in any other way than by the aid of a body-guard? If we had +been formerly endued with this power, he would not have obtained what any +one may say he has obtained, nor would he have risen to the prominence +enabling him to do the deeds that were a natural sequence. Accordingly, +let no one retort that the rights which we were seen to give him under +command and compulsion and amid laments were legally and rightfully +bestowed. For, even in private business, that is not considered binding +which a man does under compulsion from another. + +[-23-] "And yet all these measures which you are seen to have voted you +will find to be slight and varying but little from established custom. +What was there dreadful in the fact that one man was destined to govern +Macedonia or Gaul in place of another? Or what was the harm if a man +obtained soldiers during his consulship? But these are the facts that are +harmful and abominable,--that your land should be damaged, allied cities +besieged, that our soldiers should be armed against us and our means +expended to our detriment: this you neither voted nor intended. Do not, +merely because you have granted him some privileges, allow him to usurp +what was not granted him; and do not think that just as you have conceded +some points he ought similarly to be permitted to do what has not been +conceded. Quite the reverse: you should for this very reason both hate +and punish him, because he has dared not only in this case but in all +other cases to use the honor and kindness that you bestowed against you. +Look at the matter. Through my influence you voted that there should be +peace and harmony between individuals. This man was ordered to manage the +business, and conducted it in such a way (taking Caesar's funeral as a +pretext) that almost the whole city was burned down and great numbers +were once more slaughtered. You ratified all the grants made to various +persons and all the laws laid down by Caesar, not because they were +all excellent--far from it! ,--but because our mutual and unsuspecting +association, quite free from any disguise, was not furthered by changing +any one of those enactments. This man, appointed to examine into them, +has abolished many of his acts and has substituted many others in the +documents. He has taken away lands and citizenship and exemption from +taxes and many other honors from the possessors,--private individuals, +kings, and cities,--and has given them to men who had not received any, +altering the memoranda of Caesar; from those who were unwilling to give +up anything to his grasp he took away even what had been given them, +and sold this and everything else to such as wished to buy. Yet you, +foreseeing this very possibility, had voted that no tablet should be set +up after Caesar's death which might contain any article given by him to +any person. Notwithstanding, it happened many times after that. He also +said it was necessary for some provisions found in Caesar's papers to be +specially noted and put into effect. You then assigned to him, in company +with the foremost men, the task of making these excerpts; but he, paying +no attention to his colleagues, carried out everything alone according to +his wishes, in regard to the laws, the exiles, and other points which I +enumerated a few moments since. This is the way in which he wishes to +execute all your decrees. + +[-24-] "Has he then shown himself such a character only in these affairs, +while managing the rest rightly? In what instance? On what motive? He was +ordered to search for and declare the public money left behind by Caesar, +and did he not seize it, paying some of it to his creditors and spending +some on high living so that he no longer has even any of this left? You +hated the name of dictator on account of Caesar's sovereignty and rejected +it entirely from the constitution: but is it not true that Antony, though +he has avoided adopting it (as if the name in itself could do any harm), +has exhibited the behavior belonging to it and the greed for gain, under +the title of consulship? You assigned to him the duty of promoting +harmony, and has he not on his own responsibility begun this great war, +neither necessary nor sanctioned, against Caesar and Decimus, whom you +approve? Innumerable cases might be mentioned, if one wished to go into +details, in which you entrusted business to him to manage as consul, and +he has not conducted a single bit of it as the circumstances demanded, +but has done quite the opposite, using against you the authority that you +imparted. Now will you assume to yourself also these errors that he has +committed and say that you yourselves are responsible for all that has +happened, because you assigned to him the management and investigation of +the matters in question? It is ridiculous. If some general or envoy that +had been chosen should fail in every way to do his duty, you who sent him +would not incur the blame for this. It would be a sorry state of things, +if all who are elected to perform some work should themselves receive the +advantages and the honors, but lay upon you the complaints and the blame. +[-25-] Accordingly, there is no sense in paying any heed to him when he +says: 'It was you who permitted me to govern Gaul, you ordered me to +administer the public finances, you gave me the legions from Macedonia.' +Perhaps these measures were voted--yet ought you to put it that way, and +not instead exact punishment from him for his action in compelling you to +make that decision? At any rate, you never at any time gave him the +right to restore the exiles, to add laws surreptitiously, to sell the +privileges of citizenship and exemption from taxes, to steal the public +funds, to plunder the possessions of allies, to abuse the cities, or +to undertake to play the tyrant over his native country. And you never +conceded to any one else all that was desired, though you have granted by +your votes many things to many persons; on the contrary you have always +punished such men so far as you could, as you will also punish him, if +you take my advice. For it is not in these matters alone that he has +shown himself to be such a man as you know and have seen him to be, but +briefly in all undertakings which he has ever attempted to perform for +the commonwealth. + +[-26-] "His private life and his private examples of licentiousness +and avarice I shall willingly pass over, not because one would fail to +discover that he had committed many abominable outrages in the course of +them, but because, by Hercules, I am ashamed to describe minutely and +separately--especially to you who know it as well as I--how he conducted +his youth among you who were boys at the time, how he auctioned off +the vigor of his prime, his secret lapses from chastity, his open +fornications, what he let be done to him as long as it was possible, what +he did as early as he could, his revels, his periods of drunkenness, and +all the rest that follows in their train. It is impossible for a person +brought up in so great licentiousness and shamelessness to avoid defiling +his entire life: and so from his private concerns he brought his lewdness +and greed to bear upon public matters. On this I will refrain from +dilating, and likewise by Jupiter on his visit to Gabinius in Egypt +and his flight to Caesar in Gaul, that I may not be charged with going +minutely into every detail; for I feel ashamed for you, that knowing him +to be such a man you appointed him tribune and master of the horse and +subsequently consul. I will at present recite only his drunken insolence +and abuses in these very positions. + +[-27-] "Well, then, when he was tribune he first of all prevented you +from settling suitably the work you then had in hand by shouting and +bawling and alone of all the people opposing the public peace of the +State, until you became vexed and because of his conduct passed the vote +that you did. Then, though by law he was not permitted to be absent from +town a single night, he escaped from the city, abandoning the duties of +his office, and, having gone as a deserter to Caesar's camp, guided the +latter back as a foe to his country, drove you out of Rome and all the +rest of Italy, and, in short, became the prime cause of all the civil +disorders that have since taken place among you. Had he not at that time +acted contrary to your wishes, Caesar would never have found an excuse for +the war and could not, in spite of all his shamelessness, have gathered a +competent force in defiance of your resolutions; but he would have +either voluntarily laid down his arms, or been brought to his senses +unwillingly. As it is, this fellow is the man who furnished him with the +excuses, who destroyed the prestige of the senate, who increased the +audacity of the soldiers. He it is who planted the seeds of evils which +sprang up afterward: he it is who has proved the common bane not only of +us, but also of practically the whole world, as, indeed, Heaven rather +plainly indicated. When, that is to say, he proposed those astonishing +laws, the whole air was filled with thunder and lightning. Yet this +accursed wretch paid no attention to them, though he claims to be a +soothsayer, but filled not only the city but the whole world with the +evils and wars which I mentioned. + +[-28-] "Now after this is there any need of mentioning that he served as +master of the horse an entire year, something which had never before been +done? Or that during this period also he was drunk and abusive and in the +assemblies would frequently vomit the remains of yesterday's debauch on +the rostra itself, in the midst of his harangues? Or that he went about +Italy at the head of pimps and prostitutes and buffoons, women as well as +men, in company with the lictors bearing festoons of laurel? Or that he +alone of mankind dared to buy the property of Pompey, having no regard +for his own dignity or the great man's memory, but grasping eagerly those +possessions over which we even now as at that time shed a tear? He threw +himself upon this and many other estates with the evident intention of +making no recompense for them. Yet with all his insolence and violence +the price was nevertheless collected, for Caesar took this way of +discountenancing his act. And all that he has acquired, vast in extent +and gathered from every source, he has consumed in dicing, consumed in +harlotry, consumed in feasting, consumed in drinking, like a second +Charybdis. + +[-29-] "Of this behavior I shall make no chronicle. But on the subject of +the insults which he offered to the State and the assassinations which +he caused throughout the whole city alike how can any man be silent? Is +memory lacking of how oppressive the very sight of him was to you, but +most of all his deeds? He dared, O thou earth and ye gods, first in +this place, within the wall, in the Forum, in the senate-house, on the +Capitol, at one and the same time to array himself in the purple-bordered +garb, to gird a sword on his thigh, to employ lictors, and to be escorted +by armed soldiers. Next, whereas he might have checked the turmoil of the +citizens, he not only failed to do so, but set you at variance when you +were in concord, partly by his own acts and partly through the medium +of others. Moreover he directed his attention in turn to the latter +themselves, and by now assisting them and now abandoning them[9] incurred +full responsibility for great numbers of them being slain and for the +fact that the entire region of Pontus and of the Parthians was not +subdued at that time immediately after the victory over Pharnaces. Caesar, +being called hither in haste to see what he was doing, did not finish +entirely any of those projects, as he was surely intending. + +[-30-] "Even this result did not sober him, but when he was consul he +came naked, naked, Conscript Fathers, and anointed into the Forum, taking +the Lupercalia as an excuse, then proceeded in company with his lictors +to the rostra, and there harangued us from the elevation. From the day +the city was founded no one can point to any one else, even a praetor or +tribune or aedile, let alone a consul, who has done such a thing. To be +sure it was the festival of the Lupercalia, and the Lupercalia had been +put in charge of the Julian College[10]; yes, and Sextus Clodius had +trained him to conduct himself so, upon receipt of two thousand plethra +of the land of Leontini[11]. But you were consul, respected sir (for I +will address you as though you were present), and it was neither proper +nor permissible for you as such to speak in such a way in the Forum, hard +by the rostra, with all of us present, and to cause us both to behold +your remarkable body, so corpulent and detestable, and to hear your +accursed voice, choked with unguent, speaking those outrageous words; for +I will preferably confine my comment to this point about your mouth. The +Lupercalia would not have missed its proper reverence, but you disgraced +the whole city at once,--not to speak a word yet about your remarks on +that occasion. Who is unaware that the consulship is public, the property +of the whole people, that its dignity must be preserved everywhere, and +that its holder must nowhere strip naked or behave wantonly? [-31-] Did +he perchance imitate the famous Horatius of old or Cloelia of bygone +days? But the latter swam across the river with all her clothing, and +the former cast himself with his armor into the flood. It would be +fitting--would it not?--to set up also a statue of this consul, so that +people might contrast the one man armed in the Tiber and the other naked +in the Forum. It was by such conduct as has been cited that those heroes +of yore were wont to preserve us and give us liberty, while he took away +all our liberty from us, so far as was in his power, destroyed the whole +democracy, set up a despot in place of a consul, a tyrant in place of +a dictator over us. You remember the nature of his language when he +approached the rostra, and the style of his behavior when he had ascended +it. But when a man who is a Roman and a consul has dared to name any one +King of the Romans in the Roman Forum, close to the rostra of liberty, in +the presence of the entire people and the entire senate, and straightway +to set the diadem upon his head and further to affirm falsely in the +hearing of us all that we ourselves bade him say and do this, what most +outrageous deed will that man not dare, and from what action, however +revolting, will he refrain? [-32-] Did we lay this injunction upon you, +Antony, we who expelled the Tarquins, who cherished Brutus, who hurled +Capitolinus headlong, who put to death the Spurii?[12] Did we order you +to salute any one as king, when we have laid a curse upon the very name +of monarch and furthermore upon that of dictator as the most similar? Did +we command you to appoint any one tyrant, we who repulsed Pyrrhus from +Italy, who drove back Antiochus beyond the Taurus, who put an end to the +tyranny even in Macedonia? No, by the rods of Valerius and the law of +Porcius, no, by the leg of Horatius and the hand of Mucius, no, by the +spear of Decius and the sword of Brutus! But you, unspeakable villain, +begged and pleaded to be made a slave as Postumius pleaded to be +delivered to the Samnites, as Regulus to be given back to the +Carthaginians, as Curtius to be thrown into the chasm. And where did +you find this recorded? In the same place where you discovered that the +Cretans had been made free after Brutus was their governor, when we voted +after Caesar's death that he should govern them. + +[-33-] "So then, seeing that you have detected his baneful disposition +in so many and so great enterprises, will you not take vengeance on him +instead of waiting to learn by experience what the man who caused so much +trouble naked will do to you when he is armed? Do you think that he is +not eager for the tyrant's power, that he does not pray to obtain it some +day, or that he will put the pursuit of it out of his thoughts, when he +has once allowed it a resting-place in his mind, and that he will ever +abandon the hope of sole rulership for which he has spoken and acted so +impudently without punishment! What human being who, while master of his +own voice, would undertake to help some one else secure an honor, would +not appropriate it himself when he became powerful? Who that has dared +to nominate another as tyrant over his country and himself at once would +himself refuse to be monarch? [-34-] Hence, even if you spared him +formerly, you must hate him now for these acts. Do not desire to learn +what he will do when his success equals his wishes, but on the basis of +his previous ventures plan beforehand to suffer no further outrages. What +defence could any one make of what took place? That Caesar acted rightly +at that time in accepting neither the name of king nor the diadem? If so, +this man did wrong to offer something which pleased not even Caesar. Or, +on the other hand, that the latter erred in enduring at all to look on at +and listen to such proceedings? If so, and Caesar justly suffered death +for this error, does not this man, admitted in a certain way that he +desired a tyranny, most richly deserve to perish? That this is so is +evident from what I have previously said, but is proved most clearly by +what he did after that. What other end than supremacy had he in mind that +he has undertaken to cause agitation and to meddle in private business, +when he might have enjoyed quiet with safety? What other end, that he has +entered upon campaigns and warfare, when it was in his power to remain at +home without danger? For what reason, when many have disliked to go out +and take charge even of the offices that belonged to them, does he not +only lay claim to Gaul, which pertains to him in not the slightest +degree, but use force upon it because of its unwillingness? For what +reason, when Decimus Brutus is ready to surrender to us himself and +his soldiers and the cities, has this man not imitated him, instead of +besieging and shutting him up? The only interpretation to be put upon it +is that he is strengthening himself in this and every other way against +us, and to no other end. + +[-35-] "Seeing this, do we delay and give way to weakness and train up so +monstrous a tyrant against our own selves? Is it not disgraceful that our +forefathers, brought up in slavery, felt the desire for liberty, but we +who have lived under an independent government become slaves of our own +free will? Or again, that we were glad to rid ourselves of the dominion +of Caesar, though we had first received many favors from his hands, and +accept in his stead this man, a self-elected despot, who is far worse +than he; this allegation is proved by the fact that Caesar spared many +after his victories in war, but this follower of his before attaining any +power has slaughtered three hundred soldiers, among them some centurions, +guilty of no wrong, at home, in his own quarters, before the face and +eyes of his wife, so that she too was defiled with blood. What do you +think that the man who treated them so cruelly, when he owed them +care, will refrain from doing to all of you,--aye, down to the utmost +outrage,--if he shall conquer? And how can you believe that the man who +has lived so licentiously even to the present time will not proceed to +all extremes of wantonness, if he shall further secure the authority +given by arms? + +[-36-] "Do not, then, wait until you have suffered some such treatment +and begin to rue it, but guard yourselves before you are molested. It is +out of the question to allow dangers to come upon you and then repent of +it, when you might have anticipated them. And do not choose to neglect +the seriousness of the present situation and then ask again for another +Cassius or some more Brutuses. It is ridiculous, when we have the power +of aiding ourselves in time, to seek later on men to set us free. Perhaps +we should not even find them, especially if we handle in such a way +the present situation. Who would privately choose to run risks for the +democracy, when he sees that we are publicly resigned to slavery? It must +be evident to every man that Antony will not rest contented with what +he is now doing, but that in far off and small concerns even he is +strengthening himself against us. He is warring against Decimus and +besieging Mutina for no other purpose than to provide himself, by +conquering and capturing them, with resources against us. He has not been +wronged by them that he can appear to be defending himself, nor does he +merely desire the property that they possess and with this in mind endure +toils and dangers, while ready and willing to relinquish that belonging +to us, who own their property and much beside. Shall we wait for him to +secure the prize and still more, and so become a dangerous foe? Shall we +trust his deception when he says that he is not warring against the City? +[-37-] Who is so silly as to decide whether a man is making war on us or +not by his words rather than by his deeds? I do not say that now for the +first time is he unfriendly to us, when he has abandoned the City and +made a campaign against allies and is assailing Brutus and besieging the +cities; but on the basis of his former evil and licentious behavior, not +only after Caesar's death but even in the latter's lifetime, I decide that +he has shown himself an enemy of our government and liberty and a plotter +against them. Who that loved his country or hated tyranny would have +committed a single one of the many and manifold offences laid to this +man's charge? From every point of view he is proved to have long been an +enemy of ours, and the case stands as follows. If we now take measures +against him with all speed, we shall get back all that has been lost: +but if, neglecting to do this, we wait till he himself admits that he is +plotting against us, we shall lose everything. This he will never do, not +even if he should actually march upon the City, any more than Marius or +Cinna or Sulla did. But if he gets control of affairs, he will not fail +to act precisely as they did, or still worse. Men who are anxious to +accomplish an object are wont to say one thing, and those who have +succeeded in accomplishing it are wont to do quite a different thing. To +gain their end they pretend anything, but having obtained it they deny +themselves the gratification of no desire. Furthermore, the last born +always desire to surpass what their predecessors have ventured: they +think it a small thing to behave like them and do something that has been +effected before, but determine that something original is the only thing +worthy of them, because unexpected. + +[-38-] "Seeing this, then, Conscript Fathers, let us no longer delay nor +fall a prey to the indolence that the moment inspires, but let us take +thought for the safety that concerns the future. Surely it is a shame +when Caesar, who has just emerged from boyhood and was recently registered +among those having attained years of discretion, shows such great +interest in the State as to spend his money and gather soldiers for +its preservation that we should neither ourselves perform our duty +nor coöperate with him even after obtaining a tangible proof of his +good-will. Who is unaware that if he had not reached here with the +soldiers from Campania, Antony would certainly have come rushing from +Brundusium instanter, just as he was, and would have burst into our city +with all his armies like a winter torrent?[13] There is, moreover, a +striking inconsistency in our conduct. Men who have long been campaigning +voluntarily have put themselves at your service for the present crisis, +regarding neither their age nor the wounds which they received in past +years while fighting for you, and you both refuse to ratify the war in +which these very men elected to serve, and show yourselves inferior to +them, who are ready to face dangers; for while you praise the soldiers +that detected the defilement of Antony and withdrew from him, though he +was consul, and attached themselves to Caesar, (that is, to you through +him), you shrink from voting for that which you say they were right in +doing. Also we are grateful to Brutus that he did not even at the +start admit Antony to Gaul, and is trying to repel him now that Antony +confronts him with a force. Why in the world do we not ourselves do the +same? Why do we not imitate the rest whom we praise for their sound +judgment? There are only two courses open to us. [-39-] One is to say +that all these men,--Caesar, I mean, and Brutus, the old soldiers, the +legions,--have decided wrongly and ought to submit to punishment, because +without our sanction or that of the people they have dared to offer armed +resistance to their consul, some having deserted his standard, and others +having been gathered against him. The other is to say that Antony by +reason of his deeds has in our judgment long since admitted that he is +our enemy and by public consent ought to be chastised by us all. No one +can be ignorant that the latter decision is not only more just but more +expedient for us. The man neither understands how to handle business +himself (how or by what means could a person that lives in drunkenness +and dicing?) nor has he any companion who is of any account. He loves +only such as are like himself and makes them the confidants of all his +open and secret undertakings. Also he is most cowardly in extreme dangers +and most treacherous even to his intimate friends, neither of which +qualities is suited for generalship or war. [-40-] Who can be unaware +that this very man caused all our internal troubles and then shared the +dangers to the slightest possible degree? He tarried long in Brundusium +through cowardice, so that Caesar was isolated and on account of him +almost failed: likewise he held aloof from all succeeding wars,--that +against the Egyptians, against Pharnaces, the African, and the Spanish. +Who is unaware that he won the favor of Clodius, and after using the +latter's tribuneship for the most outrageous ends would have killed him +with his own hand, if I had accepted this promise from him? Again, in the +matter of Caesar, he was first associated with him as quaestor, when Caesar +was praetor in Spain, next attached himself to him during the tribuneship, +contrary to the liking of us all, and later received from him countless +money and excessive honors: in return for this he tried to inspire his +patron with a desire for supremacy, which led to talk against him and was +more than anything else responsible for Caesar's death. + +[-41-] "Yet he once stated that it was I who directed the assassins to +their work. He is so senseless as to venture to invent so great praise +for me. And I for my part do not affirm that he was the actual slayer of +Caesar,--not because he was not willing, but because in this, too, he was +timid,--yet by the very course of his actions I say that Caesar perished +at his hands. For this is the man who provided a motive, so that there +seemed to be some justice in plotting against him, this is he who called +him 'king', who gave him the diadem, who previously slandered him +actually to his friends. Do I rejoice at the death of Caesar, I, who never +enjoyed anything but liberty at his hands, and is Antony grieved, who has +rapaciously seized his whole property and committed many injuries on +the pretext of his letters, and is finally hastening to succeed to his +position of ruler? + +[-42-] "But I return to the point that he has none of the qualities of a +great general or such as to bring victory, and does not possess many or +formidable forces. The majority of the soldiers and the best ones have +abandoned him to his fate, and also, by Jupiter, he has been deprived +of the elephants. The remainder have perfected themselves rather in +outraging and pillaging the possessions of the allies than in waging war, +A proof of the sort of spirit that animates them lies in the fact that +they still adhere to him, and of their lack of fortitude in that they +have not taken Mutina, though they have now been besieging it for so long +a time. Such is the condition of Antony and of his followers found to be. +But Caesar and Brutus and those arrayed with them are firmly intrenched +without outside aid; Caesar, in fact, has won over many of his rival's +soldiers, and Brutus is keeping the same usurper out of Gaul: and if you +come to their assistance, first by approving what they have done of their +own motion, next by ratifying their acts, at the same time giving them +legal authority for the future, and next by sending out both the consuls +to take charge of the war, it is not possible that any of his present +associates will continue to aid him. However, even if they should cling +to him most tenaciously, they would not he able to resist all the rest +at once, but he will either lay down his arms voluntarily, as soon as +he ascertains that you have passed this vote, and place himself in your +hands, or he will be captured involuntarily as the result of one battle. + +"I give you this advice, and, if it had been my lot to be consul, I +should have certainly carried it out, as I did in former days when I +defended you against Catiline and Lentulus (a relative of this very man), +who had formed a conspiracy. [-43-] Perhaps some one of you regards these +statements as well put, but thinks we ought first to despatch envoys to +him, then, after learning his decision, in case he will voluntarily give +up his arms and submit himself to you, to take no action, but if he +sticks to the same principles, then to declare war upon him: this is the +advice which I hear some persons wish to give you. This policy is very +attractive in theory, but in fact it is disgraceful and dangerous to the +city. Is it not disgraceful that you should employ heralds and embassies +to citizens? With foreign nations it is proper and necessary to treat by +heralds in advance, but upon citizens who are at all guilty you should +inflict punishment straightway, by trying them in court if you can get +them under the power of your votes, and by warring against them if you +find them in arms. All such are slaves of you and of the people and of +the laws, whether they wish it or not; and it is not fitting either to +coddle them or to put them on an equal footing with the highest class of +free persons, but to pursue and chastise them like runaway servants, with +a feeling of your own superiority. [-44-] Is it not a disgrace that he +should not delay to wrong us, but we delay to defend ourselves? Or again, +that he should for a long time, weapons in hand, have been carrying on +the entire practice of war, while we waste time in decrees and embassies, +and that we should retaliate only with letters and phrases upon the man +whom we have long since discovered by his deeds to be a wrongdoer? What +do we expect? That he will some day render us obedience and pay us +respect? How can this prove true of a man who has come into such a +condition that he would not be able, even should he wish it, to be an +ordinary citizen with you under a democratic government? If he were +willing to conduct his life on fair and equitable principles, he would +never have entered in the first place upon such a career as his: and if +he had done it under the influence of folly or recklessness, he would +certainly have given it up speedily of his own accord. As the case +stands, since he has once overstepped the limits imposed by the laws and +the government and has acquired some power and authority by this action, +it is not conceivable that he would change of his own free will or heed +any one of our resolutions, but it is absolutely requisite that such a +man should be chastised with those very weapons with which he has dared +to wrong us. [-45-] And I beg you now to remember particularly a sentence +which this man himself once uttered, that it is impossible for you to be +saved, unless you conquer. Hence those who bid you send envoys are doing +nothing else than planning how you may be dilatory and the body of your +allies become as a consequence more feeble and dispirited; while he, on +the other hand, will be doing whatever he pleases, will destroy Decimus, +storm Mutina, and capture all of Gaul: the result will be that we can no +longer find means to deal with him, but shall be under the necessity of +trembling before him, paying court to him, worshiping him. This one thing +more about the embassy and I am done:--that Antony also gave you no +account of what business he had in hand, because he intended that you +should do this. + +"I, therefore, for these and all other reasons advise you not to delay +nor to lose time, but to make war upon him as quickly as possible. You +must reflect that the majority of enterprises owe their success rather to +an opportune occasion than to their strength; and you should by all means +feel perfectly sure that I would never give up peace if it were really +peace, in the midst of which I have most influence and have acquired +wealth and reputation, nor have urged you to make war, did I not think it +to your advantage. + +[-46-] And I advise you, Calenus, and the rest who are of the same mind +as you, to be quiet and allow the senate to vote the requisite measures +and not for the sake of your private good-will toward Antony recklessly +betray the common interests of all of us. Indeed, I am of the opinion, +Conscript Fathers, that if you heed my counsel I may enjoy in your +company and with thorough satisfaction freedom and preservation, but that +if you vote anything different, I shall choose to die rather than to +live. I have, in general, never been afraid of death as a consequence of +my outspokenness, and now I fear it least of all. That accounts, indeed, +for my overwhelming success, the proof of which lies in the fact that +you decreed a sacrifice and festival in memory of the deeds done in my +consulship,--an honor which had never before been granted to any one, +even to one who had achieved some great end in war. Death, if it befell +me, would not be at all unseasonable, especially when you consider that +my consulship was so many years ago; yet remember that in that very +consulship I uttered the same sentiment, to make you feel that in any +and all business I despised death. To dread any one, however, that was +against you, and in your company to be a slave to any one would prove +exceedingly unseasonable to me. Wherefore I deem this last to be the ruin +and destruction not only of the body, but of the soul and reputation, +by which we become in a certain sense immortal. But to die speaking and +acting in your behalf I regard as equivalent to immortality. + +[-47-] "And if Antony, also, felt the force of this, he would never have +entered upon such a career, but would have even preferred to die like his +grandfather rather than to behave like Cinna who killed him. For, putting +aside other considerations, Cinna was in turn slain not long afterward +for this and the other sins that he had committed; so that I am surprised +also at this feature in Antony's conduct, that, imitating his works as +he does, he shows no fear of some day falling a victim to a similar +disaster: the murdered man, however, left behind to this very descendant +the reputation of greatness. But the latter has no longer any claim to +be saved on account of his relatives, since he has neither emulated his +grandfather nor inherited his father's property. Who is unaware of the +fact that in restoring many who were exiled in Caesar's time and later, in +accordance forsooth with directions in his patron's papers, he did not +aid his uncle, but brought back his fellow-gambler Lenticulus, who was +exiled for his unprincipal life, and cherishes Bambalio, who is notorious +for his very name, while he has treated his nearest relatives as I have +described and as if he were half angry at them because he was born into +that family. Consequently he never inherited his father's goods, but has +been the heir of very many others, some whom he never saw or heard +of, and others who are still living. That is, he has so stripped and +despoiled them that they differ in no way from dead men." + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +46 + +The following is contained in the Forty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Calenus replied to Cicero in defence of Antony (chapters 1-28). + +How Antony was defeated at Mutina by Caesar and the consuls (chapters +29-38). + +How Caesar came to Rome and was appointed consul (chapters 39-49). + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus formed a solemn pact of union (chapters +50-56). + +Duration of time one year, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +C. Vibius C. filius Pansa Capronianus, Aulus Hirtius Auli filius (B.C. 43 += a. u. 711). + + +(_BOOK 46, BOISSAVAIN_) + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711) ] + +[-1-] When Cicero had finished speaking in this vein, Quintus Fufius +Calenus arose and said:--"Ordinarily I should not have wished either to +say anything in defence of Antony or to assail Cicero. I really do not +think it proper in such discussions as is the present to do either of +these things, but simply to make known what one's opinion is. The +former method belongs to the courtroom, whereas this is a matter of +deliberation. Since, however, he has undertaken to speak ill of Antony on +account of the enmity that exists between them, instead of sending him a +summons, as he ought, if Antony were guilty of any wrong, and since he +has further mentioned me in a calumnious fashion, as if he could not have +exhibited his cleverness without heedlessly insulting one or two persons, +it behooves me also to set aside the imputation against Antony and to +bring counter-charges against the speaker. I would not have his innate +impudence fail of a response nor let my silence aid him by incurring the +suspicion of a guilty conscience; nor would I have you, deceived by what +he said, come to a less worthy decision by accepting his private spleen +against Antony in exchange for the common advantage. [-2-] He wishes +to effect nothing else than that we should abandon looking out for the +safest course for the commonwealth and fall into discord again. It is not +the first time that he has done this, but from the outset, ever since he +had to do with politics, he has been continually causing disturbance one +way or the other. + +"Is he not the one who embroiled Caesar with Pompey and prevented Pompey +from becoming reconciled with Caesar? The one who persuaded you to pass +that vote against Antony by which he irritated Caesar, and persuaded +Pompey to leave Italy and transfer his quarters to Macedonìa? This proved +the chief cause of all the evils which befell us subsequently. Is not he +the one who killed Clodius by the hand of Milo, and slew Caesar by the +hand of Brutus? The one who made Catiline hostile to us and despatched +Lentulus without a trial? [-3-] Hence I should be very much surprised +at you, seeing that you then changed your mind about his conduct just +mentioned and made him pay the penalty for it, if you should now heed him +again, when his talk and actions are similar. Do you not see, too, that +after Caesar's death when our affairs were settled in a most tranquil way +by Antony, as not even his accuser can deny, the latter left town because +he deemed our life of harmony to be alien and dangerous to him? That when +he perceived that turmoil had again arisen, he bade a long farewell to +his son and to Athens, and returned? That he insults and abuses Antony, +whom he was wont to say he loved, and coöperates with Caesar, whose father +he killed? And if chance so favor, he will ere long attack Caesar also. +For the fellow is naturally distrustful and turbulent and has no ballast +in his soul, and he is always stirring things up and twisting about, +turning more ways than the sea-passage to which he fled and got the title +of deserter for it, asking all of you to take that man for friend or foe +whom he bids. + +[-4-] "For these reasons be on your guard against man. He is a juggler +and imposter and grows rich and strong from the ills of others, +blackmailing, dragging, tearing the innocent, as do dogs; but in the +midst of public harmony he is embarrassed and withers away. It is not +friendship or good-will among us that can support this kind of orator. +From what other source do you think he has become rich or from what other +source great? Certainly neither family nor wealth was bequeathed him by +his father the fuller, who was always trading in grapes and olives, a man +who was glad to make both ends meet by this and by his washing, and whose +time was taken up every day and night with the vilest occupations. The +son, having been brought up in them, not unnaturally tramples and dowses +his superiors, using a species of abuse invented in the workshops and on +the street corners. + +[-5-] "Now being of such an origin yourself, and after growing up naked +among your naked companions, picking up pig manure and sheep dung and +human excrement, have you dared, O most accursed wretch, first to slander +the youth of Antony who had the advantage of pedagogues and teachers as +his rank demanded, and next to impugn him because in celebrating the +Lupercalia, an ancestral festival, he came naked into the Forum? But I +ask you, you that always used all the clothes of others on account +of your father's business and were stripped by whoever met you and +recognized them, what ought a man who was not only priest but also leader +of his fellow priests to have done? Not to conduct the procession, not to +celebrate the festival, not to sacrifice according to ancestral custom, +not to appear naked, not to anoint himself? 'But it is not for that that +I censure him,' he answers, 'but because he delivered a speech and +that kind of speech naked in the Forum.' Of course this man has become +acquainted in the fuller's shop with all minute matters of etiquette, +that he should detect a real mistake and be able to rebuke it properly. + +[-6-] "In regard to this matter I will say later all that needs to be +said, but just now I want to ask the speaker a question or two. Is it +not true that you for your part were nourished by the ills of others and +educated in the misfortunes of your neighbors and for this reason are +acquainted with no liberal branch of knowledge, that you have established +a kind of association here and are always waiting, like the harlots, for +a man who will give something, and that having many men in your pay to +attract profit to you you pry into people's affairs to find out who has +wronged (or seems to have wronged) whom, who hates whom, and who is +plotting against whom? With these men you make common cause, and through +these men you are supported, selling them the hopes that chance bestows, +trading in the decisions of the jurors, deeming him alone a friend who +gives more and more, and all those enemies who furnish you no business or +employ some other advocate, while you pretend not even to know those who +are already in your clutch and affect to be bored by them, but fawn upon +and giggle at those just approaching, like the mistresses of inns? + +[-7-] How much better it were that you too should have been born +Bambalio,--if this Bambalio really exists,--than to have taken up such a +livelihood, in which it is absolutely inevitable that you should either +sell your speech in behalf of the innocent, or else preserve the guilty. +Yet you can not do even this effectively, though you wasted three years +in Athens. On what occasion? By what help? Why, you always come trembling +up to court as if you were going to fight in armor and after speaking a +few words in a low and half-dead voice you go away, not remembering a +word of the speech you practiced at home before you came, and without +finding anything to say on the spur of the moment. In making affirmations +and promises you surpass all mankind in audacity, but in the contests +themselves beyond uttering some words of abuse and defamation you are +most weak and cowardly. Do you think any one is ignorant of the fact that +you never delivered one of those wonderful speeches of yours that you +have published, but wrote them all up afterward, like persons who form +generals and masters-of-horse out of day? If you feel doubtful of this +point, remember how you accused Verres,--though, to be sure, you only +gave him an example of your father's trade, when you made water. + +[-8-] "But I hesitate, for fear that in saying precisely what fits your +case I may seem to be uttering words that are unfitting for myself.[14] +This I will pass over; and further, by Jupiter, also the affairs of +Gabinius, against whom, you prepared accusers and then pled his cause in +such a way that he was condemned; and the pamphlets which you compose +against your friends, in regard to which you feel yourself so guilty +that you do not dare to make them public. Yet it is a most miserable and +pitiable state to be in, not to be able to deny these charges which are +the most disgraceful conceivable to admit. But I will leave these to one +side and bring forward the rest. Well, though we did grant the trainer, +as you say, two thousand plethra of the ager Leontinus, we still learned +nothing adequate from it.[15] But who should not admire your system of +instruction? And what is it? You are ever jealous of your superiors, +you always toady to the prominent man, you slander him who has attained +distinction, you inform against the powerful and you hate equally all the +excellent, and you pretend love only for those through whom you may do +some mischief. This is why you are always inciting the younger against +their elders and lead those who trust you even in the slightest into +dangers, where you desert them. [-9-] A proof of this is, that you have +never accomplished any achievement worthy of a distinguished man either +in war or in peace. How many wars have we won under you as praetor and +what kind of territory did we acquire with you as consul? Your private +activity all these years has consisted in continually deceiving some of +the foremost men and winning them to your side and managing everything +you like, while publicly you have been shouting and bawling out at random +those detestable phrases,--'I am the only one that loves you,' or, if it +should so chance, 'And what's-his-name, all the rest, hate you,' and 'I +alone am friendly to you, all the rest are engaged in plots,' and other +such stuff by which you fill some with elation and conceit, only to +betray them, and scare the rest so that you gain their attachment. If any +service is rendered by any one whomsoever of the whole people, you lay +claim to it and write your own name upon it, repeating: 'I moved it, I +proposed it, it was through me that this was done so.' But if anything +happens that ought not to have occurred, you take yourself out of the way +and censure all the rest, saying: 'You see I wasn't praetor, you see +I wasn't envoy, you see I wasn't consul.' And you abuse everybody +everywhere all the time, setting more store by the influence which +comes from appearing to speak your mind boldly than by saying what duty +demands: and you exhibit no important quality of an orator. [-10-] What +public advantage has been preserved or established by you? Who that +was really harming the city have you indicted, and who that was really +plotting against us have you brought to light? To neglect the other +cases,--these very charges which you now bring against Antony are of such +a nature and so many that no one could ever suffer any adequate penalty +for them. Why, then, if you saw us being wronged by him at the start, as +you assert, did you never attack or accuse him at the time, instead of +telling us now all the transgressions he committed when tribune, all his +irregularities when master of horse, all his villanies when consul? You +might at once, at the time, in each specific instance, have inflicted the +appropriate penalty upon him, if you had wanted to show yourself in very +deed a patriot, and we could have imposed the punishment in security +and safety during the course of the offences themselves. One of two +conclusions is inevitable,--either that you believed this to be so at the +time and renounced the idea of a struggle in our behalf, or else that you +could not prove any of your charges and are now engaged in a reckless +course of blackmail. + +[-11-] "That this is so I will show you clearly, Conscript Fathers, by +going over each point in detail. Antony did say some words during his +tribuneship in Caesar's behalf: Cicero and some others spoke in behalf of +Pompey. Why now does he accuse him of preferring one man's friendship, +but acquit himself and the rest who warmly embraced the opposite cause? +Antony, to be sure, hindered at that time some measures adverse to Caesar +from being passed: and Cicero hindered practically everything that was +known to be favorable to Caesar. 'But Antony obstructed,' he replies, 'the +public judgment of the senate.' Well, now, in the first place, how could +one man have had so much power? Second, if he had been condemned for +this, as is said, how could he have escaped punishment? 'Oh, he fled, he +fled to Caesar and got out of the way.' Of course you, Cicero, did not +'leave town' just now, but you fled, as in your former exile.[16] Don't +be so ready to apply your own shame to all of us. To flee is what you +did, in fear of the court, and pronouncing condemnation on yourself +beforehand. Yes, to be sure, an ordinance was passed for your recall; how +and for what reasons I do not say, but at any rate it was passed, and you +did not set foot in Italy before the recall was granted. But Antony both +went away to Caesar to inform him what had been done and returned, without +asking for any decree, and finally effected peace and friendship with him +for all those that were found in Italy. And the rest, too, would have had +a share in it, if they had not taken your advice and fled. [-12-] Now in +view of those circumstances do you dare to say he led Caesar against his +country and stirred up the civil war and became more than any one else +responsible for the subsequent evils that befell us? Not so, but you, +who gave Pompey legions that belonged to others and the command, and +undertook to deprive Caesar even of those that had been given him: it was +you, who agreed with Pompey and the consuls not to accept the offers made +by Caesar, but to abandon the city and the whole of Italy: you, who did +not see Caesar even when he entered Rome, but had run off to Pompey +and into Macedonia. Not even to him, however, did you prove of any +assistance, but you neglected what was going on, and then, when he met +with misfortune, you abandoned him. Therefore you did not aid him at the +outset on the ground that he had the juster cause, but after setting +in motion the dispute and embroiling affairs you lay in wait at a safe +distance for a favorable turn; you at once deserted the man who failed, +as if that somehow proved him guilty, and went over to the victor, as if +you deemed him more just. And in addition to your other defects you are +so ungrateful that not only are you not satisfied to have been preserved +by him, but you are actually displeased that you were not made master of +the horse. + +[-13-] "Then with this on your conscience do you dare to say that Antony +ought not to have held the office of master of the horse for a year, and +that Caesar ought not to have remained dictator for a year? But whether it +was wise or necessary for these measures to be framed, at any rate they +were both passed, and they suited us and the people. Censure these men, +Cicero, if they have transgressed in any particular, but not, by Jupiter, +those whom they have chosen to honor for showing themselves worthy of +so great a reward. For if we were forced by the circumstances that then +surrounded us to act in this way and contrary to good policy, why do you +now lay this upon Antony's shoulders, and why did you not oppose it then +if you were able? Because, by Jupiter, you were afraid. Then shall you, +who were at that time silent, obtain pardon for your cowardice, and shall +he, because he was preferred before you, submit to penalties for his +excellence? Where did you learn that this was just, or where did you read +that this was lawful? + +[-14-] "'But he did not rightly use his position as master of horse.' +Why? 'Because,' he answers, 'he bought Pompey's possessions.' How many +others are there who purchased numberless articles, no one of whom +is blamed? That was the purpose in confiscating certain articles and +exposing them in the market and proclaiming them by the voice of the +public crier, to have somebody buy them. 'But Pompey's goods ought not to +have been sold.' Then it was we who erred and did wrong in confiscating +them; or (to clear your skirts and ours) it was at least Caesar who acted +irregularly, he who ordered this to be done: yet you did not censure him +at all. I maintain that in this charge he is proven to be absolutely +beside himself. He has brought against Antony two quite opposite +accusations,--one, that after helping Caesar in very many ways and +receiving in return vast gifts from him he was then required under +compulsion to surrender the price of them, and the second, that he +inherited naught from his father, spent all that he had like Charybdis +(the speaker is always bringing in some comparison from Sicily, as if we +had forgotten that he had been exiled there), and paid the price of all +that he purchased. + +[-15-] "So in these charges this remarkable orator is convicted of +violently contradicting himself and, by Jupiter, again in the following +statements. At one time he says that Antony took part in everything +that was done by Caesar and by this means became more than any one else +responsible for all our internal evils, and again he charges him with +cowardice, reproaching him with not having shared in any other exploits +than those performed in Thessaly. And he makes a complaint against him to +the effect that he restored some of the exiles and finds fault with him +because he did not secure the recall of his uncle; as if any one believes +that he would not have restored him first of all, if he had been able to +recall whomsoever he pleased, since there was no grievance on either side +between them, as this speaker himself knows. Indeed, though he told many +wretched lies about Antony, he did not dare to say anything of that kind. +But he is utterly reckless about letting slip anything that comes to his +tongue's end, as if it were mere breath. + +[-16-] "Why should one follow this line of refutation further? Turning +now to the fact that he goes about with such a tragic air, and has but +this moment said in the course of his remarks that Antony rendered the +sight of the master of the horse most oppressive by using everywhere +and under all circumstances the sword, the purple, the lictors, and the +soldiers at once, let him tell me clearly how and in what respect we have +been wronged by this. He will have no statement to make; for if he had +had, he would have sputtered it out before anything else. Quite the +reverse of his charge is true. Those who were quarreling at that time +and causing all the trouble were Trebellius and Dolabella: Antony did no +wrong and was active in every way in our behalf, so much so that he was +entrusted by us with guarding the city against those very men, and not +only did this remarkable orator not oppose it (he was there) but even +approved it. Else let him show what syllable he uttered on seeing the +licentious and accursed fellow (to quote from his abuse), besides doing +nothing that the occasion required, securing also so great authority from +you. He will have nothing to show. So it looks as if not a word of what +he now shouts aloud was ventured at that time by this great and patriotic +orator, who is everywhere and always saying and repeating: 'I alone am +contending for freedom, I alone speak freely for the democracy; I cannot +be restrained by favor of friends or fear of enemies from looking out for +your advantage; I, even if it should be my lot to die in speaking in your +behalf, will perish very gladly.' And his silence was very natural, for +it occurred to him to reflect that Antony possessed the lictors and the +purple-bordered vesture in accordance with the customs of our ancestors +in regard to masters of horse, and that he was using the sword and the +soldiers perforce against the rebels. For what most excessive outrages +would they not have committed but for his being hedged about with these +protections, when some of them so despised him as it was? + +[-17-] "That these and all his other acts were correct and most +thoroughly in accord with Caesar's intention the facts themselves show. +The rebellion went no further, and Antony, far from paying a penalty for +his course, was subsequently appointed consul. Notice, I beg of you, how +he administered this office of his. You will find, if you scrutinize the +matter minutely, that its tenure proved of great value to the city. +His traducer, knowing this, could not endure his jealousy but dared to +slander him for those deeds which he would have longed to do himself. +That is why he introduced the matter of his stripping and anointing and +those ancient fables, not because there was any pertinence in them now, +but in order to obscure by external noise his opponent's consummate skill +and success. Yet this same Antony, O thou earth, and ye gods (I shall +call louder than you and invoke them with greater justice), saw that the +city was already in reality under a tyranny through the fact that all +the legions obeyed Caesar and all the people together with the senate +submitted to him to such an extent that they voted among other measures +that he should be dictator for life and use the appurtenances of a king. +Then he showed Caesar his error most convincingly and restrained him most +prudently, until the latter, abashed and afraid, would not accept either +the name of king or the diadem, which he had in mind to bestow upon +himself even against our will. Any other man would have declared that +he had been ordered to do it by his master, and putting forward the +compulsion as an excuse would have obtained pardon for it,--yes, indeed, +he would, when you think of what kind of votes we had passed at that time +and what power the soldiers had secured. Antony, however, because he was +thoroughly acquainted with Caesar's disposition and accurately aware of +all he was preparing to do, by great good judgment succeeded in turning +him aside from his course and retarding his ambitions. The proof of it +is that afterward he no longer behaved in any way like a monarch, but +mingled publicly and unprotected with us all; and that accounts most of +all for the possibility of his meeting the fate that he did. + +[-18-] "This is what was done, O Cicero or Cicerulus or Ciceracius or +Ciceriscus or Graeculus[17] or whatever you like to be called, by the +uneducated, the naked, the anointed man: and none of it was done by you, +the clever, the wise, the user of much more olive oil than wine, you who +let your clothing drag about your ankles not, by Jupiter, as the dancers +do, who teach you intricacies of reasoning by their poses, but in order +to hide the ugliness of your legs. Oh no, it's not through modesty that +you do this, you who delivered that long screed about Antony's habits. +Who is there that does not see these soft clothes of yours? Who does not +scent your carefully combed gray locks? Who is there unaware that you put +away your first wife who had borne you two children, and at an advanced +age married another, a mere girl, in order that you might pay your debts +out of her property? And you did not even retain her, to the end that you +might keep Caerellia fearlessly, whom you debauched when she was as much +older than yourself as the maiden you married was younger, and to whom +you write such letters as a jester at no loss for words would write if +he were trying to get up an amour with a woman seventy years old. +This, which is not altogether to my taste, I have been induced to say, +Conscript Fathers, in the hope that he should not go away without getting +as good as he sent in the discussion. Again, he has ventured to reproach +Antony for a little kind of banquet, because he, as he says, drinks +water, his purpose being to sit up at night and compose speeches against +us,--though he brings up his son in such drunkenness that the latter is +sober neither night nor day. Furthermore he undertook to make derogatory +remarks about Antony's mouth, this man who has shown so great +licentiousness and impurity throughout his entire life that he would not +keep his hands off even his closest kin, but let out his wife for hire +and deflowered his daughter. + +[-18-] "These particulars I shall leave as they stand and return to the +point where I started. That Antony against whom he has inveighed, seeing +Caesar exalted over our government, caused him by granting what seemed +personal favors to a friend not to put into effect any of the projects +that he had in mind. Nothing so diverts persons from objects which they +may attain without caring to secure them righteously, as for those who +fear such results to appear to endure the former's conduct willingly. +These persons in authority have no regard for their own consciousness of +guilt, but if they think they have been detected, they are ashamed and +afraid: thereafter they usually take what is said to them as flattery and +believe the opposite, and any action which may result from the words as +a plot, being suspicious in the midst of their shame. Antony knew +this thoroughly, and first of all he selected the Lupercalia and that +procession in order that Caesar in the relaxation of his spirit and the +fun of the affair might be rebuked with immunity, and next he selected +the Forum and the rostra that his patron might be shamed by the very +places. And he fabricated the commands from the populace, in order that +hearing them Caesar might reflect not on what Antony was saying at the +time, but on what the Roman people would order a man to say. How could +he have believed that this injunction had really been laid upon any one, +when he knew that the people had not voted anything of the kind and did +not hear them shouting out. But it was right for him to hear this in the +Roman Forum, where we had often joined in many deliberations for freedom, +and beside the rostra from which we had sent forth thousands and +thousands of measures in behalf of the democracy, and at the festival of +the Lupercalia, in order that he should remember Romulus, and from the +mouth of the consul that he might call to mind the deeds of the early +consuls, and in the name of the people, that he might ponder the fact +that he was undertaking to be tyrant not over Africans or Gauls or +Egyptians, but over very Romans. These words made him turn about; they +humiliated him. And whereas if any one else had offered him the diadem, +he might have taken it, he was then stopped short by that speech and felt +a shudder of alarm. + +"These, then are the deeds of Antony: he did not uselessly break a leg, +in order himself to escape, nor burn off a hand, in order to frighten +Porsenna, but by his cleverness and consummate skill he put an end to +the tyranny of Caesar better than any spear of Decius and better than the +sword of Brutus. [-20-] But you, Cicero, what did you effect in your +consulship, not to mention wise and good things, that was not deserving +of the greatest punishment? Did you not throw our city into uproar and +party strife when it was quiet and harmonious, and fill the Forum and +Capitol with slaves, among others, that you had called to your aid? Did +you not ruin miserably Catiline, who was overanxious for office, but +otherwise guilty of no violence? Did you not pitiably destroy Lentulus +and his followers, who were not guilty, not tried, and not convicted, in +spite of the fact that you are always and everywhere prating interminably +about the laws and about the courts? If any one should take these phrases +from your speeches, there is nothing left. You censured Pompey because +he conducted the trial of Milo contrary to legalized precedent: yet you +afforded Lentulus no privilege great or small that is enjoined in these +cases, but without a speech or trial you cast him into prison, a man +respectable, aged, whose ancestors had given many great pledges that he +would be friendly to his country, and who by reason of his age and his +character had no power to do anything revolutionary. What trouble did he +have that would have been cured by the change of condition? What blessing +did he possess that would not certainly be jeopardized by rebellion? What +arms had he collected, what allies had he equipped, that a man who had +been consul and was praetor should be so pitilessly and impiously cast +into a cell without being allowed to say a word of defence or hear a +single charge, and die there like the basest criminals? For this is what +this excellent Tullius most of all desired,--that in [the Tullianum,] the +place that bears his name, he might put to death the grandson of that +Lentulus once became the head of the senate. [-21-] What would he +have done if he had obtained authority to bear arms, seeing that he +accomplished so many things of such a nature by his words alone? These +are your brilliant achievements, these are your great exhibitions of +generalship; and not only were you condemned for them by the rest, but +you were so ready to vote against your own self in the matter that you +fled before your trial came on. Yet what greater demonstration of your +bloodguiltiness could there be than that you came in danger of perishing +at the hands of those very persons in whose behalf you pretended you had +done this, that you were afraid of the very ones whom you said you had +benefited by these acts, and that you did not wait to hear from them or +say a word to them, you clever, you extraordinary man, you aider of other +people, but secured your safety by flight as if from a battle? And you +are so shameless that you have undertaken to write a history of these +events that I have related, whereas you ought to have prayed that no +other man even should give an account of any of them: then you might at +least derive this advantage, that your doings should die with you and no +memory of them be transmitted to posterity. Now, gentlemen, if you want +to laugh, listen to his clever device. He set himself the task of writing +a history of the entire existence of the city (for he pretends to be a +sophist and poet and philosopher and orator and historian), and he began +not from the founding of it, like the rest are similarly busied, but from +his own consulship, so that he might proceed backwards, making that the +beginning of his account, and the kingdom of Romulus the end. + +[-22-] "Tell me now, you who write such things and do such things, what +the excellent man ought to say in popular address and do in action: for +you are better at advising others about any matter whatsoever than at +doing your own duty, and better at rebuking others than at reforming +yourself. Yet how much better it were for you instead of reproaching +Antony with cowardice to lay aside yourself that effeminacy both of +spirit and of body, instead of bringing a charge of disloyalty against +him to cease yourself from doing anything disloyal or playing the +deserter, instead of accusing him of ingratitude to cease yourself from +wronging your benefactors! For this, I must tell you, is one of his +inherent defects, that he hates above all those who have done him any +favor, and is always fawning upon somebody else but plotting against +these persons. To leave aside other instances, he was pitied and +preserved by Caesar and enrolled among the patricians, after which he +killed him,--no, not with his own hand (he is too cowardly and womanish), +but by persuading and making ready others who should do it. The men +themselves showed that I speak the truth in this. When they ran out into +the Forum with their naked blades, they invoked him by name, saying +'Cicero!' repeatedly, as you all heard. His benefactor, Caesar, then, he +slew, and as for Antony from whom he obtained personally safety and +a priesthood when he was in danger of perishing at the hands of the +soldiers in Brundusium, he repays him with this sort of thanks, by +accusing him for deeds with which neither he himself nor any one else +ever found any fault and attacking him for conduct which he praises in +others. Yet he sees this Caesar, who has not attained the age yet to hold +office or have any part in politics and has not been chosen by you, sees +him equipped with power and standing as the author of a war without our +vote or orders, and not only has no blame to bestow, but pronounces +laudations. So you perceive that he investigates neither what is just +with reference to the laws nor what is useful with reference to the +public weal, but simply manages everything to suit his own will, +censuring in some what he extols in others, spreads false reports against +you, and calumniates you gratuitously.[-23-] For you will find that all +of Antony's acts after Caesar's demise were ordered by you. To speak about +the disposition of the funds and the examination of the letters I deem to +be superfluous. Why so? Because first it would be the business of the one +who inherited his property to look into the matter, and second, if there +was any truth in the charge of malfeasance, it ought to have been +stopped then on the moment. For none of the transactions was carried on +underhandedly, Cicero, but they were all recorded on tablets, as you +yourself affirm. If Antony committed his many wrongs so openly and +shamelessly as you say, and plundered the whole of Crete on the pretext +that in accord with Caesar's letters it had been left free after the +governorship of Brutus, though the latter was later given charge of it by +us, how could you have kept silent and how could any one else have borne +it? But these matters, as I said, I shall pass over; for the majority of +them have not been mentioned individually, and Antony is not present, +who could inform you exactly of what he has done in each instance. As to +Macedonia and Gaul and the remaining provinces and legions, yours are +the decrees, Conscript Fathers, according to which you assigned to the +various governors their separate charges and delivered to Antony Gaul, +together with the soldiers. This is known also to Cicero. He was there +and helped vote for all of them just like you. Yet how much better it +would have been for him then to speak in opposition, if any item of +business was not going as it should, and to instruct you in these matters +that are now brought forward, than to be silent at the time and allow +you to make mistakes, and now nominally to censure Antony but really to +accuse the senate! + +[-24-] "Any sensible person could not assert, either, that Antony forced +you to vote these measures. He himself had no band of soldiers so as to +compel you to do anything contrary to your inclinations, and further the +business was done for the good of the city. For since the legions had +been sent ahead and united, there was fear that when they heard of +Caesar's assassination they might revolt, put some inferior man at their +head, and begin to wage war again: so it seemed good to you, taking a +proper and excellent course, to place in command of them Antony the +consul, who was charged with the promotion of harmony, who had rejected +the dictatorship entirely from the system of government. And that is the +reason that you gave him Gaul in place of Macedonia, that he should stay +here in Italy, committing no harm, and do at once whatever errand was +assigned him by you. + +[-25-] "This I have said to you that you may know that you decided +rightly. For Cicero that other point of mine was sufficient,--namely, +that he was present during all these proceedings and helped us to pass +the measures, though Antony had not a soldier at the time and could not +have brought to bear on us pressure in the shape of any terror that would +have made us neglect a single point of our interest. But even if you were +then silent, tell us now at least: what ought we to have done under the +circumstances? Leave the legions leaderless? Would they have failed +to fill both Macedonia and Italy with countless evils? Commit them to +another? And whom could we have found more closely related and suited +to the business than Antony, the consul, the director of all the city's +affairs, the one who had taken such good care of harmony among us, the +one who had given countless examples of his affection for the State? Some +one of the assassins, perhaps? Why, it wasn't even safe for them to live +in the city. Some one of the party opposed to them? Everybody suspected +those people. What other man was there surpassing him in esteem, +excelling him in experience? Or are you vexed that we did not choose you? +What kind of administration would you have given? What would you not have +done when you got arms and soldiers, considering that you occasioned so +many and so great instances of turmoil in your consulship as a result of +these elaborate antitheses, which you have made your specialty, of which +alone you were master. [-26-] But I return to my point that you were +present when it was being voted and said nothing against it, but assented +to all the measures as being obviously excellent and necessary. You did +not lack opportunity to speak; indeed you roared out considerable that +was beside the purpose. Nor were you afraid of anybody. How could you, +who did not fear the armed warrior, have quailed before the defenceless +man? Or how have feared him alone when you do not dread him in the +possession of many soldiers! Yes, you also give yourself airs for +absolutely despising death, as you affirm. + +"Since these facts are so, which of the two, senators, seems to be in the +wrong, Antony, who is managing the forces granted him by us, or Caesar, +who is surrounded with such a large band of his own? Antony, who has +departed to take up the office committed to him by us, or Brutus, who +prevents him from setting foot in the country? Antony, who wishes to +compel our allies to obey our decrees, or they, who have not received the +ruler sent them by us but have attached themselves to the man who was +voted against? Antony, who keeps our soldiers together, or the soldiers, +who have abandoned their commander? Antony, who has introduced not one of +these soldiers granted him by us into the city, or Caesar, who by money +persuaded those who had long ago been in service to come here? I think +there is no further need of argument to answer the imputation that he +does not seem to be managing correctly all the duties laid upon him by +us, and to show that these men ought to suffer punishment for what they +have ventured on their own responsibility. Therefore you also secured the +guard of soldiers that you might discuss in safety the present situation, +not on account of Antony, who had caused no trouble privately nor +intimidated you in any way, but on account of his rival, who both had +gathered a force against him and has often kept many soldiers in the city +itself. + +[-27-] "I have said so much for Cicero's benefit, since it was he who +began unfair argument against us. I am not generally quarrelsome, as he +is, nor do I care to pry into others' misdeeds, as he continually gives +himself airs for doing. Now I will tell you what advice I have to give, +not favoring Antony at all nor calumniating Caesar or Brutus, but planning +for the common advantage, as is proper. I declare that we ought not yet +to make an enemy of either of these men in arms nor to enquire exactly +what they have been doing or in what way. The present crisis is not +suitable for this action, and as they are all alike our fellow-citizens, +if any one of them fails the loss will be ours, or if any one of them +succeeds his aggrandizement will be a menace to us. Wherefore I believe +that we ought to treat them as friends and citizens and send messengers +to all of them alike, bidding them lay down their arms and put themselves +and their legions in our hands, and that we ought not yet to wage war on +any one of them, but after their replies have come back approve those who +are willing to obey us and fight against the disobedient. This course is +just and expedient for us,--not to be in a hurry or do anything rashly, +but to wait and after giving the leaders themselves and their soldiers an +opportunity to change their minds, then, if in such case there be need of +war, to give the consuls charge of it. + +[-28-] "And you, Cicero, I advise not to show a womanish sauciness nor +to imitate Bambalio even in making war[18] nor because of your private +enmity toward Antony to plunge the whole city publicly again into danger. +You will do well if you even become reconciled to him, with whom you have +often enjoyed friendly intercourse. But even if you continue embittered +against him, at least spare us, and do not after acting as the promoter +of friendship among us then destroy it. Remember that day and the speech +which you delivered in the precinct of Tellus, and yield a little to this +goddess of Concord under whose guidance we are now deliberating, and +avoid discrediting those statements and making them appear as if not +uttered from a sincere heart, or by somebody else on that occasion. This +is to the advantage of the State and will bring you most renown. Do not +think that audacity is either glorious or safe, and do not feel sure +of being praised just for saying that you despise death. Such men all +suspect and hate as being likely to venture some deed of evil through +desperation. Those whom they see, however, paying greatest attention to +their own safety they praise and laud, because such would not willingly +do anything that merited death. Do you, therefore, if you honestly +wish your country to be safe, speak and act in such a way as will both +preserve yourself and not, by Jupiter, involve us in your destruction!" + +[-29-] Such language from Calenus Cicero would not endure. He himself +always spoke his mind intemperately and immoderately to all alike, but he +never thought he ought to get a similar treatment from others. On this +occasion, too, he gave up considering the public interest and set himself +to abusing his opponent until that day was spent, and naturally for +the most part uselessly. On the following day and the third many other +arguments were adduced on both sides, but the party of Caesar prevailed. +So they voted first a statue to the man himself and the right to +deliberate among the ex-quaestors as well as of being a candidate for the +other offices ten years sooner than custom allowed, and that he should +receive from the City the money which he had spent for his soldiers, +because he had equipped them at his own cost for her defence: second, +that both his soldiers and those that had abandoned Antony should have +the privilege of not fighting in any other war and that land should be +given them at once. To Antony they sent an embassy which should order him +to give up the legions, leave Gaul, and withdraw into Macedonia--and to +his followers they issued a proclamation to return home before a given +day or to know that they would occupy the position of enemies. Moreover +they removed the senators who had received from him governorships over +the provinces and resolved that others should be sent in their place. +These measures were ratified at that time. Not long after, before +learning his decision, they voted that a state of rebellion existed, +changed their senatorial garb, gave charge of the war against him to the +consuls and Caesar (a kind of pretorian office), and ordered Lepidus and +Lucius Munatius Plancus, who was governing a portion of Transalpine Gaul, +to render assistance. + +[-30-] In this way did they themselves furnish an excuse for hostility +to Antony, who was without this anxious to make war. He was pleased to +receive news of the decrees and forthwith violently reproached the envoys +with not treating him rightly or fairly as compared with the youth +(meaning Caesar). He also sent others in his turn, so as to put the blame +of the war upon the senators, and make some counter-propositions which +saved his face but were impossible of performance by Caesar and those who +sided with him. He intended not to fulfill one of their demands, well +aware that they too would not take up with anything that he submitted. He +promised, however, that he would do all that they had determined, that he +himself might have a refuge in saying that he would have done it, while +at the same time his opponent's party would be before him in becoming +responsible for the war, by refusing the terms he laid before them. In +fine, he said that he would abandon Gaul and disband his legions, if they +would grant these soldiers the same rewards as they had voted to Caesar's +and would elect Cassius and Marcus Brutus consuls. He brought in the +names of these men in his request with the purpose that they should +not harbor any ill-will toward him for his operations against their +fellow-conspirator Decimus. + +[-31-] Antony made these offers knowing well that neither of them would +be acted upon. Caesar would never have endured that the murderers of his +father should become consuls or that Antony's soldiers by receiving the +same as his own should feel still more kindly toward his rival. Nor, as a +matter of fact, were his offers ratified, but they again declared war +on Antony and gave notice to his associates to leave him, appointing a +different day. All, even such as were not to take the field, arrayed +themselves in military cloaks, and they committed to the consuls the care +of the city, attaching to the decree the customary clause "to the end +that it suffer no harm." And since there was need of large funds for the +war, they all contributed the twenty-fifth part of the property they +owned and the senators also four asses[19] per tile of all the houses in +the city that they themselves owned or dwelt in belonging to others. The +very wealthy besides donated no little more, while many cities and +many individuals manufactured gratuitously weapons and other necessary +accoutrements for a campaign. The public treasury was at that time so +empty that not even the festivals which were due to fall during that +season were celebrated, except some small ones out of religious scruple. +[-32-] These subscriptions were given readily by those who favored Caesar +and hated Antony. The majority, however, being oppressed by the campaigns +and the taxes at once were irritated, particularly because it was +doubtful which of the two would conquer but quite evident that they would +be slaves of the conqueror. Many of those, therefore, that wished Antony +well, went straight to him, among them tribunes and a few praetors: others +remained in their places, one of whom was Calenus, but did all that they +could for him, some things secretly and other things with an open defence +of their conduct. Hence they did not change their costume immediately, +and persuaded the senate to send envoys again to Antony, among them +Cicero: in doing this they pretended that the latter might persuade him +to make terms, but their real purpose was that he should be removed from +their path. He too reflected on this possibility and becoming alarmed +would not venture to expose himself in the camp of Antony. As a result +none of the other envoys set out either. + +[-33-] While this was being done portents of no small moment again +occurred, significant for the City, and for the consul Vibius himself. +In the last assembly before they set out for the war a man with the +so-called sacred disease[20] fell down while Vibius was speaking. Also a +bronze statue of him which stood at the porch of his house turned around +of itself on the day and at the hour that he started on the campaign, and +the sacrifices customary before war could not be interpreted by the seers +by reason of the quantity of blood. Likewise a man who was just then +bringing him a palm slipped in the blood which had been shed, fell, and +defiled the palm. These were the portents in his case. Now if they had +befallen him when a private citizen, they would have pertained to him +alone, but since he was consul they had a bearing on all alike. They +included the following incidents: the figure of the Mother of the Gods on +the Palatine formerly facing the east turned around of its own accord +to the west; that of Minerva held in honor near Mutina, where the most +fighting was going on, sent forth after this a quantity of blood and +milk; furthermore the consuls took their departure just before the Feriae +Latinae; and there is no case where this happened that the forces fared +well. So at this time, too, both the consuls and a vast multitude of the +people perished, some immediately and some later, and also many of the +knights and senators, including the most prominent. For in the first +place the battles, and in the second place the assassinations at home +which occurred again as in the Sullan régime, destroyed all the flower of +them except those actually concerned in the murders. + +[-34-] Responsibility for these evils rested on the senators themselves. +For whereas they ought to have set at their head some one man of superior +judgment and to have coöperated with him continuously, they failed to do +this, but made protégés of a few whom they strengthened against the +rest, and later undertook to overthrow these favorites as well, and +consequently they found no one a friend but all hostile. The comparative +attitude of men toward those who have injured them and toward their +benefactors is different, for they remember a grudge even against their +wills but willingly forget to be thankful. This is partly because they +disdain to appear to have been kindly treated by any persons, since +they will seem to be the weaker of the two, and partly because they are +irritated at the idea that they will be thought to have been injured by +anybody with impunity, since that will imply cowardice on their part. +So those senators by not taking up with some one person, but attaching +themselves to one and another in turn, and voting and doing now something +for them, now something against them, suffered much because of them +and much also at their hands. All the leaders had one purpose in the +war,--the abolition of the popular power and the setting up of a +sovereignty. Some were fighting to see whose slaves they should be, and +others to see who should be their master; and so both of them equally +wrought havoc, and each of them won glory according to fortune, which +varied. The successful warriors were deemed shrewd and patriotic, and the +defeated ones were called both enemies of their country and pestilential +fellows. + +[-35-] This was the state that the Roman affairs had at that time +reached: I shall now go on to describe the separate events. There seems +to me to be a very large amount of self-instruction possible, when one +takes facts as the basis of his reasoning, investigates the nature of +the former by the latter, and then proves his reasoning true by its +correspondence with the facts. + +The precise reason for Antony's besieging Decimus in Mutina was that +the latter would not give up Gaul to him, but he pretended that it was +because Decimus had been one of Caesar's assassins. For since the true +cause of the war brought him no credit, and at the same time he saw the +popular party flocking to Caesar to avenge his father, he put forward this +excuse for the conflict. That it was a mere pretext for getting control +of Gaul he himself made plain in demanding that Cassius and Marcus Brutus +be appointed consuls. Each of these two utterances, of the most opposite +character as they were, he made with an eye to his own advantage. Caesar +had begun a campaign against his rival before the war was granted him by +the vote, but had done nothing worthy of importance. When he learned +of the decrees passed he accepted the honors and was glad, especially +because when he was sacrificing at the time of receiving the distinction +and authority of praetor the livers of all the victims, twelve in number, +were found to be double. He was impatient, to be sure, at the fact that +envoys and proposals had been sent also to Antony, instead of unrelenting +war being declared against him at once, and most of all because he +ascertained that the consuls had forwarded some private despatch to his +rival about harmony, that when some letters sent by the latter to certain +senators had been captured these officials had handed them to the persons +addressed, concealing the transaction from him, and that they were not +carrying on the war zealously or promptly, making the winter their +excuse. However, as he had no means of making known these facts,--for he +did not wish to alienate them, and on the other hand he was unable to use +any persuasion or force,--he stayed quiet himself in winter quarters in +Forum Cornelium, until he became frightened about Decimus. [-36-] The +latter had previously been vigorously fighting Antony off. On one +occasion, suspecting that some men had been sent into the city by him +to corrupt the soldiers, he called all those present together and after +giving them a few hints proclaimed by herald that all the men under arms +should go to one side of a certain place that he pointed out and the +private citizens to the other side of it: in this way he detected and +arrested Antony's followers, who were isolated and did not know which way +to turn. Later he was entirely shut in by a wall; and Caesar, fearing he +might be captured by storm or capitulate through lack of provisions, +compelled Hirtius to join a relief party. Vibius was still in Rome +raising levies and abolishing the laws of Antony. Accordingly, they +started out and without a blow took possession of Bononia, which had been +abandoned by the garrisons, and routed the cavalry who later confronted +them: by reason of the river, however, near Mutina and the guard beside +it they found themselves unable to proceed farther. They wished, +notwithstanding, even so to make known their presence to Decimus, that +he might not in undue season make terms, and at first they tried sending +signals from the tallest trees. But since he did not understand, they +scratched a few words on a thin sheet of lead, and rolling it up like a +piece of paper gave it to a diver to carry across under water by night. +Thus Decimus learned at the same time of their presence and their promise +of assistance, and sent them a reply in the same fashion, after which +they continued uninterruptedly to communicate all their plans to each +other. + +[-37-] Antony, therefore, seeing that Decimus was not inclined to yield, +left him to the charge of his brother Lucius, and himself proceeded +against Caesar and Hirtius. The two armies faced each other for a number +of days and a few insignificant cavalry battles occurred, with honors +even. Finally the Celtic cavalry, of whom Caesar had gained possession +along with the elephants, withdrew to Antony's side again. They had +started from the camp with the rest and had gone on ahead as if intending +to engage separately those of the enemy who came to meet them; but after +a little they turned about and unexpectedly attacked those following +behind (who did not stand their ground), killing many of them. After this +some foraging parties on both sides fell to blows and when the remainder +of each party came to the rescue a sharp battle ensued between the two +forces, in which Antony was victorious. Elated by his success and in +the knowledge that Vibius was approaching he assailed the antagonists' +fortification, thinking possibly to destroy it beforehand and make the +rest of the conflict easier. They, in consideration of their disaster and +the hope which Vibius inspired, kept guard but would not come out for +battle. Hence Antony left behind there a certain portion of his army with +orders to come to close quarters with them and so make it appear as much +as possible that he himself was there and at the same time to take +good care that no one should fall upon his rear. After issuing these +injunctions he set out secretly by night against Vibius, who was +approaching from Bononia. By an ambush he succeeded in wounding the +latter severely, in killing the majority of his soldiers and confining +the rest within their ramparts. He would have annihilated them, had +he proceeded to besiege them for any time at all. As it was, after +accomplishing nothing at the first assault he began to be alarmed lest +while he was delaying he should receive some setback from Caesar and the +rest; so he again turned against them. Wearied by the journey both ways +and by the battle he was also in doubt whether he should find that his +opponents had conquered the force hostile to them; and in this condition +he was confronted by Hirtius and suffered a decisive defeat. For when +Hirtius and Caesar perceived what was going on, the latter remained to +keep watch over the camp while the former set out against Antony. [-38-] +Upon the latter's defeat not only Hirtius was saluted as imperator by +the soldiers and by the senate, but likewise Vibius, though he had +fared badly, and Caesar who had done no fighting even. To those who had +participated in the conflict and had perished there was voted a public +burial, and it was resolved that the prizes of war which they had taken +while alive should be restored to their fathers and sons. + +Following this official action Pontius Aquila, one of the assassins and +a lieutenant of Decimus, conquered in battle Titus Munatius Plancus, who +opposed him; and Decimus, when a certain senator deserted to Antony, +so far from displaying anger toward him sent back all his baggage and +whatever else he had left behind in Mutina, the result being that the +affection of many of Antony's soldiers grew cool, and some of the nations +which had previously sympathized with him proceeded to rebel: Caesar and +Hirtius, however, were elated at this, and approaching the fortifications +of Antony challenged him to combat; he for a time was alarmed and +remained quiet, but later when some reinforcements sent by Lepidus came +to him he took courage. Lepidus himself did not make it clear to which +of the two sides he sent the army: he thought well of Antony, who was a +relative, but had been summoned against him by the senate; and for these +reasons he made plans to have a refuge in store with both parties, by not +giving to Marcus Silanus, the commander, orders that were in the least +clear. But he, doubtless knowing well his master's frame of mind, went on +his own responsibility to Antony. [-39-] So when the latter had been thus +assisted he became bold and made a sudden sally from the gates: there was +great slaughter on both sides, but at last he turned and fled. + +Up to this time Caesar was being strengthened by the people and the +senate, and because of this expected that among other honors to be +bestowed he would be forthwith appointed consul. It happened that Hirtius +perished in the occupation of Antony's camp and Vibius died of his wounds +not long after, so that Caesar was charged with having caused their death +that he might succeed to the office. But the senate had previously, while +it was still uncertain which of the two would prevail, done away with all +the privileges which formerly, granted to any person beyond the customs +of the forefathers, had paved the way to sovereignty: they voted that +this edict should apply to both parties, intending by it to anticipate +the victor, while laying the blame upon the other, who should be +defeated. First they forbade any one to hold office more than a year, and +second that any superintendent of grain supplies or commissioner of food +should be chosen. When they ascertained the outcome, they rejoiced at +Antony's defeat, changed their raiment once more, and celebrated a solemn +thanksgiving for sixty[21] days. All those arrayed on his side they held +in the light of enemies, and took possession of their property as they +did of the leader's. [-40-] Nor did they propose that Caesar any longer +should receive any great reward, but even undertook to overthrow him, by +allowing Decimus to secure all the prizes for which he was hoping. They +voted Decimus not only the right of sacrifice but a triumph and gave him +charge of the rest of the war and of the legions,--those of Vibius and +others. Upon the soldiers that had been besieged with him they resolved +that eulogies should be bestowed and all the other rewards which +had formerly been offered to Caesar's men, although these troops had +contributed nothing to the victory, but had merely beheld it from the +walls. Aquila, who had died in the battle, they honored with an image, +and restored to his heirs the money which he had expended from his own +purse for the equipment of Decimus's soldiers. In a word, practically +every advantage that had been given Caesar against Antony was voted to +others against the man himself. And to the end that no matter how much he +might wish it he should not be able to do any harm, they armed all his +enemies against him. To Sextus Pompey they entrusted the fleet, to Marcus +Brutus Macedonia, and to Cassius Syria together with the war against +Dolabella. They would certainly have further deprived him of the forces +that he had, but they were afraid to vote this openly, owing to their +knowledge that his soldiers were devoted to him. Still, even so, they +strove to set his followers at variance with one another and with him. +They did not wish to approve and honor all of them, for fear they should +fill them with too great conceit, nor again to dishonor and neglect all, +for fear they should alienate them the more and as a consequence force +them to agree together. Hence they adopted a middle course, and by +approving some of them and others not, by allowing some to wear an olive +garland at the festivals and others not, and furthermore by voting to +some money to the extent of twenty-five hundred denarii and to others +not a farthing, they hoped to bring about between them and by that means +weaken them. [-41-] Those charged with these commissions also they sent +not to Caesar but to the men in the field. He became enraged at this, but +nominally allowed the envoys to mix with the army without his presence, +though he sent word beforehand that no answer should be given and that +he himself should be at once sent for. So when he came into the camp and +joined them in listening to the despatches, he succeeded in conciliating +them much more by that very action. Those who had been preferred in honor +were not so delighted at this precedence as they were suspicious of the +affair, particularly as a result of Caesar's influence. And those who had +been slighted were not at all angry at their comrades, but added their +doubts of the sincerity of the decrees, imputing their dishonor to all +and sharing their anger with them. The people in the City, on learning +this, though frightened did not even so appoint him consul, for which he +was most anxious, but granted him the distinction of consular honors, so +that he might now record his vote along with the ex-consuls. When he took +no account of this, they voted that he should be made a praetor of the +first rank and subsequently also consul. In this way did they think they +had handled Caesar cleverly as if he were in reality a mere youth and +child, as they were always repeating. He, however, was exceedingly vexed +at their general behavior and especially at this very fact that he was +called child, and so made no further delay, but turned against their +camps and powers. With Antony he secretly arranged a truce, and he +assembled the men who had escaped from the battle, whom he himself had +conquered and the senate had voted to be enemies, and in their presence +made many accusations against both the senate and the people. + +[-42-] The people in the City on hearing this for a time held him in +contempt, but when they heard that Antony and Lepidus had become of one +mind they began again to court his favor,--for they were in ignorance of +the propositions he had made to Antony,--and assigned to him charge of +the war against the two. Caesar was accordingly ready to accept even this +if he could be made consul for it. He was working in every way to be +elected, through Cicero among others, and so earnestly that he promised +to make him his colleague. When he was not even then chosen, he made +preparations, to be sure, to carry on war, as had been decreed, but +meanwhile arranged that his own soldiers (of their own motion, of course) +should suddenly take an oath not to fight against any legion that had +been Caesar's. This had a bearing on Lepidus and Antony, since the +majority of their adherents were of that class. So he waited and sent +as envoys to the senate on this business four hundred of the soldiers +themselves. + +[-43-] This was the excuse that they had for an embassy, but in addition +they demanded the money that had been voted them and urged that Caesar be +appointed consul. While the senators were postponing their reply, which +required deliberation, as they said, they asked (naturally on the +instructions from Caesar) that amnesty be granted to some one who had +embraced Antony's cause. They were not really anxious to obtain it, but +wanted to test the senators and see if they would grant the request, or, +if such were not the issue, whether to pretend to be displeased about +it would serve as a starting point for indignation. They failed to +gain their petition, for while no one spoke against it there were many +preferring the same request on behalf of others and thus among a mass of +similar representations their demand also was rejected on some plausible +excuse. Then they openly showed their anger, and one of them issued from +the senate-chamber and grasping a sword (they had gone in unarmed) said: +"If you do not grant the consulship to Caesar, this shall grant it." And +Cicero interrupting him answered: "If you exhort in this way, he will get +it." Now for Cicero this instrument had destruction in readiness. Caesar +did not censure the soldier's act, but made a complaint because they had +been obliged to lay aside their arms on entering the senate and because +one of them was asked whether they had been sent by the legions or by +Caesar. He summoned in haste Antony and Lepidus (whom he had attached to +him through friendship for Antony), and he himself, pretending to have +been forced to such measures by his soldiers, set out with all of them +against Rome. [-44-] Some[22] of the knights and others who were present +they suspected were acting as spies and they consequently slew them, +besides injuring the lands of such as were not in accord with them and +doing much other damage with this excuse. The senators on ascertaining +their approach sent them their money before they came near, hoping that +when the invaders received that they might retire, and when they still +pressed on they appointed Caesar consul. Nothing, however, was gained by +this step. The soldiers were not at all grateful to them for what +they had done not willingly but under compulsion, but were even more +emboldened, in the idea that they had thoroughly frightened them. +Learning of this the senate altered its policy and bade the host not +approach the city but remain over one hundred and fifty stadia from +it. They themselves also changed their garb again and committed to +the praetors the care of the city, as had been the custom. And besides +garrisoning other points they occupied Janiculum in advance with the +soldiers that were at hand and with others from Africa. + +[-45-] While Caesar was still on the march this was the condition of +things; and all the people who were at that time in Rome with one accord +sought a share in the proceedings, as the majority of men are wont to be +bold until they come in sight and have a taste of dangers. When, however, +he arrived in the suburbs, they were alarmed, and first some of the +senators, later many of the people, went over to his side. Thereupon +the praetors also came down from Janiculum and surrendered to him their +soldiers and themselves. Thus Caesar took possession of the city without a +blow and was appointed consul also by the people, though two proconsuls +were chosen to hold the elections; it was impossible, according to +precedent, for an interrex to be created for so short a period merely to +superintend the comitia, because many men who held the curule offices +were absent from the city. They endured having the two proconsuls named +by the praetor urbanus rather than to have the consuls elected under his +direction, because now these proconsular officials would limit their +activities to the elections and consequently would appear to have been +invested with no powers outlasting them.[23] This was of course done +under pressure of arms. Caesar, that he might appear to not to have used +any force upon them, did not enter the assembly,--as if it was his +presence that any one feared instead of his power. + +[-46-] Thus he was chosen consul, and there was given him as a +fellow-official--perhaps one ought to say _under_-official--Quintus +Pedius. He was very proud of this fact that he was to be consul at an +earlier age than it had ever been the lot of any one else, and further +that on the first day of the elections, when he had entered the Campus +Martius, he saw six vultures, and later while haranguing the soldier +twelve others. For, comparing it with Romulus and the omen that had +befallen the latter, he began to expect that he should obtain his +sovereignty. He did not, however, simply on the ground that he had +already been given the distinction of the consular honors, assume +distinction as being consul for the second time. This custom was since +then observed in all similar cases to our own day. The emperor Severus +was the first to change it; for he honored Plautianus with the consular +honors and afterward introduced him to the senate and appointed him +consul, proclaiming that he was entering the consulship the second time. +In imitation of him the same thing was done in other instances. Caesar, +accordingly, arranged affairs in general in the city to suit his taste, +and gave money to the soldiers, to some what had been voted from the +funds prescribed, and to the rest individually from his private funds, as +the story went, but in reality from the public store. + +In this way and for the reasons mentioned did the soldiers receive the +money on that occasion. But some of them got a wrong idea of the matter +and thought it was compulsory for absolutely all the citizen forces at +all times to be given the twenty-five hundred denarii, if they went to +Rome under arms. For this reason the followers of Severus who had come to +the city to overthrow Julianus behaved most terrifyingly both to their +leader himself and to us, while demanding it. And they were won over by +Severus with two hundred and fifty denarii, while people in general were +ignorant what claim was being set up. + +[-47-] Caesar while giving the soldiers the money also expressed to them +his fullest and sincerest thanks. He did not even venture to enter +the senate-chamber without a guard of them. To the senate he showed +gratitude, but it was all fictitious and pretended. For he was accepting +as if it were a favor received from willing hands what he had attained +by violence. And they actually took great credit to themselves for their +behavior, as if they had given him the office voluntarily; and moreover +they granted to him whom previously they had not even wished to choose +consul the right after his term expired to be honored, as often as he +should be in camp, above all those who were consuls at one time or +another. To him on whom they had threatened to inflict penalties, because +he had gathered forces on his own responsibility without the passing of +any vote, they assigned the duty of collecting others: and to the man for +whose disenfranchisement and overthrow they had ordered Decimus to +fight with Antony they added Decimus's legions. Finally he obtained the +guardianship of the city, so that he was able to do everything that he +wished according to law, and he was adopted into Caesar's family in the +regular way, as a consequence changing his name. He had, as some think, +been even before this accustomed to call himself Caesar, as soon as this +name was bequeathed to him together with the inheritance. He was not, +however, exact about his title, nor did he use the same one in dealing +with everybody until at this time he had ratified it in accordance with +ancestral custom, and was thus named, after his famous predecessor, Gaius +Julius Caesar Octavianus. For it is the custom when a person is adopted +for him to take most of his appellation from his adopter but to keep one +of his previous names slightly altered in form. This is the status of the +matter, but I shall call him not Octavianus but Caesar, because this name +has prevailed among all such as secure dominion over the Romans. He took +another one in addition, namely _Augustus_, and therefore the subsequent +emperors assume it. That one will be given when it comes up in the +history, but until then the title Caesar will be sufficient to show that +Octavianus is indicated. + +[-48-] This Caesar, then, as soon as he had conciliated the soldiers and +enslaved the senate, turned himself to avenging his father's murder. As +he was afraid of somehow causing an upheaval among the populace in the +pursuit of this business he did not make known his intention until he had +seen to the payment of the bequests made to them. When they had been made +docile by means of the money, although it belonged to the public funds +and had been collected on the pretext of war, then at length he began to +follow up the assassins. In order that this procedure of his might not +appear to be characterized by violence but by justice, he proposed a law +about their trial and tried the cases in their absence. The majority of +them were out of town and some even held governorships over provinces. +Those who were present also did not come forward, by reason of fear, and +withdrew unobserved. Consequently they were convicted by default, and +not only those who had been the actual murderers of Caesar and their +fellow-conspirators, but many others who so far from plotting against +Caesar, had not even been in the city at the time. This action was +directed chiefly against Sextus Pompey. The latter though he had had no +share whatever in the attack was nevertheless condemned because he had +been an enemy. Those adjudged guilty were debarred from fire and water +and their property was confiscated. The provinces,--not only those which +some of them were governing, but all the rest,--were committed to the +friends of Caesar. + +[-49-] Among those held liable was also Publius Servilius Casca, the +tribune. He had suspected Caesar's purpose in advance, before he entered +the city, and had quietly slipped away. For this act he was at once +removed from his office, on the charge of having left the city contrary +to precedent, by the populace convened by his colleague Publius Titius; +and in this way he was condemned. When Titius not long after died, the +proverbial fate that had been observed from of old was once more in +evidence. No one up to that time who had expelled a colleague had lived +the year out: but first Brutus after the expulsion of Collatinus died in +his turn, then Gracchus was stabbed after expelling Octavius, and Cinna +who put Marullus and Flavus out of the way not long after perished. This +has been the general experience. + +Now the assassins of Caesar had many accusers who were anxious to +ingratiate themselves with his son, and many who were persuaded so to +act by the rewards offered. They received money from the estate of the +convicted man and the latter's honors and office, if he had any, and +exemption from further service in the army, applicable to themselves +and their children and grandchildren. Of the jurors the majority voted +against the accused out of fear of Caesar and a wish to please him, +generally hinting that they were justified in doing this. Some cast their +votes in consideration of the law enacted about punishing the culprits, +and others in consideration of the arms of Caesar. And one, Silicius +Corona, a senator, voted outright to acquit Marcus Brutus. He made a +great boast of this at the time and secretly received approval from the +rest: that he was not immediately put to death gained for Caesar a great +reputation for toleration, but later he was executed as the result of a +proscription. + +[-50-] After accomplishing this Caesar's next step was naturally a +campaign against Lepidus and Antony. Antony on fleeing from the battle +described had not been pursued by Caesar on account of the war being +entrusted to Decimus; and the latter had not pursued because he did not +wish a rival to Caesar to be removed from the field. Hence the fugitive +collected as many as he could of the survivors of the battle and came +to Lepidus, who had made preparations to march himself into Italy in +accordance with the decree, but had again been ordered to remain where he +was. For the senators, when they ascertained that Silanus had embraced +Antony's cause, were afraid that Lepidus and Lucius Plancus might also +coöperate with him, and sent to them to say that they had no further need +of them. To prevent their suspecting anything ulterior and consequently +causing trouble they ordered them to help in building homes for the men +once driven out of Vienna (in Gallia Narbonensis) by the Allobroges +and then located between the Rhone and the Arar, at their confluence. +Therefore they submitted, and founded the so-called Lugudunum, now known +as Lugdunum. They might have entered Italy with their arms, had they +wished, for the decrees by this time exerted a very weak influence upon +such as had troops, but, with an eye to the outcome of the war Antony was +conducting, they wished to appear to have yielded obedience to the senate +and incidentally to strengthen their position. [-51-] Indeed, Lepidus +censured Silanus severely for making an alliance with Antony, and when +the latter himself came would not hold conversation with him immediately, +but sent a despatch to the senate containing an accusation of his own +against him, and for this stand he received praise and command of the +war against Antony. Hence the first part of the time he neither admitted +Antony nor repelled him, but allowed him to be near and to associate with +his followers; he would not, however, hold a conference with him. But +when he ascertained Antony's agreement with Caesar, he then came to terms +with both of them himself. Marcus Juventius,[24] his lieutenant, learned +what was being done and at first tried to alter his purpose; then, when +he did not succeed in persuading him, he made away with himself in the +sight of the soldiers. For this the senate voted eulogies and a statue to +Juventius and a public funeral, but Lepidus they deprived of his image +which stood upon the rostra and made him an enemy. They also set a +certain day for his comrades and threatened them with war if they should +not abandon him before that day. Furthermore they changed their +clothing again,--they had resumed citizen's apparel in honor of Caesar's +consulship,--and summoned Marcus Brutus and Cassius and Sextus to proceed +against them. When the latter seemed likely to be too slow in responding, +they committed the war to Caesar, being ignorant of the conspiracy +existing. [-52-] He nominally received it, in spite of having made +his soldiers give voice to a sentiment previously mentioned,[25] but +accomplished no corresponding results. This was not because he had +formed a compact with Antony and through him with Lepidus,--little he +cared for that fact,--but because he saw they were powerful and knew +their purposes were linked by the bands of kinship, and he could not use +force with them; and besides he cherished hopes of bringing about +through them the downfall of Cassius and Brutus, who were already very +influential, and subsequently of wearing them out one against the other. +Accordingly, even against his will he kept his covenant with them and +directed his efforts to effecting a reconciliation for them with the +senate and with the people. He did not himself propose the matter, lest +some suspicion of what had really taken place should arise, but he set +out as if to make war on them, while Quintus urged, as if it were his own +idea, that amnesty and restoration be granted them. He did not secure +this, however, until the senate had communicated it to the supposedly +ignorant Caesar and he had unwillingly agreed to it, compelled, as he +alleged, by the soldiers. + +[-53-] While this was being done Decimus at first set forth in the +intention of making war upon the pair, and associated with him Lucius +Planeus, since the latter had been appointed in advance as his colleague +for the following year. Learning, however, of his own condemnation and of +their reconciliation he wished to lead a campaign against Caesar, but was +abandoned by Plancus who favored the cause of Lepidus and Antony. Then he +decided to leave Gaul and hasten into Macedonia on land through Illyricum +to Marcus Brutus, and sent ahead some of the soldiers while he was +engaged in finishing some business he had in hand. But they embraced +Caesar's cause, and the rest were pursued by Lepidus and Antony and then +were won over through the agency of others. So, being deserted, he was +seized by a personal foe. When he was about to be executed he complained +and lamented so loudly that one Helvius Blasio, who was kindly disposed +to him from association on campaigns, in his sight voluntarily slew +himself first. + +[-54-] So Decimus afterward died also. Antony and Lepidus left +lieutenants in Gaul and themselves proceeded to join Caesar in Italy, +taking with them the larger and the better part of their armies. They did +not trust him very far and wished not to owe him any favor, but to seem +to have obtained amnesty and restoration on their own merits and by their +own strength, and not through him. They also hoped to become masters of +whatever they desired, of Caesar and the rest in the City, by the size +of their armies. With such a feeling they marched through the country, +according it friendly treatment. Still, it was damaged by their numbers +and audacity no less than if there had been a war. They were met near +Bononia by Caesar with many soldiers: he was exceedingly well prepared to +defend himself against them, if they should offer any violence. Yet at +this time he found no need of arms to oppose them. They really hated +one another bitterly, but because they had just about equal forces and +desired one another's assistance to take vengeance first on the rest of +their enemies, they entered upon a simulated agreement. [-55-] They came +together to confer, not alone but bringing an equal number of soldiers, +on a little island in the river that flows past Bononia, with the +understanding that no one else should be present on either side. First +they withdrew to a distance from the various followers and searched one +another carefully to make sure that no one had a dagger hidden under his +arm. Then they considered at leisure different points and in general made +a solemn compact for securing sovereignty and overthrowing enemies. +But to prevent its appearing that they were headed straight toward an +oligarchy and so envy and opposition arise on the part of the people at +large, the three were to be chosen in common as a kind of commissioners +and correctors for the administration and settlement of affairs. This +office was not to be perpetual, but for five years, under the general +proviso that they should manage all questions, whether they made any +communication about them to the people and the senate or not, and give +the offices and other honors to whomsoever they pleased. The private +arrangement, however, in order that they should not be thought to be +appropriating the entire sovereignty, was that both Libyas, Sardinia, and +Sicily should be given to Caesar, all of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis to +Lepidus, and the rest of Gaul south and north of the Alps to Antony to +rule. The former was called Gallia Togata, as I have said, because it +seemed to be more peaceful than the other divisions, and because the +dwellers there already employed Roman citizen-garb: the other was termed +Gallia Comata because the Gauls there mostly let their hair grow long, +and were in this way distinguished from the others. [-56-] So they made +these allotments, for the purpose of securing the strongest provinces +themselves and giving others the impression that they were not +striving for the whole. A further agreement was that they should cause +assassinations of their enemies, that Lepidus after being appointed +consul in Decimus's stead should keep guard over Rome and the remainder +of Italy, and that the others should make an expedition against Brutus +and Cassius. They also pledged themselves to this course by oath. After +this, in order to let the soldiers hear and be witnesses of the terms +they had made, they called them together and made known to them in +advance all that it was proper and safe to tell them. Meanwhile the +soldiers of Antony, of course at the latter's direction, committed to +Caesar's charge the daughter of Fulvia (Antony's wife), whom she had +by Clodius,--and this in spite of Caesar's being already betrothed to +another. He, however, did not refuse her; for he did not think this +inter-marriage would hinder him at all in the designs which he had +against Antony. Among other points for his reflection was his knowledge +that his father Caesar had not failed to carry out all of his plans +against Pompey, in spite of the relationship between the two. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +47 + +The following is contained in the Forty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus came to Rome and instituted a reign of +slaughter (chapters 1-19). + +About Brutus and Cassius and what they did before the battle of Philippi +(chapters 20-36). + +How Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Caesar and perished (chapters +37-49). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gaius Vibius Pansa +and Aulus Hirtius, together with one additional year, in which there were +the following magistrates here enumerated: + +M. Aemilius M.F. Lepidus cos. (II), L. Munatius L.F. Plancus. (B.C. 42 = +a. u. 712.) + + +(_BOOK 47, BOISSEVAIN._) + + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +[-1-] After forming these compacts and taking mutual oaths they hastened +to Rome under the assumption that they were all going to rule on equal +terms, but each one had the intention of getting the entire power +himself. Yet they had learned in advance very clearly before this, but +most plainly at this time, what would be the future. In the case of +Lepidus a serpent coiled about a centurion's sword and a wolf that +entered his camp and his tent while he was eating dinner and knocked +down the table indicated at once power and disappointment as a result of +power: in that of Antony milk flowing about the ramparts and a kind of +chant echoing about at night signified gladness of heart and destruction +succeeding it. These portents befell them before they entered Italy. In +Caesar's case at the very time after the covenant had been made an eagle +settled upon his tent and killed two crows that attacked it and tried to +pluck out its feathers,--a sign which granted him victory over his two +rivals. + +[-2-] So they came to Rome, first Caesar, then the others, each one +separately, with all their soldiers, and immediately through the tribunes +enacted such laws as pleased them. The orders they gave and force that +they used thus acquired the name of law and furthermore brought them +supplications; for they required to be besought earnestly when they were +to pass any measures. Consequently sacrifices were voted for them as +if for good fortune and the people changed their attire as if they had +secured prosperity, although they were considerably terrified by the +transactions and still more by omens. For the standards of the army +guarding the city were covered with spiders, and weapons were seen +reaching up from earth to heaven while a great din resounded from them, +and in the shrines of Aesculapius bees gathered in numbers on the roof and +crowds of vultures settled on the temple of the Genius Populi and on that +of Concord. [-3-] And while these conditions still remained practically +unchanged, those murders by proscription which Sulla had once caused were +put into effect and the whole city was filled with corpses. Many were +killed in their houses, many in the streets, and scattered about in the +fora and near the temples: the heads of such were once more attached to +the rostra and their trunks flung out to be devoured by the dogs and +birds or cast into the river. Everything that had been done before in +the days of Sulla found a counterpart at this time, except that only two +white tablets were posted, one for the senators and one for the rest. The +reason for this I have not been able to learn from any one else nor to +find out myself. The cause which one might have imagined, that fewer were +put to death, is least of all true: for many more names were listed, +because there were more leaders concerned. In this respect, then, the +case differed from the murders that had earlier taken place: but that the +names of those prominent were not posted with the rabble, but separately, +appeared very nonsensical to the men who were to be murdered in the same +way. Besides this no few other very unpleasant conditions fell to their +lot, although the former régime, one would have said, had left nothing to +be surpassed. [-4-] But in Sulla's time those guilty of such murderous +measures had some excuse in their very hardihood: they were trying the +method for the first time, and not with set intentions; hence in most +cases they behaved less maliciously, since they were acting not according +to definite plans but as chance dictated. And the victims, succumbing +to sudden and unheard of catastrophes, found some alleviation in the +unexpectedness of their experience. At this time, on the other hand, +they were executing in person or beholding or at least understanding +thoroughly by fresh descriptions merely deeds that had been dared before; +in the intervals, expecting a recurrence of similar acts, some were +inventing various new methods to employ, and others were becoming +afflicted by new fears that they too should suffer. The perpetrators +resorted to most unusual devices in their emulation of the outrages of +yore and their consequent eagerness to add, through the resources of art, +novel features to their attempts. The others reflected on all that they +might suffer and hence even before their bodies were harmed their spirits +were thoroughly on the rack, as if they were already undergoing the +trial. [-5-] Another reason for their faring worse on this occasion than +before was that previously only Sulla's own enemies and the foes of the +leaders associated with him were destroyed: among his friends and the +people in general no one perished at his bidding; so that except the very +wealthy,--and these can never be at peace with the stronger element +at such a time,--the remainder took courage. In this second series of +assassinations, however, not only the men's enemies or the rich were +being killed, but also their best friends and quite without looking for +it. On the whole it may be said that almost nobody had incurred the +enmity of those men from any private cause that should account for +his being slain by them. Politics and compromises regarding posts of +authority had created both their friendships and their violent hatreds. +All those that had aided or assisted one of the group in any way the +others held in the light of an enemy. So it came about that the same +persons had become friends to some one of them, and enemies to the entire +body, so that while each was privately quelling his antagonists, they +destroyed the dearest friends of all in general. In the course of their +joint negotiations[26] they made a kind of account of who was on their +side and who was opposed, and no one was allowed to take vengeance on one +of his own enemies who was a friend of another without giving up some +friend in his turn: and because of their anger over what was past and +their suspicion of the future they cared nothing about the preservation +of an associate in comparison with vengeance on an adversary, and so gave +them up without much protest. [-6-] Thus they offered one another staunch +friends for bitter enemies and implacable foes for close comrades; and +sometimes they exchanged even numbers, at others several for one or fewer +for more, altogether carrying on the transactions as if at a market, and +overbidding one another as at an auction room. If some one was found just +equivalent to another and the two were ranked alike, the exchange was a +simple one; but all whose value was raised by some excellence or esteem +or relationship could be despatched only in return for several. As there +had been civil wars, lasting a long time and embracing many events, not +a few men during the turmoil had come into collision with their nearest +relatives. Indeed, Lucius Caesar, Antony's uncle, had become his enemy, +and Lepidus's brother, Lucius Paulus, hostile to him. The lives of these +were saved, but many of the rest were slaughtered even in the houses of +their very friends and relatives, from whom they especially expected +protection and honor. And in order that no person should feel less +inclined to kill any one out of fear of being deprived of the rewards +(remembering that in the time of Sulla Marcus Cato, who was quaestor, had +demanded of some of the murderers all they had received for their +work), they proclaimed that the name of no proscribed person should be +registered in the public records. On this account they slew ordinary +citizens more readily and made away with the prosperous, even though they +had no dislike for a single one of them. For since they stood in need +of vast sums of money and had no other source from which to satisfy the +desire of their soldiers, they affected a kind of common enmity against +the rich. Among the other transgressions they committed in the line of +this policy was to declare a mere child of age, so that they might kill +him as already exercising the privileges of a man. + +[-7-] Most of this was done by Lepidus and Antony. They had been honored +by the former Caesar for a very long time and as they had been in office +and holding governorships most of the period they had many enemies. It +appeared as if Caesar had a part in the business merely because of his +sharing the authority, for he himself was not at all anxious to kill any +large number. He was not naturally cruel and had been brought up in +his father's ways. Moreover, as he was young and had just entered the +political arena, there was no inevitable necessity for his bitterly +hating many persons, and he wished to have people's affection. This is +indicated by the fact that from the time he broke off his joint rulership +with his colleagues and held the power alone he did nothing of the sort. +And at this time he not only refrained from destroying many but preserved +a large number. Those also who betrayed their masters or friends he +treated most harshly and those who helped anybody most leniently. An +instance of it occurs in the case of Tanusia, a woman of note. She +concealed her husband Titus Vinius, who was proscribed, at first in a +chest at the house of a freedman named Philopoemen[27] and so made it +appear that he had been killed. Later she waited for a national festival, +which a relative of hers was to direct, and through the influence of his +sister Octavia brought it about that Caesar alone of the three entered the +theatre. Then she sprang up and informed him of the deception, of which +he was still ignorant, brought in the very chest and led from it her +husband. Caesar, astonished, released all of them (death being the penalty +also for such as concealed any one) and enrolled Philopoemen among the +knights. + +[-8-] He, then, saved the lives of as many as he could. Lepidus allowed +his brother Paulus to escape to Miletus and toward others was not +inexorable. But Antony killed savagely and relentlessly not only those +whose names had been posted, but likewise those who had attempted to +assist any of them. He had their heads in view when he happened to be +eating and sated himself to the fullest extent on this most unholy and +pitiable sight. Fulvia also put to death many herself both by reason of +enmity and on account of their money, and some with whom her husband was +not acquainted. When he saw the head of one man, he exclaimed: "I didn't +know about him!" Cicero's head also being brought to them (he had been +overtaken and slain while trying to flee), Antony uttered many bitter +reproaches against him and then ordered it to be exposed on the rostra +more prominently than the rest, in order that he might be seen in the +place from which he used to be heard inveighing against him,--together +with his right hand, just as it had been cut off. Before it was taken +away Fulvia took it in her hands and after abusing it spitefully and +spitting upon it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out +the tongue, which she pierced with the brooches that she used for her +hair, at the same time uttering many brutal jests. Yet even this pair +saved some persons from whom they got more money than they could expect +to obtain by their death. But in order that the places for their names +on the tablets might not be empty, they inscribed others in their stead. +Except that Antony did release his uncle at the earnest entreaty of his +mother Julia he performed no other praiseworthy act. + +[-9-] For these causes the murders had great variety of detail, and the +rescues that fell to the lot of some were of many kinds. Numbers were +ruined by their most intimate friends, and numbers were saved by their +most inveterate foes. Some slew themselves and others were given freedom +by the very pursuers, who approached as if to murder them. Some who +betrayed masters or friends were punished and others were honored for +this very reason: of those who helped others to survive some paid the +penalty and others received rewards. Since there was not one man but +three, who were acting in all cases each according to his own desire and +for his private advantage, and since the same persons were not enemies or +friends of the whole group, since, also, two of them might be anxious for +some one to be saved whom the third wished to destroy, or for some one +to perish whom the third wished to survive, many complicated situations +resulted, according as they felt good-will or hatred toward any one. +[-10-] I, accordingly, shall omit an accurate and detailed description of +all the events,--it would be a vast undertaking and would not add much +to the history,--but shall relate what I deem to be most worthy of +remembrance. Here is one. + +A slave had hidden his master in a cave, and then, when even so through +another's information he was likely to perish, this slave changed clothes +with him and wearing his master's apparel confronted the pursuers as the +man himself and was slain. So they were turned aside, thinking they had +despatched the desired man, but he when they had departed made his escape +to some other place. + +Or a second. Another slave had likewise changed his entire accoutrement +with his master, and entered a covered litter which he made the other +help to carry. When they were overtaken the one in the litter was killed +without being even looked at, and the master, as a baggage-carrier, +was saved. Those services were rendered by those servants to their +benefactors in return for some kindness previously received. + +There was also a branded runaway who so far from betraying the man who +had branded him very willingly preserved him. He was detected in carrying +him away and was being pursued, when he killed somebody who met him by +chance and gave the latter's clothes to his master. Having then placed +him upon a pyre he himself took his master's clothing and ring and going +to meet the pursuers pretended that he had killed the man while fleeing. +Because of his spoils and the marks of the branding he was believed and +both saved the person in question and was himself honored. + +The names connected with the above anecdotes have not been preserved. +But in the case of Hosidius Greta his son arranged a funeral for him as +though already dead and preserved him in that way. Quintus Cicero, the +brother of Marcus, was secretly led away by his child and saved, so far +as his rescuer's responsibility went. The boy concealed his father so +well that he could not be discovered and when tormented for it by all +kinds of torture did not utter a syllable. His father, learning what was +being done, was filled at once with admiration and pity for the boy, +and therefore came voluntarily to view and surrendered himself to the +slayers. + +[-11-] This gives an idea of the greatness of the manifest achievements +of virtue and piety at the time. It was Popillius Laenas who killed +Marcus Cicero, in spite of the latter's having done him favors as his +advocate; and in order that he might depend not wholly on hearsay but +also on the sense of sight to establish himself as the murderer of the +orator, he set up an image of himself wearing a crown beside his victim's +head, with an inscription that gave his name and the service rendered. By +this act he pleased Antony so much that he secured more than the price +offered. Marcus Terentius Varro was a man who had given no offence, but +as his appellation was identical with that of one of the proscribed, +except for one name, he was afraid that, this might lead him to suffer +such a fate as did Cinna. Therefore he issued a statement making known +this fact; he was tribune at the time. For this he became the subject of +much idle amusement and laughter. The uncertainty of life, however, was +evidenced by the very fact that Lucius Philuscius, who had previously +been proscribed by Sulla and had escaped, had his name now inscribed +again on the tablet and perished, whereas Marcus Valerius Messala, +condemned to death by Antony, not only continued to live in safety but +was later appointed consul in place of Antony himself. Thus many survive +from inextricable difficulties and no fewer are ruined through a spirit +of confidence. Hence a man ought not to be alarmed to the point of +hopelessness by the calamities of the moment, nor to be elated to +heedlessness by temporary exultation, but by placing his hope of the +future half-way between both to make reliable calculations for either +event. [-12-] This is the way it befell at that time: very many of those +not proscribed were involved in the downfall of others on account of +spite or money, and very many whose names were proclaimed not only +survived but returned to their homes again, and some of them even held +offices. They had a refuge, of course, with Brutus and Cassius and +Sextus, and the majority directed their flight toward the last mentioned. +He had been chosen formerly to command the fleet and had held sway for +some time on the sea, so that he had surrounded himself with a force of +his own, though he was afterward deprived of his office by Caesar. He had +occupied Sicily, and then, when the order of proscription was passed +against him, too, a host of assassinations took place, he aided greatly +those who were in like condition. Anchoring near the coast of Italy he +sent word to Rome and to the other cities offering among other things to +those who saved anybody double the reward advertised for murdering the +same and promising to the men themselves a reception and assistance and +money and honors. [-13-] Therefore great numbers came to him. I have +not even now recorded the precise total of those who were proscribed or +slaughtered or who escaped, because many names originally inscribed on +the tablets were erased and many were later inscribed in their place, and +of these not a few were saved while many outside of these succumbed. +It was not even allowed anybody to mourn for the victims, but several +perished from this cause also. And finally, when the calamities broke +through all the pretence they could assume and no one even of the most +stout-hearted could any longer wear an air of indifference to them, but +in all their work and conversation their countenances were overcast and +they were not intending to celebrate the usual festival at the beginning +of the year, they were ordered by a public notice to appear in good +spirits, on pain of death if they should refuse to obey. So they were +forced to rejoice over the common evils as over blessings. Yet why need I +have mentioned it, when they voted to those men (the triumvirs, I mean) +civic crowns and other distinctions as to benefactors and saviors of +the State? They did not think of being held to blame because they were +killing a few, but wished to receive additional praise for not putting +more out of the way. And to the populace they once openly stated that +they had emulated neither the cruelty of Marius and Sulla so as to incur +hatred, nor the mildness of Caesar so as to be despised and as a result +become objects of a conspiracy. + +[-14-] Such were the conditions of the murders; but many other unusual +proceedings took place in regard to the property of persons left alive. +They actually announced, as if they were just and humane rulers, that +they would give to the widows of the slain their dowries, to the male +children a tenth, and to the female children a twentieth of the property +of each one's father. This was not, however, granted save in a few +cases: of the rest all the possessions without exception were ruthlessly +plundered. In the first place they levied upon all the houses in the City +and those in the rest of Italy a yearly rent, which was the entire amount +from dwellings which people had let, and half from such as they occupied +themselves, with reference to the value of the domicile. Again, from +those who had lands they took away half of the proceeds. Besides, they +had the soldiers get their support free from the cities in which they +were wintering, and distributed them to various rural districts, +pretending that they were sent to take charge of confiscated territory +or that of persons who still opposed them. For this last class they had +termed likewise enemies because they had not changed their attitude +before the appointed day. So that the whole country outside the towns was +also pillaged. The autocrats allowed the soldiers to do this to the end +that, having their pay before the work, they might devote all their +energy to their commanders' interests, and promised to give them cities +and lands: And with this in view they further assigned to them persons to +divide the land and settle them. The mass of the soldiers was made loyal +by this course: of the more prominent they tempted some with the goods of +those that had been despatched by lowering the price on certain articles +and granting others to them free, and others they honored with the +offices and priesthoods of the victims. The commanders, to make sure that +they themselves should get the finest both of lands and buildings and +give their followers what they pleased, gave notice that no one else +should frequent the auction room unless he wanted to buy something: +whoever did so should die. And they handled bona fide purchasers in such +a way that the latter discovered nothing and paid the very highest price +for what they wanted, and consequently had no desire to buy again. + +[-15-] This was the course followed in regard to possessions. As to the +offices and priesthoods of such as had been put to death they distributed +them not in the fashion prescribed by law but however it suited them. +Caesar resigned the office of consul, giving up willingly that which he +had so desired as to make war for it, and his colleague gave up his +place, whereupon they appointed Publius Ventidius, though praetor, and one +other; and to the former's praetorship they promoted one of the aediles. +Afterward they removed all the praetors (who held office five days longer +than Ventidius) and sent them to be governors of the provinces, while +they installed others in their places. Some laws were abolished and +others introduced instead. + +And, in brief, they ordered everything else +just as seemed good to them. They did not, to be sure, lay claim to +titles which were offensive and had been therefore done away with, but +they managed matters according to their own wish and desire, so that +Caesar's sovereignty by comparison appeared all gold. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +In addition to transacting that year the business mentioned, they voted a +temple to Serapis and Isis. [-16-] When Marcus Lepidus and Lucius Plancus +became consuls tablets were again exposed, not bringing death to any +one any longer, but defrauding the living of their property. They were +collecting funds because they were in need of more money, due to the fact +that they owed large sums to large numbers of soldiers, were expending +considerable on works undertaken by the latter, and thought they should +lay out far more still on wars in prospect. The fact that those taxes +which had been formerly abrogated were now again put in force or +established on a new basis, and the institution of joint contributions, +many of which kept being levied on the land and on the servants, +displeased people moderately, it can not be denied. But to have those who +were in the slightest degree still prosperous, not only of the senators +or knights but even among the freedmen, and men and women alike, +bulletined on the tablets and another tenth of their wealth confiscated +disturbed all beyond measure. For it was only nominally that a tenth of +his property was exacted from each one: in reality not so much as a tenth +was left. They were not ordered to contribute a stated amount according +to the value of their possessions, but they had the duty of estimating +their own goods and then, being accused of not having made a fair +estimate, they lost the rest besides. + +[-17-] If any still escaped this somehow, yet they were brought into +straits by the assessments, and as they were terribly destitute of money +they too were in a way deprived of everything. Moreover, the following +device, distressing to hear but most distressing in practice, was put +into operation. Whoever of them wished was allowed by abandoning his +property afterward to make a requisition for one-third of it, which meant +getting nothing and also having trouble. For when they were being +openly and violently despoiled of two-thirds, how should they get back +one-third, especially since goods were being sold for an infinitesimal +price? In the first place, since many wares were being advertised for +sale at once and the majority of men were without gold or silver, and the +rest did not dare to buy because it would look as if they had something +and they would place in jeopardy the remnant of their wealth, the prices +were relaxed: in the second place, everything was sold to the soldiers +far below its value. Hence no one of the private citizens saved anything +worth mentioning. In addition to other drains they surrendered servants +for the fleet, buying them if they had none, and the senators repaired +the roads at their individual expense. Only those who wielded arms +enjoyed superlative wealth. _They_, to be sure, were not satisfied with +their pay, though it was in full, nor with their outside perquisites, +though of vast extent, nor with the very large prizes bestowed for the +murders, nor with the acquisition of lands, which was made almost without +cost to them. But in addition some would ask for and receive all the +property of the dying, and others still forced their way into the +families of such as were old and childless. To such an extent were they +filled with greed and shamelessness that one man asked from Caesar himself +the property of Attia, Caesar's mother, who had died at the time and had +been honored by a public burial. + +[-18-] While these three men were behaving in this wise, they were also +magnifying the former Caesar to the greatest degree. As they were all +aiming at sole supremacy and were all striving for it, they vindictively +pursued the remainder of the assassins, apparently in the idea that they +were preparing from afar immunity for themselves in what they were doing, +and safety; and everything which tended to his honor they readily took +up, in expectation of some day being themselves deemed worthy of similar +distinctions: for this reason they glorified him by the decrees which had +been passed, and by others which they now added to them. On the first day +of the year they themselves took an oath and made others swear that they +would consider binding all his acts; this action is still taken in the +case of all officials who successively hold power, or again of those +who lived in his era, and have not been dishonored. They also laid the +foundation of a hero-shrine in the Forum, on the spot where he had been +burned, and escorted a kind of image of him at the horse-races together +with a second statue of Venus. In case news of a victory came from +anywhere they assigned the honor of a thanksgiving to the victor by +himself and to Caesar, though dead, by himself. They compelled everybody +to celebrate his birthday wearing laurel and in good spirits, passing +a law that all others, neglected it, were accursed before Jupiter and +before him while any senators or their sons should forfeit twenty-five +myriads of denarii. Now it happened that the Ludi Apollinares fell on the +same day, and they therefore voted that his natal feast should be held +on the previous day,[28] because (they said) there was an oracle of the +Sibyl forbidding a festival to be celebrated during that twenty-four +hours to any god except Apollo. [-19-] Besides granting him these +privileges they regarded the day on which he had been murdered (on which +there was always a regular meeting of the senate) as a dies nefas. The +room in which he had been murdered they closed immediately and later +transformed it into a privy. They also built the Curia Julia, called +after him, next to the so-named Comitium, as had been voted. Besides, +they forbade any likeness of him, because he was in very truth a god, to +be carried at the funerals of his relatives, which ancient custom was +still being observed. And they enacted that no one who took refuge in his +shrine to secure immunity should be banished or stripped of his goods,--a +right given to no one of the gods even, save to such as had a place in +the days of Romulus. Yet after men began to gather there the place had +inviolability in name without its effects; for it was so fenced about +that no one at all could any longer enter it. + +In addition to those gifts to Caesar they allowed the vestal virgins to +employ one lictor each, because one of them had been insulted, owing to +not being recognized, while returning home from dinner toward evening. +The offices in the City they assigned for a greater number of years in +advance, thus at the same time giving honor through the expected offices +to those fitted for them and retaining a grasp on affairs for a longer +time by means of those who were to hold sway. + +[-20-] When this had been accomplished, Lepidus remained there, as I have +said, to take up the administration of the City and of the rest of Italy, +and Caesar and Antony started on their campaign. Brutus and Cassius had at +first, after the compact made by them with Antony and the rest, gone +into the Forum and discharged the activities of praetorship with the same +diligence as before. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +But when some began to be displeased at the killing of Caesar, they +withdrew, pretending to be in haste to reach the governorships abroad to +which they had been appointed. Cassius, who was praetor urbanus,[29] had +not yet finished his duties in connection with the Ludi Apollinares. +However, though absent he accomplished that task most brilliantly through +the medium of his fellow-praetor Antony, and did not himself sail away +from Italy at once, but lingered with Brutus in Campania, to watch the +course of events. And in their capacity as praetors they sent a certain +number of letters to Rome to the people, until such time as Caesar +Octavianus began to aspire to public position and to win the affections +of the populace. Then, in despair of the republic and fear of him, they +set sail. The Athenians gave them a splendid reception; for though they +were indeed honored by nearly everybody else for what they had done, the +inhabitants of this city voted them bronze images beside that of +Harmodius and that of Aristogeiton, as having emulated them. [-21-] +Meanwhile, learning that Caesar was making progress they neglected the +Cretans and Bithynians, to whom they were directing their course, for +among them they saw no aid forthcoming worthy the name: but they turned +to Syria and to Macedonia, which did not, to be sure, appertain to them +in the least, because they were teeming with money and troops for +the occasion. Cassius proceeded to the Syrian country, because its +inhabitants were acquainted with him and friendly as a result of his +campaign with Crassus, while Brutus united Greece and Macedonia. The +inhabitants would have followed him anywhere because of the glory of his +deeds and in the hope of similar achievements, and they were further +influenced by the fact that he had acquired numerous soldiers, some +survivors of the battle of Pharsalus, who were still at this time +wandering about in that region, and others who either by reason of +disease or because of want of discipline had been left behind from the +contingent that took the field with Dolabella. Money came to him, too, +from Trebonius in Asia. So without the least effort, perhaps because it +contained no force worth mentioning, he by this means gained the country +of Greece. He reached Macedonia at the time that Gaius Antonius had just +arrived and Quintus Hortensius, who had governed it previously, was about +to lay down his office. However, he experienced no trouble. The departing +official embraced his cause at once, and Antonius was weak, being +hindered by Caesar's supremacy in Rome from performing any of the duties +belonging to his office. The neighboring territory of Illyricum was +governed by Vatinius, who came thence to Dyrrachium and occupied it in +advance. He was a political adversary of Brutus, but could not injure him +at all, for his soldiers, who disliked him and furthermore despised him +by reason of a disease, went over to the other side. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +Brutus, taking charge of these, led an expedition against Antonius, who +was in Apollonia: the latter came out to meet him, whereupon Brutus won +over his soldiers and confined him within the walls, whither he fled +before him. After this Antonius was by betrayal taken alive, but no harm +was done to him. [-22-] Close upon this success the victor acquired all +of Macedonia and Epirus, and then despatched a letter to the senate, +stating what had been accomplished, and placing himself, the provinces, +and the soldiers at its disposal. The senators, who by chance already +felt suspicious of Caesar, praised him strongly and bade him govern all +that region. When, then, he had confirmed his leadership by the decree, +he himself felt more encouraged and he found his subjects ready to +support him unreservedly. For a time he communicated with Caesar, when the +latter appeared to be hostile to Antony, urging him to resist his enemy +and be reconciled with him (Brutus), and he was making preparations to +sail to Italy because the senate summoned him. After Caesar, however, +had matters thoroughly in hand in Rome, and proceeded openly to take +vengeance on his father's slayers, Brutus remained where he was, +deliberating how he should successfully ward off the other's attack when +it occurred: and besides managing admirably the other districts as well +as Macedonia, he calmed the minds of his legions when they had been +thrown into a state of discontent by Antonius. [-23-] For the latter, +although his conqueror had not even deprived him of a praetor's +perquisites, did not enjoy keeping quiet in safety and honor, but +connived at a revolt among the soldiers of Brutus. Being discovered at +this work before he had done any great harm, he was stripped of his +praetor's insignia, and delivered to be guarded without confinement that +he might not cause an uprising. Yet not even then did he remain quiet, +but concocted more schemes of rebellion than ever, so that some of the +soldiers came to blows with one another and others started for Apollonia +after Antonius himself, in the intention of rescuing him. This, however, +they were unable to do: Brutus had learned in advance from some +intercepted letters what was to be done and by putting him into an +enclosed chair got him out of the way on the pretence that he was moving +a sick man. The soldiers, not being able to find the object of their +search, in fear of Brutus seized a point of high ground commanding the +city. Brutus induced them to come to an understanding, and by executing a +few of the most audacious and dismissing others from his service he set +matters in such a light that the men arrested and killed those sent away, +on the ground that they were most responsible for the sedition, and asked +for the surrender of the quaestor and the lieutenants of Antonius. [-24-] +Brutus did not give up any of the latter, but put them aboard boats with +the avowed intention of drowning them, and so conveyed them to safety. +Fearing, however, that when they should hear the next news of more +terrifying transactions in Rome they might change their attitude, he +delivered Antonius to a certain Gaius Clodius to guard, and left him at +Apollonia. Meanwhile Brutus himself took the largest and strongest part +of the army and retired into upper Macedonia, whence he later sailed to +Asia, to the end that he might remove his men as far as possible from +Italy and support them on the subject territory there. Among other allies +whom he won over at this time was Deiotarus, although he was of a great +age and had refused assistance to Cassius. While he was delaying here a +plot was formed against him by Gellius Poplicola, and Mark Antony sent +some men to attempt to rescue his brother. Clodius, accordingly, as +he could not guard his prisoner safely, killed him, either on his own +responsibility, or according to instructions from Brutus. For the story +is that at first the latter made his safety of supreme importance, but +later, learning that Decimus had perished, cared nothing more about it. +Gellius was detected, but suffered no punishment. Brutus released him +because he had always held him to be among his best friends and knew that +his brother, Marcus Messala, was on very close terms with Cassius. The +man had also attacked Cassius, but had suffered no evil in that case, +either. The reason was that his mother Polla learned of the plot in +advance, and being very fearful lest Cassius should be overtaken by his +fate (for she was very fond of him) and lest her son should be detected, +voluntarily informed Cassius of the plot herself beforehand, and received +the preservation of her son as a reward. His easy escapes, however, did +not improve him at all, and he deserted his benefactors to join Caesar +and Antony. [-25-] As soon as Brutus learned of the attempt of Mark +Antony and of the killing of his brother, he feared that some other +insurrection might take place in Macedonia during his absence, and +immediately hastened to Europe. On the way he took charge of the +territory which had belonged to Sadalus (who died childless and left it +to the Romans), and invaded the country of the Bessi, to see if he could +at the same time recompense them for the trouble they were causing and +surround himself with the name and reputation of imperator, which would +enable him to fight more easily against Caesar and Antony. Both projects +he accomplished, being chiefly aided by Rhascuporis, a certain prince. +After going thence into Macedonia and making himself master of everything +there, he withdrew again into Asia. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-26-] Brutus besides doing this had stamped upon the coins which were +being minted his own likeness and a helmet and two daggers, indicating by +this and by the inscription that in company with Cassius he had liberated +his country. At that same period Cassius had crossed over to Trebonius in +Asia ahead of Dolabella, and after securing money from him and a number +of the cavalry whom Dolabella had sent before him into Syria attached +to his cause many others of the Asiatics and Cilicians. As a result he +brought Tarcondimotus[30] and the people of Tarsus into the alliance, +though they were reluctant. For the Tarsians were so devoted to the +former Caesar (and out of regard for him to the second also) that they +had changed the name of their city to Juliopolis after him. This done, +Cassius went to Syria, and without striking a blow assumed entire +direction of the nations and the legions. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 710)] + +The situation in Syria at that time was this. Caecilius Bassus, a knight, +who had made the campaign with Pompey and in the retreat had arrived +at Tyre, continued to spend his time there, incognito. On 'Change. Now +Sextus was governing the Syrians, for Caesar, since he was quaestor and +also a relative of his, had entrusted to his care all Roman interests +in that quarter on the occasion of his own march from Egypt against +Pharnaces. So Bassus at first remained quiet, satisfied to be allowed to +live: when, however, some similar persons had associated themselves with +him and he had attracted to his enterprise various soldiers of Sextus +who at various times came there to garrison the city, and likewise many +alarming reports kept coming in from Africa about Caesar, he was no longer +pleased with existing circumstances but raised a rebellion, his aim being +either to help the followers of Scipio and Cato and the Pompeians or to +clothe himself in some authority. Sextus discovered him before he had +finished his preparations, but he explained that he was collecting this +body as an auxiliary force for Mithridates of Pergamum against Bosporus; +his story was believed, and he was released. So after this he forged an +epistle, which he pretended had been sent to him by Scipio, in which he +announced that Caesar had been defeated and had perished in Africa and +stated that the governorship of Syria had been assigned to him. His next +step was to use the forces he had in readiness for occupying Tyre and +from there he approached the camp of Sextus. In the attack on the latter +which followed Bassus was defeated and wounded. Consequently, after this +experience, he no longer employed violent tactics, but sent messages to +his opponent's soldiers, and in some way or other so prevailed over some +of them that they took upon themselves the murder of Sextus. + +[-27-] The latter out of the way the usurper gained possession of all his +army except some few. The soldiers wintering in Apamea withdrew before +he reached them toward Cilicia, and were pursued but were not won over. +Bassus returned to Syria, where he was named commander, and he conquered +Apamea so as to have it as a base for warfare. He enlisted not only the +free but the slave fighting population, gathered money, and accumulated +arms. While he was thus engaged one Gaius Antistius invested the position +he was holding, and the two had a nearly even struggle in which neither +party succeeded in gaining any great advantage. Thereupon they parted, +without any definite truce, to await the bringing up of allies. The +troops of Antistius were increased by such persons in the vicinity as +favored Caesar and soldiers that had been sent by him from Rome, those of +Bassus by Alchaudonius the Arabian. The latter was the leader who had +formerly made an arrangement with Lucullus, as I mentioned,[31] and +later joined with the Parthian against Crassus. On this occasion he was +summoned by both sides, but entered the space between the city and the +camps and before making any answer auctioned off his services; and as +Bassus offered more money he assisted him, and in the battle wrought +great havoc with his arrows. The Parthians themselves, too, came at the +invitation of Bassus, but on account of the winter failed to remain with +him for any considerable time, and hence did not accomplish anything of +importance. This commander, then, had his own way for a time, but was +later again held in check by Marcius Crispus[32] and Lucius Staius +Murcus. + +[-28-] Things were in this condition among them when Cassius came on the +scene and at once conciliated all the cities through the reputation of +what he had done in his quaestorship and his other fame, and attached the +legions of Bassus and of the rest without additional labor. While he +was encamped in one spot with all of them a great downpour from the sky +suddenly occurred, during which wild swine rushed into the camp through +all the gates at once, overturning and mixing up everything there. Some, +accordingly, inferred from this that his power was only temporary and +that disaster was subsequently coming. Having secured possession of Syria +he set out into Judea on learning that the followers of Caesar left behind +in Egypt were approaching. Without effort he enlisted both them and the +Jews in his undertaking. Next he sent away without harming in the least +Bassus and Crispus and such others as did not care to share the campaign +with him; for Staius he preserved the rank with which he had come there +and besides entrusted to him the fleet. + +Thus did Cassius in brief time become strong: and he sent a despatch to +Caesar about reconciliation and to the senate about the situation, couched +in similar language to that of Brutus. Therefore the senate confirmed his +governorship of Syria and voted for the war with Dolabella. [-29-] The +latter had been appointed to govern Syria and had started out while +consul, but he proceeded only slowly through Macedonia and Thrace into +the province of Asia and delayed there also. While he was still there +he received news of the decree, and did not go forward into Syria but +remained where he was, treating Trebonius in such a way as to make him +believe most strongly that Dolabella was his friend. Trebonius had his +free permission to take food for his soldiers and to live on intimate +terms with him. When his dupe became in this way imbued with confidence +and ceased to be on his guard, Dolabella by night suddenly seized Smyrna, +where the other was, slew him, and hurled his head at Caesar's image, and +thereafter occupied all of Asia. When the Romans at home heard of this +they declared war against him; for as yet Caesar had neither conquered +Antony nor obtained a hold upon affairs in the City. The citizens also +gave notice to Dolabella's followers of a definite day before which they +must leave off friendship with him, in order to avoid being regarded also +in the light of enemies. And they instructed the consuls to carry on +opposition to him and the entire war as soon as they should have brought +their temporary business to a successful conclusion (not knowing yet that +Cassius held Syria). But in order that he should not gain still greater +power in the interval they gave the governors of the neighboring +provinces charge of the matter. Later they learned the news about +Cassius, and before anything whatever had been done by his opponents at +home they passed the vote that I cited. [-30-] Dolabella, accordingly, +after becoming in this way master of Asia came into Cilicia while Cassius +was in Palestine, took over the people of Tarsus with their consent, +conquered a few of Cassius's guards who were at Aegeae, and invaded Syria. + +From Antioch he was repulsed by the contingent guarding the place, but +gained Laodicea without a struggle on account of the friendship which its +inhabitants felt for the former Caesar. Upon this he spent some days in +acquiring new strength,--the fleet among other reinforcements came to +him speedily from Asia,--and crossed over into Aradus with the object +of getting both money and ships from the people also. There he was +intercepted with but few followers and ran into danger. He had escaped +from this when he encountered Cassius marching toward him, and gave +battle, which resulted in his own defeat. He was then shut up and +besieged in Laodicea, where he was entirely cut off from the land, to +be sure (Cassius being assisted by some Parthians among others), but +retained some power through the Asiatic ships and the Egyptian ones which +Cleopatra had sent him, and furthermore by means of the money which came +to him from her. So he carried on marauding expeditions until Staius got +together a fleet, and sailing into the harbor of Laodicea vanquished the +ships that moved out to meet him, and barred Dolabella from the sea also. +Then, prevented on both sides from bringing up supplies, he was led by +lack of necessaries to make a sortie. However, he was quickly hurled back +within the fortress, and seeing that it was being betrayed he feared +that he might be taken alive, and so despatched himself. His example was +followed by Marcus Octavius, his lieutenant. These were deemed worthy of +burial by Cassius, although they had cast out Trebonius unburied. The men +who had participated in the campaign with them and survived obtained both +safety and amnesty, in spite of having been regarded as enemies by the +Romans at home. Nor yet did the Laodiceans suffer any harm beyond being +obliged to contribute money. But for that matter no one else, though many +subsequently plotted against Cassius, was chastised. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +[-31-] While this was going on the people of Tarsus had attempted to keep +from the passage through the Taurus Tillius Cimber, an assassin of Caesar +who was then governing Bithynia and was hurrying forward to help Cassius. +Out of fear, however, they abandoned the spot and at the time made a +truce with him, because they thought him strong, but afterward they +perceived the small number of his soldiers and neither took him into +their city nor furnished him provisions. He constructed a kind of fort +over against them and set out for Syria, believing it to be of more +importance to aid Cassius than himself to destroy their city. They then +made an attack upon this and got possession of it, after which they +started for Adana, a place on their borders always at variance with them, +giving as an excuse that it was following the cause of Cassius. The +latter, when he heard of it, first, while Dolabella was still alive sent +Lucius Rufus against them, but later came himself, to find that they had +already capitulated to Rufus without a struggle. Upon them he inflicted +no severe penalty save to take away all their money, private and public. +As a result, the people of Tarsus received praise from the triumvirate, +who now held sway in Rome, and were inspired with hope of obtaining some +return for their losses. Cleopatra also, on account of the detachment +she had sent to Dolabella, was granted the right to have her son called +King of Egypt. This son, whom she named Ptolemy, she also pretended was +sprung from Caesar, and she was therefore wont to address him as Caesarion. + +[-32-] Cassius when he had settled matters in Syria and in Cilicia +came to meet Brutus in Asia. For when they learned of the union of the +triumvirs and what the latter were doing against them, they came +together there and made common cause more than ever. As they had a like +responsibility for the war and looked forward to a like danger and did +not even now recede from their position regarding the freedom of the +people, and as they were eager also to overthrow their opponents, three +in number and the authors of such deeds, they could plan and accomplish +everything in common with much greater zest. To be brief, they resolved +to enter Macedonia and to hinder the others from crossing over there, or +else to cross into Italy before the others started. Since the men were +said to be still settling affairs in Rome and it was thought likely that +they should have their hands full with Sextus, lying in wait near by, +they did not carry out their plans immediately. Instead, they went about +themselves and sent others in various directions, winning over such as +were not yet in accord with them, and gathering money and soldiers. +[-33-] In this way nearly all the rest, even those who had before paid no +attention to them, at once made agreements with them; but Ariobarzanes, +the Rhodians, and the Lycians, though they did not oppose them, were +still unwilling to form an alliance with them. These were therefore +suspected by Brutus and Cassius of favoring their antagonists, since they +had been well treated by the former Caesar, and fear was entertained by +the two leaders lest when they themselves departed this group should +cause some turmoil and lead the rest to revolt. Hence they determined to +turn first in the direction of these doubtful parties, hoping that since +they were far stronger in point of weapons and were willing to bestow +favors ungrudgingly they might soon either persuade or force them to +join. The Rhodians, who had so great an opinion of their seamanship that +they anticipated Cassius by sailing to the mainland and displayed to his +army the fetters they were bringing with the idea that they were going to +capture many alive, were yet conquered by him, first in a naval battle +near Myndus and later close to Rhodes itself. The commanding officer was +Staius, who overcame their skill by the number and size of his ships. +Thereupon Cassius himself crossed over to their island, where he met with +no resistance, possessing, as he did, their goodwill because of the stay +he had made there in the interests of his education. And he did them no +hurt except to appropriate their ships and money and holy and sacred +vessels,--all save the chariot of the Sun. Afterward he arrested and +killed Ariobarzanes. + +[-34-] Brutus overcame in battle the public army of the Lycians which +confronted him near the borders, and entering the citadel at the same +time as the fugitives captured it at a single stroke; the majority of +the cities he brought to his side, but Xanthus he shut up in a state of +siege. Suddenly the inhabitants made a sortie, and themselves rushed +in with them, and once inside arrows and javelins at once rendered his +position very dangerous. He would, indeed, have perished utterly, had +not his soldiers pushed their way through the very fire and unexpectedly +attacked the assailants, who were light-armed. These they hurled back +within the walls and themselves rushed in with them, and once inside cast +some of the fire on several houses, terrifying those who saw what was +being done, and giving those at a distance the impression that they had +simply captured everything. The result was that the natives of their own +accord helped set fire to the rest, and most of them slew one another. +Next Brutus came to Patara and invited the people to conclude friendship; +but they would not obey, for the slaves and the poorer portion of the +free population, who had received in advance for their services the +former freedom, the latter remission of debts, prevented any compact +being made. So at first he sent them the captive Xanthians, to whom many +of them were related by marriage, in the hope that through these he might +bring them to terms. When they yielded none the more, in spite of his +giving to each man gratuitously his own kin, he erected a kind of +salesroom in a safe spot under the very wall, where he led each one of +the prominent men past and auctioned him off, to see if by this means at +least he could gain the Patareans. They were as little inclined as ever +to make concessions, whereupon he sold a few and let the rest go. When +those within saw this, they no longer were stubborn, but forthwith +attached themselves to his cause, regarding him as an upright man; and +they were punished only in a pecuniary way. The people of Myra took the +same action when after capturing their general at the harbor he then +released him. Similarly in a short time he secured control of the rest. + +[-35-] When both had effected this they came again into Asia; and all the +suspicious facts they had heard from slanderous talk which will arise +under such conditions they brought up in common, one case at a time, +and, after they were settled, hastened into Macedonia. They had been +anticipated by Gaius Norbanus and Decidius Saxa, who had crossed over +into Ionium before Staius reached there, had occupied the whole country +as far as Pangaeum, and had encamped near Philippi. This city is located +close beside Mount Pangaeum and close beside Symbolon. Symbolon is a +name they give the place for the reason that the mountain mentioned +corresponds (_symballei_) to another that rises in the interior; and it +is between Neapolis and Philippi. The former was near the sea, across +from Thasos, while the latter has been built within the mountains on the +plain. Saxa and Norbanus happened to have occupied the shortest path +across, therefore Brutus and Cassius did not even try to get through that +way, but went around by a longer path,--the so-called Crenides.[33] +Here, too, they encountered a guard, but overpowered it, got inside the +mountains, approached the city along the high ground, and there encamped +each one apart,--if we are to follow the story. As a matter of fact they +bivouacked in one spot. In order that the soldiers might preserve better +discipline and be easier to manage, the camp was made up of two separate +divisions: but as all of it, including the intervening space, was +surrounded by a ditch and a rampart, the entire circuit belonged to both, +and from it they derived safety in common. [-36-] They were far superior +in numbers to their adversaries then present and by that means got +possession of Symbolon, having first ejected the inhabitants. In this way +they were able to bring provisions from the sea, over a shorter stretch +of country, and had only to make a descent from the plain to get them. +For Norbanus and Saxa did not venture to offer them battle with their +entire force, though they did send out horsemen to make sorties, wherever +opportunity offered. Accomplishing nothing, however, they were rather +careful to keep their camp well guarded than to expose it to danger, +and sent in haste for Caesar and Antony. These leaders on learning that +Cassius and Brutus were for some time busy with the Rhodians and the +Lycians had thought that their adversaries would have more fighting on +their hands there, and so instead of hastening had sent Saxa and Norbanus +forward into Macedonia. On finding out that their representatives were +caught they bestowed praise on the Lycians and Rhodians, promising to +make them a present of money, and they themselves at once set out from +the city. Both, however, encountered a delay of some time,--Antony near +Brundusium, because blocked by Staius, and Caesar near Rhegium, having +first turned aside to meet Sextus, held Sicily and was making an attempt +on Italy. [-37-] When it seemed to them to be impossible to dislodge him, +and the case of Cassius and Brutus appeared to be more urgent, they left +a small part of their army to garrison Italy and with the major portion +safely crossed the Ionian sea. Caesar fell sick and was left behind at +Dyrrachium, while Antony marched for Philippi. For a time he was a source +of some strength to his soldiers, but after laying an ambush for some of +the opposite party that were gathering grain and failing in his attempt +he was no longer of good courage himself. Caesar heard of it and feared +either possible outcome, that his colleague should be defeated in a +separate attack or again that he should conquer: in the former event he +felt that Brutus and Cassius would attain power, and in the latter that +Antony would have it all himself; therefore he made haste though still +unwell. At this action the followers of Antony also took courage. And +since it did not seem safe for them to refuse to encamp together, they +brought the three divisions together to one spot and into one stronghold. +While the opposing forces were facing each other sallies and excursions +took place on both sides, as chance dictated. For some time, however, no +ordered battle was joined, although Caesar and Antony were exceedingly +anxious to bring on a conflict. Their forces stronger than those of their +adversaries, but they were not so abundantly supplied with provisions, +because their fleet was away fighting Sextus and they were therefore not +masters of the sea. + +[-38-] Hence these men for the reasons specified and because of Sextus, +who held Sicily and was making an attempt on Italy, were excited by +the fear that while they delayed he might capture Italy and come +into Macedonia. Cassius and Brutus had no particular aversion to a +battle,--they had the advantage in the number of soldiers, though the +latter were deficient in strength,--but some reflection on their own +condition and that of their opponents showed them that allies were being +added to their own numbers every day and that they had abundant food by +the help of the ships; consequently they put off action in the hope of +gaining their ends without danger and loss of men. Because they were +lovers of the people in no pretended sense and were contending with +citizens, they consulted the interests of the latter no less than those +of their own associates, and desired to afford preservation and liberty +to both alike. For some time, therefore, they waited, not wishing to +provoke a contest with them. The troops, however, being composed mostly +of subject nations, were oppressed by the delay and despised +their antagonists who, apparently out of fear, offered within the +fortifications the sacrifice of purification, which regularly precedes +struggles. Hence they urged a battle and spread a report that if there +should be more delay, they would abandon the camp and disperse; and at +this the leaders, though against their will, went to meet the foe. + +[-39-] You might not unnaturally guess that this struggle proved +tremendous and surpassed all previous civil conflicts of the Romans. +This was not because these contestants excelled those of the old days in +either the number or the valor of the warriors, for far larger masses +and braver men than they had fought on many fields, but because on this +occasion they contended for liberty and for democracy as never before. +And they came to blows with one another again later just as they had +previously. But the subsequent struggles they carried on to see to whom +they should belong: on this occasion the one side was trying to bring +them into subjection to sovereignty, the other side into a state of +autonomy. Hence the people never attained again to the absolute right +of free speech, in spite of being vanquished by no foreign nation (the +subject population and the allied nations then present on both sides were +merely a kind of complement of the citizen army): but the people at once +gained the mastery over and fell into subjection to itself; it defeated +itself and was defeated; and in that effort it exhausted the democratic +element and strengthened the monarchical. I do not say that the people's +defeat at that time was not beneficial. (What else can one say regarding +those who fought on both sides than that the Romans were conquered and +Caesar was victorious?) They were no longer capable of concord in the +established form of government; for it is impossible for an unadulterated +democracy that has grown to acquire domains of such vast size to have +the faculty of moderation. After undertaking many similar conflicts +repeatedly, one after another, they would certainly some day have been +either enslaved or ruined. + +[-40-] We may infer also from the portents which appeared to them on that +occasion that the struggle between them was clearly tremendous. Heaven, +as it is ever accustomed to give indications before most remarkable +events, foretold to them accurately both in Rome and in Macedonia all the +results that would come from it. In the City the sun at one time appeared +diminished and grew extremely small, and again showed itself now huge, +now tripled in form, and once shone forth at night. Thunderbolts +descended on many spots, and most significantly upon the altar of Jupiter +Victor; flashes darted hither and thither; notes of trumpets, clashing of +arms, and cries of camps were heard by night from the gardens of Caesar +and of Antony, located close together beside the Tiber. Moreover a dog +dragged the body of a dog to the temple of Ceres, where he dug the earth +with his paws and buried it. A child was born with hands that had ten +fingers, and a mule gave birth to a prodigy of two species. The front +part of it resembled a horse, and the rest a mule. The chariot of Minerva +while returning to the Capitol from a horse-race was dashed to pieces, +and the statue of Jupiter at Albanum sent forth blood at the very time +of the Feriae from its right shoulder and right hand. These were advance +indications to them from Heaven, and the rivers also in their land gave +out entirely or began to flow backward. And any chance deeds of men +seemed to point to the same end. During the Feriae the prefect of the city +celebrated the festival of Latiaris,[34] which neither belonged to him +nor was ordinarily observed at that time, and the plebeian aediles +offered to Ceres contests in armor in place of the horse-race. This was +what took place in Rome, where certain oracles also both before the +events and pertaining to them were recited, tending to the downfall +of the democracy. In Macedonia, to which Pangeaum and the territory +surrounding it are regarded as belonging, bees in swarms pervaded the +camp of Cassius, and in the course of its purification some one set the +garland upon his head wrong end foremost, and a boy while carrying +a Victory in some procession, such as the soldiers inaugurate, fell +down.[35] But the thing which most of all portended destruction to them, +so that it became plain even to their enemies, was that many vultures and +many other birds, too, that devour corpses gathered only above the heads +of the conspirators, gazing down upon them and squawking and screeching +with terrible and bloodcurdling notes. + +[-41-] To that party these signs brought evil, while the others, so far +as we know, were visited by no omen, but saw some such, visions as the +following in dreams. A Thessalian dreamed that the former Caesar had +bidden him tell Caesar that the battle would occur on the second day +after that one, and that he should resume some of the insignia which his +predecessor wore while dictator: Caesar therefore immediately put his +father's ring on his finger and wore it often afterward. That was the +vision which that man saw, whereas the physician who attended Caesar +thought that Minerva enjoined him to lead his patient, though still in +poor health, from his tent and place him in line of battle: and by this +act he was saved. In most cases safety is the lot of such as remain in +the camp and of those in the fortifications, while danger accompanies +those who proceed into the midst of weapons and battles; but this was +reversed in the case of Caesar. It was quite visibly the result of his +leaving the rampart and mingling with the fighting men that he survived, +although from sickness he stood with difficulty even without his arms. + +[-42-] The engagement was of the following nature. No arrangement had +been made as to when they should enter battle, yet as if by some compact +they all armed themselves at dawn, advanced into the square intervening +between them quite leisurely, as though they were competitors in games, +and there were quietly marshaled. When they stood opposed advice was +given partly to the entire bodies and partly to individuals of both +forces by the generals and lieutenants and subalterns. They made many +suggestions touching the immediate danger and many adapted to the future, +words such as men would speak who were to encounter danger on the moment +and were endeavoring to anticipate troubles to come. For the most part +the speeches were very similar, inasmuch as on both sides alike there +were Romans together with allies. Still, there was a difference. The +officers of Brutus offered their men the prizes of liberty and democracy, +of freedom from tyrants and freedom from masters; they pointed out to +them the excellencies of equality in government, and all the unfairness +of monarchy that they themselves had experienced or had heard in other +cases; they called to the attention of the soldiers the separate details +of each system and besought them to strive for the one, and to take care +not to endure the other. The opposing officers urged their army to take +vengeance on the assassins, to possess the property of their antagonists, +to be filled with a desire to rule all of their race, and (the clause +which inspired them most) they promised to give them five thousand +denarii apiece. [-43-] Thereupon they first sent around their +watchwords,--the followers of Brutus using "Liberty," and the others +whatever happened to be given out,--and then one trumpeter on each side +sounded the first note, followed by the blare of the remainder. Those in +front sounded the "at rest" and the "ready" signal on their trumpets in +a kind of circular spot, and then the rest came in who were to rouse +the spirit of the soldier and incite them to the onset. Then there was +suddenly a great silence, and after waiting a little the leaders issued a +clear command and the lines on both sides joined in a shout. After that +with a yell the heavy-armed dashed their spears against their shields and +hurled the former at each other, while the slingers and the archers sent +their stones and missiles. Then the two bodies of cavalry trotted forward +and the contingents shielded with breastplates following behind joined in +hand to hand combat. [-44-] They did a great deal of pushing and a great +deal of stabbing, looking carefully at first to see how they should wound +others and not be wounded themselves; they desired both to kill their +antagonists and to save themselves. Later, when their charge grew fiercer +and their spirit flamed up, they rushed together without stopping to +consider, and paid no more attention to their own safety, but would even +sacrifice themselves in their eagerness to destroy their adversaries. +Some threw away their shields and seizing hold of those arrayed opposite +them either strangled[36] them in their helmets and struck them from the +rear, or snatched away their defence in front and delivered a stroke on +their breasts. Others took hold of their swords and then ran their +own into the bodies of the men opposite, who had been made as good as +unarmed. And some by exposing some part of their bodies to be wounded +could use the rest more readily. Some clutched each other in an embrace +that prevented the possibility of striking, but they perished in the +intertwining of swords and bodies. Some died of one blow, others of many, +and neither had any perception of their wounds, dying too soon to feel +pain, nor lamented their taking off, because they did not reach the point +of expressing grief. One who killed another thought in the excessive joy +of the moment that he could never die. Whoever fell lost consciousness +and had no knowledge of his state. [-45-] Both sides remained stubbornly +in their places and neither side retired or pursued, but there, just as +they were, they wounded and were wounded, slew and were slain, until late +in the day. And if all had contested with all, as may happen under such +circumstances, or if Brutus had been arrayed against Antony and Cassius +against Caesar, they would have proved equally matched. As it was, Brutus +forced the invalid Caesar from his path, while Antony overruled Cassius, +who was by no means his equal in warfare. At this juncture, because not +all were conquering the other side at once, but both parties were in turn +defeated and victorious, the results[37] were practically the same. Both +had conquered and had been defeated, each had routed their adversaries +and had been routed, pursuits and flights had fallen to the lot of both +alike and the camps on both sides had been captured. As they were many +they occupied a large expanse of plain, so that they could not see each +other distinctly. In the battle each one could recognize only what was +opposite him, and when the rout took place each side fled the opposite +way to its own fortifications, situated at a distance from each +other, without stopping to look back. Because of this fact and of the +immeasurable quantity of dust that rose they were ignorant of the +termination of the battle, and those who had conquered thought they had +been victorious over everything, and those who were defeated deemed they +had been worsted everywhere. They did not learn what had happened until +the ramparts had been laid in ruins, and the victors on each side on +retiring to their own head-quarters encountered each other. + +[-46-] So far, then, as the battle was concerned, both sides both +conquered thus and were defeated. At this time they did not resume the +conflict, but as soon as they had retired and beheld each other and +recognized what had taken place, they both withdrew, not venturing +anything further. They had beaten and had proved inferior to each other. +This was shown first by the fact that the entire ramparts of Caesar +and Antony and everything within them had been captured. (That proved +practically the truth of the dream, for if Caesar had remained in his +place, he would certainly have perished with the rest.) It was shown +again in the fate of Cassius. He came away safe from the battle, but +stripped of his fortifications he had fled to a different spot, and +suspecting that Brutus, too, had been defeated and that several of the +victors were hastening to attack him he made haste to die. He had sent a +certain centurion to view the situation and report to him where Brutus +was and what he was doing. This man fell in with some horsemen whom +Brutus had dispatched to seek his colleague, turned back with them and +proceeded leisurely, with the idea that there was hurry, because no +danger presented itself. Cassius, seeing them afar off, suspected they +were enemies and ordered Pindarus, a freedman, to kill him. The centurion +on learning that his leader's death was due to his dilatoriness slew +himself upon his body. + +[-47-] Brutus immediately sent the body of Cassius secretly to Thasos. He +shrank from burying it upon the ground, for fear the army would be filled +with grief and dejection at sight of the preparations. The remainder +of his friend's soldiers he took under his charge, consoled them in a +speech, won their devotion by a gift of money to make up for what they +had lost, and then transferred his position to their enclosure, which +was more suitable. From there he started out to harass his opponents in +various ways, especially by assaulting their camp at night. He had no +intention of joining issue with them again in a set battle, but had great +hopes of overcoming them without danger by the lapse of time. Hence he +tried regularly to startle them in various ways and disturb them by +night, and once by diverting the course of the river he washed away +considerable of their wall. Caesar and Antony were getting short of both +food and money, and consequently gave their soldiers nothing to replace +what had been seized and carried off. Furthermore, the force that was +sailing to them in transports from Brundusium had been destroyed by +Staius. Yet they could not safely transfer their position to any other +quarter nor return to Italy, and so, even as late as this, they set all +their hopes upon their weapons,--hopes not merely of victory but even +of preservation. They were eager to meet the danger before the naval +disaster became noised abroad among their opponents and their own men. +[-48-] As Brutus evinced an unwillingness to meet them in open fight, +they somehow cast pamphlets over his palisade, challenging his soldiers +either to embrace their cause (promises being attached) or to come into +conflict if they had the least particle of strength. During this delay +some of the Celtic force deserted from their side to Brutus, and Amyntas, +the general of Deiotarus, and Rhascuporis deserted to them. The latter, +as some say, immediately returned home. Brutus was afraid, when this +happened, that there might be further similar rebellion and decided to +join issue with them. And since there were many captives in his camp, and +he neither had any way to guard them during the progress of the battle, +and could not trust them to refrain from doing mischief, he despatched +the majority of them, contrary to his own inclination, being a slave in +this matter to necessity; but he was the more ready to do it because of +the fact that his opponents had killed such of his soldiers as had been +taken alive. After doing this he armed his men for battle. When the +opposing ranks were arrayed, two eagles that flew above the heads of the +two armies battled together and indicated to the combatants the outcome +of the war. The eagle on the side of Brutus was beaten and fled: and +similarly his heavy-armed force, after a contest for the most part even, +was defeated, and then when many had fallen his cavalry, though it fought +nobly, gave way. Thereupon the victors pursued them, as they fled, this +way and that, but neither killed nor captured any one; and then they kept +watch of the separate contingents during the night and did not allow them +to unite again. + +[-49-] Brutus, who had reached in flight a steep and lofty spot, +undertook to break through in some way to the camp. In this he was +unsuccessful, and on learning that some of his soldiers had made terms +with the victors he had no further hope, but despairing of safety and +disdaining capture he himself also took refuge in death. He uttered aloud +this sentence of Heracles: + + "Unhappy Virtue, thou wert but a name, while I, + Deeming thy godhead real, followed thee on, + Who wert but Fortune's slave." [38] + +Then he called one of the bystanders to kill him. His body received +burial by Antony,--all but his head, which was sent to Rome: but as the +ships encountered a storm during the voyage across from Dyrrachium that +was thrown into the sea. At his death the mass of his soldiers, on +amnesty being proclaimed for them, immediately transferred their +allegiance. Portia perished by swallowing red-hot charcoal. Most of the +prominent men who had held any offices or belonged to the assassins or +the proscribed, straightway killed themselves, or, like Favonius, were +captured and destroyed: the remainder at this time escaped to the sea and +thereafter joined Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +48 + +The following is contained in the Forty-eighth of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar contended with Fulvia and Lucius Antonius (chapters 1-16). + +How Sextus Pompey occupied Sicily (chapters 17-23). + +How the Parthians occupied the country to the edge of the Hellespont +(chapters 24-26). + +How Caesar and Antony reached an agreement with Sextus (chapters 27-38). + +How Publius Ventidius conquered the Parthians and recovered Asia +(chapters 39-42). + +How Caesar began to make war upon Sextus (chapters 43-48). + +About Baiae (chapters 49-54). + +Duration of time five years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +L. Antonius M. F. Pietas, P. Servilius P. F. Isauricus consul (II).(B.C. +41 = a. u. 713.) + +Cn. Domitius M. F Calvinus [consul] (II), C. Asinius|| Cn. F. Pollio. +(B.C. 40 = a. u. 714.) + +L. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Calvisius||[39] C. F. Sabinus. (B.C. 39 = +a. u. 715.) + +Appius Claudius C. F. Pulcher, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus. (B.C. 38 = a. +u. 716.) + +M. Vipsanius L. F. Agrippa, L. Caninius L. F. Gallus. (B.C. 37 = a. u. +717.) + + +(_BOOK 48, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 42(_a. u_.712)] + +[-1-] So perished Brutus and Cassius, slain by the swords with which they +had despatched Caesar. The rest also who had shared in the plot against +him were all except a very few destroyed, some previously, some at this +time, and some subsequently. Justice and the Divine Will seemed to sweep +onward and lead forward to such a fate the men who had killed their +benefactor, one who had attained such eminence in both excellence and +good fortune. Caesar and Antony for the moment secured an advantage over +Lepidus, because he had not shared the victory with them; yet they +were destined ere long to turn their arms against each other. It is a +difficult matter for three men or two that are equal in rank and have +come into power over such vast interests as a result of war to be of one +accord. Hence, whatever they had gained for a time while in harmony for +the purpose of the overthrow of their adversaries they now began to +set up as prizes in their rivalry with each other. They immediately +redistributed the empire, so that Spain and Numidia fell to Caesar, Gaul +and Africa to Antony; they further agreed that in case Lepidus showed any +vexation at this Africa should be evacuated for him. [-2-] This was all +they could allot between them, since Sextus was still occupying Sardinia +and Sicily, and other regions outside of Italy were in a state of +turmoil. About the peninsula itself I need say nothing, for it has always +remained a kind of choice exception in such divisions: and not even now +did they talk as if they were struggling to obtain it, but to defend it. +So, leaving these other regions to be common property, Antony took it +upon himself to settle affairs of nations that had fought against them +and to collect the money which had been offered to the soldiers in +advance: Caesar was charged with curtailing the power of Lepidus, if he +should make any hostile move, with conducting the war against Sextus, and +with assigning to those of his campaigners who had passed the age limit +the land which he had promised them; and these he forthwith dismissed. +Furthermore he sent with Antony two legions of his followers, and his +colleague sent word that he would give him in return an equal number +of those stationed at that tune in Italy. After making these compacts +separately, putting them in writing, and sealing them, they exchanged the +documents, to the end that if any transgression were committed, it might +be proved from the very records. Thereupon Antony set out for Asia and +Caesar for Italy. [-3-] Sickness attacked the latter violently on the +journey and during the voyage, giving rise in Rome to an expectation of +his death. They did not believe, however, that he was lingering so +much by reason of ill health as because he was devising some harm, and +consequently they expected to fall victims to every possible persecution. +Yet they voted to these men many honors for their victory, such as would +have been given assuredly to the others, had they conquered; in such +crises it is ever the case that all trample on the loser and honor the +victor; and in particular they decided, though against their will, to +celebrate thanksgivings during practically the entire year. This +Caesar ordered them outright to do in gratitude for vengeance upon the +assassins. At any rate during his delay all sorts of stories were +current, and all sorts of behavior resulted. For example, some spread a +report that he was dead, and aroused delight in many breasts: others +said he was planning some evil, and filled numerous persons with fear. +Therefore some hid their property and took care to protect themselves, +and others considered in what way they might make their escape. Others, +and the majority, not being able to apprehend anything clearly by reason +of their excessive fear, prepared to meet a certain doom. The confident +element was extremely small, and its numbers few. In the light of the +former frequent and diverse destruction of both persons and possessions +they expected that anything similar or still worse might happen, because +now they had been utterly vanquished. Wherefore Caesar, in dread that +they might take some rebellious step, especially since Lepidus was there, +forwarded a letter to the senate urging its members to be of good cheer, +and further promising that he would do everything in a mild and humane +way, after the manner of his father. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_.713)] + +[-4-] This was what then took place. The succeeding year Publius +Servilius and Lucius Antonius nominally became consuls, but in reality it +was the latter and Fulvia. She, the mother-in-law of Caesar and wife of +Antony, had no respect for Lepidus because of his slothfulness, and +herself managed affairs, so that neither the senate nor the people dared +transact any business contrary to her pleasure. Actually, when Lucius +himself was anxious to have a triumph over certain peoples dwelling in +the Alps, on the ground that he had conquered them, for a time Fulvia +opposed him and no one would grant it; but when her favor was courted and +she permitted it, all voted for the measure: therefore it was nominally +Antonius ... over the people whom he said he had vanquished (in reality +he had done nothing deserving a triumph nor had any command at all in +those regions),--but in truth Fulvia ...[40] and had the procession. And +she assumed a far prouder bearing over the affair than did he, because +she had a truer cause; to give any one authority to hold a triumph was +greater than to celebrate it by securing the privilege from another. +Except that Lucius donned the triumphal apparel, mounted the chariot, and +performed the other rites customary in such cases, Fulvia herself seemed +to be giving the spectacle, employing him as her assistant. It took +place on the first day of the year, and Lucius, just as Marius had done, +exulted in the circumstance that he held it on the first day of the month +that he began to be consul. Moreover he exalted himself even above his +predecessor, saying that he had voluntarily laid aside the decorations of +the procession and had assembled the senate in his street dress, whereas +Marius had done it unwillingly. He added that the latter had received a +crown from almost nobody, whereas he obtained many, and particularly from +the people, tribe by tribe, as had never been the case with any former +triumphator. (It was done by the aid of Fulvia and by the money which he +had secretly given some persons to spend.) + +[-5-] It was in this year that Caesar arrived in Rome, and, after taking +the usual steps to celebrate the victory, turned his attention to the +administration and despatch of business. For Lepidus through fear of him +and out of his general weakness of heart had not rebelled; and Lucius and +Fulvia, on the supposition that they were relatives and sharers in his +supremacy were quiet,--at least at first. As time went on they became at +variance, the persons just mentioned because they did not get a share in +the portion of lands to be assigned which belonged to Antony, and Caesar +because he did not get back his troops from the other two. Hence their +kinship by marriage was dissolved and they were brought to open warfare. +Caesar would not endure the domineering ways of his mother-in-law, and, +choosing to appear to be at odds with her rather than with Antonius, sent +back her daughter, whom he declared on oath to be still a virgin. In +pursuing such a course he was careless whether it should be thought +that the woman had remained a virgin in his house so long a time for +common-place reasons, or whether it should seem that he had planned the +situation considerably in advance, as a measure of preparation for the +future. After this action there was no longer any friendship between +them. Lucius together with Fulvia attempted to get control of affairs, +pretending to be doing this in behalf of Marcus, and would yield to Caesar +on no point: therefore on account of his devotion to his brother he took +the additional title of Pietas. Caesar naturally found no fault with +Marcus, not wishing to alienate him while he was attending to the nations +in Asia, but reproached and resisted the pair, giving out that they were +behaving in all respects contrary to their brother's desire and were +eager for individual supremacy. + +[-6-] In the land allotments both placed the greatest hope of power, and +consequently the beginning of their quarrel was concerned with them. +Caesar for his part wished to distribute the territory to all such as had +made the campaign with himself and Antony, according to the compact +made with them after the victory, that by so doing he might win their +good-will: the others demanded to receive the assignment that appertained +to their party and settle the cities themselves, in order that they might +get the power of these settlements on their side. It seemed to both to +be the simplest method to grant the land of the unarmed to those who +had participated in the conflict. Contrary to their expectation great +disturbance resulted and the matter took the aspect of a war. For at +first Caesar was for taking from the possessors and giving to the veterans +all of Italy (except what some old campaigner had received as a gift or +bought from the government and was now holding), together with the bands +of slaves and other wealth. The persons deprived of their property were +terribly enraged against him, and caused a change of policy. Fulvia and +the consul now hoped to find more power in the cause of the others, the +oppressed, and consequently neglected those who were to receive the +fields, but turned their attention to that party which was of greater +numbers and was animated by a righteous indignation at the deprivation +they were suffering. Next they took some of them individually, aided and +united them, so that the men who were before afraid of Caesar now that +they had got leaders became courageous and no longer gave up any of their +property: they thought that Marcus, too, would approve their course. +[-7-] Among these, therefore, Lucius and Fulvia secured a following, and +still made no assault upon the adherents of Caesar. Their attitude was not +that there was no need for the soldiers to receive allotments, but +they maintained that the goods of their adversaries in the combat were +sufficient for them; especially they pointed out lands and furniture, +some still being held intact, others that had been sold, of which they +declared the former ought to be given to the men outright and in the +second case the price realized should be presented to them. If even this +did not satisfy them, they tried to secure the affection of them all by +holding out hopes in Asia. In this way it quickly came about that Caesar, +who had forcibly robbed the possessors of any property and caused +troubles and dangers on account of it to all alike, found himself +disliked by both parties; whereas the other two, since they took nothing +from anybody and showed those who were to receive the gifts a way to the +fulfillment of the pledges from already existing assets and without a +combat, won over each of the bodies of men. As a result of this and +through the famine which was trying them greatly at this time, because +the sea off Sicily was in control of Sextus, and the Ionian Gulf was +in the grasp of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Caesar found himself in a +considerable dilemma. For Domitius was one of the assassins, and, having +escaped from the battle fought at Philippi, he had got together a small +fleet, had made himself for a time master of the Gulf, and was doing the +greatest damage to the cause of his opponents. + +[-8-] There was not only this to trouble Caesar greatly but also the fact +that in the disputes which had been inaugurated between the ex-soldiers +and the senators as well as the rest of the multitude that possessed +lands,--and these proved very numerous because the contestants were +struggling for the greatest interests,--he could not attach himself to +either side without danger. It was impossible for him to please both. The +one side wished to run riot, the other to be unharmed: the one side to +get the other's property, the other to hold what belonged to it. As +often as he gave the preference to the interests of this party or that, +according as he found it necessary, he incurred the hatred of the others: +and he did not meet with so much gratitude for the favors he conferred as +with anger for what he failed to yield. Those benefited took all that was +given them as their due and regarded it as no kindness, and the opposite +party was wrathful because robbed of their own belongings. And as a +result he continued to offend either this group or the other, at one +time reproached with being a friend of the people and again with being +a friend of the army. He could make no headway, and further learned by +actual experience that arms had no power to hold those injured friendly +toward him, and that it was possible for all such as would not submit to +perish by the use of weapons, but out of the question for any one to be +forced to love a person whom he will not. After this, though reluctantly, +he stopped taking anything from the senators; previously he used to deem +it his right to distribute everything that was theirs, asking seriously: +"From what source else shall we pay the prizes of war to those who have +served?"--as if any one had commanded him to wage war or to make such +great promises. He also kept his hands off the valuables,--whatever +costly objects women had for dowries, or others had less in value than +the land individually given to the old soldiers. [-9-] When this was done +the senate and the rest, finding nothing taken from them, became fairly +resigned to his rule, but the veterans were indignant, regarding his +sparingness and the honor shown to the others to be their own dishonor +and loss, since they were to receive less. They killed not a few of the +centurions and the other intimates of Caesar who tried to restrain +them from mutiny, and came very near compassing their leader's own +destruction, using every plausible excuse possible for their anger. They +did not cease their irritation till the land that belonged to their +relatives and the fathers and sons of those fallen in battle but was held +by somebody else was granted to these three classes freely. This measure +caused the soldier element to become somewhat more conciliatory, but that +very thing produced vexation again among the people. The two used to come +in conflict and there was continual fighting amongst them, so that many +were wounded and killed on both sides alike. The one party was superior +by being equipped with weapons and having experience in wars, and the +other by its numbers and the ability to pelt opponents from the roofs. +Owing to this a number of houses were burned down, and to those dwelling +in the city rent was entirely remitted to the extent of five hundred +denarii, while for those in the rest of Italy it was reduced a fourth for +one year. For they used to fight in all the cities alike, wherever they +fell in with each other. + +[-10-] When this took place constantly and soldiers sent ahead by Caesar +into Spain made a kind of uprising at Placentia and did not come to +order until they received money from the people there, and they were +furthermore hindered from crossing the Alps by Calenus and Ventidius, +who held Farther Gaul, Caesar became afraid that he might meet with some +disaster and began to wish to be reconciled with Fulvia and the consul. +He could not accomplish anything by sending messages personally and with +only his own authorization, and so went to the veterans and through them +attempted to negotiate a settlement. Elated at this they took charge of +those who had lost their land, and Lucius went about in every direction +uniting them and detaching them from Caesar, while Fulvia occupied +Praeneste, had senators and knights for her associates, and was wont to +conduct all her deliberations with their help, even sending orders to +whatever points required it. Why should any one be surprised at this, +when she was girt with a sword, and used to pass the watchwords to the +soldiers, yes, often harangued them,--an additional means of giving +offence to Caesar? [-11-] The latter, however, had no way to overthrow +them, being far inferior to them not only in troops, but in good-will on +the part of the population; for he caused many distress, whereas they +filled every one with hope. He had often privately through friends +proposed reconciliation to them, and when he accomplished nothing, he +sent envoys from the number of the veterans to them. He expected by +this stroke pretty surely to obtain his request, to adjust present +difficulties, and to gain a strength equal to theirs for the future. And +even though he should fail of these aims, he expected that not he but +they would bear the responsibility for their quarrel. This actually took +place. When he effected nothing even through the soldiers, he despatched +senators, showing them the covenants made between himself and Antony, and +offering the envoys as arbitrators of the differences. But his opponents +in the first place made many counter-propositions, demands with which +Caesar was sure not to comply, and again, in respect to everything that +they did said they were doing it by the orders of Mark Antony. So that +when nothing was gained in this way either, he betook himself once more +to the veterans. [-12-] Thereupon these assembled in Rome in great +numbers, with the avowed intention of making some communication to the +people and the senate. But instead of troubling themselves about this +errand they collected on the Capitol and commanded that the compacts +which Antony and Caesar made be read to them. They ratified these +agreements and voted that they should be made arbitrators of the +differences existing. After recording these acts on tablets and sealing +them they delivered them to the vestal virgins to keep. To Caesar, who was +present, and to the other party by an embassy they gave orders to meet +for adjudication at Gabii on a stated day. Caesar showed his readiness to +submit to arbitration, and the others promised to put in an appearance, +but out of fear or else perhaps disdain did not come. (For they were wont +to make fun of the warriors, calling them among other names _senatus +caligatus_ on account of their use of military boots.) So they condemned +Lucius and Fulvia as guilty of some injustice, and gave precedence to the +cause of Caesar. After this, when the latter's adversaries had deliberated +again and again, they took up the war once more and did not make ready +for it in any quiet fashion. Chief among their measures was to secure +money from sources, even from temples. They took away all the votive +offerings that could be turned into bullion, those deposited in Rome +itself as well as those in the rest of Italy that was under their +control. Both money and soldiers came to them also from Gallia Togata, +which had been included by this time in the domain of Italy, to the end +that no one else, under the plea that it was a single district, should +keep soldiers south of the Alps. + +[-13-] Caesar, then, was making preparations, and Fulvia and Lucius were +gathering hoards of supplies and assembling forces. Meanwhile both sent +embassies and despatched soldiers and officers in every direction, and +each managed to seize some places beforehand and was repulsed from +others. The most of these transactions, and those connected with no great +or important occurrence, I shall pass over, and briefly relate the points +which are of chief value. + +Caesar made an expedition against Nursia, among the Sabini, and routed the +garrison encamped before it but was repulsed from the city by Tisienus +Gallus. Accordingly, he went over into Umbria and laid siege to Sentinum, +but failed to capture it. Lucius had meanwhile been sending on one excuse +and another soldiers to his friends in Rome, and then coming suddenly on +the scene himself conquered the cavalry force that met him, hurled the +infantry back to the wall, and after that took the city, since those that +had been there for some days helped the defenders within by attacking the +besiegers. Lepidus, to whom had been entrusted the guarding of the place, +made no resistance by reason of his inherent slothfulness, nor did +Servilius the consul, who was too easy-going. On ascertaining this Caesar +left Quintus Salvidienus Rufus to look after the people of Sentinum, and +himself set out for Rome. Hearing of this movement Lucius withdrew in +advance, having had voted to him the privilege of going out on some war. +Indeed, he delivered an address in soldier's costume, which no one else +had done. Thus Caesar was received into the capital without striking a +blow, and when he did not capture the other by pursuit, he returned and +kept a more careful watch over the city. Meantime, as soon as Caesar had +left Sentinum, Gaius Furnius the guarder of the fortifications had issued +forth and pursued him a long distance, and Rufus unexpectedly attacked +the citizens within, captured the town, plundered, and burned it. The +inhabitants of Nursia came to terms--and suffered no ill treatment; when, +however, after burying those that had fallen in the battle which had +taken place between themselves and Caesar, they inscribed on their tombs +that they had died contending for liberty, an enormous fine was imposed +upon the people, so that they abandoned their city and entire country +together. + +[-14-] While they were so engaged, Lucius on setting out from Rome after +his occupancy had proceeded toward Gaul: his road was blocked, however, +and so he turned aside to Perusia, an Etruscan city. There he was cut off +first by the lieutenants of Caesar and later by Caesar himself, and was +besieged. The investing of the place proved a long operation: the +situation is naturally a strong one and had been amply stocked with +provisions; and horsemen sent out by him before he was entirely hemmed +in harassed his antagonists greatly while many others, moreover, from +various sections vigorously defended him. Many attempts were made upon +the besieged individually and there was sharp fighting close to the +walls, until the followers of Lucius in spite of being generally +successful were nevertheless overcome by hunger. The leader and some +others obtained pardon, but most of the senators and knights were put +to death. And the story goes that they did not merely suffer death in a +simple form, but were led to the altar consecrated to the former Caesar +and there sacrificed,--three hundred[41] knights and many senators, among +them Tiberius Cannutius who formerly during his tribuneship had assembled +the populace for Caesar Octavianus. Of the people of Perusia and the rest +there captured the majority lost their lives, and the city itself, except +the temple of Vulcan and statue of Juno, was entirely destroyed by fire. +This piece of sculpture was preserved by some chance and was brought to +Rome in accordance with a vision that Caesar saw in a dream: there it +accorded those who desired to undertake the task permission to settle the +city again and place the deity on her original site,--only they did not +acquire more than seven and one-half stadia of the territory. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +[-15-] When that city had been captured during the consulship of Gnaeus +Calvinus and Asinius Pollio,--the former holding office the second +time,--other posts in Italy partly perforce and partly voluntarily +capitulated to Caesar. For this reason Fulvia with her children made her +escape to her husband, and many of the other foremost men made their +way some to him and some to Sextus in Sicily. Julia, the mother of the +Antonii, went there at first and was received by Sextus with extreme +kindness; later she was sent by him to her son Marcus, carrying +propositions of friendship and with envoys whom she was to conduct to his +presence. In this company which at that time turned its steps away from +Italy to Antony was also Tiberius Claudius Nero. He was holding a kind of +fort in Campania, and when Caesar's party got the upper hand set out with +his wife Livia Drusilla and with his son Tiberius Claudius Nero. This +episode illustrated remarkably the whimsicality of fate. This Livia who +then fled from Caesar later on was married to him, and this Tiberius who +then escaped with his parents succeeded him in the office of emperor. + +[-16-] All this was later. At that time the inhabitants of Rome resumed +the garb of peace, which they had taken off without any decree, under +compulsion from the people; they gave themselves up to merrymaking, +conveyed Caesar in his triumphal robe into the city and honored him with +a laurel crown, so that he enjoyed this decoration as often as the +celebrators of triumphs were accustomed to use it. Caesar, when Italy +had been subdued and the Ionian Gulf had been cleared,--for Domitius +despairing of continuing to prevail any longer by himself had sailed away +to Antony,--made preparations to proceed against Sextus. When, however, +he ascertained his power and the fact that he had been in communication +with Antony through the latter's mother and through envoys, he feared +that he might get embroiled with both at once; therefore preferring +Sextus as more trustworthy or else as stronger than Antony he sent him +his mother Mucia and married the sister of his father-in-law, Lucius +Scribonius Libo, in the hope that by the aid of his kindness and his +kinship he might make him a friend. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +[-17-] Sextus, after he had originally left Spain according to his +compact with Lepidus and not much later had been appointed admiral, was +removed from his office by Caesar. For all that he held on to his fleet +and had the courage to sail to Italy; but Caesar's adherents were already +securing control of the country and he learned that he had been numbered +among the assassins of Caesar's father. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +Therefore he kept away from the mainland but sailed about among the +islands, maintaining a sharp watch on what was going on and supplying +himself with food without resort to crimes. As he had not taken part in +the murder he expected to be restored by Caesar himself. When, however, +his name was exposed on the tablet and he knew that the edict of +proscription was in force against him also, he despaired of getting back +through Caesar and put himself in readiness for war. He had triremes +built, received the deserters, made an alliance with the pirates, and +took under his protection the exiles. By these means in a short time he +became powerful and was master of the sea off Italy, so that he made +descents upon the harbors, cut loose the boats, and engaged in pillage. +As matters went well with him and his activity supplied him with soldiers +and money, he sailed to Sicily, where he seized Mylae and Tyndaris without +effort but was repulsed from Messana by Pompeius Bithynicus, then +governor of Sicily. Instead of retiring altogether from the place, he +overran the country, prevented the importation of provisions, gained the +ascendancy over those who came to the rescue,--filling some with fear +of suffering a similar hardship, and damaging others by some form of +ambuscade,--won over the quaestor together with the funds, and finally +obtained Messana and also Bithynicus, by an agreement that the latter +should enjoy equal authority with him. The governor suffered no harm, at +least for the time being: the others had their arms and money taken from +them. His next step was to win over Syracuse and some other cities, +from which he gathered more soldiers and collected a very strong fleet. +Quintus Cornificius also sent him quite a force from Africa. + +[-18-] While he was thus growing strong, Caesar for a time took no action +in the matter, both because he despised him and because the business in +hand kept him occupied. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +But when owing to the famine the deaths in the City became numerous and +Sextus commenced to make attempts on Italy also, Caesar began to have a +small fleet equipped and sent Salvidienus Rufus with a large force ahead +to Rhegium. Rufus managed to repel Sextus from Italy and when the latter +retired into Sicily he undertook to manufacture boats of leather, similar +to those adapted to ocean sailing. He made a framework of light rods for +the interior and stretched on the outside an uncured oxhide, making an +affair like an oval shield. For this he got laughed at and decided that +it would be dangerous for him to try to use them in crossing the strait, +so he let them go and ventured to undertake the passage with the fleet +that had been equipped and had arrived. He was not able, however, to +accomplish his purpose, for the number and size of his ships were no +match for the skill and daring of the enemy. This took place in the +course of Caesar's expedition into Macedonia, and he himself was an +eye-witness of the battle; the result filled him with chagrin, most of +all because he had been defeated in this their first encounter. For this +reason he no longer ventured, although the major part of his fleet had +been preserved, to cross over by main force: he frequently tried to +effect it secretly, feeling that if he could once set foot on the island, +he could certainly conquer it with his infantry; after a time, since the +vigilant guard kept in every quarter prevented him from gaining anything, +he ordered others to attend to the blockade of Sicily and he himself went +to meet Antony at Brundusium. whence with the aid of the ships he crossed +the Ionian Gulf. [-19-] Upon his departure Sextus occupied all of the +island and put to death Bithynicus on the charge that the latter had +plotted against him. He also produced a triumphal spectacle and had a +naval battle of the captives in the strait close to Rhegium itself, so +that his opponents could look on; in this combat he had wooden boats +contend with others of leather, in the intention of making fun of Rufus. +After this he built more ships and dominated the sea all round about, +acquiring some renown, in which he took pride, based on the assumption +that he was the son of Neptune, and that his father had once ruled the +whole sea. So he fared as long as the resistance of Cassius and Brutus +held out. When they had perished, Lucius Staius and others took refuge +with him. He was at first glad to receive this ally and incorporated the +troops that Staius led in his own force: subsequently, seeing that the +new accession was an active and high-spirited man, he executed him on a +charge of treachery. Then he acquired the other's fleet and the mass of +slaves who kept arriving from Italy and gained tremendous strength. So +many persons, in fact, deserted that the vestal virgins prayed in the +name of the sacrifices that their desertions might be restrained. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +[-20-] For these reasons and because he gave the exiles a refuge, was +negotiating friendship with Antony, and plundering a great portion of +Italy, Caesar felt a wish to become reconciled with him. When he failed +of that he ordered Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to wage war against him, and +himself set out for Gaul. Sextus when he heard of that kept watch of +Agrippa, who was busy superintending the Ludi Apollinares. This person +was praetor at the time, holding a brilliant position in many ways because +he was such an intimate friend of Caesar, and for two days he had been +conducting the horse-race and enjoyed the so-called "Troy contest," +carried on by children of the nobility, which added to his glory. While +he was so engaged Sextus crossed over into Italy and remained there +carrying on marauding expeditions until Agrippa arrived. Then, after +leaving a garrison at certain points, he sailed back again.--Caesar had +formerly tried, as has been described, to get possession of Gaul through +others, but had not been able on account of Calenus and the rest who +followed Antony's fortunes. But now he occupied it in person, for he +found Calenus dead of a disease and acquired his army without difficulty. +Meanwhile, seeing that Lepidus was vexed at being deprived of the office +that belonged to him, he sent him to Africa; for he proposed, by being +the sole bestower of that position, instead of allowing Antony to share +in the appointment, to gain in a greater degree Lepidus's attachment. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-21-] As I have remarked, [42] the Romans had two provinces in that part +of Libya. The governors, before the union of the three men, were Titus +Sextius over the Numidian region, and Cornificius with Decimus Laelius +over the rest; the former was friendly to Antony, the latter two to +Caesar. For a time Sextius waited in the expectation that the others, +who had a far larger force, would invade his domain, and prepared to +withstand them there. When they delayed, he began to disdain them; and +he was further elated by a cow, as they say, that uttered human speech +bidding him lay hold of the prize before him, and by a dream in which a +bull that had been buried in the city of Tucca seemed to urge him to dig +up its head and carry it about on a spear-shaft, since by this means he +should conquer. Without hesitation, then, especially when he found the +bull in the spot where the dream said it was, he invaded Africa first +himself. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +At the beginning he occupied Adrymetum and +some few other places, taken by surprise at his sudden assault. Then, +while in an unguarded state because of this very success, he was ambushed +by the quaestor, lost a large portion of his army, and withdrew into +Numidia. His misfortune had happened to occur when he was without the +protection of the bull's head, and he therefore ascribed his defeat to +that fact and made preparations to take the field again. Meantime his +opponents anticipated him by invading his domain. While the rest were +besieging Cirta, the quaestor with the cavalry proceeded against him, +overcame him in a few cavalry battles, and won over the other +quaestor. After these experiences Sextius, who had secured some fresh +reinforcements, risked battle again, conquered the quaestor in his +turn, and shut up Laelius, who was overrunning the country, within his +fortifications. He deceived Cornificius, who came to the defence of his +colleague, making him believe that the latter had been captured, and +after thus throwing him into a state of dejection defeated him. So +Cornificius met his death in battle, and Laelius, who made a sally with +the intention of taking the enemy in the rear, was also slain. + +[-22-] When this had been accomplished, Sextius occupied Africa and +governed both provinces without interference, until Caesar according to +the covenant made by him with Antony and Lepidus took possession of the +office and assigned Gaius Fuficius Fango to take charge of the people; +then the governor voluntarily gave up the provinces. When the battle with +Brutus and Cassius had been fought, Caesar and Antony redistributed the +world, Caesar taking Numidia for his share of Libya, and Antony Africa. +Lepidus, as I have stated,[43] had power among the three only in name, +and often was not recorded in the documents even to this extent. When, +therefore, this occurred Fulvia bade Sextius resume his rule of Africa. +He was at this time still in Libya, making the winter season his plea, +but in reality his lingering there was due to his certain knowledge that +there would be some kind of upheaval. As he could not persuade Fango to +give up the country, he associated himself with the natives, who detested +their ruler; he had done evil in his office, for he was one of that +mercenary force, many of whose members, as has been stated in my +narrative,[44] had been elected even into the senate. At this turn of +affairs Fango retired into Numidia, where he accorded harsh treatment to +the people of Cirta because they despised him on seeing his condition. +There was also one Arabio who was a prince among the barbarians dwelling +close at hand, who had first helped Laelius and later attached himself +to Sextius: him he ejected from his kingdom, when he refused to make +an alliance with him. Arabio fled to Sextius and Fango demanded his +surrender. When his request was refused, he grew angry, invaded Africa +and did some damage to the country: but Sextius took the field against +him, and he was defeated in conflicts that were slight but numerous; +consequently he retired again into Numidia. Sextius went after him and +was in hopes of soon vanquishing him, especially with the aid of Arabio's +horse, but he became suspicious of the latter and treacherously murdered +him, after which he accomplished for the time being nothing further. For +the cavalry, enraged at Arabio's death, left the Romans in the lurch and +most of them took the side of Fango. [-23-] After these skirmishes they +concluded friendship, agreeing that the cause for war between them had +been removed. Later Fango watched until Sextius, trusting in the truce, +was free from fear, and invaded Africa. Then they joined battle with each +other, and at first both sides conquered and were beaten. The one leader +prevailed through the Numidian horsemen and the other through his citizen +infantry, so that they plundered each other's camps, and neither knew +anything about his fellow-soldiers. When as they retired they ascertained +what had happened, they came to blows again, the Numidians were routed, +and Fango temporarily fled to the mountains. During the night some +hartbeestes ran across the hills, and thinking that the enemy's cavalry +were at hand he committed suicide. Thus Sextius gained possession of +nearly everything without trouble, and subdued Zama, which held out +longest, by famine. Thereafter he governed both the provinces again until +such time as Lepidus was sent. Against him he made no demonstration, +either because he thought the step had the approval of Antony, or because +he was far inferior to him in troops. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +He remained quiet, pretending that the necessity was a favor to himself. +In this way Lepidus took charge of both provinces. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +[-24-] About this same period that the above was taking place, and after +the battle the scene of which was laid at Philippi, Mark Antony came +to the mainland of Asia and there by visiting some points himself and +sending deputies elsewhere he levied contributions upon the cities +and sold the positions of authority. Meanwhile he fell in love with +Cleopatra, whom he had seen in Cilicia, and no longer gave a thought to +honor but was a slave of the fair Egyptian and tarried to enjoy her love. +This caused him to do many absurd things, one of which was to drag her +brothers from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and put them to death. +Finally, leaving Plancus in the province of Asia and Saxa in Syria, he +started for Egypt. Many disturbances resulted from this action of his: +the Aradii, islanders, would not yield any obedience to the messengers +sent by him to them after the money and also killed some of them, and the +Parthians, who had previously been restless, now assailed the Romans more +than ever. Their leaders were Labienus and Pacorus the latter the son of +King Orodes, and the former a child of Titus Labienus. I will narrate how +he came among the Parthians and what he did in conjunction with Pacorus. +He was by chance an ally of Brutus and Cassius and had been sent to +Orodes before the battle to secure some help: he was detained by him a +long time (over three lines starting at line beginning "constant ill +treatment"): and his presence ignored, because the king hesitated to +conclude the alliance with him yet feared to refuse. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u._ 713)] + +Subsequently, when news of the defeat was brought and it appeared to be +the intention of the victors to spare no one who had resisted them, he +remained among the barbarians, choosing to live with them rather than +perish at home. This Labienus, accordingly, as soon as he perceived +Antony's relaxation, his passion, and his journeying into Egypt, +persuaded the Parthian monarch to make an attempt upon the Romans. He +said that their armies had been partly ruined, partly damaged, and that +the remainder of the warriors were in revolt and would again be at war. +Therefore he advised the king to subjugate Syria and the adjoining +districts, while Caesar was detained in Italy and with Sextus, and Antony +abandoned himself to love in Egypt. He promised that he would act as +leader in the war, and announced that in this way he could detach many of +the provinces, inasmuch as they were hostile to the Romans owing to the +latter's constant ill treatment of them. + +[-25-] By such words Labienus persuaded Orodes to wage war and the king +entrusted to him a large force and his son Pacorus, and with them invaded +Phoenicia. They marched to Apamea and were repulsed from the wall, but +won over the garrisons in the country without resistance. These had +belonged to the troops that followed Brutus and Cassius. Antony had +incorporated them in his own forces and at this time had assigned them to +garrison Syria because they knew the country. So Labienus easily won over +these men, since they were well acquainted with, him, all except Saxa, +their temporary leader. He was a brother of the general and was quaestor, +and hence he alone refused to join the Parthian invaders. Saxa the +general was conquered in a set battle through the numbers and ability +of the cavalry, and when later by night he made a dash from his +entrenchments to get away, he was pursued. His flight was due to his fear +that his associates might take up with the cause of Labienus, who labored +to prevail upon them by shooting various pamphlets into the camp. +Labienus took possession of these men and slew the greater part, then +captured Apamea, which no longer resisted when Saxa had fled into +Antioch, since he was believed to be dead; he later captured Antioch, +which the fugitive had abandoned, and at last, pursuing him in his flight +into Cilicia, seized the man himself and killed him. [-26-] Upon his +death Pacorus made himself master of Syria and subjugated all of it +except Tyre. This city the Romans that survived and the natives who sided +with them had occupied in advance, and neither persuasion nor force +(for Pacorus had no fleet) could prevail against them. They accordingly +remained secure from capture. The rest Pacorus gained and then invaded +Palestine, where he removed from office Hyrcanus, to whom the affairs of +the district had been entrusted by the Romans, and set up his brother +Aristobulus[45] as ruler instead because of the enmity existing between +them. Meantime Labienus had occupied Cilicia and had obtained the +allegiance of the cities of the mainland except Stratonicea; Plancus in +fear of him had crossed over to the islands: most of these towns he took +without conflict, but Mylasa and Alabanda with great peril. These cities +had accepted garrisons from him, but murdered them on the occasion of +a festival and revolted. For this he himself punished the people of +Alabanda when he had captured it, and razed to the ground Mylasa, +abandoned by the dwellers there. Stratonicea he besieged for a long time, +but was unable to capture it in any way. + +In satisfaction of the defections mentioned he continued to levy money +and rob the temples; and he named himself imperator and Parthicus,--the +latter being quite the opposite of the Roman custom, in that he took his +title from those he had led against his countrymen: whereas regularly +it would imply that he had conquered the Parthians instead of citizens. +[-28-] Antony kept hearing of these operations as he did of whatever else +was being done, such as matters in Italy, of which he was not in the +least ignorant; but in each instance he failed to make a timely defence, +for owing to passion and drunkenness he devoted no thought either to his +allies or to his enemies. While he had been classed as a subordinate and +was pursuing high prizes, he gave strict attention to his task: when, +however, he attained power, he no longer gave painstaking care to any +single matter but joined in the wanton life of Cleopatra and the rest of +the Egyptians until he was entirely undone. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +Rather late he was at last forced to bestir himself and sailed to Tyre +with the announcement that he was going to aid it, but on seeing that the +remainder of the country had been occupied before his coming, he deserted +the inhabitants on the pretext that he had to wage war against Sextus. On +the other hand he excused his dilatoriness with regard to the latter by +bringing forward the activity of the Parthians. So on account of Sextus +he gave no assistance to his allies and on account of his allies no +assistance to Italy, but coasted along the mainland as far as Asia and +crossed into Greece. There, after meeting his mother and wife, he made +Caesar his enemy and cemented a friendship with Sextus. After this he went +over to Italy and got possession of Sipontum but besieged Brundusium, +which refused to come to terms with him. + +[-28-] While he was thus engaged, Caesar, who had already arrived from +Gaul, had collected his forces and had sent Publius Servilius Rullus to +Brundusium, and Agrippa against Sipontum. The latter took the city by +storm, but Servilius was suddenly attacked by Antony who destroyed many +and won over many others. The two leaders had thus broken out into open +war and proceeded to send about to the cities and to the veterans, or to +any place whence they thought they could get any aid. All Italy was again +thrown into turmoil and Rome especially; some were already choosing one +side or the other, and others were hesitating. While the chief figures +themselves and those who were to follow their fortunes were in a quiver +of excitement, Fulvia died in Sicyon,--the city where she was staying. +Antony was really responsible for her death through his passion for +Cleopatra and the latter's lewdness. But at any rate, when this news was +announced, both sides laid down their arms and effected a reconciliation, +either because Fulvia had actually been the original cause of their +variance or because they chose to make her death an excuse in view of the +fear with which each inspired the other and the equality of their forces +and hopes. The arrangement made allotted to Caesar Sardinia, Dalmatia, +Spain and Gaul, and to Antony all the districts that belonged to the +Romans across the Ionian Sea, both in Europe and in Asia. The provinces +in Libya were held by Lepidus, and Sicily by Sextus. + +[-29-] The government they divided anew in this way and the war against +Sextus they made a common duty, although Antony through messengers had +taken oaths before him against Caesar. And it was chiefly for this reason +that Caesar had schooled himself to receive under a general amnesty all +those who had gone over to the enemy in the war with Lucius, Antony's +brother, some among them, Domitius particularly, who had been of the +assassins, as well as all those whose names had been posted on the +tablets or had in any way coöperated with Brutus and Cassius and later +embraced the cause of Antony. So great is the irony to be found in +factions and wars; for those in power decide nothing according to +justice, but determine on friend and foe as their temporary needs and +advantages demand. Therefore they regard the same men now as enemies, now +as useful helpers, according to the occasion. + +[-30-] When they had reached this agreement in the camp outside +Brundusium, they entertained each other, Caesar in a soldierly, Roman +fashion, and Antony with Asiatic and Egyptian manners. As it appeared +that they had become reconciled, the soldiers who were at that time +following Caesar surrounded Antony and demanded of him the money which +they had promised them before the battle of Philippi. It was for this +he had been sent into Asia, to collect as much as possible. And when he +failed to give them anything, they would certainly have done him some +harm, if Caesar had not restrained them by feeding them with new hopes. +After this experience, to guard against further unruliness, they sent +those soldiers who were clearly disqualified by age into the colonies, +and then took up the war anew. For Sextus had come into Italy according +to the agreement made between himself and Antony, intending with the +latter's help to wage war against Caesar: when he learned that they had +settled their difficulties he himself went back into Sicily, but ordered +Menas, a freedman of his on whom he placed great reliance, to coast about +with a portion of the fleet and damage the interests of the other side. +He, accordingly, inflicted injury upon considerable of Etruria and +managed to capture alive Marcus Titius, the son of Titius who had been +proscribed and was then with Sextus; this son had gathered ships for +enterprises of his own and was blockading the province of Narbonensis. +Titius underwent no punishment, being preserved for his father's sake and +because his soldiers carried the name of Sextus on their shields: he did +not, however, recompense his benefactor fairly, but fought him to the +last ditch and finally slew him, so that his name is remembered among the +most prominent of his kind. Menas besides the exploits mentioned sailed +to Sardinia and had a conflict with Marcus Lurius, the governor there; +and at first he was routed, but later when the other was pursuing him +heedlessly he awaited the attack and contrary to expectations won a +victory in turn. Thereupon his enemy abandoned the island and he occupied +it. All the towns capitulated, save Caralis, which he took by siege: +it was there that many fugitives from the battle had taken refuge. He +released without ransom among others of the captives Helenus, a freedman +of Caesar in whom his master took especial delight: he thus laid up for +himself with that ruler a kindness long in advance by way of preparing a +refuge for himself, if he should ever need aught at Caesar's hands. + +[-31-] He was occupied as above described. And the people in Rome refused +to remain quiet since Sardinia was in hostile hands, the coast was being +pillaged, and they had been cut off from importation of grain, while +famine and the great number of taxes of all sorts that were being imposed +and the "contributions," in addition, that were laid upon such as +possessed slaves irritated them greatly. As much as they were pleased +with the reconciliation of Antony and Caesar,--for thought that harmony +between these men meant peace for themselves,--they were equally or more +displeased at the war the two men were carrying on against Sextus. But +a short time previously they had brought the two rulers into the city +mounted on horses as if at a triumph, and had bestowed upon them the +triumphal robe precisely similar to that worn by persons celebrating, had +made them view the festivals from their chairs of state and had hastened +to espouse to Antony, when once her husband was dead, Octavia the sister +of Caesar, though she was then pregnant. Now, however, they changed their +behavior to a remarkable degree. At first forming in groups or gathering +at some spectacle they urged Antony and Caesar to secure peace, crying out +a great deal to this effect. When the men in power would not heed them, +they fell at odds with them and favored Sextus. They talked frequently in +his behalf, and at the horse-races honored by a loud clapping of hands +the statue of Neptune carried in the procession, evincing great pleasure +at it. When for some days it was not brought in, they took stones and +drove the officials from the Forum, threw down the images of Caesar and +Antony, and finally, on not accomplishing anything in this way even, +rushed violently upon them as if to kill them. Caesar, although his +followers were wounded, rent his clothes and betook himself to +supplicating them, whereas Antony presented a less yielding front. Hence, +because the wrath of the populace was aroused to the highest pitch and +it was feared that they would commit some violence, the two rulers were +forced unwillingly to make propositions of peace to Sextus. + +[-32-] Meantime they removed the praetors and the consuls though it was +now near the close of the year, and appointed others instead, caring +little that these would have but a few days to hold office. (One of those +who at this time became consuls was Lucius Cornelius Balbus, of Gades, +who so much surpassed the men of his generation in wealth and munificence +that at his death he left a bequest of twenty-five denarii to each of the +Romans.) They not only did this, but when an aedile died on the last day +of the year, they chose another to fill out the closing hours. It was at +this same time that the so-called Julian supply of water was piped into +Rome and the festival that had been vowed for the successful completion +of the war against the assassins was held by the consuls. The duties +belonging to the so-called Septemviri were performed by the pontifices, +since none of the former was present: this was also done on many other +occasions. + +[-33-] Besides these events which took place that year Caesar gave a +public funeral to his pedagogue Sphaerus, who had been freed by him. Also +he put to death Salvidienus Rufus, suspected of plotting against him. +This man was of most obscure origin, and while he was a shepherd a flame +had issued from his head. He had been so greatly advanced by Caesar that +he was made consul without even being a member of the senate, and his +brother who died before him had been laid to rest across the Tiber, a +bridge being constructed for this very purpose. But nothing human is +lasting, and he was finally accused in the senate by Caesar himself and +executed as an enemy of his and of the entire people; thanksgivings +were offered for his downfall and furthermore the care of the city was +committed to the triumvirs with the customary admonition, "that it should +suffer no harm." + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_. 713)] + +In the year previous to this men belonging to the order of knights had +slaughtered wild beasts at the horse-race which came in the course of +the Ludi Apollinares, and an intercalary day was inserted, contrary to +custom, in order that the market held every nine days should not fall +on the first day of the following year,--something which was strictly +forbidden from very early times. Naturally the day had to be subtracted +again later, in order that the calendar should run according to the +system devised by the former Caesar. The domain of Attalus and of +Deiotarus, who had both died in Gaul, was given to a certain Castor. Also +the so-called Lex Falcidia, which has the greatest force even still +in regard to the succession to inheritances, was enacted by Publius +Falcidius, a tribune: its terms are that if an heir feels oppressed in +any way, he may secure at least a fourth, of the property left behind by +surrendering the rest. + +[B.C. 39 (_a. u_. 715)] + +[-34-] These were the events of the two years; the next season, when +Lucius Marcius and Gaius Sabinus held the consulship, the acts of the +triumvirs from the time they had formed a close combination received +ratification at the hands of the senate, and certain further taxes were +imposed by them, because the expenditures proved far greater than had +been allowed for in the time of the former Caesar. For they were expending +vast sums, especially upon the soldiers, and were ashamed of being the +only ones to lay out money contrary to custom. Then I might mention that +Caesar now for the first time shaved his beard, and held a magnificent +entertainment himself besides granting all the other citizens a festival +at public expense. He also kept his chin smooth afterward, like the rest; +he was already beginning to conceive a passion for Livia, and for this +reason divorced at once Scribonia, who had borne him a daughter. Hence, +as the expenditures grew far greater than before, and the revenues were +not anywhere sufficient but at this time came in in even smaller amounts +by reason of the factional disputes, they introduced certain new taxes; +and they enrolled in the senate as many persons as possible, not only +from among the allies or soldiers, or sons of freedmen, but even slaves. +At any rate one Maximus, when about to become quaestor, was recognized by +his master and taken away. And he incurred no injury through having dared +to stand for the office: but another who had been caught serving as a +praetor, was hurled down the rocks of the Capitol, having been +first freed, that there might be some legal justification for his +punishment[46]. + +[-35-] The expedition which Antony was getting in readiness against the +Parthians afforded them some excuse for the mass of prospective senators. +The same plea permitted them to extend all the offices for a number of +years and that of consul to eight full years, rewarding some of those who +had coöperated with them, and bringing others to trial. They chose not +two annual consuls, as had been the custom, but now for the first time +several, and on the very day of the elections. Formerly, to be sure, some +had held office after others who had neither died nor been removed for +disenfranchisement or in any other way: but those persons had become +officials as suited those who had been elected for the entire year, +whereas now no magistrate was chosen to serve for a year, but first one, +then another would be appointed for different divisions of the entire +time. Also the men first to enter upon office were accustomed to hold the +title of the consulship through the entire year as is now done: the rest +were accorded the same title by the dwellers in the capital themselves +and by the people in the rest of Italy during each period of their office +(as is also now the custom), but those in outside nations knew few or +none of them and therefore called them lesser consuls. + +[-36-] This was the situation at home when the leaders first made +proposals to Sextus through companions as to how and on what terms they +could effect a reconciliation; afterward the parties concerned held a +conference near Misenum. The two from the capital took their stand on the +land, the other on a kind of mound constructed for his safety in the sea, +by which it was purposely surrounded, not far from them. There was also +present the entire fleet of Sextus and the entire infantry force of the +other two; and not that merely, but the one command had been drawn up on +the shore and the other on the ships, both fully armed, so that this very +fact made it perfectly evident to all that it was from fear of their +accoutrement and from necessity, that the two rulers were making peace +because of the people and Sextus because of his adherents. The compact +was framed upon the following conditions,--that the deserters from +among the slaves should be free and that all those driven out, save +the assassins, should be restored. The latter, of course, they had to +exclude, but in reality several of them were destined to return. Sextus +himself, indeed, was thought to have been one of them. It was recorded, +at any rate, that all the rest save those mentioned should be allowed to +return under a general amnesty and with a right to a quarter of their +confiscated property; that tribuneships, praetorships and priesthoods +should be given to some of them immediately; that Sextus himself should +be chosen consul and be appointed augur, should obtain seventeen hundred +and fifty myriads of denarii from his paternal estate, and should govern +Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea for five years, not receiving deserters nor +acquiring more ships nor keeping any garrisons in Italy, but bending +his efforts to secure peace on the sea for the peninsula, and sending a +stated amount of grain to the people of the City. They limited him to +this period of time because they wished it to appear that they also were +holding merely a temporary and not an unending authority. + +[-37-] After settling and drafting these compacts they deposited the +documents with the priestesses,--the vestal virgins,--and then exchanged +pledges and treated one another as friends. Upon this a tremendous and +inextinguishable shout arose from the mainland and the ships at once. For +many soldiers and many individuals who were present suddenly uttered a +cry in unison because they were terribly tired of the war and vehemently +desired peace. And the mountains resounded so that great panic and alarm +were spread, and many died of fright at the very reverberation, while +others perished by being trampled under foot and suffocated. Those who +were in the small boats did not wait to reach the land itself but jumped +out into the sea and the rest rushed out into the breakers. Meantime +they embraced one another while swimming and threw their arms around one +another's necks under water, making a diversified picture accompanied by +diversified sounds. Some knew that their relatives and associates were +living and seeing them present gave way to unrestrained joy. Others, +thinking that those dear to them had died previously, saw them now +unexpectedly and for a long time knew not what to do but were rendered +speechless, distrusting their sight yet praying that it might be true; +and they were not sure of them until they had called their names and had +heard them say something. They rejoiced as if the men had been brought +to life again, but as they were forced to share their pleasure with a +multitude they did not continue without tears. Again, some who were +unaware that their loved ones had perished and thought they were alive +and present sought for them and went about asking every one they met +regarding them. As long as they could learn nothing they were like +maniacs and were torn different ways, both hoping to find them and +fearing that they were dead,--not able to despair in view of their desire +nor to indulge in grief in view of their hope. On learning at last the +truth they would tear their hair and rend their clothing, calling upon +the lost by name as if they could hear anything and giving way to grief +as if their friends were just dead and lying there somewhere. And if any +of them were affected in no such way, they were at least disturbed by the +experiences of the rest. They either rejoiced with somebody in joy or +grieved with somebody in pain, and so, even if they were free from +personal interest, yet they could not remain indifferent on account of +their connection with the rest. As a result there was no possibility of +their being either sated or ashamed, because they were all affected in +the same way, and they spent the entire day as well as the greater part +of the night in this behavior. + +[-38-] After this the parties chiefly concerned as well as the rest +received one another and inaugurated entertainments in turn, first +Sextus on the ship and then Caesar and Antony on the shore. Sextus so far +surpassed them in power that he would not disembark to meet them on the +mainland until they had gone aboard his boat. In the course of this +proceeding, however, he refused to murder them both in the small boat +with only a few followers, though he might easily have done so and Menas +advised it[47]. To Antony, who had possession of his ancestral home at +Carinae (the spot so named is in the city of Rome), he uttered a jest +in the happiest manner, saying that he was entertaining them at +Carinae,--that is, on the "keels of ships," which is the meaning of the +word in Latin. Nevertheless he did not act in any way as if he bore +malice toward them, and on the following day he was feasted in turn and +betrothed his daughter to Marcus Marcellus, the nephew of Caesar. + +[-39-] This war, then, had been deferred: that of Labienus and the +Parthians came to an end in the following way. Antony himself returned +from Italy to Greece and delayed there a very long time, satisfying his +desires and harming the cities, to the end that they should be delivered +to Sextus in the weakest possible condition. He lived during this time in +many ways contrary to the customs of his country. He called himself the +younger Dionysus and insisted on being called so by others. When the +Athenians in view of this and his other behavior betrothed Athena to him, +he declared he accepted the marriage and he exacted from them a dowry of +one hundred myriads. While he was occupied in this way he sent Publius +Ventidius before him into Asia. The latter came upon Labienus before +his presence was announced and terrified him by the suddenness of his +approach and by his legions; for the Parthian leader was separated from +the members of his tribe and had only soldiers from the neighborhood. +Ventidius found that he would not even risk a conflict and so pushed him +back and pursued him into Syria, taking the lightest part of his fighting +force with him on the expedition. He overtook him near the Taurus range +and allowed him to proceed no farther, and they encamped there quietly +for several days. Labienus awaited the Parthians and Ventidius the +heavy-armed soldiers. [-40-] Both came at once during the same days and +Ventidius through fear of the barbarian cavalry remained on the high +ground, where he was encamped. The Parthians, because of their numbers +and because they had conquered once before, despised their opponents and +rode up to the hill at dawn, before joining Labienus; as no one came out +to meet them, they attacked it, charging straight up the incline. When +they were in that position the Romans rushed out and easily routed them, +as it was down-hill. Many of the assailants were killed in conflict, but +still more in turning back were confused with one another; for some had +already been routed and others were coming up. The survivors took refuge +not with Labienus but in Cilicia. Ventidius pursued them as far as the +camp, and there, seeing Labienus, stopped. The latter marshaled his +forces as if to offer him battle, but perceiving that his soldiers were +dejected by reason of the flight of the barbarians he did not then +venture any opposition and when night came he attempted to escape in +some direction. Ventidius learned beforehand from deserters of the +contemplated move and by posting ambushes killed many in the retreat and +took possession of the rest, who were abandoned by Labienus. The latter +by changing his dress reached safety and for some time escaped detection +in Cilicia. Later he was captured by Demetrius, a freedman of the former +Caesar, who had at this time been assigned to Cyprus by Antony. He learned +that Labienus was in hiding and made a search for him, which resulted in +the fugitive's arrest. + +[-41-] After this Ventidius recovered Cilicia and attended himself to +the administration of this district, but sent ahead Pompaedius Silo with +cavalry to Amanus. This is a mountain on the border between Cilicia and +Syria, and contains a pass so narrow that a wall and gates were once +built across it and the place received its name from that fact. Silo, +however, found himself unable to occupy it and ran in danger of being +annihilated by Phranapates, lieutenant of Pacorus, who was guarding the +passage. And that would have been his fate, had not Ventidius by chance +come upon him when he was fighting and defended him. He attacked the +barbarians, who were not looking for his arrival and were likewise fewer +in number, and slew Phranapates and many others. In this way he gained +Syria deserted by the Parthians,--all except the district of the +Aradii,--and subsequently without effort occupied Palestine, by scaring +away from it King Antigonus. Besides accomplishing this he exacted large +sums of money from the rest individually, and large sums also from +Antigonus and Antiochus and Malchus the Nabathaean, because they had +given help to Pacorus. Ventidius himself received no reward for these +achievements from the senate, since he was acting not with full powers, +but as a lieutenant: Antony, however, obtained praise and thanksgivings. +As for the Aradii, they were afraid that they might have to pay the +penalty for what they had ventured against Antony, and would not come to +terms though they were besieged by him for a time; later they were with +difficulty captured by others. + +[-40-] About this same time an uprising took place in Parthian Illyricum, +but was put down by Pollio after some conflicts. There was another on the +part of the Ceretani in Spain, and they were subjugated by Calvinus after +he had had some little preliminary successes and also a preliminary +setback; this last was occasioned by his lieutenant, who was ambuscaded +by the barbarians and deserted by his soldiers. Their leader undertook +no operation against the enemy until he had punished them. Calling +them together as if for some other purpose he had the rest of the army +surround them; and out of two companies of a hundred he chose out every +tenth man for punishment and chastised the centurion who was serving in +the so-called primus pilus as well as many others. After doing this and +gaining, like Marcus Crassus, a renown for his disciplining the army, he +set out against his opponents and with no great difficulty vanquished +them. He obtained a triumph in spite of the fact that Spain was assigned +to Caesar; for the rulers could at will grant the honors to those who +served as their lieutenants. The money customarily given by the cities +for the purpose Calvinus took only from the Spanish towns, and of it he +spent a part on the festival but the greater portion on the palace. It +had been burned down and he built it up, adorning it splendidly at the +dedication with various objects and with images, in particular, which he +asked from Caesar, implying that he would send them back. Though asked +for them later, he did not return them, excusing himself by a witticism. +Pretending that he had not enough assistants, he said: "Send some men and +take them." Caesar shrank from seizure of sacred things and hence allowed +them to remain as votive offerings. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-43-] This is what happened at that time. Now in the consulship of +Appius Claudius and Gaius Norbanus, who were the first to have two +quaestors apiece as associates, the populace revolted against the tax +gatherers, who oppressed them severely, and came to blows with the men +themselves, their assistants, and the soldiers that helped them to exact +the money; and sixty-seven praetors one after another were appointed and +held office. One who was chosen to be quaestor while still reckoned as +a child then on the next day obtained the standing of a iuvenis: and +another person who had been enrolled in the senate desired to fight in +the arena. He was prevented, however, from doing this, and an act was +passed prohibiting any senator from taking part in gladiatorial combats, +any slave from serving as lictor, and any burning of dead bodies from +being carried on within fifteen stadia of the city. + +Many things of a portentous nature had come to pass even before that time +(such as olive oil spouting beside the Tiber), and many, also, precisely +then. The tent of Romulus was burned as a result of some ritual which the +pontifices were performing in it; a statue of Virtus, standing before +some of the gates, fell upon its face; and certain persons rendered +inspired by the Mother of the Gods declared that the goddess was angry +with them. On this point the Sibylline books were consulted. They made +the same statements and prescribed that the statue be taken down to +the sea and purified with water from it. In obedience to the order the +goddess went very far indeed out into the surges, where she remained an +extremely long time and returned only quite late,--her action causing the +Romans no little fear, so that they did not recover courage until four +palm trees grew up round about her temple and in the Forum. + +[-44-] Besides these occurrences at the time Caesar married Livia. She was +the daughter of Livius Drusus, who had been among those proscribed by the +tablet and had committed suicide after the defeat in Macedonia, and +the wife of Nero, whom she had accompanied in his flight, as has been +related. She was also in the sixth month with child from him. When Caesar +accordingly hesitated and enquired of the pontifices whether it was +permissible to wed her while pregnant, they answered that if the origin +of the foetus were doubtful, the marriage should be put off, but if it +were definitely admitted, nothing prevented an immediate consummation. +Perhaps they really found this among the ordinances of the forefathers, +but certainly they would have said so even had they not found it. The +woman was given in marriage by her husband himself, as some father might +do. And the following incident occurred at the marriage feast. One of the +prattling boys, such as women frequently keep about them naked to play +with,[48] on seeing Livia reclining in one place with Caesar and Nero in +another with some man, went up to her and said: "What are you doing here, +mistress? For your husband," pointing him out, "is reclining over there." +After these events, when the woman went to live with Caesar, she gave +birth to Claudius Drusus Nero. Caesar took him and sent him to his father, +making this entry in the records, that Caesar returned to its father Nero +the child borne by Livia, his own wife. Nero died not long after and left +Caesar himself as guardian to this boy and to Tiberius: the populace had a +good deal to say about this, among other things that the prosperous have +children in three months; and this saying passed into a proverb. + +[-45-] At just about the same time that this was going on in the city +Bogud the Moor sailed to Spain, acting either on instructions from Antony +or on his own motion, and did much damage, receiving also considerable +injury in return: meantime the people of his own land in the neighborhood +of Tingi rose against him, and so he evacuated Spain but failed to win +back his own domain. For the adherents of Caesar in Spain and Bocchus came +to the aid of the rebels and proved too much for him. Bogud departed to +join Antony, while Bocchus forthwith took possession of his kingdom, and +this act was afterward confirmed by Caesar. The Tingitanians were given +citizenship. + +At this time and even earlier Sextus and Caesar had broken out into war; +for since they had come to an agreement not of their own free will or +choice but under compulsion, they did not abide by it any time at all, +so to speak, but broke the truce at once and stood opposed. They were +destined to come to war under any conditions, even if they had found no +excuse; their alleged grievances, however, were the following. Menas, who +was at this time still in Sardinia, as if he were a kind of praetor, had +incurred the suspicion of Sextus by his release of Helenus and because he +had been in communication with Caesar, and he was slandered to some extent +by his peers, who envied his position of power. He was therefore summoned +by Sextus on the pretext that he should give an account of the grain and +money of which he had charge; instead of obeying he seized and killed +the men sent to him on this errand, and after negotiating with Caesar +surrendered to him the island, the fleet together with the army, and +himself. Caesar was glad to see him and declared that Sextus was harboring +deserters contrary to the treaty, having triremes built, and keeping +garrisons in Italy: and so far from giving up Menas on demand, he +supported him in great honor, gave him the decoration of gold rings, and +enrolled him in the order of the knights. The matter of the gold rings +is as follows. Of the ancient Romans no one,--not to mention such as had +once been slaves,--who had grown up as a free citizen even, was allowed +to wear gold rings, save senators and knights,--as has been stated. +Therefore they are given to those freedmen whom the man in power may +select; although they may use gold in other ways, this is still an +additional honor and distinguishes them as superior, or as capable, +through having been freed, of becoming knights. + +[-46-] Such is the matter in question. Sextus, having this as a reproach +against Caesar, and the further facts that Achaea had been impoverished +and the rights agreed upon were not granted either to him or to the +restored exiles, sent to Italy Menecrates, another freedman of his, and +had him ravage Volturnum and other parts of Campania. Caesar on learning +this took the documents containing the treaty from the vestal virgins and +sent for Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus did not at once obey. Antony came to +Brundusium from Greece where, by chance, he still was: but before he met +Caesar, who was in Etruria, he became alarmed because a wolf had entered +his head-quarters and killed soldiers; so he sailed back to Greece again, +making the urgency of the Parthian situation his excuse. Caesar, however +much he felt that he had been abandoned by his colleague with the purpose +that he should face the difficulties of the war alone, nevertheless +showed no anger openly. Sextus kept repeating that Antony was not for +punishing him and set himself more zealously to the task in hand. Finally +he sailed against Italy, landed at different points, inflicted much +injury and endured much in return. Meantime off Cyme there was a naval +battle between Menecrates and Calvisius Sabinus. In this several ships of +Caesar were destroyed, because he was arrayed against expert seafarers; +but Menecrates out of rivalry attacked Menas and perished, making the +loss of Sextus an equal one. For this reason the latter laid no claim to +victory and Caesar consoled himself over the defeat. [-47-] He happened at +this time to be in Rhegium, and the party of Sextus feared he would cross +over into Sicily; and being somewhat disheartened, too, at the death +of Menecrates, they set sail from Cyme. Sabinus pursued them as far +as Scyllaeum, the Italian promontory, without trouble. But, as he was +rounding that point, a great wind fell upon him, hurling some of the +ships against the promontory, sinking others out at sea, and scattering +all the rest. Sextus on ascertaining this sent the fleet under command of +Apollophanes against them. He, discovering Caesar coasting along somewhere +in these parts with the intention of crossing into Sicily along with +Sabinus, made a dash upon him. Caesar had the ships come to anchor, +marshaled the heavy-armed soldiers upon them, and at first made a noble +resistance. The ships were drawn up with prows facing outward and so +offered no safe point for attack, but being shorter and higher could do +more hurt to those that approached them, and the heavy-armed fighters, +when they could come in conflict with the enemy, proved far superior. +Apollophanes, however, transferred such as were wounded and were in +difficulty from time to time to other ships assigned for the purpose, by +backing water, and took on board fresh men; he also made constant charges +and used missiles carrying fire, so that his adversary was at last +routed, fled to the land, and came to anchor. When even then the pursuers +pressed him hard, some of Caesar's ships suddenly cut their anchors and +unexpectedly offered opposition. It was only this and the fact that night +interrupted operations that kept Apollophanes from burning some of the +ships and towing all the rest away. + +[-48-] After this event an ill-fated wind on the following day fell upon +Caesar and Sabinus as they were anchored together and made their previous +reverse seem small. The fleet of Sabinus suffered the less, for Menas, +being an old hand on the sea, foresaw the storm. He immediately stationed +his ships out at sea, letting them ride with slack anchors some distance +apart, so that the ropes should not be stretched and break; then he rowed +directly against the wind, and in this way no rope was strained, and he +remained constantly in the same position, recovering by the use of the +oars all the distance which he lost by the impetus of the wind. The +remaining commanders, because they had gone through a severe experience +the day before, and as yet had no precise knowledge of nautical matters, +were cast out upon the shore close by and lost many ships. The night, +which had been of the greatest aid to them before, was now among the +chief agencies in promoting disaster. All through it the wind blew +violently, tearing the vessels from their anchors and dashing them +against the rocks. That of course was the end of them, and the sailors +and marines likewise perished without hope of rescue, since the darkness +prevented them from seeing ahead and they could not hear a word because +of the uproar and the reverberation from the mountains, especially since +the wind smote them in the face. So it was that Caesar despaired of Sicily +and was satisfied to guard the coast country: Sextus on the other hand +was still more elated, believing himself in very truth to be the son of +Neptune, and he put on a dark blue robe besides, as some relate, casting +horses as well as men alive into the straits. He plundered and harassed +Italy himself, sending Apollophanes to Libya. The latter was pursued by +Menas, who overtook and injured him. The islands round about Sicily went +over to the side of Sextus, whereupon Caesar seized the territory of the +Lipareans in advance and ejecting them from the island conveyed them to +Campania, where he forced them to live in Neapolis so long as the war +should continue. [-49-] Meantime he kept having boats made throughout +almost all of Italy and collected slaves for rowers first from his +friends, who were supposed to give willingly, and then from the +rest,--senators and knights and well-to-do private citizens. He also +assembled heavy-armed troops and gathered money from all citizens, +allies, and subjects, both in Italy and abroad. + +This year and the following he spent on the construction of ships and the +gathering and training of rowers. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +He himself oversaw and arranged these details and all other matters in +Italy and in Gaul (where there was a slight uprising). To Agrippa he +entrusted the equipment of the boats. He sent for this man, who was +fighting against the revolted Gauls, at the time when he had been the +second of the Romans to cross the Rhine for purposes of warfare, and he +honored him by bestowing a triumph and bidding him to secure the +building and training of the fleet. Agrippa,--he was consul with Lucius +Gallus,--would not hold the triumph, deeming it disgraceful for him to +exalt himself when Caesar had fared poorly, but set to work heart and soul +to fit out the fleet. All along the coasts of Italy vessels were taking +shape; but since no shore was found safe for them to ride at anchor,--the +majority of the coast land being still in those days without harbors,--he +conceived and executed a magnificent enterprise which I shall describe at +some length, showing its nature and the present characteristics of the +locality where it took place. + +[-50-] At Cyme in Campania, between Misenum and Puteoli, there is a +crescent-shaped spot. It is shut in by small hills, bare except in a +few places, and the sea there forms a kind of triple bay. The first is +outside and near the cities; the second is separated from it by a small +passage; and the third, like a real harbor, is seen far back. The last +named is called Avernus, and the middle bay Lucrinus: the outer one +belongs to the Tyrrhenian Sea and takes its name from that water. In this +roadstead within the other two, which had but narrow entrances then, +Agrippa, by cutting channels close along the shore through the land +separating Lucrinus from the sea on each side, produced harbors affording +most safe anchorage for ships. While the men were working a certain image +situated above Avernus, either of Calypso to whom this place, whither +they say Odysseus also sailed, is devoted, or to some other heroine, was +covered with sweat like a human body. [-51-] Now what this imported I +cannot say; but I will go on to tell of everything else worth reporting +which I saw in that place. These mountains close to the inner bodies of +water have springs full of both fire and water in considerable quantity +mixed together. Neither of the two elements is anywhere to be found by +itself (that is, neither pure fire or cold water alone is to be seen) but +from their association the water is heated and the fire moistened. The +former on its way down the foothills to the sea runs into reservoirs and +the inhabitants conduct the steam from it through pipes into rooms set +up high, where they use the steam for vapor baths. The higher it ascends +from the earth and from the water, the dryer it becomes. Costly apparatus +has been installed for turning both the fire and the vapor to practical +use; and they are very well suited for employment in the conduct of daily +life and also for effecting cures. + +Now besides these products that mountain makes an earth, the peculiar +nature of which I am going to describe. Since the fire has not the power +of burning (for by its union with, the water all its blazing qualities +are extinguished) but is still able to separate and melt the substances +with which it comes in contact, it follows that the oily part of the +earth is melted by it, whereas the hard and what I might call the bony +part of it is left as it was. Hence the masses of earth necessarily +become porous and when exposed to the dry air crumble into dust, but when +they are placed in a swirl of water and sand grow into a solid piece; as +much of them as is in the liquid hardens and petrifies. The reason for +this is that the brittle element in them is disintegrated and broken up +by the fire, which possesses, the same nature, but by the admixture of +dampness is chilled, and so, being compressed all over, through and +through, becomes indissoluble. Such is Baiae, where Agrippa as soon as he +had constructed the entrances collected ships and rowers, of which he +fortified the former with armor and trained the latter to row on wooden +benches. + +[-52-] Now the population of Rome was being disturbed by signs. Among the +various pieces of news brought to them was one to the effect that many +dolphins battled with one another and perished near Aspis, the African +city. And in the vicinity of the City blood descended from heaven and was +smeared all about by the birds. When at the Ludi Romani not one of the +senators was entertained on the Capitol, as had been the custom, they +took this, too, as a portent. Again, the incident that happened to Livia +caused her pleasure, but inspired the rest with terror. A white bird +carrying a sprig of fruited laurel had been thrown by an eagle into her +lap. As this seemed to be a sign of no small importance, she took care of +the bird and planted the laurel. The latter took root and grew, so that +it amply supplied those who were afterward to celebrate triumphs; and +Livia was destined to hold Caesar's power in a fold of her robe and to +dominate him in everything. + +[-53-] The rest, however, in the City had their peace of mind thoroughly +shattered by this and the differences between officials. Not only the +consuls and praetors but even the quaestors were arrayed against one +another, and this lasted for some time. The reason was that all were +anxious not so much to hold office a longer time at home as to be counted +among the ex-officials and secure the outward honors and influence that +belonged to that class. They were no longer chosen for any specified +time, but took just long enough to enter upon the title of the office and +resign, whenever it so seemed good to those in power. Many did both +on the same day. Some actually had to abandon hope of offices through +poverty, and in this I am not speaking of those then supporting Sextus, +who had been disenfranchised as if by some principle of right. But +we have the case of a certain Marcus Oppius who through lack of means +desired to resign the aedileship,--both he and his father had been among +the proscribed,--and the populace would not permit it, but contributed +money for his various necessities of life and the expenses of his office. +And the story goes that some criminals, too, really came into the theatre +in masks as if they were actors and left their money there with the rest. +So this man was loved by the multitude while in life and at his death not +long after was carried to the Campus Martius and there burned and buried. +The senate was indignant at the utter devotion of the masses to him and +took up his bones, on the plea that it was impious for them to lie in +that consecrated spot; they were persuaded by the pontifices to make this +declaration although they buried many other men there both before and +after. + +[-54-] At this same period Antony came into Italy again from Syria. The +reason he gave was that he intended to bear his share of the war against +Sextus because of Caesar's mishaps; he did not, however, stay by his +colleague, but, having come to spy upon his actions rather than to +accomplish anything, he gave him some ships and promised to send others, +in return for which he received heavy-armed infantry and set sail +himself, stating that he was going to conduct a campaign against the +Parthians. Before he departed they presented to each other their mutual +grievances, at first through friends and then personally. As they had no +leisure for war together they became reconciled in a way, chiefly through +the instrumentality of Octavia. In order that they might be bound by +still more ties of relationship Caesar betrothed his daughter to Antyllis, +Antony's son, and Antony betrothed to Domitius, though he had been an +assassin of Caesar and had been proscribed to die, his own daughter, borne +to him by Octavia. This was all mutual pretence. They had no intention of +carrying out any of these unions, but were acting a part in view of the +needs of the existing situation. Furthermore Antony sent Octavia herself +at once from Corcyra to Italy, that she might not share his danger while +he was warring against the Parthians. Besides the above negotiations at +that time they removed Sextus from his priesthood as well as from the +consulship to which he had been appointed, and granted themselves chief +authority for another five years, since the first period had elapsed. +After this Antony hastened to Syria and Caesar gave his attention to the +war. Nearly everything went as he wished, but Menas, who was naturally +untrustworthy and always followed the fortunes of the stronger, and was +further vexed because he held no office but had been made a subordinate +of Sabinus, deserted again to Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +49 + +The following is contained in the Forty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar conquered Sextus and overthrew Lepidus (chapters 1-18). + +How Ventidius conquered and slew Pacorus and expelled the Parthians, +driving them across the Euphrates (chapters 19-21). + +How Antony was defeated by the Parthians (chapters 22-33). + +How Caesar subjugated the Pannonians (chapters 34-38). + +How Antony by guile captured Artavasdes, the king of Armenia (chapters +39-41). + +How the Portico of Paulus was consecrated (chapter 42). + +How Mauritania Caesariensis became Roman property (chapters 43, 44). + +Duration of time four years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated. + +L. Gellius L. F. Poplicola, M. Cocceius Nerva. (B.C. 36 = a. u. 718.) + +L. Cornificius L. F., Sextusi Pompeius Sexti F. (B.C. 35 = a. u. 719.) + +M. Antonius M. F. (II), L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (B.C. 34 = a. u. 720.) + +Caesar (II), L. Volcacius L. F. Tullus. (B.C. 33 = a. u. 721.) + + +(_BOOK 49, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 36 (a. u. 718)] + +[-1-] This happened in the winter when Lucius Gellius and Cocceius Nerva +became consuls. Caesar, when his fleet had been made ready and spring set +in, started from Baise and coasted along Italy, having great hopes of +encompassing Sicily on all sides. For he was sailing thither with many +ships and those of Antony were already in the strait. Also Lepidus, +though reluctantly, had promised to assist him. His greatest ground of +confidence lay in the height of the vessels and the thickness of the +timbers. They had been built unusually stout and unusually high so as +to carry the largest number of marines possible; indeed, they were +surmounted by towers, in order that the conflict might be waged from a +higher point, as if from a wall: they were further intended to resist +the rammings of antagonists and to bend aside their beaks by making the +collision more violent. With such calculations Caesar was hastening to +Sicily. As he was passing the promontory of Palinurus, so-called, a great +storm fell upon him. This destroyed many ships, and Menas coming upon the +rest in confusion burned a number and towed away the rest. And had he not +again changed sides on the promise of immunity and through some other +hopes, besides betraying the whole fleet that he commanded by receiving +some triremes that simulated desertion, Caesar's voyage to Sicily on this +occasion also would have proved fruitless. Menas's action was due to the +fact that he was not allowed by Sextus to fight against Lepidus and was +under suspicion in nearly every way. Caesar was then extremely glad to +receive him, but trusted him no longer. He first repaired the damaged +ships, freed the slaves that served on the triremes, and assigned the +spare seamen, (many of whom when their vessels were destroyed in the +wreck had dived and escaped by swimming) to Antony's fleet, which was +short of men. Then he came to Lipara, and leaving there Agrippa and the +ships, returned to the mainland with the intention of transporting the +infantry across into Sicily, when an opportunity should arise. + +[-2-] On learning this Sextus himself lay quietly at anchor off Messana, +watching for his attempt to cross, and ordered Demochares to anchor +opposite Agrippa at Mylae. This pair spent most of the time in testing +each other's strength according as each one would temporarily give way +a little; yet they did not dare to risk an engagement with their entire +armaments. They were not acquainted with each other's forces and on both +sides they figured everything about their opponents as being greater and +more terrible than the reality. Finally Agrippa comprehended that it +was not advantageous for him to delay,--for the adherents of Sextus, +occupying a friendly position, had no need to hurry,--and taking the best +of his ships set out for Mylae to spy out the numbers of the enemy. As he +could not see them all and no one of them manifested any inclination to +come out into the open sea, he despised them, and on his return made +preparations to sail against Mylae on the following day with all his +ships. Demochares came to much, the same conclusion. He had the idea that +the ships which had approached him were the only ones, and seeing that +they sailed very slowly by reason of their size he sent for Sextus by +night and made preparations to assail Lipara itself. When day broke, they +were sailing against each other, expecting to meet inferior numbers. +[-3-] As they came near together and each contrary to his expectations +saw that his opponents were many more than he had thought, they were at +first both alike thrown into confusion, and some even backed water. Then, +fearing flight more than battle, because in the latter they hoped to +prevail, but in the former they expected to be utterly destroyed, they +moved toward each other and joined in conflict on the sea. The one side +surpassed in the number of its ships, the other in the experience of its +sailors: to the first the height of the vessels, the thickness of the +catheads and the towers were a help, but charges straight ahead furthered +the progress of the second, and the strength of Caesar's marines was +matched by the daring of their antagonists; for the majority of them, +being deserters from Italy, were quite desperate. As a result, possessing +the mutual advantages and deficiencies which I have mentioned, they had +equal power contributed by their evenly balanced equipment, and so their +contest was close for a very long period. The followers of Sextus alarmed +their opponents by the way they dashed up the waves: and they knocked +holes in some ships by assailing them with a rush and bursting open the +parts outside the oars, but as they were struck from the towers in the +combat and brought alongside by grappling irons, they suffered no less +harm than they inflicted. The Caesarians, also, when they came into close +conflict and had crossed over to the hostile ships, proved superior; but +as the enemy leaped out into the sea whenever the boats sank, and by +their swimming well and being lightly equipped succeeded easily in +climbing upon others, the attackers were at a corresponding disadvantage. +Meantime the rapidity with which the ships of the one party could sail +proved an offset to the solidity of those on the other side, and the +heaviness of the latter counterbalanced the agility of the former. [-4-] +Late in the day, near nightfall, Caesar's party finally conquered, +but instituted no pursuit: the reason as it appears to me and may be +conjectured from probability was that they could not overtake the fleeing +ships and were afraid of running aground in the shallows, with which they +were unacquainted, near the coast. Some say that Agrippa because he was +battling for Caesar and not for himself thought it sufficient merely to +rout his adversaries. For he had been in the habit of saying to his most +intimate associates that the majority of those holding sovereign power +wish no one to display more ability than themselves; and that they +attended personally to nearly all such matters as afford them a conquest +without effort, but assign the less favorable and more complicated +business to others. And if they ever are forced to entrust some choice +enterprise to their assistants, they are irritated and displeased at the +latter's renown. They do not pray that these subordinates may be defeated +and fare badly, yet they do not choose to have them win a complete +success and secure glory from it. His advice therefore was that the +man who intended to survive must relieve his masters of the annoyance +incident to such undertakings and still reserve for them the successful +completion of the work. As for me, I know that the above is regularly +true and that Agrippa paid attention to it, but I am not setting down +that on that particular occasion this was the cause of his failure to +pursue. For he was not able, no matter how much he might have desired it, +to follow up the foe. + +[-5-] While the naval battle was in progress, Caesar, as soon as he +perceived that Sextus was gone from Messana and that the strait was +destitute of guards, did not let slip this opportunity of the war but +immediately embarked on Antony's vessels and crossed to Tauromenium. Yet +this seizure of the opportunity was not accompanied by good fortune. No +one prevented him from sailing or disembarking, and he constructed his +camp, as he had done everything else, at leisure. When, however, the +naval battle had ended, Sextus got back to Messana with speed, and +learning of Caesar's presence he quickly filled the ships with fresh +warriors and assailed him with the vessels and also with his heavy-armed +men on land. Caesar did not come out to fight the latter, but sailed out +against Sextus through contempt of the few opposing ships and because +they had been previously defeated: then it was that he lost the majority +of his fleet and barely avoided destruction himself. He could not even +escape to his own men that were in Sicily but was glad to reach the +mainland in safety. He was himself then in security, but was mightily +disturbed at seeing his army cut off on the island. His confidence was +not restored until a fish of its own accord jumped out of the sea and +fell at his feet. By this incident his spirits were invigorated and he +believed the soothsayers who had told him that he should make Sicily his +slave. + +[-6-] Caesar in haste sent for Agrippa to render aid to them, and meantime +they were being besieged. When, provisions began to fail them and no +rescuing force appeared, Cornificius their leader became afraid that if +he stayed where he was he should in the course of time be compelled by +hunger to yield to the besieging party; and he reflected that while he +delayed there in that way none of the enemy would come into conflict with +him, because he was stronger in point of heavy-armed infantry, but if +he should go forward in any direction one of two things would +happen,--either they would be attacked by the enemy and come off +victorious, or, if their adversaries were unwilling to do this, they +would retire to a place of safety, get a supply of provisions, and obtain +some help from Caesar or from Agrippa. Therefore he burned all the vessels +which had survived from the sea-fight and had been cast up against the +ramparts, and started out himself as if to proceed to Mylae. Both cavalry +and light-armed troops attacked him from a distance (not daring to come +to close quarters) and proved frightfully troublesome to him. For the +enemy came close, whenever there was good opportunity, and again turned +back with rapidity. But his men, being heavy-armed, could not pursue them +in any way owing to the weight of their armor, and were endeavoring to +protect the unarmed, who had been saved from the fleet. As a result they +were continually suffering disastrously and could do no damage in return; +for, in case they made a rush upon any group, they would put the foe to +flight, but not being able to pursue farther they found themselves in +a worse plight on their return, since by their sortie they had been +isolated. They endured the greatest hardship throughout their entire +journey, but chiefly in crossing the rivers. Then their adversaries +hemmed them in as they were going along rapidly, in disorder, a few at a +time, as usual on such occasions, and struck them in favorable spots that +they saw exposed. They were shot at, moreover, whenever they encountered +places that were muddy or where the current was strong, and when they +happened to be stuck for a moment or were carried down stream. [-7-] +This the enemy did for three whole days and on the last demoralized them +completely, especially since Sextus with his heavy-armed contingent had +been added to their attacking force. Consequently the Caesarians no longer +mourned such as were perishing but counted them fortunate to escape from +further torment, and in their hopelessness wished that they, too, were +among those already dead, wounded were far more in number than those +died, and being struck from a distance with stones and javelins and +receiving no blow from near at hand their wounds were in many places, +and not as a rule favorably located. These men were themselves in great +distress and they caused the survivors far more trouble than did the +enemy. For if they were carried they usually brought about the death of +the men supporting them, and if they were left behind, they threw the +whole army into dejection by their laments. The detachment would have +perished utterly, had not the foe, though reluctantly, taken their hands +off them. Agrippa, after winning the naval battle, had sailed back +to Lipara, but when he learned that Sextus had fled to Messana and +Demochares had gone off in some other direction, he crossed over to +Sicily, occupied Mylae and Tyndaris, and sent food and soldiers to the +other party. Sextus, thinking that Agrippa himself would come likewise, +became frightened and beat a hasty retreat before his approach, even +abandoning some baggage and supplies in his fortifications. The followers +of Cornificius obtained from these ample support and made their way in +safety to Agrippa. Caesar received them back with praises and gifts, +although he had treated them after the victory of Agrippa in a very +supercilious manner, thinking the latter had finished the war. +Cornificius, indeed, prided himself so much upon his preservation of the +soldiers, that in Rome, whenever he went out of his house to dine, he +always returned home on the back of an elephant. + +[-8-] Caesar after this entered Sicily and Sextus encamped opposite him in +the vicinity of Artemisium. They did not have any great battle at +once, but indulged in a few slight cavalry skirmishes. While they were +stationed there in hostile array Sextus received as an accession Tisienus +Gallus, and Caesar Lepidus with his forces. Lepidus had encountered the +storm which I mentioned, and also Demochares, and he had lost a number +of ships: he did not come to Caesar immediately, but on account of his +reverse or to the end that his colleague should face difficulties by +himself or in the wish to draw Sextus away from him he had made an +assault on Lilybaeum. Gallus was sent thither by Sextus and contended +against him. From there both the contestants, as they accomplished +nothing, went to Artemisium. Gallus proved a source of strength to +Sextus, but Lepidus quarreled with Caesar; he claimed the privilege of +managing everything on equal terms with Caesar as his fellow-commander, +whereas he was employed by him entirely in the capacity of lieutenant: +therefore he inclined to favor Sextus and secretly held communication +with him. Caesar suspected this, but dared not give expression to his +doubts and alienate him openly, nor could he safely conceal his thoughts: +he felt it would look suspicious if he should not consult him at all and +that it would be dangerous to reveal all his plans. Hence he determined +to dispose of the uncertainty as quickly as possible, before there was +any rebellion, though for most reasons there was no need of particular +haste. He had as much food and as much money as Sextus, and therefore +hoped to overthrow him without effort before a great while. Still, when +he had once reached this decision, he himself led out his land force and +marshaled it in front of the camp, while simultaneously Agrippa sailed +close in and lay at anchor. Sextus, whose forces were far inferior to +theirs, would not oppose them on either element. This lasted for several +days. Finally, Pompey became afraid that he might be despised for his +behavior and be deserted by his allies, hence he gave orders for the +ships to weigh anchor; in these he reposed his chief trust. + +[-9-] When the signal was raised and the trumpet gave the first call, +all the boats joined battle near the land and the infantry force of +both alike was marshaled at the very edge of the breakers, so that the +spectacle was a most notable one. The whole sea in that vicinity was full +of ships,--they were so many that they formed a long line,--and the +land just back of it was occupied by the armed men, while that further +removed, but adjoining, was taken up by the rest of the throng that +followed each side. Wherefore, though the struggle seemed to be between +the fighters on the ships alone, in reality the others too participated. +For those on the ships contended more valiantly in order to exhibit +their prowess to those beholding them, and the latter, in spite of being +considerably separated from them, nevertheless in watching the men in +action were themselves in a way concerned in the conflict. The battle was +for a long time an even one, the fighting being precisely similar to +that in previous encounters, and the men on shore followed it with minds +equally intent. They were very hopeful of having the whole war settled by +this engagement: yet they felt encouraged even should that not prove the +case, the one party expecting that if they should conquer then no further +labor of importance would be theirs, and that if they should prevail on +this occasion they would incur no further danger of defeat. Accordingly, +in order that they might keep their eyes fixed upon the action and not +incommode those taking part in it they were silent or employed but little +shouting. Their cries were directed to the combatants or were addressed +by way of invocation to the gods; such as got the upper hand received +praise and such as gave way abuse, and besides uttering many exhortations +to their warriors they shouted not a little against each other, wishing +their own men to hear more easily what was said, and their opponents to +catch familiar words less frequently. + +[-10-] While the two sides were equally matched, these were the +conditions among both parties alike and they even tried to show by +gestures of the whole body that they could see and understand. When, +however, the adherents of Sextus were routed, then in unison and with +one impulse the one side raised the paean and the others a wail of +lamentation. The soldiers as if they too had shared defeat at once +retired to Messana. Caesar took up such of the vanquished as were cast on +shore and went into the sea itself to set on fire all the vessels +that ran aground in shoal water; thus there was no safety for such as +continued to sail, for they would be disabled by Agrippa, nor for such as +tried to land anywhere, for they were destroyed by Caesar, except for +a few that made good their escape to Messana. In this hard position +Demochares on the point of being taken slew himself and Apollophanes who +had his ship unscathed and might have fled went over to Caesar. The same +was done by others,--by Gallus and all the cavalry that followed him +and subsequently by some of the infantry. [-11-] This most of all caused +Sextus to despair of the situation, and he resolved to flee. He took his +daughter and certain other persons, his money and the rest of his chief +valuables, put them by night aboard of such ships as sailed best out of +the number that had been preserved, and departed. No one pursued him, for +his sailing had been secret and Caesar was temporarily in the midst of +great disturbance. + +Lepidus had attacked Messana and on being admitted to the town set fire +to some of it and pillaged other portions. When Caesar on ascertaining +this came up quickly and withstood him, he was alarmed and slipped out +of the city, but encamped on a strong hill and made complaints about his +treatment; he detailed all the slights he had received and demanded +all that had been conceded to him according to their first compact and +further laid claim to Sicily, on the ground that he had helped subdue +it. He sent some men to Caesar with these charges and challenged him +to submit to arbitration: his forces consisted of troops which he had +brought in from Libya and all of those who had been left behind in +Messana; for he had been the first to enter it and had suggested to them +some hopes of a change in the government. [-12-] Caesar made no answer +to it, thinking that he had justice all on his side and in his weapons, +since he was stronger than his rival. He immediately set out, however, +against him with some few followers, expecting to alarm him by his +suddenness,--Lepidus not being of an energetic nature,--and to win over +his soldiers. On account of the fewness of the men accompanying him they +thought when he entered the camp that he was on a peaceful errand. But +as his words were not at all to their liking, they became irritated and +attacked him, even killing some of the men: he himself quickly received +aid and was saved. After this he came against them once more with his +entire army, shut them within their ramparts, and besieged them. This +made them afraid of capture, and without creating any general revolt, +through dread of Lepidus, they individually, a few at a time or one by +one, deserted him and transferred their allegiance. In this way he too +was compelled on his own initiative to array himself in mourning garments +and become a suppliant of Caesar. As a result Lepidus was shorn of all +authority and could not even live in Italy without a guard. Of those who +had been enlisted in the cause of Sextus, members of the senatorial or +equestrian classes were punished, save a few, while in the case of the +rank and file all free citizens were incorporated in the legions of +Caesar, and those that had been slaves were given back to their masters +for vengeance: in case no master could be found for any one of them, he +was impaled. Of the cities some voluntarily opened their gates to the +victor and received pardon, and others resisted him and were disciplined. + +[-13-] While Caesar was thus occupied his soldiers revolted. Being so many +they drew encouragement from their very numbers and when they stopped +to think of their dangers and the hopes that rested on them they became +insatiable in the matter of rewards, and gathering in groups they +demanded whatever each one longed for. When their talk had no +effect,--for Caesar since no enemy longer confronted him made light of +them,--they became clamorous. Setting before him all the hardships they +had endured and bringing to his notice any promise he had ever made them +they uttered many threats besides, and thought to render him willy-nilly +their slave. As they gained nothing this way, they demanded with much +heat and deafening shouts to be relieved at least from further service, +saying they were worn out. This was not because they really wished to be +free from it, for most of them were in their prime, but because they had +an inkling of the coming conflict between Caesar and Antony and for that +reason set a high value upon themselves. And what they could not obtain +by requests they expected they could secure by threatening to abandon +him. Not even this, however, served their purpose. Caesar would not yield +to them, even if he knew for an absolute certainty that the war was going +to occur and clearly understood their wishes. He did not think it proper +for a commander to do anything against his will under compulsion from +the soldiers, because they would be sure, if he did, to want to get the +advantage of him again in some other matter. [-14-] So he pretended that +their request was a fair one and their desire only human and dismissed +first those that had accompanied him in the campaign against Antony at +Mutina, and next, since the rest were troublesome, all of them who had +been ten years in the service. And in order to restrain the remainder he +gave further notice that he would no longer employ any one of them, no +matter how much such a person might wish it. On hearing this they uttered +not another word, but began to exhibit great devotion toward him because +he announced that he would give to the men that had been released,--not +to all, save to the first of them, but to the worthiest,--everything that +he had promised, and would assign them land. They were also influenced by +the fact that he gave to all of them five hundred denarii and to those +who had been victors in the sea-fight a crown of olive besides. After +this he inspired them all personally with great hopes and the centurions +with the idea that he would appoint them to the senatorial bodies in +their native lands. Upon his lieutenants he bestowed various gifts and +upon Agrippa a golden crown adorned with beaks of ships,--a decoration +given to nobody before or since. And it was later ratified by a decree +that as often as any persons celebrated a triumph, wearing[49] the laurel +crown, Agrippa should always wear this trophy of the naval encounter. In +this way Caesar calmed the soldiers temporarily. The money he gave them at +once and the land not much later. And since what was still held by the +government at the time did not suffice, he bought more in addition, +especially considerable from the Campanians dwelling in Capua, since +their city needed a number of settlers. To them he also gave in return +the so-called Julian supply of water, one of their chief sources of pride +at all times, and the Gnosian territory,[50] from which they still gather +harvests. + +That took place later. At the time under discussion he administered the +government in Sicily and through Statilius Taurus won both the Libyas +without a struggle and sent back to Antony a number of ships equivalent +to those lost. [-15-]Meantime conditions in Etruria which had been full +of rebellion regained a state of quiet when the inhabitants heard of his +victory. The people of the capital unanimously bestowed laudations upon +him and images, the right to front seats and an arch surmounted by a +trophy, as well as the privilege of riding into the city on horseback, of +wearing the laurel crown on all occasions, and of holding a banquet with +his wife and children in the precinct of the Capitoline Jupiter on the +anniversary of the day that he had conquered, which was to be a perpetual +day of thanksgiving. This is what they granted him directly after the +victory. The persons to announce it were, first, a soldier stationed in +the city, who on the very day in question had become possessed by some +god and after saying and doing many unusual things finally ran up to +the temple on the Capitol and laid his sword at the feet of Jupiter to +signify that there would be no further use for it; after that came the +rest who had been present at the action and had been sent to Rome by +Caesar. When he arrived himself he assembled them according to ancestral +custom outside the pomerium, gave them an account of what had been done, +and renounced some of the honors voted him. He then remitted the tribute +called for by the registered lists and everything else that was owing the +government since before the period of the civil wars, abolished certain +taxes, and refused to accept the priesthood of Lepidus, which was offered +to him; for it was not lawful to take away the appointment from a man +still alive. At this time they voted him many other distinctions. Some at +once declared that this striking magnanimity of his at this time was due +to the calumnies of Antony and of Lepidus and was intended to lay the +blame of former unjust behavior upon them alone. Others said that since +he was unable in any way to collect the debts he made of the people's +impotency a favor that cost him nothing. In spite of this various talk +that gained currency in different quarters they now resolved that a house +be presented to him from the public treasury. He had made the place on +the Palatine which he had bought to erect a structure public property, +and had consecrated it to Apollo, because a thunderbolt descended upon +it. Hence they voted him the house and protection from any insult by deed +or word. Any one who committed such an offence was to be bound by the +same penalties as prevailed in the case of a tribune. For he received +permission to sit upon the same benches with them. + +[-16-] These were the gifts bestowed upon Caesar by the senate. As for +him, he enrolled among the augurs above the proper number, Valerius +Messala, whom he previously in the proscriptions condemned to death, made +the people of Utica citizens, and gave orders that no one should wear +purple clothing except senators and such as held public office. For it +had been already appropriated by ordinary individuals in a few cases. In +this same year there was no aedile owing to a lack of candidates, and the +praetors and the tribunes performed the aediles' duties: also no praetor +urbanus was appointed for the Feriae, but some of the regular praetors +discharged his functions. Other matters in the city and in the rest of +Italy were under the charge of one Gaius Maecenas, a knight, both then and +for a long time afterward. + +[-17-] Now Sextus after taking ship from Messana was afraid of pursuit +and suspected that there might be some act of treachery on the part of +his retinue. Therefore he gave notice to them that he was going to sail +seaward, but when he had extinguished the light which flagships exhibit +during night voyages for the purpose of having the rest follow close +behind, he coasted along Italy, then went over to Corcyra and from there +came to Cephallenia. Here the remainder of his vessels, which had +by chance been driven from the course by a storm, joined him again. +Accordingly, after calling them together, he took off his general's +uniform and made an address of which the substance was that while they +remained together they could render no lasting aid to one another or +escape detection, but if they scattered they could more easily make +good their escape; and he advised each man to look out individually and +separately for his own safety. The majority were led to give ear to his +arguments and they departed in different directions, while he with the +remainder crossed over to Asia with the intention of going straight to +Antony. When he reached Lesbos and learned that the latter had gone on +a campaign against the Medes and that Caesar and Lepidus had become +estranged, he decided to winter in the country. The Lesbians, indeed, +out of affectionate remembrance for his father were ready to receive and +detain him. He ascertained, however, that Antony had met with a mishap in +Media, and reflected further that Gaius Furnius, temporarily the governor +of Asia, was not friendly to him. Hence he did not remain, but hoping to +succeed to Antony's leadership because a number of men had come to him +from Sicily and still others had rallied around him, some drawn by the +glamour of his father's renown and some who were seeking a livelihood, he +resumed the outfit of a general and continued his preparations to occupy +the opposite shore. [-18-] Meantime Antony had got back again into +friendly territory and on learning what Sextus was doing promised he +would grant him amnesty and favor, if he would lay down his arms. Sextus +wrote back to the effect that he would obey him, but did not do so, +because he felt a contempt for the man, inspired by his recent disasters, +and because he immediately set off for Egypt. Hence he held to his +previous design and entered into negotiations with the Parthians. Antony +ascertained this, but without turning back sent against him the fleet and +Marcus Titius, who had formerly come to him from Sextus and was still +with him. Sextus received information of this move in advance, and in +alarm, since his preparations were not yet complete, abandoned his +anchorage. He went forward then, taking the course which seemed most +likely to afford escape, and reached Nicomedea, where he was overtaken. +At this he opened negotiations with Antony, placing some hope in him +because of the kindness which had been shown him. When the chieftain, +however, refused to enter into a truce with him without first taking +possession of the ships and the rest of his force, Sextus despaired of +safety by sea, put all of his heavier baggage into the ships (which he +thereupon burned) and proceeded inland. Titius and Furnius pursued him, +and overtaking him at Midaeium in Phrygia surrounded him and captured him +alive. When Antony learned this he at first under the influence of anger +sent a despatch that the captive should be put to death, but again not +long after repenting[51] ... that his life should be spared....[51] Now +the bearer of the second letter came in before the first, and later +Titius received the epistle in regard to killing him. Thinking, +therefore, that it was really the second, or else knowing the truth but +not caring to heed it, he followed the order of the arrival of the +two, but not their manifest intention. So Sextus was executed in the +consulship of Lucius Cornificius and one Sextus Pompeius. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +Caesar held a horse-race in honor of the event, and set up for Antony +a chariot in front of the rostra and images in the temple of Concord, +giving him also authority to hold banquets there with his wife and +children, this being similar to the decree that had once been passed +in his own honor. He pretended to be still Antony's friend and was +endeavoring to console him for the disasters inflicted by the Parthians +and in that way to cure any jealousy that might be felt at his own +victory and the decrees which followed it. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-19-]This was what Caesar did: Antony's experience with the barbarians +was as follows. Publius Ventidius heard that Pacorus was gathering an +army and was invading Syria, and became afraid, since the cities had not +grown quiet and the legions were still scattered in winter-quarters, and +so he acted as follows to delay him and make the assembling of an army +a slow process. He knew that a certain prince Channaeus, with whom he +enjoyed an acquaintance, was rather disposed to favor the Parthian cause. +Ventidius, then, honored him as if he had his entire confidence and took +him as an adviser in some matters where he could not himself be injured +and would cause Channaeus to think he possessed his most hidden secrets. +Having reached this point he affected to be afraid that the barbarians +might abandon the place where they customarily crossed the Euphrates near +where the city Zeugma is located, and use some other road farther down +the river. The latter, he said, was in a flat district convenient for the +enemy, whereas the former was hilly and suited _them_ best. He persuaded +the prince to believe this and through the latter deceived Pacorus. The +Parthian leader took the route through the flat district, where Ventidius +kept pretending he hoped he would not go, and as this was longer than the +other it gave the Roman time to assemble his forces. [-20-] So he met +Pacorus when he had advanced to Cyrrestician Syria and conquered him. For +he did not prevent them from crossing the river, and when they had got +across he did not at once attack them, so that they imputed sloth +and weakness to the Romans and therefore marched against the Roman +fortification, although on higher ground, expecting to take it without +resistance. When a sally was suddenly made, the attacking party, being +cavalry, was driven back without effort down the slope. At the foot they +defended themselves valiantly,--the majority of them were in armor,--but +were confused by the unexpectedness of the onslaught and stumbling over +one another were damaged most of all by the heavy-armed men and the +slingers. The latter struck them, from a distance with powerful weapons +and proved a very great annoyance. The fall of Pacorus at this critical +juncture injured them most of all. As soon as they saw that their leader +had perished, a few steadily contended over his body, but when these were +destroyed all the rest gave way. Some of them desired to escape homeward +across the bridge and were not able, being cut off and killed before they +could reach it, and others fled for refuge to Antiochus in Commagene. +Ventidius easily reduced the rest of the places in Syria, whose attitude +had depended on the outcome of the war, by sending the monarch's head +about through the different cities; their doubtful allegiance had been +due to their extreme love for Pacorus because of his justness and +mildness,--a love which had equaled that bestowed by them upon any +previous sovereign. The general himself led an expedition against +Antiochus on the plea that he had not delivered up the suppliants, but +really because of his money, of which he had vast stores. + +[-21-] When he had progressed so far Antony suddenly came upon him, and +so far from being pleased was actually jealous of his having gained some +reputation by his own efforts. Consequently he removed him from his +command and employed him on no other business either at the time or +later, though he obtained thanksgivings for both achievements and a +triumph for his assistant's work. The Romans of the capital voted these +honors to Antony as a result of his prominence and in accordance with +law, because he was commander: but they voted them also to Ventidius, +since they thought that he had paid the Parthians in full through the +death of Pacorus for the disasters that Roman arms had incurred in the +time of Crassus, especially since both events had befallen on the same +day of the corresponding years. And it turned out that Ventidius alone +celebrated the triumph, even as the victory had been his alone, for +Antony met an untimely fate, and he acquired a greater reputation from +this fact and the irony of fortune alike. He himself had once marched in +procession with the other captives at the triumph of Pompeius Strabo, +and now he was the first of the Romans to celebrate a triumph over the +Parthians. + +[-22-] This took place at a later period: at the time mentioned Antony +attacked Antiochus, shut him up in Samosata and proceeded to besiege +him. As he accomplished nothing and the time was spent in vain, and he +suspected that the soldiers felt coldly toward him on account of his +dishonoring Ventidius, he secretly opened negotiations with the foe, +and made fictitious agreements with him so that he might have a fair +appearing reason for withdrawal. In the end Antony got neither hostages +(except two and these of little importance) nor the money which he had +demanded, but he granted Antiochus the death of one Alexander, who had +earlier deserted from him to the Roman side. After doing this he set out +for Italy, and Gaius Sosius received from him the governorship of Syria +and Cilicia. This man subdued the Aradii, who had been besieged up to +this time and had been reduced to hard straits by famine and disease, and +conquered Antigonus in battle after killing the Roman guards that he kept +about him, and reduced him by siege when he took refuge in Jerusalem. The +Jews had committed many outrages upon the Romans,--for the race is very +bitter when aroused to anger,--but they suffered far more themselves. The +first of them were captured fighting for the precinct of their god, and +later the rest on the day even then called the day of Saturn. And so +great still were their religious scruples that the men who had been first +captured along with the temple obtained leave from Sosius when the day of +Saturn came around again, and went up with the remaining population into +the building, where they performed all the customary rites. These people +Antony entrusted to one Herod to govern, and Antigonus he bound to +a cross and flogged,--treatment accorded to no other king by the +Romans,--and subsequently slew him. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +[-23-] This was the course of events in the days of Claudius and +Norbanus: the following year the Romans accomplished nothing worthy +of note in Syria. Antony arrived in Italy and returned again to the +province, consuming the entire season: and Sosius, because he would +be advancing his master's interests and not his own, and furthermore +dreading his jealousy and anger, spent the time in devising means not for +achieving success and drawing down his enmity, but for pleasing him by +remaining quiet. Parthian affairs with no outside interference underwent +a severe revolution from the following cause. Orodes their king succumbed +to age and grief for Pacorus combined, and while still alive delivered +the government to Phraates, the eldest of his remaining children. He +in his discharge of it proved himself the most impious of men. He +treacherously murdered his brothers, sons of the daughter of Antiochus, +because they were his superiors in excellence and (on their mother's +side) in family: when Antiochus chafed under this outrage he killed him +in addition and after that destroyed the noblest men in the remaining +population and kept committing many other abuses. Consequently a number +of the more prominent persons abandoned him and betook themselves to +various places, some going to Antony, among whom was Monaeses. This +happened in the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus. + +[B.C. 36 (_a. u_. 718)] + +[-24-] During the remainder of winter, when Gallus and Nerva were +holding office, Publius Canidius Crassus made a campaign against the +Iberians that inhabit this portion of the world, conquered in battle +their king Pharnabazus and brought them into alliance; with this king he +invaded Albanis, the adjoining country, and, after overcoming the +dwellers there and their king Zober, conciliated them likewise. Antony +was elated at this and furthermore based great hopes upon Monaeses, who +had promised him to lead his army and bring over to him most of Parthia +without conflict. Hence the Roman took up the war against the Parthians +in earnest and besides making various presents to Monaeses gave him three +Roman cities to govern until he should finish the war, and promised him +in addition the Parthian kingdom. While they were so occupied Phraates +became terrified, especially because the Parthians took the flight of +Monaeses very much amiss, and he opened negotiations with him, offering +him anything whatever, and so persuaded him to return. When Antony found +this out, he was naturally angry, but did not kill Monaeses although the +latter was still in his power; for he felt sure he could not win the +confidence of any other of the barbarians, in case he should do such a +thing, and he wanted to try a little trick against them. He accordingly +released Monaeses, apparently supposing the latter was going to bring the +Parthian affairs under his control, and sent envoys with him to Phraates. +Nominally he was arranging for peace on the condition of getting back the +standards and the prisoners captured in the disaster of Crassus, +intending to take the king off his guard while the latter was expecting +a pacific settlement; but in fact he was putting everything in readiness +for war. [-25-] And he went as far as the Euphrates, thinking it was +free of guards. When, however, he found that whole region carefully +guarded, he turned aside from it, but led a campaign against Artavasdes, +the king of the Medes, persuaded thereto by the king of Greater Armenia, +who had the same name and was an enemy of the aforementioned. Just as he +was he at once advanced toward Armenia, and learning there that the Mede +had gone a considerable distance from his own land in the discharge of +his duties as an ally of the Parthian king, he left behind the beasts of +burden and a portion of the army with Oppius Statianus, giving orders +for them to follow, and himself taking the cavalry and the strongest of +the infantry hurried on in the confidence of seizing all his opponent's +strongholds at one blow; he assailed Praaspa, the royal residence, +heaped up mounds and made constant attacks. When the Parthian and the +Medan kings ascertained this, they left him to continue his idle +toil,--for the walls were strong and many were defending them,--but +assailed Statianus off his guard and wearied on the march and slew the +whole detachment except Polemon, king of Pontus, who was then +accompanying the expedition. Him alone they took alive and released in +exchange for ransom. They were able to accomplish this because the +Armenian king was not present at the battle; but though he might have +helped the Romans, as some say, he neither did this nor joined Antony, +but retired to his own country. [-26-] Antony hastened at the first +message sent him by Statianus to go to his assistance, but was too +late. For except corpses he found no one. This outcome caused him fear, +but, inasmuch as he fell in with no barbarian, he suspected that they had +departed in some direction through terror, and this lent him new courage. +Hence when he met them a little later he routed them, for his slingers +were numerous, and as the latter could shoot farther than would the bows +they inflicted severe injury upon the men in armor. However, he did not +kill any remarkable number of them, because the barbarians could ride +fast. So he proceeded again against Praaspa and besieged it, though he +did no great damage to the enemy; for the men inside the walls repulsed +him vigorously, and those outside could not easily be entrapped into a +combat. Thus he lost many of his own men in searching for and bringing +provisions, and many by his own discipline. At first, as long as they +could get their food from somewhere in the neighborhood, they had no +difficulty about either undertaking: they could attend to the siege and +safely secure supplies both at once. When, however, all material at hand +had been used up, and the soldiers were obliged to go to some distance, +it happened to them that if few were sent anywhere, not only did they not +bring anything, but they perished as well; if a number were sent, they +left the wall destitute of besiegers and meantime lost many men and many +engines at the hands of the barbarians, who would make a sortie against +them. [-27-] For this reason Antony gave them all barley instead of wheat +and destroyed every tenth man in some instances: indeed, the entire force +which was supposed to be besieging endured the hardships of persons +besieged. The men within the walls watched carefully for opportunities +to make sallies; and those outside harassed fearfully the Romans that +remained in position as often as they became separated, accomplishing +this by making a sudden charge and wheeling about again in a narrow +space: this force outside did not trouble the food trains while the +latter were en route to the villages, but would fall upon them +unexpectedly when scattered in the homeward march. But since Antony even +under these conditions maintained his place before the city, Phraates, +fearing that in the long run he might do it some harm either by himself +or through securing some allied force, secretly sent some men to open +negotiations with him and persuaded him by pretending that it would be +very easy to secure peace. After this, when men were sent to him by +Antony, he held a conference with them seated upon a golden chair and +twanging his bowstring; he first inveighed against them at length, but +finally promised that he would grant peace, if they would straightway +remove their camp. On hearing this Antony was both alarmed at his +boastfulness and ready to believe that a truce could be secured if he +himself should shift his position: hence he withdrew without destroying +any of his implements of siege but behaved as if in friendly territory. +[-28-] When he had done this and was awaiting the truce, the Medes +burned the engines and scattered the mounds, while the Parthians made +no proposition to him respecting peace but suddenly attacked him and +inflicted very serious damage. He found out that he had been deceived +and did not venture to employ any further envoys, being sure that the +barbarians would not agree to any reasonable terms, and not wishing to +cast the soldiers into dejection by failing to arrange a truce. Therefore +he resolved, since he had once started, to hurry on into Armenia. His +troops took another road, since the one by which they had come they +believed to have been blocked entirely, and on the way their sufferings +were unusually great. They came into unknown regions where they wandered +at random, and furthermore the barbarians seized the passes in advance of +their approach, digging trenches outside of some and building palisades +in front of others, spoiled the water-courses everywhere, and drove +away the flocks. In case they ever got a chance to march through more +favorable territory, the enemy would turn them aside from such places by +false announcements that they had been occupied beforehand, and caused +them to take different roads along which ambuscades had been previously +posted, so that many perished through such mishaps and many of hunger. +[-29-] As a result there were some desertions, and they would all have +gone over, had not the barbarians shot down before the eyes of the others +any who dared to take this course. Consequently the men refrained from +this, and from Fortune's hands obtained the following relief. One day +when they fell into an ambush and were struck with fast-flying arrows, +they suddenly made by joining shields the _testudo_, and rested their +left knees on the ground. The barbarians had never seen anything of the +kind before and thought that they had fallen from their wounds and needed +only one finishing blow; so they threw aside their bows, leaped from +their horses, and drawing their daggers came close to put an end to them. +At this the Romans rose to their feet, spread out the phalanx at a word, +and each one attacked the man nearest and facing him; thus they cut down +great numbers since they were contending armed against an unprotected +foe, men prepared against men off their guard, heavy infantry against +archers, Romans against barbarians. All the survivors immediately retired +and no one followed them for the future. + +[-30-] This _testudo_ and the way in which it is formed deserve a word of +explanation. The baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry +are marshaled in the center of the army. Those infantrymen who use the +oblong, hollow, grooved shields are drawn up around the edges, making a +rectangular figure; and, facing outward with spear-points projecting,[52] +they enclose the rest. The other infantrymen, who have flat shields, form +a compact body in the center and raise their shields above themselves and +above all the rest, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part +of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of formation are +under shelter from missiles. It is so marvelously strong that men can +walk upon it, and when ever they get into a hollow, narrow passage, even +horses and vehicles can be driven over it. Such is the method of +this arrangement, and this shows why it has received the title of +_testudo_,[53]--with reference to its strength and to the excellent +shelter it affords. They use it in two ways: either they approach some +fort to assault it, often even enabling men to scale the very walls, +or where sometimes they are surrounded by archers they all bend +together,--even the horses being taught to kneel and recline,--and +thereby cause the foe to think that they are exhausted; then, when the +others draw near, they suddenly rise, to the latter's great alarm. + +[-31-] The _testudo_, then, is the kind of device just described. As for +Antony, he suffered no further harm from the enemy, but underwent severe +hardships by reason of the cold. It was now winter, and the mountain +districts of Armenia, through which, as the only route open to him, he +was actually thankful to be able to proceed, are never free from snow +and ice. The wounds, of which the men had many, there created especial +discomfort. So many kept perishing and were continually rendered useless +for fighting that he would not allow reports of each individual case, but +forbade any one to bring him any such news; and although he was angry +with the Armenian king for deserting them, and anxious to take vengeance +on him, he nevertheless humiliated himself before the monarch and paid +court to him for the purpose of obtaining provisions and money from him. +Finally, as the soldiers could not hold out to march farther, in the +winter time, too, and were at any rate going to have their hardships for +nothing since he was minded to return to Armenia before a great while, he +flattered the prince tremendously and made him many attractive promises, +to get him to allow the men to winter where they were; he said that in +the spring he would make another campaign against the Parthians. Money +also came to him from Cleopatra, so that to each of the infantrymen was +given one hundred denarii[54] and to the rest a proportionate allowance. +But inasmuch as the amount sent was not enough for them he paid the +remainder from his own funds, and though the expense was his own he gave +Cleopatra the credit of the favor. For he both solicited contributions +from his friends and levied a great deal of money upon the allies. + +[-32-] Following these transactions he departed for Egypt. Now the Romans +at home were not ignorant of anything that had taken place in spite of +the fact that his despatches did not contain the truth; for he concealed +all his unpleasant experiences and some of them he described as just the +opposite, making it appear that he was progressing famously: but, for all +that, rumor reported the truth and Caesar and his circle investigated it +carefully and discussed it. They did not, however, make public their +evidence, but instead sacrificed cattle and held festivals. Since Caesar +at that time was still getting the worst of it against Sextus, the truth +of the facts could not be rendered fitting or opportune. Besides his +above actions Antony assigned positions of government, giving Gaul to +Amyntas, though he had been only the secretary of Deiotarus, and also +adding to his domain Lycaonia with portions of Pamphylia, and bestowing +upon Archelaus Cappadocia after driving out Ariarathes. This Archelaus on +his father's side belonged to those Archelauses who had contended against +the Romans, but on his mother's side was the son of Glaphyra, an hetaera. +It is quite true that for these appointments Antony, who could be very +magnanimous in dealing with the possessions of other people, was somewhat +less ill spoken of among the soldiers. + +But in the matter of Cleopatra he incurred outspoken dislike because +he had taken into his family children of hers,--the elder ones being +Alexander and Cleopatra, twins at a birth, and the younger one Ptolemy, +called also Philadelphus,--and because he had granted to them a great +deal of Arabia, both the district of Malchus and that of the Ituraeans +(for he executed Lysanias, whom he had himself made king over them, +on the charge that he had favored Paccrus) and also a great deal of +Phoenicia and Palestine together with parts of Crete, and Cyrene and +Cyprus. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +[-33-] These are his acts at that time: the following year, when Pompeius +and Cornificius were consuls, he attempted to conduct a campaign against +the Armenian prince; and as he placed no little hope in the Mede, because +the latter was indignant at Phraates owing to not having received from +him much of the spoils or any other honor, and was anxious to punish the +Armenian king for bringing in the Romans, Antony sent Polemon to him and +requested friendship and alliance. And he was so well satisfied with the +business that he both made terms with the Mede and later gave Polemon +Lesser Armenia as a reward for his embassy. First he summoned the +Armenian to Egypt as a friend, intending to seize him there without +effort and make away with him; but when the prince suspected this and did +not obey, he plotted to deceive him in another fashion. He did not openly +evince anger toward him, in order not to alienate him, but to the end +that he might find his foe unprepared set sail from Egypt with the avowed +object of making one more campaign against the Parthians. On the way +Antony learned that Octavia was arriving from Rome, and went no farther, +but returned; this he did in spite of having at once ordered her to go +home and later accepting the gifts which she sent, some of them being +soldiers which she had begged from her brother for this very purpose. + +[-34-] As for him, he became more than ever a slave to the passion and +wiles of Cleopatra. Caesar meantime, since Sextus had perished and affairs +in Libya required settlement, went to Sicily as if intending to take ship +thither, but after delaying there found that the winter made it too late +for crossing. Now the Salassi, Taurisci, Liburni, and Iapudes had not for +a long time been behaving fairly toward the Romans, but had failed to +contribute revenue and sometimes would invade and harm the neighboring +districts. At this time, in view of Octavius's absence, they were openly +in revolt. Consequently he turned back and began his preparations against +them. Some of the men who had been dismissed when they became disorderly, +and had received nothing, wished to serve again: therefore he assigned +them to one camp, in order that being alone they might find it impossible +to corrupt any one else and in case they should wish to show themselves +rebellions might be detected at once. As this did not teach them +moderation any the more, he sent out a few of the eldest of them to +become colonists in Gaul, thinking that thus he would inspire the rest +with hopes and win their devotion. Since even then they continued +audacious, some of them paid the penalty. The rest displayed rage at +this, whereupon he called them together as if for some other purpose, had +the rest of the army surround them, took away their arms, and removed +them from the service. In this way they learned both their own weakness +and Caesar's force of mind, and so they really experienced a change of +heart and after urgent supplications were allowed to enter the service +anew. For Caesar, being in need of soldiers and fearing that Antony would +appropriate them, said that he pardoned them, and he found them most +useful for all tasks. + +[-35-] It was later that they proved their sincerity. At this time he +himself led the campaign against the Iapudes, assigning the rest of the +tribes to others to subdue. Those that were on his side of the mountains, +dwelling not far from the sea, he reduced with comparatively little +trouble, but he overcame those on the heights and beyond them with no +small hardship. They strengthened Metulum, the largest of their cities, +and repulsed many assaults of the Romans, burned to the ground many +engines and laid low Octavius himself as he was trying to step from a +wooden tower upon the circuit of the wall. Later, when he still did not +desist but kept sending for additional forces, they pretended to wish to +negotiate terms and received members of garrisons into their citadel. +Then by night they destroyed all of these and set fire to their houses, +some killing themselves and some their wives and children in addition, so +that nothing whatever remained for Caesar. For not only they but also +such as were captured alive destroyed themselves voluntarily shortly +afterward. + +[-36-] When these had perished and the rest had been subdued without +performing any exploit of note, he made a campaign against the +Pannonians. He had no complaint to bring against them, not having been +wronged by them in any way, but he wanted both to give his soldiers +practice and to support them abroad: for he regarded every demonstration +against a weaker party as just, when it pleased the man whom weapons made +their superior. The Pannonians are settled near Dalmatia close along +the Ister from Noricum to European Moesia and lead the most miserable +existence of mankind. They are not well off in the matter of land or sky, +they cultivate no olives or vines except to the slightest extent, and +these wretched varieties, since the greater part of their days is passed +in the midst of most rigorous winter, but they drink as well as eat +barley and millet. They have been considered very brave, however, during +all periods of which we have cognizance. For they are very quick to anger +and ready to slay, inasmuch as they possess nothing which can give them +a happy life. This I know not by hearsay or reading only, but I have +learned it from actual experience as their governor. For after my term as +ruler in Africa and in Dalmatia,--the latter position my father also held +for a time,--I was appointed[55] to Upper Pannonia, so-called, and hence +my record is founded on exact knowledge of all conditions among them. +Their name is due to the fact that they cut up a kind of toga in a way +peculiar to themselves into strips which they call _panni_, and then +stitch these together into sleeved tunics for themselves. + +They have been named so either for this or for some other reason; but +certain of the Greeks who were ignorant of the truth have spoken of them +as Paeones, which is an old word but does not belong there, but rather +applies to Rhodope, close to the present Macedonia, as far as the sea. +Wherefore I shall call the dwellers in the latter district Paeones, but +the others Pannonians, just as they themselves and as the Romans do. + +[-37-] It was against this people, then, that Caesar at that time +conducted a campaign. At first he did not devastate or plunder at all, +although they abandoned their villages in the plain. He hoped to make +them his subjects of their free will. But when they harassed him as he +advanced to Siscia, he became angry, burned their land, and took all +the booty he could. When he drew near the city the natives for a moment +listened to their rulers and made terms with him and gave hostages, but +afterward shut their gates and accepted a state of siege. They possessed +strong walls and were in general encouraged by the presence of two +navigable rivers. The one named the Colops[56] flows past the very +circuit of the wall and empties into the Savus not far distant: it +has now encircled the entire city, for Tiberius gave it this shape by +constructing a great canal through which it rejoins its ancient course. +At that time between the Colops on the one hand, which flowed on past +the very walls, and the Savus on the other, which flowed at a little +distance, an empty space had been left which had been buttressed with +palisades and ditches. Caesar secured boats made by the allies in that +vicinity, and after towing them through the Ister into the Savus, and +through that stream into the Colops, he assailed the enemy with infantry +and ships together, and had some naval battles on the river. For the +barbarians prepared in turn some boats made of one piece of wood with +which they risked a conflict; and on the river they killed besides many +others Menas the freedman of Sextus, and on the land they vigorously +repulsed the invader until they ascertained that some of their allies had +been ambushed and destroyed. Then in dejection they yielded. When they +had thus been captured the remainder of Pannonian territory was induced +to capitulate. + +[-38-] After this he left Fufius Geminus there with a small force and +himself returned to Rome. The triumph which had been voted to him +he deferred, but granted Octavia and Livia images, the right of +administering their own affairs without a supervisor, and freedom from +fear and inviolability equally with the tribunes. + +[B.C. 34 (_a. u._ 720)] + +In emulation of his father he had started out to lead an expedition into +Britain, and had already advanced into Gaul after the winter in which +Antony for the second time and Lucius Libo were consuls, when some of the +newly captured and Dalmatians with them rose in revolt. Geminus, although +expelled from Siscia, recovered the Pannonians by a few battles; and +Valerius Messala overthrew the Salassi and the rest who had joined them +in rebellion. Against the Dalmatians first Agrippa and then Caesar also +made campaigns. The most of them they subjugated after undergoing many +terrible experiences themselves, such as Caesar's being wounded, barley +being given to some of the soldiers instead of wheat, and others, who had +deserted the standards, being decimated: with the remaining tribes[57] +Statilius Taurus carried on war. + +[-39-] Antony meanwhile resigned his office as soon as appointed, putting +Lucius Sempronius Atratinus in his place; consequently some name the +latter and not the former in the enumeration of the consuls. In the +course of his efforts to take vengeance on the Armenian king with least +trouble to himself, he asked the hand of his daughter, pretending to want +to unite her in marriage to his son Alexander; he sent on this errand one +Quintus Deillius, who had once been a favorite of his, and promised to +give the monarch many gifts. Finally, at the beginning of spring, he came +suddenly into Nicopolis (founded by Pompey) and sent for him, stating +that he wanted to deliberate on and execute with his aid some measures +against the Parthians. The king suspecting the plot did not come, so he +sent Deillius to have another talk with him and marched with undiminished +haste toward Artaxata. In this way, after a long time, partly by +persuading him through friends, and partly by scaring him through his +soldiers, and writing and acting toward him in every way as thoroughly +friendly, he induced him to come into his camp. Thereupon the Roman +arrested him and at first keeping the prince without bonds he led him +around among the garrisons with whom his treasures were deposited, to see +if he could win them without a struggle. He made a pretence of having +arrested him for no other purpose than to collect tribute of the +Armenians that would ensure both his preservation and his sovereignty. +When, however, the guardians of the gold would have nothing to do with +him and the troops under arms chose Artaxes, the eldest of his children, +king in his stead, Antony bound him in silver chains. It seemed +disgraceful, probably, for one who had been a king to be made fast in +iron bonds. [-40-] After this, capturing some settlements peaceably and +some by force, Antony occupied all of Armenia, for Artaxes after fighting +an engagement and being worsted retired to the Parthian prince. After +doing this he betrothed to his son the daughter of the Median king with +the intention of making him still more his friend; then he left the +legions in Armenia and went once more to Egypt, taking the great mass of +booty and the Armenian with his wife and children. He sent them ahead +with the other captives for a triumph held in Alexandria, and himself +drove into the city upon a chariot, and among the other favors he granted +to Cleopatra he brought before her the Armenian and his family in golden +bonds. She was seated in the midst of the populace upon a platform plated +with silver and upon a gilded chair. The barbarians would not be her +suppliants nor do obeisance to her, though much coercion was brought to +bear upon them and hopes were held out to persuade them, but they merely +addressed her by name: this gave them a reputation for spirit, but they +were subject to a great deal of ill usage on account of it. + +[-41-] After this Antony gave an entertainment to the Alexandrians, and +in the assemblage had Cleopatra and her children sit by his side: also in +the course of a public address he enjoined that she be called Queen of +Monarchs, and Ptolemy (whom he named Caesarion) King of Kings. He then +made a different distribution by which he gave them Egypt and Cyprus. +For he declared that one was the wife and the other the true son of the +former Caesar and he made the plea that he was doing this as a mark of +favor to the dead statesman,--his purpose being to cast reproach in this +way upon Octavianus Caesar because he was only an adopted and not a real +son of his. Besides making this assignment to them, he promised to give +to his own children by Cleopatra the following lands,--to Ptolemy Syria +and all the region west of the Euphrates as far as the Hellespont, to +Cleopatra Libya about Cyrene, and to their brother Alexander Armenia and +the rest of the districts across the Euphrates as far as the Indi. The +latter he bestowed as if they were already his. Not only did he say this +in Alexandria, but sent a despatch to Rome, in order that it might secure +ratification also from the people there. Nothing of this, however, was +read in public. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Domitius and Sosius were consuls by that time and being extremely devoted +to him refused to accede to Caesar's urgent demands that they should +publish it to all. Though they prevailed in this matter Caesar won a +victory in turn by not having anything that had been written about the +Armenian king made known to the public. He felt pity for the prince +because he had been secretly in communication with him for the purpose of +injuring Antony, and he grudged the latter his triumph. While Antony was +engaged as described he dared to write to the senate that he wished to +give up his office and put all affairs into the hands of that body and of +the people: he was not really intending to do anything of the kind, but +he desired that under the influence of the hopes he roused they might +either compel Caesar, because on the spot, to give up his arms first, or +begin to hate him, if he would not heed them. + +[-42-] In addition to these events at that time the consuls celebrated +the festival held in honor of Venus Genetrix. During the Feriae, prefects, +boys and beardless youths, appointed by Caesar and sprung from knights +but not from senators, directed ceremonies. Also Aemilius Lepidus Paulus +constructed at his own expense the so-called _Porticus Pauli_ and +dedicated it in his consulship; for he was consul a portion of that +year. And Agrippa restored from his own purse the so-called Marcian +water-supply, which had been cut off by the destruction of the pipes, and +carried it in pipes to many parts of the city. These men, though rivals +in the outlay of their private funds, still dissembled the fact and +behaved sensibly: others who were holding even some most insignificant +office strove to get a triumph voted to themselves, some through Antony +and some through Caesar; and on this pretext they levied large sums upon +foreign nations for gold crowns. + +[B.C. 33 (_a. u._ 721)] + +[-43-] The next year Agrippa agreed to be made aedile and without taking +anything from the public treasury repaired all the public buildings +and all the roads, cleaned out the sewers, and sailed through them +underground into the Tiber. And seeing that in the hippodrome men made +mistakes about the number of turns necessary, he established the system +of dolphins and egg-shaped objects, so that by them the number of times +the track had been circled might be clearly shown. Furthermore he +distributed to all olive oil and salt, and had the baths open free of +charge throughout the year for the use of both men and women. In the +many festivals of all kinds which he gave (so many that the children of +senators could perform the "Troy" equestrian exercise), he also paid +barbers, to the end that no one should be at any expense for their +services. Finally he rained upon the heads of the people in the theatre +tickets that were good for money in one case, clothes in another, and +something else in a third, and he also would place various other large +stocks of goods in the squares and allow the people to scramble for them. +Besides doing this Agrippa drove the astrologers and charlatans from the +city. During these same days a decree was passed that no one belonging to +the senatorial class should be tried for piracy, and so those who were +under any such charge at the time were released and some were given +_carte blanche_ to commit crimes in future. Caesar became consul for the +second time with Lucius Tullus as his colleague, but on the very first +day, as Antony had done, he resigned; and with the sanction of the senate +he introduced some persons from the populace to the rank of patricians. +When a certain Lucius Asellius, who was praetor, on account of a long +sickness wished to lay down his office, he appointed his son in his +stead. And another praetor died on the last day of his term, whereupon +Caesar chose another for the remaining hours. At the decease of Bocchus +he gave his kingdom to no one else, but enrolled it among the Roman +provinces. And since the Dalmatians had been utterly subdued, he erected +from the spoils thus gained the porticoes and secured the collection of +books called the Octavian, after his sister. + +[-44-] Antony meantime had marched as far as the Araxes, presumably to +conduct a campaign against the Parthians, but was satisfied to arrange +terms with the Median monarch. They made a covenant to serve each other +as allies, the one against the Parthians and the other against Caesar, and +to cement the compact they exchanged some soldiers; the Median prince +received a portion of the newly acquired Armenia and Antony his daughter +Iotape, to be united in marriage with Alexander, and the military +standards taken in the battle with Statianus; after this Antony bestowed +upon Polemon, as I have stated, Lesser Armenia, both made Lucius Flavius +consul and removed him (as his colleague), and set out for Ionia and +Greece to wage war against Caesar. The Median at first, by employing the +Romans as allies, conquered the Parthians and Artaxes who came against +him; but as Antony sent for his soldiers and moreover retained those of +the prince, the latter was in turn defeated and captured, and so Armenia +was lost together with Media. + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY 50 + +The following is contained in the Fiftieth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar and Antony commenced hostilities against each other (chapters +1-14). + +How Caesar conquered Antony at Actium (chapters 15-35). + +Duration of time two years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Cn. Domitius L.F.Cn.N. Ahenobarbus, C. Sosius C.F. T.N. (B.C. 32 = a. u. +722.) + +Caesar (III), M. Valerius M.F. Messala Corvinus. (B.C. 31 = a. u. 723.) + + +(_BOOK 50, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[-1-] The Roman people had been robbed of democracy but had not become +definitely a monarchy: Antony and Caesar still controlled affairs on an +equal footing, had divided the management of most of them, and nominally +considered that the rest belonged to them in common, though in reality +they endeavored to appropriate each interest as fast as either was able +to gain any advantage over the other. Sextus had now perished, the +Armenian king had been captured, the parties hostile to Caesar were +silent, the Parthians showed no signs of restlessness, and so after this +they turned openly against each other and the people became entirely +enslaved. The causes for the war, or the pretexts, were as follows. +Antony charged against Caesar that he had removed Lepidus from his +position, and had taken possession of his territory and the troops +of both him and Sextus, which ought to have been common property. He +demanded the half of these as well as the half of the soldiers that had +been levied in the parts of Italy which belonged to both of them. Caesar's +charge against him was that he was holding Egypt and other countries that +he had not drawn by lot, had killed Sextus (whom he would willingly have +spared, he said), and by deceiving and binding the Armenian king had +caused much ill repute to attach to the Roman people. He, too, demanded +half of the spoils, and above all reproached him with Cleopatra and the +children of hers which he had seen fit to regard as his own, the gifts +bestowed upon them, and particularly that he called the boy such a name +as Caesarion and placed him in the family of Caesar. [-2-] These were their +mutual charges; and to a certain extent mutual rejoinders were made, some +sent by letter to each other and others given to the public, by Caesar +orally, by Antony in writing. On this pretext also they kept constantly +sending envoys back and forth, wishing to appear as far as possible +justified in the complaints they made and to reconnoitre each other's +position at the same time. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Meanwhile they were collecting money avowedly for some different purpose +and were making all other preparations for war as if against other +persons, until the time that Gnaeus Domitius and Gaius Sosius, both +belonging to Antony's party, became consuls. Then they made no further +concealment, but admitted their alienation outright. It happened in the +following way. + +Domitius did not openly attempt any radical measures, since he had had +the experience of many calamities. Sosius, however, had never experienced +such evils, and so on the very first day of the month he spoke at length +in praise of Antony and inveighed forcibly against Caesar. Indeed, he +would have immediately introduced measures against the latter, had not +Nonius Balbus, a tribune, prevented it. Caesar had suspected what he +was going to do and wished neither to permit it to come to pass nor by +offering opposition to appear to be commencing war; hence he did not +enter the senate at this time nor even live in the city at all, but +invented some excuse which took him out of town. He was not only +influenced by the above considerations but desired to deliberate at +leisure according to the reports brought to him and decide by mature +reflection upon the proper course. Later he returned and convened the +senate; he was surrounded by a guard of soldiers and friends who had +daggers concealed, and sitting between the consuls upon his chair of +state he spoke at length, and calmly, from where he sat regarding his own +position, and brought many accusations against Sosius and Antony. When +neither of the consuls themselves nor any one else ventured to utter a +word, he bade them come together again on a specified day, giving them to +understand that he would prove by certain documents that Antony was in +the wrong. The consuls did not dare to reply to him and could not endure +to be silent, and therefore secretly left the city before the time came +for them to appear again; after that they took their way to Antony, +followed by not a few of the senators who were left. Caesar on learning +this declared, to prevent its appearing that he had been abandoned by +them as a result of some injustice, that he had sent them out voluntarily +and that he granted the rest who so wished permission to depart unarmed +to Antony. + +[-3-] This action of theirs just mentioned was counterbalanced by the +arrival of others who had fled from Antony to Caesar--among them Titius +and Plancus, though they were honored by Antony among the foremost and +knew all his secrets. Their desertion was due to some friction between +themselves and the Roman leader, or perhaps they were disgusted in the +matter of Cleopatra: at any rate they left soon after the consuls had +taken the final step and Caesar in the latter's absence had convened the +senate and read and spoken all that he wished, upon hearing of which +Antony assembled a kind of senate from the ranks of his followers, and +after considerable talk on both sides of the question took up the war and +renounced his connection with Octavia. Caesar was very glad to receive the +pair and learned from them about Antony's condition, what he was doing, +what he had in mind, what was written in his will, and the name of the +man that had it; for they had taken part in sealing it. He became still +more violently enraged from this cause and did not shrink from searching +for the document, seizing it, and then carrying it into the senate and +subsequently the assembly, and reading it. The clauses contained in it +were of such a nature that his most lawless behavior brought upon him +no reproach from the citizens. The writer had asseverated the fact that +Caesarion was truly sprung from Caesar, had given some enormous presents to +his children by the Egyptian queen, who were being reared by him, and had +ordered that his body be buried in Alexandria and by her side. + +[-4-] This made the Romans in their indignation believe that the other +reports circulated were also true,--viz., that if Antony should prevail, +he would bestow their city upon Cleopatra and transfer the seat of power +to Egypt. And thereat they became so angry that all, not only such as +disliked him or were indifferent to the two men, censured him, but even +his most intimate friends did so severely. For in consternation at what +was read and eager to relieve themselves of the suspicion felt toward +them by Caesar, they said the same as the rest. They deprived him of the +consulship, to which he had been previously elected, and of all his +remaining authority. They did not declare him an enemy in so many words, +because they feared its effect on his adherents, since it would be +necessary that they also be held in the position of enemies in case they +should not abandon him; but by action they showed their attitude as +plainly as possible. For they voted to the men arrayed on his side pardon +and praise if they would abandon him, and declared war outright upon +Cleopatra, put on their military cloaks as though he were close at hand, +and went to the temple of Bellona where they performed through Caesar as +_fetialis_ all the rites preliminary to war in the customary fashion. +These were stated to refer to Cleopatra, but their real bearing was on +Antony. [-5-] She had enslaved him so absolutely that she persuaded him +to act as gymnasiarch[58] to the Alexandrians; and she was saluted by him +as "queen" and "mistress," had Roman soldiers in her body-guard, and all +of these inscribed her name upon their shields. She used to frequent the +market-place with him, joined him in the management of festivals, in the +hearing of lawsuits, and in riding; and in the cities she was actually +carried in a chair, while Antony accompanied her on foot along with the +eunuchs. He also termed his head-quarters "the palace", sometimes wore an +Oriental dagger at his belt, dressed in a manner not in accordance with +the customs of his native land, and let himself be seen even in public +upon a gilded couch and a chair of similar appearance. He joined her in +sitting for paintings and statues, he representing Osiris and Dionysus, +and she Selene and Isis. This more than all made him seem to have become +crazed by her through some enchantment. She so charmed and enthralled +not only him but all the rest who had any influence with him that she +conceived the hope of ruling the Romans, and made her greatest vow, +whenever she took any oath, that of dispensing justice on the Capitol. + +[-6-] This was the reason that they voted for war against Cleopatra, but +they made no such declaration against Antony, knowing well that he would +be made hostile in any case, for he was certainly not going to betray +her and espouse Caesar's cause. And they wished to have this additional +reproach to heap upon him, that he had voluntarily taken up war in behalf +of the Egyptian woman against his native country, though no ill treatment +had been accorded him personally at home. + +Now the men of fighting age were being rapidly assembled on both sides, +money was being collected from all quarters, and all warlike equipment +was being gathered with speed. The entire armament distinctly surpassed +in size anything previous. All the following nations coöperated with one +side or the other in this war. Caesar had Italy--he attached to his cause +even all those who had been placed in colonies by Antony, partly by +frightening them on account of their small numbers and partly by +conferring benefits; among other things that he did was to settle again +as an act of his own the men who inhabited Bononia, so that they might +seem to be his colonists. His allies, then, were Italy, Gaul, Spain, +Illyricum, the Libyans,--both those who had long since accepted Roman +sway (except those about Cyrene), and those that had belonged to Bogud +and Bocchus,--Sardinia, Sicily, and the rest of the islands adjacent to +the aforementioned divisions of the mainland. On Antony's side were the +regions obeying Rome in continental Asia, the regions of Thrace, Greece, +Macedonia, the Egyptians, the Cyrenaeans together with the surrounding +country, the islanders dwelling near them, and practically all the +princes and potentates who were neighbors to that part of the Roman +empire then under his control,--some taking the field themselves and +others being represented by troops. And so enthusiastic were the outside +contingents on both sides that they confirmed by oath their alliance with +each man. + +[-7-] Such was the strength of the contestants. Antony took an oath to +his own soldiers that he would fight without quarter and further promised +that within two months after his victory he would give up his entire +power and commit it to the senate and the people: some of them with +difficulty persuaded him to do so only when six months had elapsed, so +that he might be able to settle matters leisurely. And he, however far +he was from seriously contemplating such an act, yet made the offer to +strengthen the belief that he was certainly and without fail going to +conquer. He saw that his own force was much superior in numbers and +hoped to weaken that of his opponent by bribes. He sent gold in every +direction, most of all into Italy, and especially to Rome; and he tempted +his opponents individually, trying to win followers. As a result Caesar +kept the more vigilant watch and gave money to his soldiers. + +[-8-] Such was the vigor and the equipment of the two; and meantime all +sorts of stories were circulated by men, and from the gods also there +were many plain indications. An ape entered the temple of Ceres during +a certain service, and tumbled about everything in the building. An owl +flew first upon the temple of Concord and then upon practically all the +other holiest buildings, and finally after being driven away from every +other spot settled upon the temple of the Genius Populi and was not +caught, and did not depart until late in the day. The chariot of Jupiter +was demolished in the Roman hippodrome, and for many days a flash would +rise over the sea toward Greece and dart up into the firmament. Many +unfortunate accidents also were caused by storm: a trophy standing upon +the Aventine fell, a statue of Victory was dislodged from the back wall +of the theatre, and the wooden bridge was broken down completely. Many +objects were destroyed by fire, and moreover there was a fierce volcanic +discharge from Aetna which damaged cities and fields. On seeing and +hearing these things the Romans remembered also about the serpent, +because he too had doubtless indicated something about the situation +confronting them. A little before this a great two-headed serpent, +eighty-five feet long, had suddenly appeared in Etruria and after doing +much damage had been killed by lightning. This had a bearing upon all of +them. The chief force engaged on both sides alike was made up of Romans, +and many were destined at that juncture to perish in each army, and then +all of the survivors to become the property of the victor. Antony was +given omens of defeat beforehand by the children in Rome; without any +one's having suggested it they formed two parties, of which one called +itself the Antonians and the other the Caesarians, and they fought +with each other for two days, when those that bore Antony's name were +defeated. His death was portended by what happened to one of his images +set up as an offering in the temple of Jupiter at Albanum; although it +was stone it sent forth streams of blood. + +[-9-] All alike were excited over these events, yet in that year +nothing further took place. Caesar was busied settling matters in Italy, +especially when he discovered the presence of money sent by Antony, and +so could not go to the front before winter. His rival started out with +the intention of carrying the war into Italy before they suspected his +movements, but when he came to Corcyra and ascertained that the advance +guard of ships sent to reconnoitre his position was hiding in the +vicinity of the mountains of Ceraunia, he conceived the idea that Caesar +himself with all his fleet had arrived; hence he would proceed no +farther. Instead, he sailed back to the Peloponnesus, the season being +already late autumn, and passed the winter at Patrae, distributing the +soldiers in every direction to the end that they might keep guard over +the various districts and secure more easily an abundance of provisions. +Meanwhile volunteers from each party went over to both sides, senators +as well as others, and Lucius Messius was caught as a spy by Caesar. He +released the man in spite of his being one of those previously captured +at Perusia, but first showed him all his power. To Antony Caesar sent +a letter, bidding him either withdraw from the sea a day's journey on +horseback, and grant him the free privilege of coming to him by boat on +condition that they should meet within five days, or else to cross over +to Italy himself on the same terms. Antony made a great deal of fun of +him and said: "Who will be our arbitrator, if the compact is transgressed +in any way?" And Caesar did not expect that his demands would receive +compliance, but hoped to inspire his own soldiers with courage and his +opponents with terror by this act. + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u._ 723)] + +[-10-] As consuls for the next year after this Caesar and Antony had been +appointed at the time when they settled the offices for eight years at +once[59]; and this was the last year of the period: and as Antony had +been deposed,--a fact which I stated,[60]--Valerius Messala, who had once +been proscribed by them,[61] became consul with Caesar. About this time a +madman rushed into the theatre at one of the festivals, seized the crown +of the former Caesar and put it on, whereupon he was torn to pieces by the +bystanders. A wolf that darted into the temple of Fortune was caught and +killed, and at the hippodrome during the very contest of the horses a dog +overpowered and devoured another dog. Fire also consumed a considerable +portion of the hippodrome, the temple of Ceres, another shrine dedicated +to Spes, besides a large number of other structures. The freedmen were +thought to have caused this. All of them who were in Italy and possessed +property worth five myriads[62] or more had been ordered to contribute +an eighth of it. The result was numerous riots, murders, and firing of +buildings on their part, and they were not brought to order until they +were subdued by armed force. After this the freedmen who held any land in +Italy grew frightened and kept quiet: they had been ordered, too, to give +a quarter of their annual income, and though they were on the point of +rebelling against this extortion, they were not bold enough after the +demonstration mentioned to show further insubordination, but reluctantly +made their contribution without disputing the matter. Therefore it was +believed that the fire was due to a plot originated by the freedmen: yet +this did not prevent it from being recorded among the great portents, +because of the number of buildings burned. + +[-11-] Disregarding such omens as had appeared to them they neither felt +fear nor displayed less hostility but spent the winter in employing spies +and annoying each other. Caesar had set sail from Brundusium and proceeded +as far as Corcyra, intending to attack the ships near Actium while off +their guard, but he encountered rough weather and received damage which +caused him to withdraw. When spring came, Antony made no move at any +point: the crews that manned the triremes were made up of all kinds of +nations, and as they had been wintering at a distance from him they had +secured no practice and had been diminished in numbers by disease and +desertions; Agrippa also had seized Methone by storm, had killed Bogud +there, was watching for merchant vessels to come to land, and was making +descents from time to time on various parts of Greece, which caused +Antony extreme disturbance. Caesar in turn was encouraged by this and +wished to employ as soon as possible the energy of the army, which was +trained to a fine point, and to carry on the war in Greece near his +rival's supporters rather than in Italy near Rome. Therefore he collected +all his soldiers who were of any value, and all of the men of influence, +both senators and knights, at Brundusium. He wished to have the first to +coöperate with him and to keep the second from being alone and acting in +any revolutionary way, but chiefly he wished to show mankind that the +largest and strongest element among the Romans was in accord with him. +Therefore he ordered all to bring with them a stated number of servants +and that, except the soldiers, they should also carry food for +themselves; after this with the entire array he crossed the Ionian Gulf. +[-12-] He was leading them not to the Peloponnesus or against Antony, but +to Actium, where the greater part of his rival's fleet was at anchor, to +see if he could gain possession of it, willing or unwilling, in advance. +Consequently he disembarked the cavalry under the shadow of the Ceraunian +mountains and sent them to the point mentioned, while he himself with his +ships seized Corcyra, deserted by the garrisons within it, and came to +a stop in the so-called Sweet Harbor: it is so named because it is made +sweet by the river emptying into it. There he established a naval station +and from there he set out to sail to Actium. No one came out to meet him +or would hold parley with him, though he urged them to do one of two +things,--come to an agreement or come into battle. But the first +alternative they would not accept through distrust, nor the second, +through fear. He then occupied the site where Nicopolis now stands and +took up a position on a high piece of ground there from which there is a +view over all the outer sea near Paxa, over the inner Ambracian Gulf, and +the intermediary water (on which are the harbors near Nicopolis) alike. +This spot he strengthened and constructed walls from it down to Comarus, +the outer harbor, so that he commanded Actium with his camp and his +fleet, by land and sea. I have heard the report that he transferred +triremes from the outer sea to the gulf through the fortifications, using +newly flayed hides smeared with olive oil instead of hauling-engines. +However, I can find no exploit recorded of these ships in the gulf and +therefore I am unable to trust the tradition; for it was certainly no +small task to draw triremes on hides over a long and uneven tract of +land. Still, it is said to have been performed. Actium is a place sacred +to Apollo and is located in front of the mouth of the narrows leading +into the Ambracian Gulf opposite the harbors at Nicopolis. These narrows +are of uniform breadth, though closely confined, for a long distance, and +both they and all the waters outside the entrance are fit for ships to +come to anchor in and lie in wait. This space the adherents of Antony had +occupied in advance, had built towers on each side of the mouth, and had +taken up the intervening space with ships so that they could both sail +out and retreat with security. The men were bivouacked on the farther +side of the narrows, along by the sanctuary, on an extensive level area +quite suitable for either battle or encampment. The nature of the place +made them far more subject to disease both in winter and in summer. + +[-13-] As soon as Antony ascertained Caesar's arrival, he did not delay, +but hastened to Actium with his followers. He reached there in a short +time but did not at once risk an encounter, though Caesar was constantly +marshaling his infantry in front of the camp, often making dashes at them +with his ships and beaching their transports; for his object was to join +battle with only such as were present, before Antony's entire command +assembled. For this very reason the latter was unwilling to risk his all, +and he had recourse for several days to trials and skirmishes until he +had gathered his legions. With these, especially since Caesar no longer +displayed an equal readiness to assail them, he crossed the narrows and +encamped not far from him, after which he sent cavalry around the gulf +and besieged him on both sides. Caesar himself remained quiet, and did not +take any risks which he could avoid, but sent a detachment into Greece +and Macedonia with the intention of drawing Antony off in that direction. +While they were so engaged Agrippa sailed suddenly to Leucas and captured +the vessels there, took Patrae by conquering Quintus Nasidius in a fight +at sea, and later also reduced Corinth. Following upon these events +Marcus Titius and Statilius Taurus made a sudden charge upon Antony's +cavalry, which they defeated, and won over Philadelphus, king of +Paphlagonia. Meantime, also, Gnaeus Domitius, having some grievance +against Cleopatra, transferred his allegiance and proved, indeed, of no +service to Caesar (for he fell sick and died not long after), but still +created the impression that his desertion was due to despair of the +success of the party on whose side he was ranged. Many others followed +his example, so that Antony was no longer equally imbued with courage but +was suspicious of everybody. It was after this that he tortured and +put to death Iamblichus, king of some of the Arabians, and others, and +delivered Quintus Postumius, a senator, to his servants to be placed on +the rack. Finally he became afraid that Quintus Deillius and Amyntas the +Gaul, who happened to have been sent into Macedonia and Thrace after +mercenaries, would espouse Caesar's cause, and he started to overtake +them, pretending that he wished to render them assistance in case any +hostile force should attack. And meantime a battle at sea occurred. +[-14-] Lucius Tarius,[63] with a few ships was anchored opposite Sosius, +and the latter hoped to achieve a notable success by attacking him before +Agrippa, to whom the whole fleet had been entrusted, should arrive. +Accordingly, after waiting for a thick mist, so that Tarius should not +become aware of their numbers beforehand and flee, he set sail suddenly +just before dawn and immediately at the first assault routed his opponent +and pursued him, but failed to capture him; for Agrippa by chance met +Sosius on the way, so that he not only gained nothing from the victory +but perished[64] together with Tarcondimotus and many others. + +Antony, because of his conflict and because he himself on his return had +been defeated in a cavalry battle by Caesar's advance guard, no longer +thought it well to encamp in two different places, but during the night +left the redoubt which was near his opponents and retired to the other +side of the narrows, where the larger part of his army had bivouacked. +When provisions also began to fail him because he was cut off from +foraging, he held a council to deliberate whether they should remain in +position and hazard an encounter or transfer their post somewhere else +and make the war a long one. [-15-] After several had given opinions +the advice of Cleopatra prevailed,--that the choicest sites be given in +possession of garrisons and that the rest of the force weigh anchor with +them for Egypt. She held this view as a result of being disturbed by +omens. Swallows had built their nests about her tent and on the flagship +on which she sailed, and milk and blood together had dripped from +beeswax. Their images with the forms of gods which the Athenians had +placed on their Acropolis were hurled down by thunderbolts into the +Theatre. This and the consequent dejection and listlessness of the army +began to alarm Cleopatra and she filled Antony with fears. They did not +wish, however, to sail out either secretly or openly as fugitives, for +fear they should strike terror to the hearts of their allies, but rather +with preparations made for a naval battle, in order that they might +equally well force their way through in case there should be any +resistance. Therefore they chose out first the best of the vessels, since +the sailors had become fewer by death and desertion, and burned the rest; +next they secretly put all their most prized valuables aboard of them by +night. When the boats were ready, Antony gathered his soldiers and spoke +as follows:-- + +[-16-] "All provisions that I was required to make for the war have +received due attention, fellow-soldiers, in advance. First, there is your +immense throng, all the chosen flower of our dependents and allies; and +to such a degree are you masters of every form of combat recognized among +us that alone by yourselves you are formidable to adversaries. Then +again, you yourselves can see how large and how fine a fleet we have and +how many fine hoplites, cavalry, slingers, peltasts, archers, mounted +archers. Most of these classes are not found at all on the other side, +and so far as they are found they are much fewer and weaker than +ours. The funds of the enemy are small, though obtained by forced +contributions, and can not last long, while they have rendered the +contributors better disposed toward us than toward the men who took them; +hence the population is in no way favorable to the oppressors and is +moreover on the point of open revolt. Our treasury, filled from abundant +resources, has harmed no one and will aid all of us. [-17-] In addition +to these considerations so numerous and of such great importance I am +on general principles disinclined to make any bombastic statement +about myself. Yet since this too is one of the factors contributing +to supremacy in war and is believed among all men to be of greatest +importance,--I mean that men who are to fight well must secure an +excellent general--necessity itself has rendered quite indispensable +some remarks about myself, their purpose being to enable you to realize +still more the fact that not only are you such soldiers that you could +conquer even without a good leader, but I am such a leader that I can +win even with poor soldiers. I am at that age when persons attain their +greatest perfection both of body and intellect and suffer deterioration +neither through the rashness of youth nor the feebleness of old age, but +are strongest because in a condition half-way between the two. Moreover I +possess such a nature and such a training that I can with greatest ease +discern what requires to be done and make it known. Experience, which +causes even the ignorant and the uneducated to appear to be of some +value, I have been acquiring through my whole political and whole +military career. From boyhood till now I have been continually exercised +in similar pursuits; I have been much ruled and done much ruling, from +which I have learned on the one hand what kind of orders and of what +magnitude must be issued, and on the other how far and in what way one +must render obedience. I have been subject to terror, to confidence: as a +result I have made it my custom neither to entertain any fear too readily +nor to venture on any hazard too heedlessly. I have met with good +fortune, I have met with failure: consequently I find it possible to +avoid both despair and excess of pride. + +[-18-] "I speak to you who know these facts and make you who hear them +my witnesses not in the intention of uttering idle boasts about +myself,--your consciousness of the truth being sufficient glory for +me,--but to the end that you may in this way bring home to yourselves +how much better we are equipped than our opponents. For, while they are +inferior to us in quantity both of soldiers and of money and in diversity +of equipment, in no one respect are they so strikingly lacking as in the +age and inexperience of their general. About him I need in general make +no exact or detailed statement, but to sum up I will say this, which you +all understand, that he is a veritable weakling in body and has never +himself been victor in any important battle either on land or on the sea. +Indeed, at Phillipi and in the same conflict I won the day, whereas he +was defeated. + +"To this degree do we differ from each other, and usually victories fall +to the better equipped. And if they have any strength at all, you would +find it to exist in their heavy-armed force on land; as for their ships, +they will not so much as be able to sail out against us. You yourselves +can of course see the size and stoutness of our vessels, which are such +that if the enemy's were equivalent to them in number, yet because of +these advantages the foe could do no damage either by charges from the +side or by charges from the front. For first the thickness of the timbers +and second the very height of the ships would certainly check them, even +if there were no one on board to defend them. Where will any one find a +chance to assail ships which carry so many archers and slingers striking +assailants, moreover, from the towers up aloft? If any one should +approach, how could he fail to get sunk by the very number of the oars +or how could he fail to be plunged under water when shot at by all the +warriors on the decks and in the towers? [-19-] Do not think that they +have any nautical ability because Agrippa won a sea-fight off Sicily: +they contended not against Sextus but against his slaves, not against a +like equipment with ours but against one far inferior. If, again, any one +makes much of their good fortune in that combat, he is bound to take into +equal consideration the defeat which Caesar himself suffered at the hands +of Sextus. By this comparison he will find that conditions are not the +same, but that all our advantages are more numerous and greater than +theirs. And, in general, how large a part does Sicily form of the whole +empire and how large a fraction of our equipment did the troops of Sextus +possess, that any one should properly fear Caesar's armament, which is +precisely the same as before and has grown neither larger nor better, +just on account of his good luck, instead of taking courage from the +defeat that he endured? Reflecting on this fact I have not cared to +risk our first engagement with the infantry, where they appear to have +strength in a way, in order that no one of you should be liable to +discouragement as a result of any failure in that department: instead, +I have chosen to begin with the ships where we are strongest and have a +vast superiority over our antagonists, to the end that after a victory +with these we may despise the infantry. You know well that the whole +outcome of the war depends on each side on our fleets. If we come out +victorious in this engagement, we shall suffer no harm from any of the +rest but cut them off on a kind of islet,--for all surrounding regions +are in our possession,--and without effort subdue them, if in no other +way, by hunger. + +[-20-] "Now I do not think that further words are necessary to tell you +that we shall be struggling not for small or unimportant interests, but +it will prove true that if you are zealous you will obtain the greatest +rewards, but if careless will suffer the most frightful misfortunes. +What would they not do to us, if they should prevail, when they killed +practically all the followers of Sextus that had been of any prominence, +and even destroyed many followers of Lepidus that coöperated with Caesar's +party? But why should I mention this, seeing that they have removed +Lepidus, who was guilty of no wrong and was further their ally, from +all his powers as general and keep him under guard as if he were some +captive? They have further hounded for money all the freedmen in Italy +and likewise other men who possess any land to such an extent as to +force some of them to take up arms, with the consequence that not a few +perished. Is it possible that those who spared not their allies will +spare us? Will those who seized for funds the property of their own +adherents refrain from our wealth? Will they show humanity as victors who +before victory have committed every conceivable outrage? Not to spend +time in speaking of the concerns of other people, I will enumerate the +audacity that they have displayed toward us who stand here. Who was +ignorant that I was chosen a partner and colleague of Caesar and received +charge of the management of public affairs equally with him, received +similar honors and offices, and have been a great while now in possession +of them? Yet of all of them, so far as is in his power, I have been +deprived; I have become a private citizen instead of a leader, an outcast +from the franchise instead of consul, and this not by the action of the +people or the senate but by his own act and that of his adherents, who do +not comprehend that they are preparing a sovereign for themselves first +of all. For how could one speak of enactments of people and senate, when +the consuls and some others fled straightway from the city, in order +to escape casting any such vote? How will that man spare either you or +anybody else, when he dared while I was alive, in possession of such +great power, a victor over the Armenians, to seek for my will, take it by +violence from those who had received it, open it, and read it publicly? +And how will he manifest any humanity to others with whom he has no +connection, when he has shown himself such a man toward me,--his friend, +his table companion, his relative? + +[-21-] "Now in case we are to draw any inferences from his decrees, he +threatens you openly, having made the majority of you enemies outright, +but against me personally no such declaration has been made, though he is +at war with me and is already acting in every way like one who has not +only conquered me but murdered me. Hence, when he treated me in such a +way whom he pretends not yet even at this day to regard as an enemy, he +will surely not keep his hands off you, with whom he clearly admits that +he is at odds. What does it signify that he is threatening us all alike +with arms but in his decree declares he is at war with some and not +with others? It is not, by Jupiter, with the intention of making any +distinction between us, or treating one class in one way and another in +another, if he prevails, but it is in order to set us at variance and in +collision and thus render us weaker. He is not unaware that while we are +in accord and doing everything as one body he can never in any way get +the upper hand, but if we quarrel, and some choose one policy and the +rest another, he may perhaps prevail. [-22-] It is for this reason that +he assumes this kind of attitude toward us. I and the Romans that cleave +to me foresee the danger, although so far as the decrees are concerned we +enjoy a kind of amnesty: we comprehend his plot and neither abandon you +nor look personally to our own advantage. In like manner you, too, whom +he does not even himself deny that he regards as hostile, yes, most +hostile, ought to bear in mind all these facts, and embracing common +dangers and common hopes coöperate in every way and show enthusiasm to an +equal degree in our enterprise and set over against each other carefully +first what we shall suffer (as I said), if defeated, and what we shall +gain, if victorious. For it is a great thing for us to escape being +worsted and so enduring any form of insult or rapacity, but greatest of +all to conquer and effect whatever any one of us may wish. On the other +hand, it is most disgraceful for us, who are so many and so valiant, who +have weapons and money and ships and horses, to choose the worse instead +of the better course, and when we might afford the other party liberty +to prefer to join them in slavery. Our aims are so utterly opposed that, +whereas he desires to reign as sovereign over you, I wish to free you and +them together, and this I have confirmed by oath. Therefore as men who +are to struggle for both sides alike and to win blessings that shall be +common to all, let us labor, fellow-soldiers, to prevail at the present +juncture and to gain happiness for all time." + +[-23-] After delivering a speech of this sort Antony put all his most +prominent associates aboard the boats, to prevent them from concerting +revolutionary measures when they got by themselves, as Deillius and some +other deserters had done; he also embarked great numbers of archers, +slingers, and hoplites. And since the defeat of Sextus had been largely +due to the size of Caesar's ships and the number of his marines, Antony +had equipped his vessels to surpass greatly those of his opponents, for +he had had constructed only a few triremes, but the rest were ships with +four banks and with ten banks, and represented all the remaining degrees +of capacity: upon these he had built lofty towers, and he had put aboard +a crowd of men who could fight from behind walls, as it were. Caesar for +his part was observing their equipment and making his preparations; when +he learned from Deillius and others their intention he himself assembled +the army and spoke to this effect:-- + +[-24-] "Having discovered, fellow-soldiers, both from what I have learned +from hearsay and from what I have tested by experience, that the most and +greatest military enterprises, or, indeed, I might say human affairs in +general, turn out in favor of those persons who both think and act in a +more just and pious manner, I am keeping this strictly in mind myself and +I advise you to consider it. No matter how numerous and mighty the force +we possess, no matter if it be such that even a man who chose the less +just of two courses might expect to win with its aid, nevertheless I base +my confidence far more upon the causes underlying the war than upon this +factor. For that we who are Romans and lords of the greatest and best +portion of the world should be despised and trodden under foot of an +Egyptian woman is unworthy of our fathers who overthrew Pyrrhus, Philip, +Perseus, Antiochus, who uprooted the Numantini and the Carthaginians, who +cut down the Cimbri and the Ambrones; it is unworthy also of ourselves +who have subjugated the Gauls, have subdued the Pannonians, have advanced +as far as the Ister, have crossed the Rhine, have gone over into Britain. +How could all those who have had a hand in the exploits mentioned fail +to grieve vehemently, if they should learn that we had succumbed to an +accursed woman? Should we not be guilty of a gross deviation from right +conduct, if, after surpassing all men everywhere in valor, we should then +bear humbly the insults of this throng, who, O Hercules, are Alexandrians +and Egyptians (what worse or what truer name could one apply to them?), +who serve reptiles and other creatures as gods, who embalm their bodies +to secure a reputation for immortality, who are most reckless in +braggadocio but most deficient in bravery, and worst of all are slaves +to a woman instead of a man? Yet these have dared to lay claim to our +possessions and to acquire them through us, evidently expecting that we +will give up the prosperity which we possess for them. [-25-] Who can +help lamenting to see Roman soldiers acting as body-guards of their +queen? Who can help groaning when he hears Roman knights and senators +flattering her like eunuchs? Who can help weeping when he both hears and +sees Antony himself, the man twice consul, often imperator, to whom was +committed in common with me the superintendence of the public business, +who was entrusted with so many cities, so many legions,--when he sees +that this man has now abandoned all his ancestors' habits of life, has +emulated all alien and barbaric customs, that he pays no honor to us or +to the laws or to his fathers' gods, but worships that wench as if she +were some Isis or Selene, calling her children Sun and Moon, and finally +himself bearing the title of Osiris and Dionysus, in consequence of which +he has bestowed entire islands and some of the continents, as though he +were master of the whole earth and the whole sea? I am sure that this +appears marvelous and incredible to you, fellow-soldiers: therefore you +ought to be the more indignant. For if that is actually so which you do +not even believe on hearing it, and if that man in his voluptuary career +commits acts at which any one who learns of them must grieve, would you +not properly become exceedingly enraged? + +[-26-] "Yet at the start I was so devoted to him that I gave him a share +of my leadership, married my sister to him, and granted him legions. Even +after this I felt so kindly, so affectionately toward him that I was +unwilling to wage war on him because of his insulting my sister, or +because he neglected the children she had borne him, or because he +preferred the Egyptian woman to her, or because he bestowed upon the +former's children practically all your possessions, or, in fine, for any +other reason. The cause is that, first of all, I did not think it proper +to assume the same attitude toward Antony as toward Cleopatra. I deemed +her by the very fact of her foreign birth to be at the outset hostile to +his career, but I believed that he, as a citizen, could be corrected. +Later I entertained the hope that if not voluntarily at least reluctantly +he might change his mind as a result of the decrees passed against her. +Consequently I did not declare war upon him. He, however, has looked +haughtily and disdainfully upon my efforts and will neither be released, +though we would fain release him, nor be pitied though we try to pity +him. He is either unreasonable or mad,--and this which I have heard I +do believe, that he has been bewitched by that accursed female,--and +therefore pays no heed to our kindness or humaneness, but being in +slavery to that woman he undertakes in her behalf both war and needless +dangers which are both against our interests and against those of his +country. What else, then, is our duty except to fight him back together +with Cleopatra? [-27-]Hence let no one call him a Roman but rather an +Egyptian, nor Antony but rather Serapio. Let no one think that he was +ever consul or imperator, but only gymnasiarch. He has himself of his own +free will chosen the latter title instead of the former, and casting away +all the august terms of his own land has become one of the cymbal players +from Canopus.[65] Again, let no one fear that he can give any unfavorable +turn to the war. Even previously he was of no ability, as you know +clearly who conquered him near Mutina. And even if once he did attain to +some capacity through campaigning with us, be well assured that he has +now ruined all of it by his changed manner of life. It is impossible for +one who leads an existence of royal luxury and coddles himself like a +woman to think any valorous thoughts or do valorous deeds, because it is +quite inevitable that a person takes the impress of the practices with +which he comes in contact. A proof of this is that in the one war which +he has waged in all this long time and the one campaign that he has made +he lost great numbers of citizens in the battles, returned in thorough +disgrace from Praaspa, and parted with very many additional men in +the flight. If any one of us were obliged to perform a set dance or +cordax[66] in an amusing way, such a person would surely yield the honors +to him; he has practiced this: but since it is a case of arms and +battle, what is there about him that any one should dread? His physical +condition? He has passed his prime and become effeminate. His strength of +mind? He plays the woman and has surrendered himself to unnatural lust. +His piety toward our gods? He is at war both with them and his country. +His faithfulness to his allies? But is any one unaware how he deceived +and imprisoned the Armenian? His liberal treatment of his friends? But +who has not seen the men who have miserably perished at his hands? His +reputation with the soldiers? But who even of them has not condemned him? +Evidence of their feeling is found in the fact that numbers daily come +over to our side. For my part I think that all our citizens will do this, +as on a former occasion when he was going from Brundusium into Gaul. So +long as they expected to get rich without danger, some were very glad +to cleave to him. But they will not care to fight against us, their own +countrymen, in behalf of what does not belong to them at all, especially +when they are given the opportunity to win without hazard both +preservation and prosperity by joining us. + +[-28-] "Some one may say, however, that he has many allies and a store of +wealth. Well, how we have been accustomed to conquer the dwellers on Asia +the mainland is known to Scipio Asiaticus the renowned, is known to Sulla +the fortunate, to Lucullus, to Pompey, to my father Caesar, and to your +own selves, who vanquished the supporters of Brutus and Cassius. This +being so, if you think their wealth is so much more than others', you +must be all the more eager to make it your own. It is but fair that for +the greatest prizes the greatest conflicts should be undergone. And I +can tell you nothing else greater than that prize which lies within your +grasp,--namely, to preserve the renown of your forefathers, to guard your +individual pride, to take vengeance on those in revolt against us, to +repulse those who insult you, to conquer and rule all mankind, to allow +no woman to make herself equal to a man. Against the Taurisci and Iapudes +and Dalmatians and Pannonians you yourselves now before me battled most +zealously and frequently for some few walls and desert land; you subdued +all of them though they are admittedly a most warlike race; and, by +Jupiter, against Sextus also, for Sicily merely, and against this very +Antony, for Mutina merely, you carried on a similar struggle, so that +you came out victorious over both. And now will you show any less zeal +against a woman whose plots concern all your possessions, and against +her husband, who has distributed to her children all your property, and +against their noble associates and table companions whom they themselves +stigmatize as 'privy' councillors? Why should you? Because of their +number? But no number of persons can conquer valour. Because of their +race? But they have practiced carrying burdens rather than warfare. +Because of their experience? But they know better how to row than how +to fight at sea. I, for my part, am really ashamed that we are going to +contend with such creatures, by vanquishing whom we shall gain no glory, +whereas if we are defeated we shall be disgraced. + +[-29-] "And surely you must not think that the size of their vessels or +the thickness of the timbers of their ships is a match for our valour. +What ship ever by itself either wounded or killed anybody? Will they not +by their very height and staunchness be more difficult for their rowers +to move and less obedient to their pilots? Of what use can they possibly +be to the fighting men on board of them, when these men can employ +neither frontal assault nor flank attack, manoeuvres which you know are +essential in naval contests? For surely they do not intend to employ +infantry tactics against us on the sea, nor on the other hand are they +prepared to shut themselves up as it were in wooden walls and undergo a +siege, since that would be decidedly to our advantage--I mean assaulting +wooden barriers. For if their ships remain in the same place, as if +fastened there, it will be possible for us to rip them open with our +beaks, it will be possible, too, to damage them with our engines from +a distance, and also possible to burn them to the water's edge with +incendiary missiles; and if they do venture to stir from their place, +they will not overtake anyone by pursuing nor escape by fleeing, since +they are so heavy that they are entirely too inert to inflict any damage, +and so huge that they are exceptionally liable to suffer it. + +[-30-] "Indeed, what need is there to spend time in speaking further of +them, when we have already often made trial of them, not only off Leucas +but also here just the other day, and so far from proving inferior to +them, we have everywhere shown ourselves superior? Hence you should be +encouraged not so much by my words as by your own deeds, and should +desire to put an end forthwith to the whole war. For be well assured that +if we beat them to-day we shall have no further trouble. For in general +it is a natural characteristic of human nature everywhere, that whenever +a man fails in his first contests he becomes disheartened with respect to +what is to come; and as for us, we are so indisputably superior to them +on land that we could vanquish them even if they had never suffered any +injury. And they are themselves so conscious of this truth--for I am not +going to conceal from you what I have heard--that they are discouraged at +what has already happened and despair of saving their lives if they stay +where they are, and they are therefore endeavouring to make their escape +to some place or other, and are making this sally, not with the desire to +give battle, but in expectation of flight. In fact, they have placed in +their ships the best and most valuable of the possessions they have with +them, in order to escape with them if they can. Since, then, they admit +that they are weaker than we, and since they carry the prizes of victory +in their ships, let us not allows them to sail anywhere else, but let +us conquer them here on the spot and take all these treasures away from +them." + +Such were Caesar's words. [-31-]After this he formed a plan to let them +slip by, intending to fall upon them from the rear: he himself by fast +sailing expected to capture them directly, and when the leaders had +plainly shown that they were attempting to run away he thought that the +remainder would make no contest about surrendering. He was restrained, +however, by Agrippa, who feared that they might not overtake the +fugitives, who would probably use sails, and he also felt some confidence +of conquering without much effort because meantime a squall of rain with +large quantities of spray had driven in the face of Antony's fleet alone +and had created disturbance all through it. Hence he abandoned this plan, +and after putting vast numbers of infantry aboard the ships himself +and placing all his associates into auxiliary boats for the purpose of +sailing about quickly, giving notice of requisite action to the warriors, +and reporting to him what he ought to know, he awaited the onset of the +foe. They weighed anchor to the sound of the trumpet and with ships +in close array drew up their line a little outside the narrows, not +advancing any farther: he in turn started out as if to come to close +quarters or even make them retire. When they neither made a corresponding +advance nor turned about, but remained in position and further made +their array extremely dense, he became doubtful what to do. Therefore he +ordered the sailors to let their oars rest in the water and waited for a +time: then suddenly at a given signal led forward both the wings and bent +around in the hope chiefly of surrounding the enemy, or otherwise of at +least breaking their formation. Antony was afraid of this movement of his +to wheel about and surround them, and hence adopted so far as he could +corresponding tactics, which brought him, though reluctantly, into close +combat. [-32-] So they attacked and began the conflict, both sides +uttering many exhortations in their own ranks as to both artifice and +zeal, and hearing many from the men on shore that shouted to them. The +struggle was not of a similar nature on the two sides, but Caesar's +followers having smaller and swifter ships went with a rush, and when +they rammed were fenced about on all sides to avoid being wounded. If +they sank any boat, well: if not, they would back water before a close +engagement could be begun, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly +again, or would let some go and turn their attention to others; and +having damaged them slightly, to whatever degree the limited time would +allow, they would proceed against others and then still others, in +order that their assault upon any vessel might be so far as possible +unexpected. Since they dreaded the defence of the enemy from a distance +and likewise the battle at close quarters, they delayed neither in the +approach nor in the encounter, but running up suddenly with the object of +arriving before the opposing archers could work, they would inflict some +wounds and cause a disturbance merely, so as to escape being held, and +then retire out of range. The enemy tried to strike the approaching +ships with many stones and arrows flying thick and fast, and to cast the +grapnels upon the assailants. And in case they could reach them, they got +the better of it, but if they missed, their boats would be pierced and +they begin to sink, or else in their endeavor to avoid this calamity they +would waste time and lay themselves open to attack on the part of some +others. For when two or three at once fell upon the same ship, part +would do all the damage they could and the rest suffer the brunt of the +injuries. On the one side the pilots and the rowers endured the most +annoyance and fatigue, and on the other the marines: and the one side +resembled cavalry, now making a charge, now withdrawing, on account of +the manoeuvres on their part in assaulting and backing water, and the +other was like heavy-armed men guarding against the approach of foes and +trying as much as possible to hold them. As a result they gained mutual +advantages: the one party fell unobserved upon the lines of oars +projecting from the ships and shattered the blades, whereas the other +party with rocks and engines from above tried to sink them. There +were also certain disadvantages: the one party could not injure those +approaching it, and the other party, if it failed to sink some vessels by +its ramming, was hemmed in and found no longer an equal contest. + +[-33-] The battle was an even one for a long time and neither antagonist +could get the upper hand, but the outcome of it was finally like this. +Cleopatra, riding at anchor behind the warriors, could not endure the +long, obscure uncertainty and delay, but harassed with worry (which was +due to her being a woman and an Egyptian) at the struggle which for so +long continued doubtful, and at the fearful expectancy on both sides, +suddenly herself started to flee and raised the signal for the remainder +of her subjects. So, as they at once raised their sails and sped out to +sea, while a wind of some force had by chance arisen, Antony thought they +were fleeing not at the bidding of Cleopatra, but through fear because +they felt themselves vanquished, and followed them. When this took place +the rest of the soldiers became both discouraged and confused, and rather +wishing themselves to escape likewise kept raising their sails, and the +others kept throwing the towers and the furnishings into the sea in order +to lighten the vessels and make good their departure. While they were +occupied in this way their adversaries fell upon them, not pursuing the +fugitives, because they themselves were without sails and prepared only +for a naval battle, and many contended with one ship, both from afar +and alongside. Then on the part of both alike the conflict became most +diverse and fierce. Caesar's men damaged the lower parts of the ships all +around, crushed the oars, knocked off the rudders, and climbed on the +decks, where they took hold of some and pulled them down, pushed off +others, and fought with still others, since they were now equal to them +in numbers. Antony's soldiers pushed them back with boathooks, cut them +down with axes, threw down upon them rocks and other masses of material +made ready for just this purpose, repulsed those that tried to climb up, +and joined issue with such as came close enough. + +And one viewing the business might have compared it, likening small +things to great, to walls or many thickset islands being besieged by sea. +Thus the one party strove to scale the boats like some land or fortress +and eagerly brought to bear everything that contributed to this result. +The others tried to repel them, devising every means that is commonly +used in such, a case. + +[-34-] As the fight continued equal, Caesar, at a loss what he should do, +sent for fire from the camp. Previously he had wished to avoid using +it, in order to gain possession of the money. Now he saw that it was +impossible for him to win in any other way, and had recourse to this, as +the only thing that would assist him. Thus another form of battle was +brought about. The assailants would approach their victims from many +directions at once, shoot blazing missiles at them, and hurl torches +fastened to javelins from their hands, and with the aid of engines threw +pots full of charcoal and pitch upon some boats from a distance. The +defenders tried to ward these off individually and when any of them flew +past and caught the timbers and at once started a great flame, as must be +the case in a ship, they used first the drinking-water which they carried +on board and extinguished some conflagrations: when that was gone they +dipped up the sea-water. And in case they could use great quantities of +it at once, they would stop the fire by main force: but they were unable +to do this everywhere, for they did not have many buckets or large ones, +and in their confusion brought them up half full, so that far from doing +any service they only quickened the flame. For salt water poured on +a fire in small quantities makes it burn up brightly. As they found +themselves getting the worst of it in this, they heaped on the blaze +their thick mantles and the corpses. For a time these checked the fire +and it seemed to abate; later, especially as the wind came upon it in +great gusts, it shot up more brilliant than ever and was increased by the +fuel. While only a part of a ship was burning, others stood by it and the +men would leap into it and hew down some parts and carry away others. +These detached parts some threw into the sea and others upon their +opponents, in case they could do them any damage. Others were constantly +going to the sound portion of the vessel and now more than ever they used +the grappling irons and the long spears with the purpose of attaching +some hostile ship to theirs and transferring themselves to it; or, if +that was out of the question, they tried to set it on fire likewise. +[-35-] But the hostile fleet was guarding against this very attempt and +none of it came near enough; and as the fire spread to the encircling +walls and descended to the flooring, the most terrible of fates +confronted them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the +smoke before the flame approached them, while others were roasted in the +midst of it as though in ovens. Others were cooked in their armor, which +became red-hot. There were still others, who, before suffering such a +death, or when they were half burned, threw off their armor and were +wounded by the men shooting from a distance, or again were choked by +leaping into the sea, or were struck by their opponents and drowned, or +were mangled by sea-monsters. The only ones to obtain an endurable death, +considering the sufferings round about, were such as killed one another +or themselves before any calamity befell them. These did not have to +submit to torture, and as corpses had the burning ships for their funeral +pyre. The Caesarians, who saw this, at first so long as any of the foe +were still able to defend themselves would not come near; but when the +fire began to consume the ships and the men so far from being able to do +any harm to an enemy could not even help themselves, they eagerly sailed +up to them to see if they could in any way gain possession of the money, +and they endeavored to extinguish the fire which they themselves had +caused. As a result many of them also perished in the course of their +plundering in the flame. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +51 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-first of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar after his victory at Actium transacted business requiring +immediate attention (chapters 1-4). + +About Antony and Cleopatra and their movements after the defeat (chapters +5-8). + +How Antony, defeated in Egypt, killed himself (chapters 9-14). + +How Caesar subdued Egypt (chapters 15-18). + +How Caesar came to Rome and conducted a triumph (chapters 19-21). + +How the Curia Julia was dedicated (chapter 22). + +How Moesia was reduced (chapters 23-27). + +Duration of time the remainder of the consulships of Caesar (3rd) and M. +Valerius Corvinus Messala, together with two additional years, in which +there were the following magistrates here enumerated: + +Caesar (IV), M. Licinius M.F. Crassus. (B.C. 30 = a. u. 724.) + +Caesar (V), Sextus Apuleius Sexti F. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + +(_BOOK 51, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u_. 723)] + +[-1-] Such was the naval battle which occurred between them on the second +of September. I have not elsewhere used a like expression, not being in +the habit of giving precise dates, but I do it here because then for +the first time Caesar alone held the entire power. Consequently the +enumeration of the years of his supremacy starts from precisely that day. +And before it had gone he set up as an offering to Apollo of Actium a +trireme, a four-banked ship, and so on up to one of ten banks, from the +captive vessels; and he built a larger temple. He also instituted a +quinquennial musical and gymnastic contest involving horseracing,--a +"sacred" festival, as they call all which include distribution of +food,--and entitled it Actia. Further, by gathering some settlers and +ousting others who dwelt nearby from their homes, he founded a city on +the site of the camp and named it Nicopolis.[67] On the spot where he +had had his tent he laid a foundation of square stones, and put there a +shrine of Apollo open to the sky, adorning it with the captured beaks. + +But this was done later. At the time he despatched one division of the +ships to pursue Antony and Cleopatra; so these followed in their wake, +but as it seemed impossible to overtake the fugitives they returned. With +his remaining vessels he took the enemy's ramparts, where no one opposed +him because of small numbers, and then overtook and without a battle got +possession of the other army which was retreating into Macedonia. Various +important contingents had already made their escape, the Romans to Antony +and the rest of the allies to their homes. The latter moreover evinced +no further hostility to Caesar, but both they and all the peoples who had +formerly belonged to Rome remained quiet, and some at once and others +later made terms. Caesar now proceeded to teach the cities a lesson +by levying money and taking away the remnant of authority over their +citizens that they possessed in their assemblies. From all the potentates +and kings, save Amyntas and Archelaus, he took all the lands that they +had received from Antony. Philopator son of Tarcondimotus, Lycomedes +ruler in a portion of Cappadocian Pontus, and Alexander the brother of +Iamblichus he even removed from their principalities. The last named, +because he had secured his appointment as a reward for accusing the +conqueror, he placed in his triumphal procession and afterward killed. +The kingdom of Lycomedes he gave to one Medeus, because the latter had +previous to the naval engagement detached the Mysians in Asia from Antony +and with them had waged war upon such as followed Antony's fortunes. The +people of Cydonea and Lampea he set free, because they had rendered him +some assistance, and he helped the Lampeans found anew their city, from +which they had been uprooted. As for the senators and knights and other +prominent men who had been active in Antony's cause, he imposed fines +upon many of them, executed many of them, and some he spared entirely. +Among the last Sosius was a distinguished example: for though he had +often fought against Caesar and now fled and hid himself, but was +subsequently discovered, his life was nevertheless preserved. Likewise +one Marcus Scaurus, a half-brother of Sextus on the mother's side, had +been condemned to death, but was later released for the sake of his +mother Mucia. Of those who underwent the extreme punishment the Aquilii +Flori and Curio were the most noted. The latter met death because he was +a son of the former Curio who had once been of great assistance to the +former Caesar. And the Flori both perished because Octavius commanded that +one of them should draw the lot to be slain. They were father and +son, and when the latter, before any drawing took place, voluntarily +surrendered himself to the executioner the former felt such great grief +that he died also by his own hand. + +[-3-] This, then, was the end of these persons. The mass of Antony's +soldiers was included in the ranks of Caesar's legions and later he sent +back to Italy the citizens over age of both forces, without giving any +of them anything, and the remainder he disbanded. They had shown an ugly +temper toward him in Sicily after the victory, and he feared they might +create a disturbance again. Hence he hastened before the least signs of +an uprising were manifested to discharge some entirely from the service +under arms and to scatter the great majority of the rest. As he was even +at this time suspicious of the freedmen, he remitted their one-quarter +contribution[68] which they were still owing of the money assessed upon +them. And they no longer bore him any malice for deprivations they had +endured, but rejoiced as if they had received as a gift what they had +not been obliged to contribute. The men still left in the rank and file +showed no disposition to rebel, partly because they were held in check +by their commanding officers, but mostly through hopes of the wealth of +Egypt. The men, however, who had helped Caesar to gain the victory and had +been dismissed from the service, were irritated at having obtained no +meed of valor, and not much later they began a revolutionary movement. +Caesar was suspicious of them, and fearing that they might despise +Maecenas, to whom at that time Rome and the remainder of Italy had been +entrusted, because he was a knight, he sent Agrippa to Italy as if on +some routine business. He also gave to Agrippa and to Maecenas so great +authority over everything that they might read beforehand the letters +which he often wrote to the senate and to various officials, and then +change whatever they wished in them. Therefore they received also from +him a ring, so that they should have the means of sealing the epistles. +He had had the seal which he used most at that time made double, with a +sphinx raised on both sides alike. Subsequently he had his own image made +in _intaglio_, and sealed everything with that. Later emperors likewise +employed it, except Galba. The latter gave his sanction with an ancestral +device which showed a dog bending forward from the prow of a ship. The +way that Octavius wrote both to these two magistrates and to the rest of +his intimate friends whenever there was need of forwarding information to +them secretly was to write in place of the proper letter in each word the +second one following. + +[-4-] Octavius, with the idea that there would be no more danger from the +veterans, administered affairs in Greece and took part in the Mysteries +of the two goddesses. He then went over into Asia and settled matters +there, all the time keeping a sharp lookout for Antony's movements. For +he had not yet received any definite information regarding the course his +rival had followed in his escape, and so he kept making preparations +to proceed against him, if he should find out exactly. Meantime the +ex-soldiers made an open demonstration, because he was so far separated +from them, and he began to fear that if they got a leader they might do +some damage. + +[B.C. 30 (_a. u._ 724)] + +Consequently he assigned to others the task of searching for Antony, and +hurried to Italy himself, in the middle of the winter of the year that he +was holding office for the fourth time, with Marcus Crassus. The latter, +in spite of having been attached to the cause of Sextus and of Antony, +was then his fellow consul without having even passed through the +praetorship. Caesar came, then, to Brundusium but progressed no farther. +The senate on ascertaining that his boat was Hearing Italy went there +to meet him, save the tribunes and two praetors, who by decree stayed at +home; and the class of knights as well as the majority of the people +and still others, some represented by embassy and many as voluntary +followers, came together there, so that there was no further sign of +rebellion on the part of any one, so brilliant was his arrival, and so +enthusiastic over him were the masses. They, too, some through fear, +others through hopes, others obeying a summons, had come to Brundusium. +To certain of them Caesar gave money, but to the rest who had been the +constant companions of his campaigns, he assigned land also. By turning +the townspeople in Italy who had sided with Antony out of their homes he +was able to grant to his soldiers their cities and their farms. To most +of the outcasts from the settlements he granted permission in turn to +dwell in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere. To the remainder he either +distributed or promised money for their land. Though he had now acquired +great sums by his victory, he was spending still more. For this reason +he advertised in the public market his own possessions and those of his +companions, in order that any one who desired to buy or claim any of them +might do so. Nothing was sold, however, and nothing repaid. Who, pray, +would have dared to undertake to do either? But he secured by this means +a reasonable excuse for a delay in carrying out his offers, and later he +discharged the debt out of the spoils of the Egyptians. + +[-5-] He settled this and the rest of the urgent business, and gave to +such as had received a kind of semi-amnesty the right to live in Italy, +not before permitted. After this he forgave the populace left behind +in Rome for not having come to him, and on the thirtieth day after his +arrival set sail again for Greece. In the midst of winter he dragged his +ships across the isthmus of the Peloponnesus and got back to Asia +so quickly that Antony and Cleopatra received each piece of news +simultaneously,--that he had departed and that he had returned. They, +on fleeing from the naval battle, had gone as far as the Peloponnesus +together. From there they sent away some of their associates,--all, in +fact, whom they suspected,--while many withdrew against their will, and +Cleopatra hastened to Egypt, for fear that her subjects might perhaps +revolt, if they heard of the disaster before her coming. In order to +make her approach safe, at any rate, she crowned her prows, as a sign +of conquest, with garlands, and had some songs of victory sung by +flute-players. When she reached safety, she murdered many of the foremost +men, who had ever been restless under her rule and were now in a state +of excitement at her disaster. From their estates and from various +repositories hallowed and sacred she gathered a vast store of wealth, +sparing not even the most revered of consecrated treasures. She fitted +out her forces and looked about for possible alliances. The Armenian king +she killed and sent his head to the Median, who might be influenced by +this act, she thought, to aid them. As for Antony, he sailed to Pinarius +Scarpus in Libya, and to the army previously collected under him there +for the protection of Egypt. This general, however, would[69] not receive +him and also slew the first men that Antony sent, besides destroying some +of the soldiers under his command who showed displeasure at this act. +Then Antony, too, proceeded to Alexandria, having accomplished nothing. + +[-6-] Now among the other preparations that they made for speedy warfare +they enrolled among the ephebi their sons, Cleopatra Caesarion and Antony +Antyllus, who was borne to him by Fulvia and was then with him. Their +purpose was to arouse interest among the Egyptians, who would feel that +they already had a man for king, and that the rest might recognize these +children as their lords, in case any untoward accident should happen to +the parents, and so continue the struggle. This proved the lads' undoing. +For Caesar, on the ground that they were men and held a certain form +of sovereignty, spared neither of them. But to return: the two were +preparing to wage war in Egypt with ships and infantry, and to this end +they called also upon the neighboring tribes and the kings that were +friendly to them. Nor did they relax their readiness also to sail to +Spain, if there should be urgent need, believing that they could alienate +the inhabitants of that land by their money if nothing more, and again +they thought of transferring the seat of the conflict to the Red Sea. To +the end that while engaged in these plans they might escape observation +for the longest possible time or deceive Caesar in some way or slay him by +treachery, they despatched men who carried letters to him in regard to +peace, but money for his followers. Meantime, also, unknown to Antony, +Cleopatra sent to him a golden scepter and a golden crown and the royal +throne, through which she signified that she delivered the government +to him. He might hate Antony, if he would only take pity on her. Caesar +accepted the gifts as a good omen, but made no answer to Antony. To +Cleopatra he forwarded publicly threatening messages and an announcement +that if she would renounce the use of arms and her sovereignty, he would +deliberate what ought to be done in her case. Secretly he sent word that, +if she would kill Antony, he would grant her pardon and leave her empire +unmolested. + +[-7-] While these negotiations were going on, the Arabians, influenced by +Quintus Didius, the governor of Syria, burned the ships which had been +built in the Arabian Gulf for the voyage to the Red Sea, and all the +peoples and the potentates refused their assistance. And it occurs to me +to wonder that many others also, though they had received many gifts from +Antony and Cleopatra, now left them in the lurch. The men, however, of +lowest rank who were being supported for gladiatorial combats showed +the utmost zeal in their behalf and contended most bravely. These were +practicing in Cyzicus for the triumphal games which they were expecting +to hold in honor of Caesar's overthrow, and as soon as they were made +aware of what had taken place, they set out for Egypt with the intention +of aiding their superiors. Many were their contests with Amyntas in Gaul, +and many with the children of Tarcondimotus in Cilicia, who had been +their strongest friends but now in view of the changed circumstances +had gone over to the other side; and many were their struggles against +Didius, who hindered them while passing through. They proved unable, +after all, to make their way to Egypt. Yet even when they had been +encompassed on all sides, not even then would they accept any terms of +surrender, though Didius made them many promises. They sent for Antony, +feeling that they could fight with him better in Syria: then, when he +neither came himself nor sent them any message, they decided that he had +perished, and reluctantly made terms with the condition that they should +never take part in a gladiatorial show. They received from Didius Daphne, +the suburb of Antioch, to dwell in, until the matter was called to +Caesar's attention. Then they were tricked (somewhat later) by Messala and +were sent in different directions under the pretext that they were to be +enlisted in different legions and were in some convenient way destroyed. + +[-8-] When Antony and Cleopatra heard from the envoys the commands which +Caesar issued regarding them, they sent to him again. The queen promised +that she would give him large amounts of money. Antony reminded him of +their friendship and kinship, and also made a defence of his association +with the Egyptian woman; he enumerated the occasions on which they had +helped each other gain the objects of their loves,[70] and all the wanton +pranks in which they two had shared as young men. Finally he surrendered +to him Publius Turullius, a senator, who had been an assassin of Caesar, +but was then living with him as a friend. He actually offered to commit +suicide, if in that way Cleopatra might be saved. Caesar put Turullius +to death; it happened that this man had cut wood for the fleet from the +forest of Asclepius in Cos, and by his punishment in the same place he +was thought to have paid the penalty to the god. But to Antony Caesar did +not even then answer a word. The latter consequently despatched a third +embassy, sending him his son Antyllus with considerable gold coin. His +rival accepted the money, but sent the boy back empty-handed and gave him +no answer. To Cleopatra, however, as the first time so the second and the +third time he sent many threats and promises alike. Yet he was afraid, +even so, that they might despair of in any way obtaining pardon from him +and so hold out, and that they would survive by their own efforts, or set +sail for Spain and Gaul, or destroy the money, the bulk of which he +heard was immense. Cleopatra had gathered it all in the monument she was +constructing in the palace; and she threatened to burn all of it with +her, in case she should miss the smallest of her demands. Octavius sent +therefore Thyrsus, a freedman of his, to speak to her kindly in every way +and to tell her further that it so happened that he was in love with her. +He hoped at least by this means, since she thought she had the power to +arouse passion in all mankind, that he might remove Antony from the scene +and keep her and her money intact. And so it proved. + +[-9-] Before quite all this had occurred Antony learned that Cornelius +Gallus had taken charge of Scarpus's army and with the men had suddenly +marched upon Paxaetonium and occupied it. Hence, though he wished to set +out and follow the summons of the gladiators, he did not go into Syria. +He proceeded against Gallus, believing that he could certainly win over +his soldiers without effort; they had been with him on campaigns and were +well disposed. At any rate he could subdue them by main strength, since +he was leading a large force both of ships and of infantry upon them. +However, he found himself unable even to hold converse with them, +although he approached their wall and shouted and hallooed. For Gallus by +ordering his trumpeters to sound their instruments all together gave no +one a chance to hear a word. Antony further failed in a sudden assault +and subsequently met a reverse with his ships. Gallus by night had chains +stretched across the mouth of the harbor under water and took no open +measures to guard against them but quite disdainfully allowed them to +sail freely in. When, however, they were inside, he drew up the chains by +means of machines and encompassing his opponent's ships on all sides,--on +land, from the houses, and on the sea,--he burned some and sank others. +The next event was that Caesar took Pelusium, pretendedly by storm, but +really betrayed by Cleopatra. She saw that no one came to her aid and +perceived that Caesar was not to be withstood; most important of all, +she heard the message sent to her by Thyrsus, and believed that she was +really the object of affection. Her confidence was strengthened first +of all by her wish that it be true, and second by the fact that she had +enslaved his father and Antony alike. As a result she expected that she +should gain not only forgiveness and sovereignty over the Egyptians, but +empire over the Romans as well. At once she yielded Pelusium to him. +After this, when he marched against the city, she secretly prevented the +Alexandrians from making a sortie, though she pretended to urge them +strongly to do so. + +[-10-] At the news about Pelusium Antony returned from Paraetonium and in +front of Alexandria met Caesar, who was exhausted from travel; he joined +battle with him, therefore, with his cavalry and was victorious. From +this success Antony gained courage, as also from his being able to shoot +arrows into his rival's camp carrying pamphlets which promised the men +fifteen hundred denarii; so he attacked also with his infantry and was +defeated. Caesar himself voluntarily read the pamphlets to his soldiers, +reproaching Antony the while, and led them to feel ashamed of treachery +and to acquire enthusiasm in his behalf. They gained by this in zeal, +both through indignation at being tempted and through their attempt to +show that they would not willingly gain a reputation for baseness. Antony +after his unexpected setback took refuge in his fleet and prepared to +have a combat on the water, or in any case to sail to Spain. Cleopatra +seeing this caused the ships to desert and she herself rushed suddenly +into the mausoleum pretending that she feared Caesar and desired by some +means to destroy herself before capture, but really as an invitation to +Antony to enter there also. He had an inkling that he was being betrayed, +but his infatuation would not allow him to believe it, and, as one might +say, he pitied her more than himself. Cleopatra was fully aware of this +and hoped that if he should be informed that she was dead, he would not +prolong his life but meet death at once. Accordingly, she hastened into +the monument with one eunuch and two female attendants and from there +sent a message to him to the effect that she had passed away. When he +heard it, he did not delay, but was seized with a desire to follow her in +death. Then first he asked one of the bystanders to slay him, but the +man drew a sword and despatched himself. Wishing to imitate his courage +Antony gave himself a wound and fell upon his face, causing the +bystanders to think that he was dead. An outcry was raised at his deed, +and Cleopatra hearing it leaned out over the top of the monument. By a +certain contrivance its doors once closed could not be opened again, but +above, near the ceiling, it had not yet been completed. That was where +they saw her leaning out and some began to utter shouts that reached the +ears of Antony. He, learning that she survived, stood up as if he had +still the power to live; but a great gush of blood from his wound made +him despair of rescue and he besought those present to carry him to the +monument and to hoist him by the ropes that were hanging there to elevate +stone blocks. This was done and he died there on Cleopatra's bosom. + +[-11-] She now began to feel confidence in Caesar and immediately made him +aware of what had taken place, but did not feel altogether confident +that she would experience no harm. Hence she kept herself within the +structure, in order that if there should be no other motive for her +preservation, she might at least purchase pardon and her sovereignty +through fear about her money. Even then in such depths of calamity she +remembered that she was queen, and chose rather to die with the name and +dignities of a sovereign than to live as an ordinary person. It should +be stated that she kept fire on hand to use upon her money and asps and +other reptiles to use upon herself, and that she had tried the latter +on human beings to see in what way they killed in each case. Caesar was +anxious to make himself master of her treasures, to seize her alive, and +to take her back for his triumph. However, as he had given her a kind +of pledge, he did not wish to appear to have acted personally as an +impostor, since this would prevent him from treating her as a captive and +to a certain extent subdued against her will. He therefore sent to her +Gaius Proculeius, a knight, and Epaphroditus, a freedman, giving them +directions what they must say and do. So they obtained an audience with +Cleopatra and after some accusations of a mild type suddenly laid hold +of her before any decision was reached. Then they put out of her way +everything by which she could bring death upon herself and allowed her +to spend some days where she was, since the embalming of Antony's body +claimed her attention. After that they took her to the palace, but did +not remove any of her accustomed retinue or attendants, to the end that +she should still more hope to accomplish her wishes and do no harm to +herself. When she expressed a desire to appear before Caesar and converse +with him, it was granted; and to beguile her still more, he promised that +he would come to her himself. + +[-12-] She accordingly prepared a luxurious apartment and costly couch, +and adorned herself further in a kind of careless fashion,--for her +mourning garb mightily became her,--and seated herself upon the couch; +beside her she had placed many images of his father, of all sorts, and in +her bosom she had put all the letters that his father had sent her. When, +after this, Caesar entered, she hastily arose, blushing, and said: "Hail, +master, Heaven has given joy to you and taken it from me. But you see +with your own eyes your father in the guise in which he often visited me, +and you may hear how he honored me in various ways and made me queen of +the Egyptians. That you may learn what were his own words about me, take +and read the missives which he sent me with his own hand." + +As she spoke thus, she read aloud many endearing expressions of his. And +now she would lament and caress the letters and again fall before his +images and do them reverence. She kept turning her eyes toward Caesar, and +melodiously continued to bewail her fate. She spoke in melting tones, +saying at one time, "Of what avail, Caesar, are these your letters? ," and +at another, "But in the man before me you also are alive for me." Then +again, "Would that I had died before you! ," and still again, "But if I +have him, I have you!" + +Some such diversity both of words and of gestures did she employ, at the +same time gazing at and murmuring to him sweetly. Caesar comprehended her +outbreak of passion and appeal for sympathy. Yet he did not pretend to do +so, but letting his eyes rest upon the ground, he said only this: "Be of +cheer, woman, and keep a good heart, for no harm shall befall you." She +was distressed that he would neither look at her nor breathe a word about +the kingdom or any sigh of love, and fell at his knees wailing: "Life for +me, Caesar, is neither desirable nor possible. This favor I beseech of you +in memory of your father,--that since Heaven gave me to Antony after him, +I may also die with my lord. Would that I had perished on the very instant +after Caesar's death! But since this present fate was my destiny, send me +to Antony: grudge me not burial with him, that as I die because of him, so +in Hades also I may dwell with him." + +[-13-] Such words she uttered expecting to obtain commiseration: Caesar, +however, made no answer to it. Fearing, however, that she might make away +with herself he exhorted her again to be of good cheer, did not remove +any of her attendants, and kept a careful watch upon her, that she might +add brilliance to his triumph. Suspecting this, and regarding it as worse +than innumerable deaths, she began to desire really to die and begged +Caesar frequently that she might be allowed to perish in some way, and +devised many plans by herself. When she could accomplish nothing, she +feigned to change her mind and to repose great hope in him, as well as +great hope in Livia. She said she would sail voluntarily and made ready +many treasured adornments as gifts. In this way she hoped to inspire +confidence that she had no designs upon herself, and so be more free from +scrutiny and bring about her destruction. This also took place. The other +officials and Epaphroditus, to whom she had been committed, believed +that her state of mind was really as it seemed, and neglected to keep +a careful watch. She, meanwhile, was making preparations to die as +painlessly as possible. First she gave a sealed paper, in which she +begged Caesar to order that she be buried beside Antony, to Epaphroditus +himself to deliver, pretending that it contained some other matter. +Having by this excuse freed herself of his presence, she set to her task. +She put on her most beauteous apparel and after choosing a most becoming +pose, assumed all the royal robes and appurtenances, and so died. + +[-14-] No one knows clearly in what manner she perished, for there were +found merely slight indentations on her arm. Some say that she applied +an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar or among some +flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a needle, with which she was +wont to braid her hair, with some poison possessed of such properties +that it would not injure the surface of the body at all, but if it +touched the least drop of blood it caused death very quickly and +painlessly. The supposition is, then, that previously it had been her +custom to wear it in her hair, and on this occasion after first making a +small scratch on her arm with some instrument, she dipped the needle in +the blood. In this or some very similar way she perished with her two +handmaidens. The eunuch, at the moment her body was taken up, presented +himself voluntarily to the serpents, and after being bitten by them +leaped into a coffin which had been prepared by him. Caesar on hearing of +her demise was shocked, and both viewed her body and applied drugs to +it and sent for Psylli,[71] in the hope that she might possibly revive. +These Psylli, who are male, for there is no woman born in their tribe, +have the power of sucking out before a person dies all the poison of +every reptile and are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such +creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their +offspring, the latter being thrown among serpents at once or having +serpents laid upon their swaddling-clothes. In such cases the poisonous +creatures do not harm the child and are benumbed by its clothing. This +is the nature of their function. But Caesar, when he could not in any way +resuscitate Cleopatra, felt admiration and pity for her and was himself +excessively grieved, as much as if he had been deprived of all the glory +of the victory. + +[-15-] So Antony and Cleopatra, who had been the authors of many evils +to the Egyptians and to the Romans, thus fought and thus met death. They +were embalmed in the same fashion and buried in the same tomb. Their +spiritual qualities and the fortunes of their lives deserve a word of +comment. + +Antony had no superior in comprehending his duty, yet he committed many +acts of folly. He was distinguished for his bravery in some cases, yet he +often failed through cowardice. He was characterized equally by greatness +of soul and a servile disposition of mind. He would plunder the property +of others, and still relinquish his own. He pitied many without cause and +chastised even a greater number unjustly. + +Consequently, though he rose from weakness to great strength, and from +the depths of poverty to great riches, he drew no profit from either +circumstance, but whereas he had hoped to hold the Roman power alone, he +actually killed himself. + +Cleopatra was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice, was ambitious +for renown, and most scornfully bold. By the influence of love she won +dominion over the Egyptians, and hoped to attain a similar position over +the Romans, but being disappointed of this she destroyed herself also. +She captivated two of the men who were the greatest Romans of her day, +and because of the third she committed suicide. + +Such were these two persons, and in this way did they pass from the +scene. Of their children Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was +betrothed to the daughter of Caesar, and had taken refuge in his father's +hero-shrine which Cleopatra had built. Caesarion was fleeing to Ethiopia, +but was overtaken on the road and murdered. Cleopatra was married to Juba +the son of Juba. To this man, who had been brought up in Italy and +had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave the maid and her ancestral +kingdom, and he granted them the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. To his +nieces, children of Antony by Octavia and reared by her, he assigned +money from their father's estate. He also ordered his freedmen to give at +once to Iullus, the child of Antony and Fulvia, everything which by law +they were obliged to bequeath him at their death. [-16-] As for the rest +who had until then been connected with Antony's cause, he punished some +and released others, either from personal motives or to oblige his +friends. And since there were found at the court many children of +potentates and kings who were being supported, some as hostages and +others for the display of wanton power, he sent some back to their homes, +joined others in marriage with one another, and kept possession of still +others. I shall omit most of these cases and mention only two. He freely +restored Iotape to the Median king, who had found an asylum with him +after the defeat, but refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be +sent him, because this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in +Armenia. This was the disposition he made of such captives. + +The Egyptians and Alexandrians were all spared, and Caesar did not injure +one of them. The truth was that he did not see fit to visit any extreme +vengeance upon so great a people, who might prove very useful to the +Romans in many ways. He nevertheless offered the pretext that he wished +to please their god Serapis, Alexander their founder, and, third, Areus +a citizen, who was a philosopher and enjoyed his society. The speech in +which he proclaimed to them his pardon he spoke in Greek, so that they +might understand him. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and also +touched it, at which a piece of the nose, it is said, was crushed. But he +would not go to see the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians +were extremely anxious to show them, for he said: "I wanted to see a +king, and not corpses." For the same reason he would not enter the +presence of Apis, declaring that he was "accustomed to worship gods and +not cattle." [-17-] Soon after he made Egypt tributary and gave it in +charge of Cornelius Gallus. In view of the populousness of both cities +and country, and the facile, fickle character of the inhabitants, and the +importance of grain supplies and revenue, so far from daring to entrust +the land to any senator he would not even grant one permission to live in +it, unless he made the concession to some one _nominatim_. On the other +hand, he did not allow the Egyptians to be senators in Rome, but +after considering individual cases on their merits he commanded the +Alexandrians to conduct their government without senators; with such +capacity for revolution did he credit them. And of the system then +imposed upon them most details are rigorously preserved to the present +day, but there are senators in Alexandria, beginning first under the +emperor Severus, and they also may serve in Rome, having first been +enrolled in the senate in the reign of his son Antoninus. + +Thus was Egypt enslaved. All of the inhabitants who resisted were subdued +after a time, as, indeed, Heaven very clearly indicated to them would +occur. For it rained not only water, where previously no drop had ever +fallen, but also blood. At the same time that this was falling from the +clouds glimpses were caught of armor. Elsewhere there was the clashing of +drums and cymbals and the notes of flutes and trumpets. A serpent of huge +size was suddenly seen and gave a hiss incredibly loud. Meanwhile comet +stars came frequently into view and ghosts of the dead took shape. The +statues frowned: Apis bellowed a lament and shed tears. Such was the +status of things in that respect. + +In the palace quantities of money were found. Cleopatra had taken +practically all the offerings from even the holiest shrines and so helped +to swell the spoils of the Romans, while the latter on their own part +incurred no defilement. Large sums were also obtained from every man +under accusation. More than that, all the rest against whom no personal +complaint could be brought had two-thirds of their property demanded of +them. Out of this all the soldiers got what was still owing to them, and +those who were with Caesar at that time secured in addition two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece for not plundering the city. All was made good +to those who had previously loaned anything, and to both senators and +knights who had taken part in the war great sums were given. In fine, the +Roman empire was enriched and its temples adorned. + +[-18-] After attending to the matters before mentioned Caesar founded +there also on the site of the battle a city and gave to it likewise a +name and dedicatory games, as in the previous instance. In regard to the +canals he cleared out some of them and dug others over again, and he also +settled important questions. Then he went through Syria into the province +of Asia and passed the winter there attending to the business of the +subject nations in detail and likewise to that of the Parthians. There +had been disputes among them and a certain Tiridates had risen against +Phraates; as long as Antony's opposition lasted, even after the naval +battle, Caesar had not only not attached himself to either side, though +they sought his alliance, but made no other answer than that he would +think it over. His excuse was that he was busy with Egypt, but in reality +he wanted them meantime to exhaust themselves by fighting against each +other. Now that Antony was dead and of the two combatants Tiridates, +defeated, had taken refuge in Syria, and Phraates, victorious, had sent +envoys, he negotiated with the latter in a friendly manner: and without +promising to aid Tiridates, he allowed him to live in Syria. He received +a son of Phraates as a mark of friendliness, and took the youth to Rome, +where he kept him as a hostage. + +[-19-] Meanwhile, and still earlier, the Romans at home had passed many +resolutions respecting the victory at sea. They granted Caesar a triumph +(over Cleopatra) and granted him an arch bearing a trophy at Brundusium, +and another one in the Roman Forum. Moreover, the lower part of the +Julian hero-shrine was to be adorned with the beaks of the captive ships +and a festival every five years to be celebrated in his honor. There +should be a thanksgiving on his birthday and on the anniversary of the +announcement of the victory: when he entered the city the (vestal virgin) +priestesses, the senate and the people, with their wives and children, +were to meet him. It is quite superfluous to mention the prayers, the +images, the privileges of front seats, and everything else of the sort. +At the very first they both voted him these honors, and either tore down +or erased the memorials that had lent Antony distinction. They declared +the day on which the latter had been born accursed and forbade the +employment of the surname Marcus by any one of his kin. His death was +announced during a part of the year when Cicero, the son of Cicero, was +consul; and on ascertaining this some believed it had come to pass not +without divine direction, since the consul's father had owed his death +chiefly to Antony. Then they voted to Caesar additional crowns and many +thanksgivings, and granted him among other rights authority to conduct a +triumph over the Egyptians also. For neither previously nor at that time +did they mention by name Antony and the rest of the Romans who had +been vanquished with him, and so imply that it was proper to hold a +celebration over them. The day on which Alexandria was captured they +declared fortunate and directed that for the years to come it should be +taken as the starting-point of enumeration by the inhabitants of that +town.[72] Also Caesar was to hold the tribunician power for life, to have +the right to defend such as called upon him for help both within the +pomerium and outside to the distance of eight half-stadia (a privilege +possessed by none of the tribunes), as also to judge appealed cases; and +a vote of his, like the vote of Athena,[73] was to be cast in all the +courts. In the prayers in behalf of the people and the senate petitions +should be offered for him alike by the priests and by the priestesses. +They also ordered that at all banquets, not only public but private also, +all should pour a libation to him. These were the resolutions passed at +that time. + +[B.C. 29 (_a. u._ 725)] + +[-20-] When he was consul for the fifth time with Sextus Apuleius, they +ratified all his acts by oath on the very first day of January. And when +the letter came regarding the Parthians, they decreed that he should +have a place in hymns along with the gods, that a tribe should be named +"Julian" after him, that he should wear the triumphal crown during the +progress of all the festivals, that the senators who had participated in +his victory should take part in the procession wearing purple-bordered +togas, and that the day on which he should enter the city should be +glorified by sacrifices by the entire population and be held ever sacred. +They further agreed that he might choose priests beyond the specified +number, as many and as often as he should wish. This custom was handed +down from that decision and the numbers have increased till they are +boundless: hence I need go into no particulars about the multitude of +such officials. Caesar accepted most of the honors (save only a few): +but that all the population of the city should meet him he particularly +requested might not occur. Yet he was pleased most of all and more than +at all the other decrees by the fact that the senators closed the gates +of Janus, implying that all their wars had ceased,--and took the "augury +of health," [74] which had all this period been omitted for reasons I have +mentioned. For there were still under arms the Treveri, who had brought +the Celts to help them, the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. These last +were subjugated by Statilius Taurus, and those first mentioned by Nonius +Gallus. There were numerous other disturbances going on in the isolated +districts. Since, however, nothing of importance resulted from any of +them, the Romans of that time did not consider that war was in progress +and I have nothing notable to record about them. Caesar meanwhile was +giving his attention to various business, and granted permission that +precincts dedicated to Rome and to Caesar his father,--calling him "the +Julian hero,"--should be set apart in Ephesus and in Nicaea. These +cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and in Bithynia +respectively. To these two divinities he ordered the Romans who dwelt +near them to pay honor. He allowed the foreigners (under the name of +"Hellenes") to establish a precinct to himself,--the Asians having +theirs in Pergamum and the Bithynians theirs in Nicomedea. This custom, +beginning with him, has continued in the case of other emperors, and +imperial precincts have been hallowed not only among Hellenic nations +but in all the rest which yield obedience to the Romans. In the capital +itself and in the rest of Italy there is no one, however, no matter how +great renown he has achieved, that has dared to do this. Still, even +there, after their death, honors as to gods are bestowed upon those who +have ruled uprightly, and hero-shrines are built. + +[-21-] All this took place in the winter, during which the Pergamenians +also received authority to celebrate the so-called "Sacred" contest in +honor of his temple. In the course of the summer Caesar crossed over to +Greece and on to Italy. Among the others who offered sacrifice, as +has been mentioned, when he entered the City, was the consul Valerius +Potitus. Caesar was consul all the year, as the two previous, but Potitus +was the successor of Sextus. It was he who publicly and in person +sacrificed oxen in behalf of the senate and of the people at Caesar's +arrival, something that had never before been done in the case of any +single man. After this his newly returned colleague praised and honored +his lieutenants, as had been the custom. Among the many marks of favor by +which Caesar distinguished Agrippa was the dark blue symbol[75] of naval +supremacy. To his soldiers also he made certain presents: to the people +he distributed a hundred denarii each, first to those ranking as adults, +and afterward to the children as a mark of his affection for his nephew +Marcellus. Further let it be noted that he would not accept from the +cities of Italy the gold to be used for the crowns. Moreover he paid +everything which he himself owed to any one and, as has been said, he did +not exact what the others were owing to him. All this caused the Romans +to forget every unpleasantness, and they viewed his triumph with +pleasure, quite as if the defeated parties had all been foreigners. So +vast an amount of money circulated through all the city alike that the +price of goods rose and loans which had previously been in demand at +twelve per cent. were now made at one-third that rate. The celebration +on the first day was in honor of the wars against the Pannonians and +Dalmatians, Iapudia and adjoining territory, and a few Celts and Gauls. +Graius Carrinas had subdued the Morini and some others who had risen +against Roman dominion, and had repulsed the Suevi, who had crossed the +Rhine to wage war. Therefore he too held a triumph, in spite of the fact +that his father had been put to death by Sulla and he himself had once +been prevented from holding office with the rest of his peers. Caesar +also held one since the credit of this victory properly pertained to his +position as imperator. + +These were the celebrations on the first day. On the second came the +commemoration of the naval victory at Actium; on the third that of the +subjugation of Egypt. All the processions proved notable by reason of the +spoils from this land,--so many had been gathered that they sufficed for +all the occasions,--but this Egyptian celebration was especially costly +and magnificent. Among other features a representation of Cleopatra upon +the bed of death was carried by, so that in a way she too was seen with +the other captives, and with Alexander, otherwise Helios, and Cleopatra, +otherwise Selene, her children, and helped to grace the triumph. Behind +them all Caesar came driving and did everything according to custom except +that he allowed his fellow-consul and the other magistrates, contrary +to custom, to follow him with the senators who had participated in the +victory. It had been usual for such dignitaries to lead and for only the +senators to follow.[76] + +[-22-] After completing this, he dedicated the temple of Minerva, called +also the Chalcidicum, and the Julian senate-house, which had been built +in honor of his father.[77] In it he set up the statue of Victory which +is still in existence, probably signifying that it was from her that he +had received his dominion. It belonged to the Tarentini, and had been +brought from there to Rome, where it was placed in the senate-chamber and +decked with the spoils of Egypt. The spoils were also employed at this +time for adorning the Julian hero-shrine, when it was consecrated. Many +of them were placed as offerings in it and others were dedicated to +Capitoline Jupiter and Juno and Minerva, while all the votive gifts that +were thought to have previously reposed there or were still reposing were +now by decree taken down as defiled. Thus Cleopatra, although defeated +and captured, was nevertheless glorified, because her adornments repose +in our temples and she herself is seen in gold in the shrine of Venus. + +At the consecration of the hero-shrine there were all sorts of contests, +and the children of the nobles performed the Troy equestrian exercise. +Men who were their peers also contended on chargers and pairs and +three-horse teams. A certain Quintus Vitellius, a senator, fought as a +gladiator. All kinds of wild beasts and kine were slain by the wholesale, +among them a rhinoceros and a hippopotamus, then seen for the first time +in Rome. Many have described the appearance of the hippo and it has been +seen by many more. As for the rhinoceros, it is in most respects like +an elephant, but has a projecting horn at the very tip of its nose and +through this fact has received its name. Besides the introduction of +these beasts Dacians and Suebi fought in throngs with each other. The +latter are Celts, the former a species of Scythian. The Suebi, to be +exact, dwell across the Rhine (though many cities elsewhere claim their +name), and the Dacians on both sides of the Ister. Such of them, however, +as live on this side of it and near the Triballic country are reckoned in +with the district of Moesia and are called Moesi save among those who +are in the very neighborhood. Such as are on the other side are called +Dacians, and are either a branch of the Getae or Thracians belonging to +the Dacian race that once inhabited Rhodope. Now these Dacians had before +this time sent envoys to Caesar: but when they obtained none of their +requests, they turned away to follow Antony. To him, however, they were +of no great assistance, owing to disputes among themselves. Some were +consequently captured and later set to fight the Suebi. + +The whole spectacle lasted naturally a number of days. There was no +intermission in spite of a sickness of Caesar's, but it was carried on +in his absence, under the direction of others. During its course the +senators on one day severally held banquets in the entrance to their +homes. Of what moved them to this I have no knowledge, for it has not +been recorded. Such was the progress of the events of those days. + +[-23-] While Caesar was yet in his fourth consulship Statilius Taurus had +both constructed at his own expense and dedicated with armed combat a +hunting-theatre of stone on the Campus Martius. On this account he was +permitted by the people to choose one of the praetors year after year. +During this same period Marcus Crassus was sent into Macedonia and Greece +and carried on war with the Dacians and Bastarnae. It has already been +stated who the former were and how they had been made hostile. The +Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians and at this time had crossed +the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them, then the Triballi +who live near it, and the Dardani who inhabit the Triballian country. +While they were so engaged they had no trouble with the Romans. But when +they crossed the Haemus and overran the portion of Thrace belonging to the +Dentheleti who had a compact with Rome, then Crassus, partly to defend +Sitas king of the Dentheleti, who was blind, but chiefly because of fear +for Macedonia, came out to meet them. By his mere approach, he threw them +into a panic and drove them from the land without a conflict. Next he +pursued them, as they were retiring homeward, gained possession of the +district called Segetica, and invading Moesia damaged that territory. He +made an assault upon a strong fortification, also, and though his advance +line met with a rebuff,--the Moesians making a sally against it, because +they thought these were all of the enemy,--still, when he came to the +rescue with his whole remaining army he both cut his opponents down in +open fight and annihilated them by an ambuscade. + +[-24-] While he was thus engaged, the Bastarnae ceased their flight and +remained near the Cedrus[78] river to watch what would take place. When, +after conquering the Moesians, the Roman general started against them, +they sent envoys forbidding him to pursue them, since they had done the +Romans no harm. Crassus detained them, saying he would give them their +answer the following day, and besides treating them kindly he made them +drunk, so that he learned all their plans. The whole Scythian race is +insatiable in the use of wine and quickly succumbs to its influence. +Crassus meanwhile, during the night, advanced to a wood, and after +stationing scouts in front of the forest made his army stop there. +Thereupon the Bastarnae, thinking the former were alone, made a charge +upon them, following them up also when the men retreated into the dense +forest, and many of the pursuers perished there as well as many others in +the flight which followed were obstructed by their wagons, which were +behind them, and owed their defeat further to their desire to save their +wives and children. Their king Deldo was slam by Crassus himself. The +armor stripped from the prince he would have dedicated as spolia opima +to Jupiter Feretrius, had he been a general acting on his own authority. +Such was the course of that engagement: of the remainder some took refuge +in a grove, which was set on fire all around, and others leaped into a +fort, where they were annihilated. Still others perished, either by being +driven into the Ister or after being scattered through the country. Some +survived even yet and occupied a strong post where Crassus besieged them +in vain for several days. Then with the aid of Roles, king of some of the +Getae, he destroyed them. Roles when he visited Caesar was treated as a +friend and ally for this assistance: the captives were distributed to the +soldiers. + +[-25-] After accomplishing this Crassus turned his attention to the +Moesians; and partly by persuading some of them, partly by scaring them, +and partly by the application of force he subjugated all except a very +few, though with labor and danger. Temporarily, owing to the winter, he +retired into friendly territory after suffering greatly from the cold, +and still more at the hands of the Thracians, through whose country, as +friendly, he was returning. Hence he decided to be satisfied with what +he had effected. For sacrifices and a triumph had been voted not only to +Caesar but to him also, though, according at least to some accounts, he +did not secure the title of imperator, but Caesar alone might apply it to +himself. The Bastarnae, however, angry at their disasters, on learning +that he would make no further campaigns against them turned again upon +the Dentheleti and Sitas, whom they regarded as having been the chief +cause of their evils. Then Crassus, though reluctantly, took the field +and by forced marches fell upon them unexpectedly, conquered, and +thereafter imposed such terms as he pleased. Now that he had once taken +up arms again he conceived a desire to recompense the Thracians, who had +harassed him during his retreat from Moesia; for news was brought at this +time that they were fortifying positions and were spoiling for a fight. +And he did subdue them, though not without effort, by conquering in +battle the Merdi and the Serdi and cutting off the hands of the captives. +He overran the rest of the country except the land of the Odrysae. These +he spared because they are attached to the service of Dionysus, and had +come to meet him on this occasion without arms. Also he granted them the +piece of land in which they magnify the god, and took it away from the +Bessi, who were occupying it. + +[-26-] While he was so occupied he received a summons from Roles, who had +become embroiled with Dapyx, himself also a king of the Getae. Crassus +went to help him and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon +the infantry he thoroughly terrified the latter, so that he carried the +battle no further but caused a great slaughter of the fugitives of both +divisions. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and +besieged him. During the investment some one from the walls saluted him +in Greek, and upon obtaining an audience arranged to betray the place. +The barbarians caught in this way turned upon one another, and Dapyx was +killed, besides many others. His brother, however, Crassus took alive and +not only did him no harm, but released him. + +At the close of this exploit he led his army against the cave called +Keiri. The natives in great numbers had occupied this place, which is +extremely large and so very strong that the tradition obtains that the +Titans after the defeat administered to them by the gods took refuge +there. Here the people had brought together all their flocks and their +other principal valuables. Crassus after finding all its entrances, which +are crooked and hard to search out, walled them up, and in this way +subjugated the men by famine. Upon this success he did not keep his hands +from the rest of the Getae, though they had nothing to do with Dapyx. He +marched upon Genoucla, the most strongly defended fortress of the kingdom +of Zuraxes, because he heard that the standards which the Bastarnae had +taken from Gaius Antonius near the city of the Istriani were there. His +assault was made both with the infantry and upon the Ister,--the city +being near the water,--and in a short time, though with much labor in +spite of the absence of Zuraxes, he took the place. The king as soon as +he heard of the Roman's approach had set off with money to the Scythians +to seek an alliance, and did not return in time. + +This he did among the Getae. Some of the Moesians who had been subdued +rose in revolt, and them he won back by the energy of others: [-27-] he +himself led a campaign against the Artacii and a few other tribes who +had never been captured and would not acknowledge his authority, priding +themselves greatly on this point and imbuing the rest with both anger and +a disposition to rebel. He brought them to terms partly by force, as +they did but little, and partly by the fear which the capture of some +inspired. This took a long time. I record the names, as the facts, +according to the tradition which has been handed down. Anciently Moesians +and Getae occupied all the land between the Haemus and the Ister. As time +went on some of them changed their names to something else. Since then +there have been included under the name of Moesia all the tribes which +the Savus by emptying into the Ister north of Dalmatia, Macedonia and +Thrace, separates from Pannonia. Two of the many nations found among +them are the Triballi, once so named, and the Dardani, who have the same +designation at present. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: The events, however, run over into the following year.] + +[Footnote 2: Interesting to compare are three citations from an unknown +Byzantine writer (in Excerpta cod. Paris, suppl. Gr. 607 A, edited by M. +Treu, Ohlau, 1880, p. 29 ff.), who seems to have used Dio as a source: + +a) The mother of Augustus just one day previous to her travail beheld in +a dream how her womb was snatched away and carried up into heaven. + +b) And in the same night as Octavius was born his father thought that the +sun rose from his wife's entrails. + +c) And a certain senator, Nigidius Figulus, who was an astrologer, asked +Octavius, the father of Augustus, why he was so slow in leaving his +house. The latter replied that a son had been born to him. Nigidius +thereupon exclaimed: "Ah, what hast thou done? Thou hast begotten a +master for us!" The other believing it and being disturbed wished to make +away with the child. But Nigidius said to him: "Thou hast not the power. +For it hath not been granted thee to do this."] + +[Footnote 3: Suetonius in relating this anecdote (Life of Augustus, +chapter 5) says that the senate-meeting in question was called to +consider the conspiracy of Catiline. Since, however, Augustus is on all +hands admitted to have been born a. d. IX. Kal. Octobr. and mention of +Catiline's conspiracy was first made in the senate a. d. XII. Kal. +Nov. (Cicero, Against Catiline, I, 3, 7), the claim of coincidence is +evidently based on error.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare again the same Byzantine writer quoted in footnote +to chapter 1,--two excerpts: + +d) Again, while he was growing up in the country, an eagle swooping down +snatched from his hands the loaf of bread and again returning replaced it +in his hands. + +e) Again, during his boyhood, Cicero saw in a dream Octavius himself +fastened to a golden chain and wielding a whip being let down from the +sky to the summit of the Capitol.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare Súetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 94] + +[Footnote 6: See footnote to Book Forty-three, chapter 42.] + +[Footnote 7: The senate-house already mentioned in Book Forty, chapter +50.] + +[Footnote 8: This word is inserted by Boissevain on the authority of a +symbol in the manuscript's margin, indicating a gap.] + + +[Footnote 9: Inserting with Reimar [Greek: proihemenos], to complete the +sense.] + +[Footnote 10: See Roscher I, col. 1458, on the Puperci Iulii. And compare +Suetonius, Life of Caesar, chapter 76.] + +[Footnote 11: For further particulars about Sex. Clodius and the _ager +Leontinus_ (held to be the best in Sicily, Cicero, Against Verres, III, +46) see Suetonius, On Rhetoric, 5; Arnobuis, V, 18; Cicero, Philippics, +II, 4, 8; II, 17; II, 34, 84; II, 39, 101; III, 9, 22.] + +[Footnote 12: Compare here (and particularly with, reference to the +plural _Spurii_) the passage in Cicero, Philippics, III, 44, 114: + +Quod si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e conspectu nostro abstulerunt, +at exemplum facti reliquerunt: illi, quod nemo fecerat, fecerunt: +Tarquinium Brutus bello est persecutus, qui tum rex fuit, cum esse Romae +licebat; Sp. Cassius, Sp. Maelius, M. Manlius propter suspitionem regni +appetendi sunt necati; hi primum cum gladiis non in regnum appetentem, +sed in regnum impetum fecerunt.] + +[Footnote 13: For the figure, compare Aristophanes, The Acharnians, vv. +380-381 (about Cleon): + + [Greek: dieballe chai pseudae chateglottise mou + chachychloborei chaplunen.]] + + +[Footnote 14: Dio has in this sentence imitated almost word for word the +utterance of Demosthenes, inveighing against Aischines, in the speech on +the crown (Demosthenes XVIII, 129).] + +[Footnote 15: Compare Book Forty-five, chapter 30.] + +[Footnote 16: There is a play on words here which can not be exactly +rendered. The Greek verb [Greek: _pheaegein_] means either "to flee" or +"to be exiled."] + +[Footnote 17: Various diminutive endings, expressing contempt.] + +[Footnote 18: The MS. reading is not wholly satisfactory here. Bekker, by +a slight change, would produce (after "Bambalio"): "nor by declaring war +because of," etc.] + +[Footnote 19: The Greek word is [Greek: obolos] a coin which in the fifth +century B.C. would have amounted to considerably more than the Roman +_as_; but as time went on the value of the [Greek: obolos] diminished +indefinitely, so that glossaries eventually translate it as _as_ in +Latin.] + +[Footnote 20: I. e., epilepsy.] + +[Footnote 21: Sturz changes this reading of _sixty_ days to _fifty_, +comparing Appian, Civil Wars, Book Three, chapter 74. Between the two +authorities it is difficult to decide, and the only consideration that +would incline one to favor Appian is the fact that he says this period of +fifty days was unusually long ("more than the Romans had ever voted upon +vanquishing the Celtae or winning any war"). Boissevain remarks that Dio +is not very careful about such details.] + +[Footnote 22: Adopting Reiske's reading, [Greek: _tinas_].] + +[Footnote 23: Compare here Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, 23, 644, 2 or 23, +663, 3), who says that since the only objection to be found with this +arrangement was that since the praetor urbanus could not himself conduct +the comitia, he ought not properly to have empowered others to do so.] + +[Footnote 24: _M. Juventius Laterensis._] + +[Footnote 25: This refers to the latter half of chapter 42, where Caesar +binds his soldiers by oath never to fight against any of their former +comrades.] + +[Footnote 26: [Greek: _pragmaton_] here is somewhat uncertain and might +give the sense "as a result of the troubles in which they had been +involved, one with another." Sturz and Wagner appear to have viewed it in +that light: Boissée and friends consulted by the translator choose the +meaning found in the text above.] + +[Footnote 27: The name of this freedman as given by Appian (Civil Wars, +IV, 44) is Philemon; but Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 27) agrees +with Dio in writing Philopoemen.] + +[Footnote 28: In B.C. 208 the Ludi Apollinares were set for July +thirteenth, but by the year B.C. 190 they occupied three days, and in +B.C. 42 the entire period of the sixth to the thirteenth of July was +allotted to their celebration. Now Caesar's birthday fell on July twelfth +and the day before that, July eleventh, would have conflicted quite as +much with the festival of Apollo. Hence this expression "the previous +day" must mean July fifth. (See Fowler's Roman Festivals, p. 174.)] + +[Footnote 29: There seems to be an error here made either by Dio or by +some scribe in the course of the ages. For, according to many reliable +authorities (Plutarch, Life of Brutus, chapter 21; Appian, Civil Wars, +Book Three, chapter 23; Cicero, Philippics, II, 13, 31, and X, 3, 7; id., +Letters to Atticus, Book Fifteen, letters 11 and 12), it was Brutus +and not Cassius who was praetor urbanus and had the games given in his +absence. Therefore the true account, though not necessarily the true +reading would say that "_Brutus_ was praetor urbanus," and (below) that he +"lingered in Campania with _Cassius_." + +See also Cobet, Mnesmosyne, VII, p. 22.] + +[Footnote 30: That this is the right form of the name is proved by the +evidence of coins, etc. In Caesar's Civil War, Book Three, chapter 4, +the same person is meant when it is said that _Tarcondarius Castor_ and +Dorylaus furnished Pompey with soldiers.] + +[Footnote 31: See Book Thirty-six, chapter 2 (end).] + +[Footnote 32: _Q. Marcius Crispus_. (The MSS. give the form _Marcus_, but +the identity of this commander is made certain by Cicero, Philippics, XI, +12, 30, and several other passages.)] + +[Footnote 33: I. e., "The Springs,"--a primitive name for Philippi +itself.] + +[Footnote 34: Iuppiter Latiaris was the protecting deity of Latium, and +his festival is practically identical with the _Feriae Latinae_. Roscher +(II, col. 688) thinks that Dio has here confused the praefectus urbi with +a special official (dictator feriarum Latinarum causa) appointed when +the consuls were unable to attend. Compare Book Thirty-nine, chapter 30, +where our historian does not commit himself to any definite name for this +magistrate.] + +[Footnote 35: "While carrying a golden Victory slipped and fell" is the +phrase in the transcript of Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 36: Reading [Greek: _aegchon_] (as Boissevain) in preference to +[Greek: _aegon_] or [Greek: _eilchon_].] + +[Footnote 37: Accepting Reiske's interpretative insertion, [Greek: +telos].] + +[Footnote 38: Among the Fragmenta Adespota in Nauck's _Fragmenta +Tragicorum Groecorum_ this is No. 374.] + +[Footnote 39: The names within these parallel lines are wanting in the +MS., but were inserted by Reimar on the basis of chapter 34 of this book, +and slightly modified by Boissevain.] + +[Footnote 40: Both MSS., the Mediceus and the Venetus, here exhibit a gap +of three lines.] + +[Footnote 41: Owing to an inaccuracy of spelling in the MSS. this number +has often been corrupted to "four hundred". The occurrence of "three +hundred" in Suetonius's account of the affair (Life of Augustus, chapter +15) assures us, however, that this reading is correct.] + +[Footnote 42: Compare Book Forty three, chapter 9 (§4).] + +[Footnote 43: Compare the first chapter of this Book.] + +[Footnote 44: Compare Book Forty-three, chapter 47 (and see also XLVIII, +33, and LII, 41).] + +[Footnote 45: This is an error either of Dio or of some copyist. The +person made king of the Jews at this time was in reality Antigonus the +son of Aristobulus and nephew of Hyrcanus. Compare chapter 41 of this +book, and Book Forty-nine, chapter 22. + +In this same sentence I read _[Greek: echthos]_ (as Boissevain and the +MSS.) in place of _[Greek: ethos]_.] + +[Footnote 46: Hurling from the Tarpeian rock was a punishment that might +be inflicted only upon freemen. Slaves would commonly be crucified or put +out of the way by some method involving similar disgrace.] + +[Footnote 47: After "Menas advised it" Zonaras in his version of Dio has: +"bidding him cut the ship's cable, if he liked, and sail away."] + +[Footnote 48: Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 83) also mentions this +fashion.] + +[Footnote 49: Verb suggested by Leunclavius.] + +[Footnote 50: This is the well known Gnosos in Crete. For further +information in regard to the matter see Strabo X, 4, 9 (p. 477) and +Velleius Paterculus, II, 81, 2.] + +[Footnote 51: There is at this point a gap of one line in the MSS.] + +[Footnote 52: Using Naber's emendation [Greek: probeblaemenoi].] + +[Footnote 53: The Latin word _testudo_, represented in Greek by the +precisely equivalent [Greek: chelonae] in Dio's narrative, means +"tortoise."] + +[Footnote 54: The amount is not given in the MSS. The traditional sum, +incorporated in most editions to fill the gap and complete the sense, is +_thirty-five_. "One hundred" is a clever conjecture of Boissevain's.] + +[Footnote 55: Probably in A.D. 227.] + +[Footnote 56: Called _Colapis_ by Strabo and Pliny.] + +[Footnote 57: A marginal note in Reimar's edition suggests amending the +rather abrupt [Greek: loipois] at this point to [Greek: Libournois] +("waged war with (i. e., against) thee Liburni"); and we might be tempted +to follow it, but for the fact that Appian uses language almost identical +with Dio's in his Illyrian Wars, chapter 27 ("He [Augustus] left +Statilius Taurus to finish the war").] + +[Footnote 58: The gymnasiarch was an essentially Greek official, but +might be found outside of Hellas in such cities as had come under Greek +influence. In Athens he exercised complete supervision of the gymnasium, +paying for training and incidentals, arranging the details of contests, +and empowered to eject unsuitable persons from the enclosure. We have +comparatively little information about his duties and general standing +elsewhere, but probably they were nearly the same. The office was +commonly an annual one. + +Antony did not limit to Alexandria his performance of the functions of +gymnasiarch. We read in Plutarch (Life of Antony, chapter 33) that at +Athens on one occasion he laid aside the insignia of a Roman general to +assume the purple mantle, white shoes, and the rods of this official; and +in Strabo (XIV, 5, 14) that he promised the people of Tarsos to preside +in a similar manner at some of their games, but the time came sent a +representative instead.--See Krause, _Gymnnastik und Agonistik der +Hellenen_, page 196.] + +[Footnote 59: See Book Forty-eight, chapter 35.] + +[Footnote 60: Chapter 4 of this book.] + +[Footnote 61: Cp. Book Forty-seven, chapter 11.] + +[Footnote 62: Sc. of denarii.] + +[Footnote 63: _L. Tarius Rufus._]: + +[Footnote 64: Dio in some unknown manner has at this point evidently +made a very striking mistake. Sosius was not killed in the encounter but +survived to be pardoned by Octavius after the latter's victory. And our +historian, who here says he perished, speaks in the next book (chapter 2) +of the amnesty accorded.] + +[Footnote 65: Canopus was only fifteen miles distant from Alexandria +(hence its pertinence here) and was noted for its many festivals and bad +morals,--the latter being superinduced by the presence in the city of a +large floating population of foreigners and sailors. The atmosphere of +the town (to compare small things with great) was, in a word, that of +Corinth.] + +[Footnote 66: The cordax was a dance peculiar to Greek comedy and of an +appropriately licentious character, resembling in some points certain of +the Oriental dances that survive to the present day.] + +[Footnote 67: Nicopolis, i. e., "City of Victory." The same name was +given by Pompey to a town founded after his defeat of Mithridates. (See +Book Thirty-six, chapter 50.)] + +[Footnote 68: An allusion to the second of the two taxes mentioned in +Book Fifty, chapter 10.] + +[Footnote 69: Verb supplied by R. Stephanus.] + +[Footnote 70: Cobet's interpretation (Mnemosyne X (N.S.), 1882).] + +[Footnote 71: Compare Pliny, Natural History, XXI, 78.] + +[Footnote 72: There is an ambiguous [Greek: aùrtuv] here. Only Boissée, +however, takes it to mean the Romans. Leonieenus, Sturz and Wagner +translate is as "Alexandrians."] + +[Footnote 73: A reminiscence of the _Eumenides_ of Aischylos.] + +[Footnote 74: See Glossary (last volume) and also compare the beginning +of chapter 24 in Book Thirty-seven.] + +[Footnote 75: Latin "vexillum caeruleum,"--a kind of flag or banner.] + +[Footnote 76: The custom was that the magistrates should issue from the +town to meet the triumphator and then march ahead of him. Octavius by +putting them behind him symbolized his position as chief citizen of the +State.] + +[Footnote 77: These buildings are mentioned together also in the +Monumentum Ancyranum (C:L., 1T:, part 2, pp. 780-781).] + +[Footnote 78: The name of this river is also spelled _Cebrus_.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. III, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/10162-8.zip b/old/10162-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5187320 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10162-8.zip diff --git a/old/10162.txt b/old/10162.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69e70fa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10162.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8690 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. III, by Cassius Dio + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Dio's Rome, Vol. III + An Historical Narrative Originally Composed In Greek During + The Reigns Of Septimius Severus, Geta And Caracalla, Macrinus, + Elagabalus And Alexander Severus + +Author: Cassius Dio + +Release Date: November 21, 2003 [EBook #10162] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. III *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Jayam Subramanian and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + DIO'S ROME + + + + AN HISTORICAL NARRATIVE ORIGINALLY COMPOSED IN GREEK DURING THE REIGNS OF + SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, GETA AND CARACALLA, MACRINUS, ELAGABALUS AND ALEXANDER + SEVERUS: + + + + AND + + + NOW PRESENTED IN ENGLISH FORM + + + BY + + HERBERT BALDWIN FOSTER, A.B. (Harvard), Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins), Acting + Professor of Greek in Lehigh University + + + + THIRD VOLUME _Extant Books 45-51 (B.C. 44-29)_. + + + 1906 + + + + + VOLUME CONTENTS + +Book Forty-five + +Book Forty-six + +Book Forty-seven + +Book Forty-eight + +Book Forty-nine + +Book Fifty + +Book Fifty-one + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +45 + +VOL. 3.--1 + +The following is contained in the Forty-fifth of Dio's Rome: + +About Gaius Octavius, who afterward was named Augustus (chapters 1-9). + +About Sextus, the son of Pompey (chapter 10). + +How Caesar and Antony entered upon a period of hostility (chapters 11-17). + +How Cicero delivered a public harangue against Antony (chapters 18-47). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the year of the 5th dictatorship of C. +Iulius Caesar with M. Aemilius Lepidus, Master of the Horse, and of his 5th +consulship with Marcus Antonius. (B.C. 44 = a. u. 710.)[1] + + +(_BOOK 45, BOSSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_.710)] + +[-1-] This was Antony's course of procedure.--Gaius Octavius Copia,--this +was the name of the son of Caesar's niece, Attia,--came from Velitrae in +the Volscian country, and having been left without a protector by the +death of his father Octavius he was brought up in the house of his mother +and her husband, Lucius Philippus, but on attaining maturity spent his +time with Caesar. The latter, who was childless, based great hopes upon +him and was devoted to him, intending to leave him as successor to his +name, authority, and supremacy. He was influenced largely by Attia's +explicit affirmation that the youth had been engendered by Apollo. While +sleeping once in his temple, she said, she thought she had intercourse +with a serpent, and through this circumstance at the end of the allotted +time bore a son. Before he came to the light of day she saw in a dream +her womb lifted to the heavens and spreading out over all the earth; and +the same night Octavius thought the sun rose from her vagina. Hardly +had the child been born when Nigidius Figulus, a senator, straightway +prophesied for him sole command of the realm. [2] + +He could distinguish most accurately of his contemporaries the order of +the firmament and the mutations of the stars, what they accomplished +by separation and what by conjunctions, in their associations and +retirements, and for this reason had incurred the charge of practicing +some kind of forbidden pursuits. He accordingly met on that occasion +Octavius, who was somewhat tardy in reaching the senate on account of the +birth of the child,--there happened to be a meeting of the senate that +day,--and asked him why he was late. On learning the cause he cried out: +"You have begotten a master over us." [3] At that Octavius was alarmed and +wished to destroy the infant, but Nigidius restrained him, saying that +it was impossible for it to suffer any such fate. [-2-] This was the +conversation at that time. While the boy was growing up in the country an +eagle snatched from his hands a loaf of bread, and after soaring aloft +flew down and gave it back to him.[4] When he was a lad and staying in +Rome Cicero dreamed that the boy was let down by golden chains to the +summit of the Capitol and received a whip from Jupiter.[5] He did not +know who the youth was, but meeting him the next day on the Capitol +itself he recognized him, and told the vision to the bystanders. Catulus, +who had likewise never seen Octavius, beheld in a vision all the noble +children on the Capitol at the termination of a solemn procession to +Jupiter, and in the course of the ceremony the god cast what looked like +an image of Rome into that child's lap. Startled at this he went up into +the Capitol to offer prayers to the god, and finding there Octavius, who +had ascended the hill for some other reason, he compared his appearance +with the dream and was satisfied of the truth of the vision. When later +he had become a young man and was about to reach maturity, he was putting +on the dress of an adult when his tunic was rent on both sides from his +shoulders and fell to his feet. This event of itself not only had +no significance as forecasting any good fortune, but displeased the +spectators considerably because it had happened in his first putting on +the garb of a man: it occurred to Octavius to say: "I shall put the whole +senatorial dignity beneath my feet"; and the outcome proved in accordance +with his words. Caesar founded great hopes upon him as a result of +this, introduced him into the class of patricians and trained him for +rulership. In everything that is proper to come to the notice of one +destined to control so great a power well and worthily he educated him +with care. The youth was trained in oratorical speeches, not only in the +Latin but in this language [Greek], labored persistently in military +campaigns, and received minute instruction in politics and the science of +government. + +[-3-] Now this Octavius chanced at the time that Caesar was murdered to +be in Apollonia near the Ionic Gulf, pursuing his education. He had been +sent thither in advance to look after his patron's intended campaign +against the Parthians. When he learned of the event he was naturally +grieved, but did not dare at once to take any radical measures. He had +not yet heard that he had been made Caesar's son or heir, and moreover the +first news he received was to the effect that the people were of one mind +in the affair. When, however, he had crossed to Brundusium and had been +informed about the will and the people's second thought, he made no +delay, particularly because he had considerable money and numerous +soldiers who had been sent on under his charge, but he immediately +assumed the name of Caesar, succeeded to his estate, and began to busy +himself with the situation. [-4-] At the time he seemed to some to have +acted recklessly and daringly in this, but later as a result of his +good fortune and the successes he achieved he acquired a reputation for +bravery. In many instances in history men who were wrong in undertaking +some project have been famed for wisdom because they proved fortunate in +it: others who used the best possible judgment have had to stand a charge +of folly because they did not attain their ends. He, too, acted in a +blundering and dangerous way; he was only just past boyhood,--eighteen +years of age,--and saw that the succession to the inheritance and the +family was sure to provoke jealousy and censure: yet he started in +pursuit of objects that had led to Caesar's murder, and no punishment +befell him, and he feared neither the assassins nor Lepidus and Antony. +Yet he was not thought to have planned poorly, because he became +successful. Heaven, however, indicated not obscurely all the upheaval +that would result from it. As he was entering Rome a great variegated +iris surrounded the whole sun. + +[-5-] In this way he that was formerly called Octavius, but already at +this time Caesar, and subsequently Augustus, took charge of affairs and +settled them and brought them to a successful close more vigourously than +any mature man, more prudently than any graybeard. First he entered the +city as if for the sole purpose of succeeding to the inheritance, and as +a private citizen with only a few attendants, without any ostentation. +Still later he did not utter any threat against any one nor show that he +was displeased at what had occurred and would take vengeance for it. So +far from demanding of Antony any of the money that he had previously +plundered, he actually paid court to him although he was insulted and +wronged by him. Among the other injuries that Antony did him by both word +and deed was his action when the lex curiata was proposed, according to +which the transfer of Octavius into Caesar's family was to take place: +Antony himself, of course, was active to have it passed, but through some +tribunes he secured its postponement in order that the young man being +not yet Caesar's child according to law might not meddle with the property +and might be weaker in all other ways. [-6-] Caesar was restive under this +treatment, but as he was unable to speak his mind freely he bore it until +he had won over the crowd, by whose members he understood his father had +been raised to honor. He knew that they were angry at the latter's death +and hoped they would be enthusiastic over him as his son and perceived +that they hated Antony on account of his having been master of the horse +and also for his failure to punish the murderers. Hence he undertook to +become tribune as a starting point for popular leadership and to secure +the power that would result from it; and he accordingly became a +candidate for the place of Cinna, which was vacant. Though hindered +by Antony's clique he did not desist and after using persuasion upon +Tiberius Cannutius, a tribune, he was by him brought before the populace. +He took as an excuse the gift bequeathed by Caesar and in his speech +touched upon all the important points, promising that he would discharge +this debt at once, and gave them cause to hope for much besides. After +this came the festival appointed in honor of the completion of the temple +of Venus, which some, while Caesar was alive, had promised to celebrate, +but were now holding in, slight regard as they did the horse-race +connected with the Parilia;[6] and to win the favor of the populace he +provided for it at his private expense on the ground that it concerned +him because of his family. At this time out of fear of Antony he brought +into the theatre neither Caesar's gilded chair nor his crown set with +precious stones, though it was permitted by decree. [-7-] When, however, +a certain star through all those days appeared in the north toward +evening, some called it a comet, and said that it indicated the usual +occurrences; but the majority, instead of believing this, ascribed it +to Caesar, interpreting it to mean that he had become a god and had been +included in the number of the stars. Then Octavius took courage and set +up in the temple of Venus a bronze statue of him with a star above his +head. Through fear of the populace no one prevented this, and then, at +last, some of the earlier decrees in regard to honors to Caesar were put +into effect. They called one of the months July after him and in the +course of certain triumphal religious festivals they sacrificed during +one special day in memory of his name. For these reasons the soldiers +also, and particularly since some of them received largesses of money, +readily took the side of Caesar. + +Rumors accordingly went abroad, and it seemed likely that something +unusual would take place. This idea gained most headway for the reason +that when Octavius was somewhat anxious to show himself in court in an +elevated and conspicuous place, as he had been wont to do in his father's +lifetime, Antony would not allow it, but had his lictors drag him down +and drive him out. [-8-] All were exceedingly vexed, and especially +because Caesar with a view to casting odium upon his rival and arousing +the multitude would no longer even frequent the Forum. So Antony became +terrified, and in conversation with the bystanders one day remarked +that he harbored no anger against Caesar, but on the contrary owed him +affection, and felt inclined to dispel the entire cloud of suspicion. The +statement was reported to the other, they held a conference, and some +thought they had become reconciled. As a fact they understood each +other's dispositions accurately, and, thinking it inopportune at that +time to put them to the test, they came to terms by making a few mutual +concessions. For some days they were quiet; then they began to suspect +each other afresh as a result of either some really hostile action +or some false report of hostility,--as regularly happens under such +conditions,--and were again at variance. When men become reconciled after +a great enmity they are suspicious of many acts that contain no malice +and of many chance occurrences. In brief, they regard everything, in the +light of their former hostility, as done on purpose and for an evil +end. While they are in this condition those who stand on neutral ground +aggravate the trouble, irritating them still more by bearing reports to +and fro under the pretence of devotion. There is a very large element +which is anxious to see all those who have power at variance with one +another,--an element which consequently takes delight in their enmity and +joins in plots against them. And the party which has previously suffered +from calumny is very easy to deceive with words adapted to the purpose +by a band of friends whose attachment is not under suspicion. This also +accounts for the fact that these men, who did not trust each other +previously, became now even more estranged. + +[-9-] Antony seeing that Caesar was gaining ground attempted to attract +the populace by various baits, to see if he could detach the people from +his rival and number them among his own forces. Hence through Lucius +Antonius, his brother, who was tribune, he introduced a measure that +considerable land be opened for settlement, among the parcels being the +region of the Pontine marshes, which he stated had already been filled +and were capable of cultivation. The three Antonii, who were brothers, +all held office at the same time. Marcus was consul, Lucius tribune, and +Gaius praetor. Therefore they could very easily remove those who were +temporarily rulers of their allies and subjects (except the majority of +the assassins and some others whom they regarded as loyal) and choose +others in place of them: they could also grant some the right to hold +office for an unusually long term, contrary to the laws established by +Caesar. Also Macedonia, which fell to Marcus by lot, was appropriated +by his brother Gaius, but Marcus himself with the legions previously +despatched into Apollonia laid claim to Gaul on this side of the Alps, to +which Decimus Brutus had been assigned; the reason was that it seemed to +be very strong in resources of soldiers and money. After these measures +had been passed the immunity granted to Sextus Pompey by Caesar, as to all +the rest, was confirmed: he had already considerable influence. It was +further resolved that whatever moneys of silver or gold the public +treasury had taken from his ancestral estate should be restored. As +for the lands belonging to it Antony held the most of them and made no +restoration. + +[-10-] This was the business in which they were engaged. But I shall now +go on to describe how Sextus had fared. When he had fled from Corduba, he +first came to Lacetania and concealed himself there. He was pursued, to +be sure, but eluded discovery through the fact that the natives were +kindly disposed to him out of regard for his father's memory. Later, when +Caesar had started for Italy and only a small army was left behind in +Baetica, he was joined both by the native inhabitants and by those who +escaped from the battle, and with them he came again into Baetica, because +he thought it more suitable for the carrying on of war. There he gained +possession of soldiers and cities, particularly after Caesar's death, some +voluntarily and some by violence; the commandant in charge of them, Gaius +Asinius Pollio, held a force that was far from strong. He next set out +against Spanish Carthage, but since in his absence Pollio made an attack +and did some damage, he returned with a large force, met his opponent, +and routed him. After that the following accident enabled him to startle +and conquer the rest, as well, who were contending fiercely. Pollio had +cast off his general's cloak, in order to suffer less chance of detection +in his flight, and another man of the same name, a brilliant horseman, +had fallen. The soldiers, hearing the name of the latter, who was lying +there, and seeing the garment which had been captured, were deceived, and +thinking that their general had perished surrendered. In this way Sextus +conquered and held possession of nearly that entire region. When he was +now a powerful factor, Lepidus arrived to govern the adjoining portion of +Spain, and persuaded him to enter into an agreement on condition that he +should recover his father's estate. Antony, influenced by his friendship +for Lepidus and by his hostility toward Caesar, caused such a decree to be +passed. + +So Sextus, in this way and on these conditions, held aloof from Spain +proper. [-11-] Caesar and Antony in all their acts opposed each other, but +had not fallen out openly, and whereas in reality they were alienated +they tried to disguise the fact so far as appearances went. As a result +all other interests in the city were in a most undecided state and +condition of turmoil. People were still at peace and yet already at war. +Liberty led but a shadow existence, and the deeds done were the deeds +of royalty. To a casual observer Antony, since he held the consulship, +seemed to be getting the best of it, but the enthusiasm of the masses was +for Caesar. This was partly on his father's account, partly on account of +the hopes he held out to them, but above all because they were displeased +at the considerable power of Antony and were inclined to assist Caesar +while he was yet devoid of strength. Neither man had their affection, but +they were always eager for a change of administration, and it was their +nature to try to overthrow every superior force and to help any party +that was being oppressed. Consequently they made use of the two to suit +their own desires. After they had at this period humbled Antony through +the instrumentality of Caesar they next undertook to destroy the latter +also. Their irritation toward the men temporarily in power and their +liking for the weaker side made them attempt to overthrow the former. +Later they became estranged from the weaker also. Thus they showed +dislike for each of them in turn and the same men experienced their +affection and their hatred, their support and their active opposition. + +[-12-] While they were maintaining the above attitude toward Caesar and +Antony, the war began as follows. Antony had set out for Brundusium to +meet the soldiers who had crossed over from Macedonia. Caesar sent some +persons to that city with money, who were to arrive there before Antony +and win over the men, and himself went to Campania, where he collected +a large crowd of men, chiefly from Capua because the people there had +received their land and city from his father, whom he said he was +avenging. He made them many promises and gave them on the spot five +hundred denarii apiece. These men usually constituted the corps of +evocati, whom one might term in Greek "the recalled", because having +ended their service they have been recalled to it again. Caesar took +charge of them, hastened to Rome before Antony could make his way back, +and came before the people, who had been made ready for him by Cannutius. +There he called to their minds in detail all the excellent works his +father had done, made a considerable, though moderate, defence of +himself, and brought accusations against Antony. He also praised +the soldiers who had accompanied him, saying that they were present +voluntarily to lend aid to the city, that they had elected him to preside +over the State and that through his mouth they made known these facts to +all. For this speech he received the approbation of his following and of +the throng that stood by, after which he departed for Etruria with a view +to obtaining an accession to his forces from that country. + +[-13-] While he was doing this Antony had been at first kindly received +in Brundusium by the soldiers, because they expected they would secure +more from him than was offered them by Caesar. This belief was based +on the idea that he had possession of much more than his rival. When, +however, he promised to give each of them a hundred denarii, they raised +an outcry, but he reduced them to submission by ordering centurions as +well as others to be slain before the eyes of himself and his wife. For +the time being the soldiers were quiet, but on the way toward Gaul when +they arrived opposite the capital they revolted, and many of them, +despising the lieutenants that had been set over them, arrayed themselves +on Caesar's side. The so-called Martian and the fourth legion went over to +him in a body. He took charge of them and won their attachment by giving +money to all alike,--an act which added many more to his troops. He also +captured all the elephants of Antony, by confronting the train suddenly +as they were being conducted along. Antony stopped in Rome only long +enough to arrange a few affairs and to bind by oath all the rest of the +soldiers and the senators who were in their company; then he set out for +Gaul, fearing that that country too might indulge in an uprising. Caesar +without delay followed behind him. + +[-14-] Decimus Brutus was at this time governor of that province, and +Antony set great hopes upon him, because he had been a slayer of Caesar. +But it turned out as follows. Decimus did not look askance particularly +at Caesar, for the latter had uttered no threats against the assassins: on +the other hand, he saw that Antony was no more formidable a foe than his +rival, or, indeed, than himself or any of the rest who were in power as +a result of natural acquisitiveness; therefore he refused to give ground +before him. Caesar, when he heard this decision, was for some time at a +loss what course to adopt. The young man hated both Decimus and Antony +but saw no way in which he could contend against them both at once. He +was by no means yet a match for either one of the two, and he was further +afraid that if he risked such a move he should throw them into each +other's arms and face the united opposition of the two. After stopping to +reflect that the struggle with Antony was already begun and was urgent, +but that it was not yet a fitting season for taking vengeance for his +father, he decided to make a friend of Decimus. He understood well that +he should find no great difficulty in fighting against the latter, if +with his aid he could first overcome his adversaries, but that Antony +would be a powerful antagonist on any subsequent occasion. So much did +they differ from each other. [-15-] Accordingly he sent a messenger to +Decimus, proposing friendship and promising alliance, if he would refuse +to receive Antony. This proposal caused the people in the city likewise +to join in expressing their gratitude to Caesar. Just at this time the +year was drawing to a close and no consul was on the ground, Dolabella +having been previously sent by Antony to Syria. Eulogies, however, were +delivered in the senate by the members themselves and by the soldiers who +had abandoned Antony,--with the concurrence also of the tribunes. When +they entered upon the new year they decided, in order that they might +discuss freely existing conditions, to employ a guard of soldiers +at their meetings. This pleased nearly all who were in Rome at the +time,--for they cordially detested Antony,--but particularly Cicero. He, +on account of his bitter and long-standing hostility toward the man, paid +court to Caesar, and so far as he could, by speech and action, strove to +assist him in every way and to injure Antony. It was for this reason +that, when he had left the city to escort his son to Athens for the +benefit of his education, he had returned on ascertaining that the two +were publicly estranged. + +[-16-] Besides these events which took place that year Servilius +Isauricus died at a very advanced age. I have mentioned him both for that +fact and to show how the Romans of that period respected men who were +prominent through merit and hated those who behaved insolently, even on +the very slightest grounds. This Servilius while walking had once met on +the road a man on horseback, who so far from dismounting on his approach +spurned him violently aside. Later he recognized the fellow in a +defendant of a case in court, and when he mentioned the affair to the +judge, they paid no further attention to the man's plea, but unanimously +condemned him. + + +[B.C. 43 (_a u_. 711)] + +[-17-] In the consulship of Aldus Hirtius (who was now appointed consul +in spite of the fact that his father's name had been posted on the +tablets of Sulla), with his colleague Gaius Vibius, a meeting of the +senate was held and votes were taken for three successive days, including +the first of the month itself. As a result of the war which was upon them +and the portents, very numerous and extremely unfavorable, which took +place, they were so excited that they failed to pass over these _dies +nefasti_ on which they ought not to deliberate on any matter touching +their interests. Ominous had been the falling of great numbers of +thunderbolts, some of which descended on the shrine sacred to Capitoline +Jupiter, that stood in the temple of Victory. Also a great wind arose +which snapped and scattered the columns erected about the temple of +Saturn and the shrine of Fides, and likewise knocked down and shattered +the statue of Minerva the Protectress, which Cicero had set up on the +Capitol before his exile. This portended, of course, the death of Cicero +himself. Another thing that frightened the rest of the population was +a great earthquake which occurred, and the fact that a bull which was +sacrificed on account of it in the temple of Vesta leaped up after the +ceremony. In addition to these clear indications of danger a flash darted +across from the place of the rising sun to the place of its setting and a +new star was seen for several days. Then the light of the sun seemed to +be diminished and even extinguished, and at times to appear in three +circles, one of which was surmounted by a fiery crown of sheaves. This, +if anything, proved as clear a sign as possible to them. For three men +were in power,--I mean Caesar and Lepidus and Antony,--and of them Caesar +subsequently secured the victory. At the same time that these things +occurred all sorts of oracles tending to the downfall of the democracy +were recited. Crows, moreover, flew into the temple of the Dioscuri and +pecked out the names of the consuls and of Antony and of Dolabella, which +were inscribed there somewhere on a tablet. And by night dogs in large +numbers gathered throughout the city and especially near the house of the +high priest, Lepidus, and set up howls. Again, the Po, which had flooded +a large portion of the surrounding territory, suddenly receded and left +behind on the dry land a vast number of snakes. Countless fish were cast +up from the sea on the shore near the mouth of the Tiber. Succeeding +these terrors a plague spread over nearly the whole of Italy in a +malignant form, and in view of this the senate voted that the Curia +Hostilia[7] should be rebuilt and the spot where the naval battle had +taken place be filled up. However, the curse did not appear disposed to +rest even at this point, especially when during Vibius's conduct of the +initial sacrifices on the first of the month one of his lictors suddenly +fell down and died. Because of these events many men in the course of +those days took one side or the other in their speeches and advice, and +among the deliverances was the following, of Cicero:--[-18-] "You have +heard recently, Conscript Fathers, when I made a statement to you about +the matter, why I made preparations for my departure as if I were going +to be absent from the city a very long time and then returned rapidly +with the idea that I could benefit you greatly. I would not endure an +existence under a sovereignty or a tyranny, since under such forms of +government I can not enjoy the rights of free[8] citizenship nor speak +my mind safely nor die in a way that is of service to you; and again, if +opportunity is afforded to obey any of duty's calls, I would not shrink +from action, though it involved danger. I deem it the task of an upright +man equally to keep watch over himself for his country's interests +(guarding himself that he may not perish uselessly), and in this course +of action not to fail to say or do whatever is requisite, even if it be +necessary to suffer some harm in preserving his native land. + +[-19-] "These assumptions granted, a large degree of safety was afforded +by Caesar both to you and to me for the discussion of pressing questions. +And since you have further voted to assemble under guard, we must frame +all our words and behavior this day in such a fashion as to establish +the present state of affairs and provide for the future, that we may +not again be compelled to decide in a similar way about it. That our +condition is difficult and dangerous and requires much care and attention +you yourselves have made evident, if in no other way, at least by this +measure. For you would not have voted to keep the senate-house under +guard, if it had been possible for you to deliberate at all with your +accustomed orderliness, and in quiet, free from fear. It is necessary for +us even on account of the presence of the soldiers to accomplish some +measure of importance, that we may not incur the disgrace that would +certainly follow from asking for them as if we feared somebody, and then +neglecting affairs as if we were liable to no danger. We shall appear to +have acquired them only nominally in behalf of the city against Antony, +but to have given them in reality to him against our own selves, and it +will look as if in addition to the other legions which he gathers against +his country he needed to acquire these very men and so prevent your +passing any vote against him even to-day. + +[-20-] "Yet some have attained such a height of shamelessness as to dare +to say that he is not warring against the State and have credited you +with so great folly as to think that they will persuade you to attend to +their words rather than to his acts. But who would choose to desist from +regarding his performances and the campaign which he has made against our +allies without any orders from the senate or the people, the countries +which he is overrunning, the cities which he is besieging, and the hopes +upon which he is building in his entire course,--who would distrust, I +say, the evidence of his own eyes, and to his ruin yield credence to the +words of these men and their false statements, by which they put you off +with pretexts and excuses? + +I myself am far from asserting that in doing this he is carrying out any +legal act of administration. On the contrary, because he has abandoned +the province of Macedonia, which was assigned to him by lot, and because +he chose instead the province of Gaul, which in no way pertained to him, +and because he assumed control of the legions which Caesar had sent ahead +against the Parthians, keeping them about him though no danger threatens +Italy, and because he has left the city during the period of his +consulship to go about pillaging and injuring the country,--for all these +reasons I declare that he has long been an enemy of us all. [-21-] If you +did not perceive it immediately at the start or experience vexation +at each of his actions, he deserves to be hated all the more on +this account, in that he does not cease injuring you, who are so +long-suffering. He might perchance have obtained pardon for the errors +which he committed at first, but now by his perseverance in evil he has +reached such a pitch of knavery that he ought to be brought to book for +his former offences as well. And you ought to be especially careful in +regard to the situation, noticing and considering this point,--that the +man who has so often despised you in such weighty matters cannot submit +to be corrected by the same gentleness and kindliness that you have +shown, but must now against his will, even though never previously, be +chastised by force of arms. + +"And because he partly persuaded and partly compelled you to vote +him some privileges, do not think that this makes him less guilty or +deserving of less punishment. Quite the reverse,--for this very procedure +in particular he merits the infliction of a penalty: he determined from +the outset to commit many outrages, and after accomplishing some of them +through you, he employed against your own selves the resources which came +from you, which by deception, he forced you to vote to him, though you +neither knew nor foresaw any such result. On what occasion did you +voluntarily abolish the commands given by Caesar or by the lot to each +man, and allow this person to distribute many appointments to his friends +and companions, sending his brother Gaius to Macedonia, and assigning +Gaul to himself with the aid of the legions which he was not by any means +keeping to use in your defence? Do you not remember how, when he found +you startled at Caesar's demise, he carried out all the plans that +he chose, communicating some to you carefully dissimulated and at +inopportune moments, and on his own responsibility executing others that +inflicted injuries, while all his acts were characterized by violence? He +used soldiers, and barbarians at that, against you. And need any one be +surprised that in those days some vote was passed which should not have +been, when even now we have not obtained a free hand to speak and do what +is requisite in any other way than by the aid of a body-guard? If we had +been formerly endued with this power, he would not have obtained what any +one may say he has obtained, nor would he have risen to the prominence +enabling him to do the deeds that were a natural sequence. Accordingly, +let no one retort that the rights which we were seen to give him under +command and compulsion and amid laments were legally and rightfully +bestowed. For, even in private business, that is not considered binding +which a man does under compulsion from another. + +[-23-] "And yet all these measures which you are seen to have voted you +will find to be slight and varying but little from established custom. +What was there dreadful in the fact that one man was destined to govern +Macedonia or Gaul in place of another? Or what was the harm if a man +obtained soldiers during his consulship? But these are the facts that are +harmful and abominable,--that your land should be damaged, allied cities +besieged, that our soldiers should be armed against us and our means +expended to our detriment: this you neither voted nor intended. Do not, +merely because you have granted him some privileges, allow him to usurp +what was not granted him; and do not think that just as you have conceded +some points he ought similarly to be permitted to do what has not been +conceded. Quite the reverse: you should for this very reason both hate +and punish him, because he has dared not only in this case but in all +other cases to use the honor and kindness that you bestowed against you. +Look at the matter. Through my influence you voted that there should be +peace and harmony between individuals. This man was ordered to manage the +business, and conducted it in such a way (taking Caesar's funeral as a +pretext) that almost the whole city was burned down and great numbers +were once more slaughtered. You ratified all the grants made to various +persons and all the laws laid down by Caesar, not because they were +all excellent--far from it! ,--but because our mutual and unsuspecting +association, quite free from any disguise, was not furthered by changing +any one of those enactments. This man, appointed to examine into them, +has abolished many of his acts and has substituted many others in the +documents. He has taken away lands and citizenship and exemption from +taxes and many other honors from the possessors,--private individuals, +kings, and cities,--and has given them to men who had not received any, +altering the memoranda of Caesar; from those who were unwilling to give +up anything to his grasp he took away even what had been given them, +and sold this and everything else to such as wished to buy. Yet you, +foreseeing this very possibility, had voted that no tablet should be set +up after Caesar's death which might contain any article given by him to +any person. Notwithstanding, it happened many times after that. He also +said it was necessary for some provisions found in Caesar's papers to be +specially noted and put into effect. You then assigned to him, in company +with the foremost men, the task of making these excerpts; but he, paying +no attention to his colleagues, carried out everything alone according to +his wishes, in regard to the laws, the exiles, and other points which I +enumerated a few moments since. This is the way in which he wishes to +execute all your decrees. + +[-24-] "Has he then shown himself such a character only in these affairs, +while managing the rest rightly? In what instance? On what motive? He was +ordered to search for and declare the public money left behind by Caesar, +and did he not seize it, paying some of it to his creditors and spending +some on high living so that he no longer has even any of this left? You +hated the name of dictator on account of Caesar's sovereignty and rejected +it entirely from the constitution: but is it not true that Antony, though +he has avoided adopting it (as if the name in itself could do any harm), +has exhibited the behavior belonging to it and the greed for gain, under +the title of consulship? You assigned to him the duty of promoting +harmony, and has he not on his own responsibility begun this great war, +neither necessary nor sanctioned, against Caesar and Decimus, whom you +approve? Innumerable cases might be mentioned, if one wished to go into +details, in which you entrusted business to him to manage as consul, and +he has not conducted a single bit of it as the circumstances demanded, +but has done quite the opposite, using against you the authority that you +imparted. Now will you assume to yourself also these errors that he has +committed and say that you yourselves are responsible for all that has +happened, because you assigned to him the management and investigation of +the matters in question? It is ridiculous. If some general or envoy that +had been chosen should fail in every way to do his duty, you who sent him +would not incur the blame for this. It would be a sorry state of things, +if all who are elected to perform some work should themselves receive the +advantages and the honors, but lay upon you the complaints and the blame. +[-25-] Accordingly, there is no sense in paying any heed to him when he +says: 'It was you who permitted me to govern Gaul, you ordered me to +administer the public finances, you gave me the legions from Macedonia.' +Perhaps these measures were voted--yet ought you to put it that way, and +not instead exact punishment from him for his action in compelling you to +make that decision? At any rate, you never at any time gave him the +right to restore the exiles, to add laws surreptitiously, to sell the +privileges of citizenship and exemption from taxes, to steal the public +funds, to plunder the possessions of allies, to abuse the cities, or +to undertake to play the tyrant over his native country. And you never +conceded to any one else all that was desired, though you have granted by +your votes many things to many persons; on the contrary you have always +punished such men so far as you could, as you will also punish him, if +you take my advice. For it is not in these matters alone that he has +shown himself to be such a man as you know and have seen him to be, but +briefly in all undertakings which he has ever attempted to perform for +the commonwealth. + +[-26-] "His private life and his private examples of licentiousness +and avarice I shall willingly pass over, not because one would fail to +discover that he had committed many abominable outrages in the course of +them, but because, by Hercules, I am ashamed to describe minutely and +separately--especially to you who know it as well as I--how he conducted +his youth among you who were boys at the time, how he auctioned off +the vigor of his prime, his secret lapses from chastity, his open +fornications, what he let be done to him as long as it was possible, what +he did as early as he could, his revels, his periods of drunkenness, and +all the rest that follows in their train. It is impossible for a person +brought up in so great licentiousness and shamelessness to avoid defiling +his entire life: and so from his private concerns he brought his lewdness +and greed to bear upon public matters. On this I will refrain from +dilating, and likewise by Jupiter on his visit to Gabinius in Egypt +and his flight to Caesar in Gaul, that I may not be charged with going +minutely into every detail; for I feel ashamed for you, that knowing him +to be such a man you appointed him tribune and master of the horse and +subsequently consul. I will at present recite only his drunken insolence +and abuses in these very positions. + +[-27-] "Well, then, when he was tribune he first of all prevented you +from settling suitably the work you then had in hand by shouting and +bawling and alone of all the people opposing the public peace of the +State, until you became vexed and because of his conduct passed the vote +that you did. Then, though by law he was not permitted to be absent from +town a single night, he escaped from the city, abandoning the duties of +his office, and, having gone as a deserter to Caesar's camp, guided the +latter back as a foe to his country, drove you out of Rome and all the +rest of Italy, and, in short, became the prime cause of all the civil +disorders that have since taken place among you. Had he not at that time +acted contrary to your wishes, Caesar would never have found an excuse for +the war and could not, in spite of all his shamelessness, have gathered a +competent force in defiance of your resolutions; but he would have +either voluntarily laid down his arms, or been brought to his senses +unwillingly. As it is, this fellow is the man who furnished him with the +excuses, who destroyed the prestige of the senate, who increased the +audacity of the soldiers. He it is who planted the seeds of evils which +sprang up afterward: he it is who has proved the common bane not only of +us, but also of practically the whole world, as, indeed, Heaven rather +plainly indicated. When, that is to say, he proposed those astonishing +laws, the whole air was filled with thunder and lightning. Yet this +accursed wretch paid no attention to them, though he claims to be a +soothsayer, but filled not only the city but the whole world with the +evils and wars which I mentioned. + +[-28-] "Now after this is there any need of mentioning that he served as +master of the horse an entire year, something which had never before been +done? Or that during this period also he was drunk and abusive and in the +assemblies would frequently vomit the remains of yesterday's debauch on +the rostra itself, in the midst of his harangues? Or that he went about +Italy at the head of pimps and prostitutes and buffoons, women as well as +men, in company with the lictors bearing festoons of laurel? Or that he +alone of mankind dared to buy the property of Pompey, having no regard +for his own dignity or the great man's memory, but grasping eagerly those +possessions over which we even now as at that time shed a tear? He threw +himself upon this and many other estates with the evident intention of +making no recompense for them. Yet with all his insolence and violence +the price was nevertheless collected, for Caesar took this way of +discountenancing his act. And all that he has acquired, vast in extent +and gathered from every source, he has consumed in dicing, consumed in +harlotry, consumed in feasting, consumed in drinking, like a second +Charybdis. + +[-29-] "Of this behavior I shall make no chronicle. But on the subject of +the insults which he offered to the State and the assassinations which +he caused throughout the whole city alike how can any man be silent? Is +memory lacking of how oppressive the very sight of him was to you, but +most of all his deeds? He dared, O thou earth and ye gods, first in +this place, within the wall, in the Forum, in the senate-house, on the +Capitol, at one and the same time to array himself in the purple-bordered +garb, to gird a sword on his thigh, to employ lictors, and to be escorted +by armed soldiers. Next, whereas he might have checked the turmoil of the +citizens, he not only failed to do so, but set you at variance when you +were in concord, partly by his own acts and partly through the medium +of others. Moreover he directed his attention in turn to the latter +themselves, and by now assisting them and now abandoning them[9] incurred +full responsibility for great numbers of them being slain and for the +fact that the entire region of Pontus and of the Parthians was not +subdued at that time immediately after the victory over Pharnaces. Caesar, +being called hither in haste to see what he was doing, did not finish +entirely any of those projects, as he was surely intending. + +[-30-] "Even this result did not sober him, but when he was consul he +came naked, naked, Conscript Fathers, and anointed into the Forum, taking +the Lupercalia as an excuse, then proceeded in company with his lictors +to the rostra, and there harangued us from the elevation. From the day +the city was founded no one can point to any one else, even a praetor or +tribune or aedile, let alone a consul, who has done such a thing. To be +sure it was the festival of the Lupercalia, and the Lupercalia had been +put in charge of the Julian College[10]; yes, and Sextus Clodius had +trained him to conduct himself so, upon receipt of two thousand plethra +of the land of Leontini[11]. But you were consul, respected sir (for I +will address you as though you were present), and it was neither proper +nor permissible for you as such to speak in such a way in the Forum, hard +by the rostra, with all of us present, and to cause us both to behold +your remarkable body, so corpulent and detestable, and to hear your +accursed voice, choked with unguent, speaking those outrageous words; for +I will preferably confine my comment to this point about your mouth. The +Lupercalia would not have missed its proper reverence, but you disgraced +the whole city at once,--not to speak a word yet about your remarks on +that occasion. Who is unaware that the consulship is public, the property +of the whole people, that its dignity must be preserved everywhere, and +that its holder must nowhere strip naked or behave wantonly? [-31-] Did +he perchance imitate the famous Horatius of old or Cloelia of bygone +days? But the latter swam across the river with all her clothing, and +the former cast himself with his armor into the flood. It would be +fitting--would it not?--to set up also a statue of this consul, so that +people might contrast the one man armed in the Tiber and the other naked +in the Forum. It was by such conduct as has been cited that those heroes +of yore were wont to preserve us and give us liberty, while he took away +all our liberty from us, so far as was in his power, destroyed the whole +democracy, set up a despot in place of a consul, a tyrant in place of +a dictator over us. You remember the nature of his language when he +approached the rostra, and the style of his behavior when he had ascended +it. But when a man who is a Roman and a consul has dared to name any one +King of the Romans in the Roman Forum, close to the rostra of liberty, in +the presence of the entire people and the entire senate, and straightway +to set the diadem upon his head and further to affirm falsely in the +hearing of us all that we ourselves bade him say and do this, what most +outrageous deed will that man not dare, and from what action, however +revolting, will he refrain? [-32-] Did we lay this injunction upon you, +Antony, we who expelled the Tarquins, who cherished Brutus, who hurled +Capitolinus headlong, who put to death the Spurii?[12] Did we order you +to salute any one as king, when we have laid a curse upon the very name +of monarch and furthermore upon that of dictator as the most similar? Did +we command you to appoint any one tyrant, we who repulsed Pyrrhus from +Italy, who drove back Antiochus beyond the Taurus, who put an end to the +tyranny even in Macedonia? No, by the rods of Valerius and the law of +Porcius, no, by the leg of Horatius and the hand of Mucius, no, by the +spear of Decius and the sword of Brutus! But you, unspeakable villain, +begged and pleaded to be made a slave as Postumius pleaded to be +delivered to the Samnites, as Regulus to be given back to the +Carthaginians, as Curtius to be thrown into the chasm. And where did +you find this recorded? In the same place where you discovered that the +Cretans had been made free after Brutus was their governor, when we voted +after Caesar's death that he should govern them. + +[-33-] "So then, seeing that you have detected his baneful disposition +in so many and so great enterprises, will you not take vengeance on him +instead of waiting to learn by experience what the man who caused so much +trouble naked will do to you when he is armed? Do you think that he is +not eager for the tyrant's power, that he does not pray to obtain it some +day, or that he will put the pursuit of it out of his thoughts, when he +has once allowed it a resting-place in his mind, and that he will ever +abandon the hope of sole rulership for which he has spoken and acted so +impudently without punishment! What human being who, while master of his +own voice, would undertake to help some one else secure an honor, would +not appropriate it himself when he became powerful? Who that has dared +to nominate another as tyrant over his country and himself at once would +himself refuse to be monarch? [-34-] Hence, even if you spared him +formerly, you must hate him now for these acts. Do not desire to learn +what he will do when his success equals his wishes, but on the basis of +his previous ventures plan beforehand to suffer no further outrages. What +defence could any one make of what took place? That Caesar acted rightly +at that time in accepting neither the name of king nor the diadem? If so, +this man did wrong to offer something which pleased not even Caesar. Or, +on the other hand, that the latter erred in enduring at all to look on at +and listen to such proceedings? If so, and Caesar justly suffered death +for this error, does not this man, admitted in a certain way that he +desired a tyranny, most richly deserve to perish? That this is so is +evident from what I have previously said, but is proved most clearly by +what he did after that. What other end than supremacy had he in mind that +he has undertaken to cause agitation and to meddle in private business, +when he might have enjoyed quiet with safety? What other end, that he has +entered upon campaigns and warfare, when it was in his power to remain at +home without danger? For what reason, when many have disliked to go out +and take charge even of the offices that belonged to them, does he not +only lay claim to Gaul, which pertains to him in not the slightest +degree, but use force upon it because of its unwillingness? For what +reason, when Decimus Brutus is ready to surrender to us himself and +his soldiers and the cities, has this man not imitated him, instead of +besieging and shutting him up? The only interpretation to be put upon it +is that he is strengthening himself in this and every other way against +us, and to no other end. + +[-35-] "Seeing this, do we delay and give way to weakness and train up so +monstrous a tyrant against our own selves? Is it not disgraceful that our +forefathers, brought up in slavery, felt the desire for liberty, but we +who have lived under an independent government become slaves of our own +free will? Or again, that we were glad to rid ourselves of the dominion +of Caesar, though we had first received many favors from his hands, and +accept in his stead this man, a self-elected despot, who is far worse +than he; this allegation is proved by the fact that Caesar spared many +after his victories in war, but this follower of his before attaining any +power has slaughtered three hundred soldiers, among them some centurions, +guilty of no wrong, at home, in his own quarters, before the face and +eyes of his wife, so that she too was defiled with blood. What do you +think that the man who treated them so cruelly, when he owed them +care, will refrain from doing to all of you,--aye, down to the utmost +outrage,--if he shall conquer? And how can you believe that the man who +has lived so licentiously even to the present time will not proceed to +all extremes of wantonness, if he shall further secure the authority +given by arms? + +[-36-] "Do not, then, wait until you have suffered some such treatment +and begin to rue it, but guard yourselves before you are molested. It is +out of the question to allow dangers to come upon you and then repent of +it, when you might have anticipated them. And do not choose to neglect +the seriousness of the present situation and then ask again for another +Cassius or some more Brutuses. It is ridiculous, when we have the power +of aiding ourselves in time, to seek later on men to set us free. Perhaps +we should not even find them, especially if we handle in such a way +the present situation. Who would privately choose to run risks for the +democracy, when he sees that we are publicly resigned to slavery? It must +be evident to every man that Antony will not rest contented with what +he is now doing, but that in far off and small concerns even he is +strengthening himself against us. He is warring against Decimus and +besieging Mutina for no other purpose than to provide himself, by +conquering and capturing them, with resources against us. He has not been +wronged by them that he can appear to be defending himself, nor does he +merely desire the property that they possess and with this in mind endure +toils and dangers, while ready and willing to relinquish that belonging +to us, who own their property and much beside. Shall we wait for him to +secure the prize and still more, and so become a dangerous foe? Shall we +trust his deception when he says that he is not warring against the City? +[-37-] Who is so silly as to decide whether a man is making war on us or +not by his words rather than by his deeds? I do not say that now for the +first time is he unfriendly to us, when he has abandoned the City and +made a campaign against allies and is assailing Brutus and besieging the +cities; but on the basis of his former evil and licentious behavior, not +only after Caesar's death but even in the latter's lifetime, I decide that +he has shown himself an enemy of our government and liberty and a plotter +against them. Who that loved his country or hated tyranny would have +committed a single one of the many and manifold offences laid to this +man's charge? From every point of view he is proved to have long been an +enemy of ours, and the case stands as follows. If we now take measures +against him with all speed, we shall get back all that has been lost: +but if, neglecting to do this, we wait till he himself admits that he is +plotting against us, we shall lose everything. This he will never do, not +even if he should actually march upon the City, any more than Marius or +Cinna or Sulla did. But if he gets control of affairs, he will not fail +to act precisely as they did, or still worse. Men who are anxious to +accomplish an object are wont to say one thing, and those who have +succeeded in accomplishing it are wont to do quite a different thing. To +gain their end they pretend anything, but having obtained it they deny +themselves the gratification of no desire. Furthermore, the last born +always desire to surpass what their predecessors have ventured: they +think it a small thing to behave like them and do something that has been +effected before, but determine that something original is the only thing +worthy of them, because unexpected. + +[-38-] "Seeing this, then, Conscript Fathers, let us no longer delay nor +fall a prey to the indolence that the moment inspires, but let us take +thought for the safety that concerns the future. Surely it is a shame +when Caesar, who has just emerged from boyhood and was recently registered +among those having attained years of discretion, shows such great +interest in the State as to spend his money and gather soldiers for +its preservation that we should neither ourselves perform our duty +nor cooeperate with him even after obtaining a tangible proof of his +good-will. Who is unaware that if he had not reached here with the +soldiers from Campania, Antony would certainly have come rushing from +Brundusium instanter, just as he was, and would have burst into our city +with all his armies like a winter torrent?[13] There is, moreover, a +striking inconsistency in our conduct. Men who have long been campaigning +voluntarily have put themselves at your service for the present crisis, +regarding neither their age nor the wounds which they received in past +years while fighting for you, and you both refuse to ratify the war in +which these very men elected to serve, and show yourselves inferior to +them, who are ready to face dangers; for while you praise the soldiers +that detected the defilement of Antony and withdrew from him, though he +was consul, and attached themselves to Caesar, (that is, to you through +him), you shrink from voting for that which you say they were right in +doing. Also we are grateful to Brutus that he did not even at the +start admit Antony to Gaul, and is trying to repel him now that Antony +confronts him with a force. Why in the world do we not ourselves do the +same? Why do we not imitate the rest whom we praise for their sound +judgment? There are only two courses open to us. [-39-] One is to say +that all these men,--Caesar, I mean, and Brutus, the old soldiers, the +legions,--have decided wrongly and ought to submit to punishment, because +without our sanction or that of the people they have dared to offer armed +resistance to their consul, some having deserted his standard, and others +having been gathered against him. The other is to say that Antony by +reason of his deeds has in our judgment long since admitted that he is +our enemy and by public consent ought to be chastised by us all. No one +can be ignorant that the latter decision is not only more just but more +expedient for us. The man neither understands how to handle business +himself (how or by what means could a person that lives in drunkenness +and dicing?) nor has he any companion who is of any account. He loves +only such as are like himself and makes them the confidants of all his +open and secret undertakings. Also he is most cowardly in extreme dangers +and most treacherous even to his intimate friends, neither of which +qualities is suited for generalship or war. [-40-] Who can be unaware +that this very man caused all our internal troubles and then shared the +dangers to the slightest possible degree? He tarried long in Brundusium +through cowardice, so that Caesar was isolated and on account of him +almost failed: likewise he held aloof from all succeeding wars,--that +against the Egyptians, against Pharnaces, the African, and the Spanish. +Who is unaware that he won the favor of Clodius, and after using the +latter's tribuneship for the most outrageous ends would have killed him +with his own hand, if I had accepted this promise from him? Again, in the +matter of Caesar, he was first associated with him as quaestor, when Caesar +was praetor in Spain, next attached himself to him during the tribuneship, +contrary to the liking of us all, and later received from him countless +money and excessive honors: in return for this he tried to inspire his +patron with a desire for supremacy, which led to talk against him and was +more than anything else responsible for Caesar's death. + +[-41-] "Yet he once stated that it was I who directed the assassins to +their work. He is so senseless as to venture to invent so great praise +for me. And I for my part do not affirm that he was the actual slayer of +Caesar,--not because he was not willing, but because in this, too, he was +timid,--yet by the very course of his actions I say that Caesar perished +at his hands. For this is the man who provided a motive, so that there +seemed to be some justice in plotting against him, this is he who called +him 'king', who gave him the diadem, who previously slandered him +actually to his friends. Do I rejoice at the death of Caesar, I, who never +enjoyed anything but liberty at his hands, and is Antony grieved, who has +rapaciously seized his whole property and committed many injuries on +the pretext of his letters, and is finally hastening to succeed to his +position of ruler? + +[-42-] "But I return to the point that he has none of the qualities of a +great general or such as to bring victory, and does not possess many or +formidable forces. The majority of the soldiers and the best ones have +abandoned him to his fate, and also, by Jupiter, he has been deprived +of the elephants. The remainder have perfected themselves rather in +outraging and pillaging the possessions of the allies than in waging war, +A proof of the sort of spirit that animates them lies in the fact that +they still adhere to him, and of their lack of fortitude in that they +have not taken Mutina, though they have now been besieging it for so long +a time. Such is the condition of Antony and of his followers found to be. +But Caesar and Brutus and those arrayed with them are firmly intrenched +without outside aid; Caesar, in fact, has won over many of his rival's +soldiers, and Brutus is keeping the same usurper out of Gaul: and if you +come to their assistance, first by approving what they have done of their +own motion, next by ratifying their acts, at the same time giving them +legal authority for the future, and next by sending out both the consuls +to take charge of the war, it is not possible that any of his present +associates will continue to aid him. However, even if they should cling +to him most tenaciously, they would not he able to resist all the rest +at once, but he will either lay down his arms voluntarily, as soon as +he ascertains that you have passed this vote, and place himself in your +hands, or he will be captured involuntarily as the result of one battle. + +"I give you this advice, and, if it had been my lot to be consul, I +should have certainly carried it out, as I did in former days when I +defended you against Catiline and Lentulus (a relative of this very man), +who had formed a conspiracy. [-43-] Perhaps some one of you regards these +statements as well put, but thinks we ought first to despatch envoys to +him, then, after learning his decision, in case he will voluntarily give +up his arms and submit himself to you, to take no action, but if he +sticks to the same principles, then to declare war upon him: this is the +advice which I hear some persons wish to give you. This policy is very +attractive in theory, but in fact it is disgraceful and dangerous to the +city. Is it not disgraceful that you should employ heralds and embassies +to citizens? With foreign nations it is proper and necessary to treat by +heralds in advance, but upon citizens who are at all guilty you should +inflict punishment straightway, by trying them in court if you can get +them under the power of your votes, and by warring against them if you +find them in arms. All such are slaves of you and of the people and of +the laws, whether they wish it or not; and it is not fitting either to +coddle them or to put them on an equal footing with the highest class of +free persons, but to pursue and chastise them like runaway servants, with +a feeling of your own superiority. [-44-] Is it not a disgrace that he +should not delay to wrong us, but we delay to defend ourselves? Or again, +that he should for a long time, weapons in hand, have been carrying on +the entire practice of war, while we waste time in decrees and embassies, +and that we should retaliate only with letters and phrases upon the man +whom we have long since discovered by his deeds to be a wrongdoer? What +do we expect? That he will some day render us obedience and pay us +respect? How can this prove true of a man who has come into such a +condition that he would not be able, even should he wish it, to be an +ordinary citizen with you under a democratic government? If he were +willing to conduct his life on fair and equitable principles, he would +never have entered in the first place upon such a career as his: and if +he had done it under the influence of folly or recklessness, he would +certainly have given it up speedily of his own accord. As the case +stands, since he has once overstepped the limits imposed by the laws and +the government and has acquired some power and authority by this action, +it is not conceivable that he would change of his own free will or heed +any one of our resolutions, but it is absolutely requisite that such a +man should be chastised with those very weapons with which he has dared +to wrong us. [-45-] And I beg you now to remember particularly a sentence +which this man himself once uttered, that it is impossible for you to be +saved, unless you conquer. Hence those who bid you send envoys are doing +nothing else than planning how you may be dilatory and the body of your +allies become as a consequence more feeble and dispirited; while he, on +the other hand, will be doing whatever he pleases, will destroy Decimus, +storm Mutina, and capture all of Gaul: the result will be that we can no +longer find means to deal with him, but shall be under the necessity of +trembling before him, paying court to him, worshiping him. This one thing +more about the embassy and I am done:--that Antony also gave you no +account of what business he had in hand, because he intended that you +should do this. + +"I, therefore, for these and all other reasons advise you not to delay +nor to lose time, but to make war upon him as quickly as possible. You +must reflect that the majority of enterprises owe their success rather to +an opportune occasion than to their strength; and you should by all means +feel perfectly sure that I would never give up peace if it were really +peace, in the midst of which I have most influence and have acquired +wealth and reputation, nor have urged you to make war, did I not think it +to your advantage. + +[-46-] And I advise you, Calenus, and the rest who are of the same mind +as you, to be quiet and allow the senate to vote the requisite measures +and not for the sake of your private good-will toward Antony recklessly +betray the common interests of all of us. Indeed, I am of the opinion, +Conscript Fathers, that if you heed my counsel I may enjoy in your +company and with thorough satisfaction freedom and preservation, but that +if you vote anything different, I shall choose to die rather than to +live. I have, in general, never been afraid of death as a consequence of +my outspokenness, and now I fear it least of all. That accounts, indeed, +for my overwhelming success, the proof of which lies in the fact that +you decreed a sacrifice and festival in memory of the deeds done in my +consulship,--an honor which had never before been granted to any one, +even to one who had achieved some great end in war. Death, if it befell +me, would not be at all unseasonable, especially when you consider that +my consulship was so many years ago; yet remember that in that very +consulship I uttered the same sentiment, to make you feel that in any +and all business I despised death. To dread any one, however, that was +against you, and in your company to be a slave to any one would prove +exceedingly unseasonable to me. Wherefore I deem this last to be the ruin +and destruction not only of the body, but of the soul and reputation, +by which we become in a certain sense immortal. But to die speaking and +acting in your behalf I regard as equivalent to immortality. + +[-47-] "And if Antony, also, felt the force of this, he would never have +entered upon such a career, but would have even preferred to die like his +grandfather rather than to behave like Cinna who killed him. For, putting +aside other considerations, Cinna was in turn slain not long afterward +for this and the other sins that he had committed; so that I am surprised +also at this feature in Antony's conduct, that, imitating his works as +he does, he shows no fear of some day falling a victim to a similar +disaster: the murdered man, however, left behind to this very descendant +the reputation of greatness. But the latter has no longer any claim to +be saved on account of his relatives, since he has neither emulated his +grandfather nor inherited his father's property. Who is unaware of the +fact that in restoring many who were exiled in Caesar's time and later, in +accordance forsooth with directions in his patron's papers, he did not +aid his uncle, but brought back his fellow-gambler Lenticulus, who was +exiled for his unprincipal life, and cherishes Bambalio, who is notorious +for his very name, while he has treated his nearest relatives as I have +described and as if he were half angry at them because he was born into +that family. Consequently he never inherited his father's goods, but has +been the heir of very many others, some whom he never saw or heard +of, and others who are still living. That is, he has so stripped and +despoiled them that they differ in no way from dead men." + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +46 + +The following is contained in the Forty-sixth of Dio's Rome: + +How Calenus replied to Cicero in defence of Antony (chapters 1-28). + +How Antony was defeated at Mutina by Caesar and the consuls (chapters +29-38). + +How Caesar came to Rome and was appointed consul (chapters 39-49). + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus formed a solemn pact of union (chapters +50-56). + +Duration of time one year, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +C. Vibius C. filius Pansa Capronianus, Aulus Hirtius Auli filius (B.C. 43 += a. u. 711). + + +(_BOOK 46, BOISSAVAIN_) + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711) ] + +[-1-] When Cicero had finished speaking in this vein, Quintus Fufius +Calenus arose and said:--"Ordinarily I should not have wished either to +say anything in defence of Antony or to assail Cicero. I really do not +think it proper in such discussions as is the present to do either of +these things, but simply to make known what one's opinion is. The +former method belongs to the courtroom, whereas this is a matter of +deliberation. Since, however, he has undertaken to speak ill of Antony on +account of the enmity that exists between them, instead of sending him a +summons, as he ought, if Antony were guilty of any wrong, and since he +has further mentioned me in a calumnious fashion, as if he could not have +exhibited his cleverness without heedlessly insulting one or two persons, +it behooves me also to set aside the imputation against Antony and to +bring counter-charges against the speaker. I would not have his innate +impudence fail of a response nor let my silence aid him by incurring the +suspicion of a guilty conscience; nor would I have you, deceived by what +he said, come to a less worthy decision by accepting his private spleen +against Antony in exchange for the common advantage. [-2-] He wishes +to effect nothing else than that we should abandon looking out for the +safest course for the commonwealth and fall into discord again. It is not +the first time that he has done this, but from the outset, ever since he +had to do with politics, he has been continually causing disturbance one +way or the other. + +"Is he not the one who embroiled Caesar with Pompey and prevented Pompey +from becoming reconciled with Caesar? The one who persuaded you to pass +that vote against Antony by which he irritated Caesar, and persuaded +Pompey to leave Italy and transfer his quarters to Macedonia? This proved +the chief cause of all the evils which befell us subsequently. Is not he +the one who killed Clodius by the hand of Milo, and slew Caesar by the +hand of Brutus? The one who made Catiline hostile to us and despatched +Lentulus without a trial? [-3-] Hence I should be very much surprised +at you, seeing that you then changed your mind about his conduct just +mentioned and made him pay the penalty for it, if you should now heed him +again, when his talk and actions are similar. Do you not see, too, that +after Caesar's death when our affairs were settled in a most tranquil way +by Antony, as not even his accuser can deny, the latter left town because +he deemed our life of harmony to be alien and dangerous to him? That when +he perceived that turmoil had again arisen, he bade a long farewell to +his son and to Athens, and returned? That he insults and abuses Antony, +whom he was wont to say he loved, and cooeperates with Caesar, whose father +he killed? And if chance so favor, he will ere long attack Caesar also. +For the fellow is naturally distrustful and turbulent and has no ballast +in his soul, and he is always stirring things up and twisting about, +turning more ways than the sea-passage to which he fled and got the title +of deserter for it, asking all of you to take that man for friend or foe +whom he bids. + +[-4-] "For these reasons be on your guard against man. He is a juggler +and imposter and grows rich and strong from the ills of others, +blackmailing, dragging, tearing the innocent, as do dogs; but in the +midst of public harmony he is embarrassed and withers away. It is not +friendship or good-will among us that can support this kind of orator. +From what other source do you think he has become rich or from what other +source great? Certainly neither family nor wealth was bequeathed him by +his father the fuller, who was always trading in grapes and olives, a man +who was glad to make both ends meet by this and by his washing, and whose +time was taken up every day and night with the vilest occupations. The +son, having been brought up in them, not unnaturally tramples and dowses +his superiors, using a species of abuse invented in the workshops and on +the street corners. + +[-5-] "Now being of such an origin yourself, and after growing up naked +among your naked companions, picking up pig manure and sheep dung and +human excrement, have you dared, O most accursed wretch, first to slander +the youth of Antony who had the advantage of pedagogues and teachers as +his rank demanded, and next to impugn him because in celebrating the +Lupercalia, an ancestral festival, he came naked into the Forum? But I +ask you, you that always used all the clothes of others on account +of your father's business and were stripped by whoever met you and +recognized them, what ought a man who was not only priest but also leader +of his fellow priests to have done? Not to conduct the procession, not to +celebrate the festival, not to sacrifice according to ancestral custom, +not to appear naked, not to anoint himself? 'But it is not for that that +I censure him,' he answers, 'but because he delivered a speech and +that kind of speech naked in the Forum.' Of course this man has become +acquainted in the fuller's shop with all minute matters of etiquette, +that he should detect a real mistake and be able to rebuke it properly. + +[-6-] "In regard to this matter I will say later all that needs to be +said, but just now I want to ask the speaker a question or two. Is it +not true that you for your part were nourished by the ills of others and +educated in the misfortunes of your neighbors and for this reason are +acquainted with no liberal branch of knowledge, that you have established +a kind of association here and are always waiting, like the harlots, for +a man who will give something, and that having many men in your pay to +attract profit to you you pry into people's affairs to find out who has +wronged (or seems to have wronged) whom, who hates whom, and who is +plotting against whom? With these men you make common cause, and through +these men you are supported, selling them the hopes that chance bestows, +trading in the decisions of the jurors, deeming him alone a friend who +gives more and more, and all those enemies who furnish you no business or +employ some other advocate, while you pretend not even to know those who +are already in your clutch and affect to be bored by them, but fawn upon +and giggle at those just approaching, like the mistresses of inns? + +[-7-] How much better it were that you too should have been born +Bambalio,--if this Bambalio really exists,--than to have taken up such a +livelihood, in which it is absolutely inevitable that you should either +sell your speech in behalf of the innocent, or else preserve the guilty. +Yet you can not do even this effectively, though you wasted three years +in Athens. On what occasion? By what help? Why, you always come trembling +up to court as if you were going to fight in armor and after speaking a +few words in a low and half-dead voice you go away, not remembering a +word of the speech you practiced at home before you came, and without +finding anything to say on the spur of the moment. In making affirmations +and promises you surpass all mankind in audacity, but in the contests +themselves beyond uttering some words of abuse and defamation you are +most weak and cowardly. Do you think any one is ignorant of the fact that +you never delivered one of those wonderful speeches of yours that you +have published, but wrote them all up afterward, like persons who form +generals and masters-of-horse out of day? If you feel doubtful of this +point, remember how you accused Verres,--though, to be sure, you only +gave him an example of your father's trade, when you made water. + +[-8-] "But I hesitate, for fear that in saying precisely what fits your +case I may seem to be uttering words that are unfitting for myself.[14] +This I will pass over; and further, by Jupiter, also the affairs of +Gabinius, against whom, you prepared accusers and then pled his cause in +such a way that he was condemned; and the pamphlets which you compose +against your friends, in regard to which you feel yourself so guilty +that you do not dare to make them public. Yet it is a most miserable and +pitiable state to be in, not to be able to deny these charges which are +the most disgraceful conceivable to admit. But I will leave these to one +side and bring forward the rest. Well, though we did grant the trainer, +as you say, two thousand plethra of the ager Leontinus, we still learned +nothing adequate from it.[15] But who should not admire your system of +instruction? And what is it? You are ever jealous of your superiors, +you always toady to the prominent man, you slander him who has attained +distinction, you inform against the powerful and you hate equally all the +excellent, and you pretend love only for those through whom you may do +some mischief. This is why you are always inciting the younger against +their elders and lead those who trust you even in the slightest into +dangers, where you desert them. [-9-] A proof of this is, that you have +never accomplished any achievement worthy of a distinguished man either +in war or in peace. How many wars have we won under you as praetor and +what kind of territory did we acquire with you as consul? Your private +activity all these years has consisted in continually deceiving some of +the foremost men and winning them to your side and managing everything +you like, while publicly you have been shouting and bawling out at random +those detestable phrases,--'I am the only one that loves you,' or, if it +should so chance, 'And what's-his-name, all the rest, hate you,' and 'I +alone am friendly to you, all the rest are engaged in plots,' and other +such stuff by which you fill some with elation and conceit, only to +betray them, and scare the rest so that you gain their attachment. If any +service is rendered by any one whomsoever of the whole people, you lay +claim to it and write your own name upon it, repeating: 'I moved it, I +proposed it, it was through me that this was done so.' But if anything +happens that ought not to have occurred, you take yourself out of the way +and censure all the rest, saying: 'You see I wasn't praetor, you see +I wasn't envoy, you see I wasn't consul.' And you abuse everybody +everywhere all the time, setting more store by the influence which +comes from appearing to speak your mind boldly than by saying what duty +demands: and you exhibit no important quality of an orator. [-10-] What +public advantage has been preserved or established by you? Who that +was really harming the city have you indicted, and who that was really +plotting against us have you brought to light? To neglect the other +cases,--these very charges which you now bring against Antony are of such +a nature and so many that no one could ever suffer any adequate penalty +for them. Why, then, if you saw us being wronged by him at the start, as +you assert, did you never attack or accuse him at the time, instead of +telling us now all the transgressions he committed when tribune, all his +irregularities when master of horse, all his villanies when consul? You +might at once, at the time, in each specific instance, have inflicted the +appropriate penalty upon him, if you had wanted to show yourself in very +deed a patriot, and we could have imposed the punishment in security +and safety during the course of the offences themselves. One of two +conclusions is inevitable,--either that you believed this to be so at the +time and renounced the idea of a struggle in our behalf, or else that you +could not prove any of your charges and are now engaged in a reckless +course of blackmail. + +[-11-] "That this is so I will show you clearly, Conscript Fathers, by +going over each point in detail. Antony did say some words during his +tribuneship in Caesar's behalf: Cicero and some others spoke in behalf of +Pompey. Why now does he accuse him of preferring one man's friendship, +but acquit himself and the rest who warmly embraced the opposite cause? +Antony, to be sure, hindered at that time some measures adverse to Caesar +from being passed: and Cicero hindered practically everything that was +known to be favorable to Caesar. 'But Antony obstructed,' he replies, 'the +public judgment of the senate.' Well, now, in the first place, how could +one man have had so much power? Second, if he had been condemned for +this, as is said, how could he have escaped punishment? 'Oh, he fled, he +fled to Caesar and got out of the way.' Of course you, Cicero, did not +'leave town' just now, but you fled, as in your former exile.[16] Don't +be so ready to apply your own shame to all of us. To flee is what you +did, in fear of the court, and pronouncing condemnation on yourself +beforehand. Yes, to be sure, an ordinance was passed for your recall; how +and for what reasons I do not say, but at any rate it was passed, and you +did not set foot in Italy before the recall was granted. But Antony both +went away to Caesar to inform him what had been done and returned, without +asking for any decree, and finally effected peace and friendship with him +for all those that were found in Italy. And the rest, too, would have had +a share in it, if they had not taken your advice and fled. [-12-] Now in +view of those circumstances do you dare to say he led Caesar against his +country and stirred up the civil war and became more than any one else +responsible for the subsequent evils that befell us? Not so, but you, +who gave Pompey legions that belonged to others and the command, and +undertook to deprive Caesar even of those that had been given him: it was +you, who agreed with Pompey and the consuls not to accept the offers made +by Caesar, but to abandon the city and the whole of Italy: you, who did +not see Caesar even when he entered Rome, but had run off to Pompey +and into Macedonia. Not even to him, however, did you prove of any +assistance, but you neglected what was going on, and then, when he met +with misfortune, you abandoned him. Therefore you did not aid him at the +outset on the ground that he had the juster cause, but after setting +in motion the dispute and embroiling affairs you lay in wait at a safe +distance for a favorable turn; you at once deserted the man who failed, +as if that somehow proved him guilty, and went over to the victor, as if +you deemed him more just. And in addition to your other defects you are +so ungrateful that not only are you not satisfied to have been preserved +by him, but you are actually displeased that you were not made master of +the horse. + +[-13-] "Then with this on your conscience do you dare to say that Antony +ought not to have held the office of master of the horse for a year, and +that Caesar ought not to have remained dictator for a year? But whether it +was wise or necessary for these measures to be framed, at any rate they +were both passed, and they suited us and the people. Censure these men, +Cicero, if they have transgressed in any particular, but not, by Jupiter, +those whom they have chosen to honor for showing themselves worthy of +so great a reward. For if we were forced by the circumstances that then +surrounded us to act in this way and contrary to good policy, why do you +now lay this upon Antony's shoulders, and why did you not oppose it then +if you were able? Because, by Jupiter, you were afraid. Then shall you, +who were at that time silent, obtain pardon for your cowardice, and shall +he, because he was preferred before you, submit to penalties for his +excellence? Where did you learn that this was just, or where did you read +that this was lawful? + +[-14-] "'But he did not rightly use his position as master of horse.' +Why? 'Because,' he answers, 'he bought Pompey's possessions.' How many +others are there who purchased numberless articles, no one of whom +is blamed? That was the purpose in confiscating certain articles and +exposing them in the market and proclaiming them by the voice of the +public crier, to have somebody buy them. 'But Pompey's goods ought not to +have been sold.' Then it was we who erred and did wrong in confiscating +them; or (to clear your skirts and ours) it was at least Caesar who acted +irregularly, he who ordered this to be done: yet you did not censure him +at all. I maintain that in this charge he is proven to be absolutely +beside himself. He has brought against Antony two quite opposite +accusations,--one, that after helping Caesar in very many ways and +receiving in return vast gifts from him he was then required under +compulsion to surrender the price of them, and the second, that he +inherited naught from his father, spent all that he had like Charybdis +(the speaker is always bringing in some comparison from Sicily, as if we +had forgotten that he had been exiled there), and paid the price of all +that he purchased. + +[-15-] "So in these charges this remarkable orator is convicted of +violently contradicting himself and, by Jupiter, again in the following +statements. At one time he says that Antony took part in everything +that was done by Caesar and by this means became more than any one else +responsible for all our internal evils, and again he charges him with +cowardice, reproaching him with not having shared in any other exploits +than those performed in Thessaly. And he makes a complaint against him to +the effect that he restored some of the exiles and finds fault with him +because he did not secure the recall of his uncle; as if any one believes +that he would not have restored him first of all, if he had been able to +recall whomsoever he pleased, since there was no grievance on either side +between them, as this speaker himself knows. Indeed, though he told many +wretched lies about Antony, he did not dare to say anything of that kind. +But he is utterly reckless about letting slip anything that comes to his +tongue's end, as if it were mere breath. + +[-16-] "Why should one follow this line of refutation further? Turning +now to the fact that he goes about with such a tragic air, and has but +this moment said in the course of his remarks that Antony rendered the +sight of the master of the horse most oppressive by using everywhere +and under all circumstances the sword, the purple, the lictors, and the +soldiers at once, let him tell me clearly how and in what respect we have +been wronged by this. He will have no statement to make; for if he had +had, he would have sputtered it out before anything else. Quite the +reverse of his charge is true. Those who were quarreling at that time +and causing all the trouble were Trebellius and Dolabella: Antony did no +wrong and was active in every way in our behalf, so much so that he was +entrusted by us with guarding the city against those very men, and not +only did this remarkable orator not oppose it (he was there) but even +approved it. Else let him show what syllable he uttered on seeing the +licentious and accursed fellow (to quote from his abuse), besides doing +nothing that the occasion required, securing also so great authority from +you. He will have nothing to show. So it looks as if not a word of what +he now shouts aloud was ventured at that time by this great and patriotic +orator, who is everywhere and always saying and repeating: 'I alone am +contending for freedom, I alone speak freely for the democracy; I cannot +be restrained by favor of friends or fear of enemies from looking out for +your advantage; I, even if it should be my lot to die in speaking in your +behalf, will perish very gladly.' And his silence was very natural, for +it occurred to him to reflect that Antony possessed the lictors and the +purple-bordered vesture in accordance with the customs of our ancestors +in regard to masters of horse, and that he was using the sword and the +soldiers perforce against the rebels. For what most excessive outrages +would they not have committed but for his being hedged about with these +protections, when some of them so despised him as it was? + +[-17-] "That these and all his other acts were correct and most +thoroughly in accord with Caesar's intention the facts themselves show. +The rebellion went no further, and Antony, far from paying a penalty for +his course, was subsequently appointed consul. Notice, I beg of you, how +he administered this office of his. You will find, if you scrutinize the +matter minutely, that its tenure proved of great value to the city. +His traducer, knowing this, could not endure his jealousy but dared to +slander him for those deeds which he would have longed to do himself. +That is why he introduced the matter of his stripping and anointing and +those ancient fables, not because there was any pertinence in them now, +but in order to obscure by external noise his opponent's consummate skill +and success. Yet this same Antony, O thou earth, and ye gods (I shall +call louder than you and invoke them with greater justice), saw that the +city was already in reality under a tyranny through the fact that all +the legions obeyed Caesar and all the people together with the senate +submitted to him to such an extent that they voted among other measures +that he should be dictator for life and use the appurtenances of a king. +Then he showed Caesar his error most convincingly and restrained him most +prudently, until the latter, abashed and afraid, would not accept either +the name of king or the diadem, which he had in mind to bestow upon +himself even against our will. Any other man would have declared that +he had been ordered to do it by his master, and putting forward the +compulsion as an excuse would have obtained pardon for it,--yes, indeed, +he would, when you think of what kind of votes we had passed at that time +and what power the soldiers had secured. Antony, however, because he was +thoroughly acquainted with Caesar's disposition and accurately aware of +all he was preparing to do, by great good judgment succeeded in turning +him aside from his course and retarding his ambitions. The proof of it +is that afterward he no longer behaved in any way like a monarch, but +mingled publicly and unprotected with us all; and that accounts most of +all for the possibility of his meeting the fate that he did. + +[-18-] "This is what was done, O Cicero or Cicerulus or Ciceracius or +Ciceriscus or Graeculus[17] or whatever you like to be called, by the +uneducated, the naked, the anointed man: and none of it was done by you, +the clever, the wise, the user of much more olive oil than wine, you who +let your clothing drag about your ankles not, by Jupiter, as the dancers +do, who teach you intricacies of reasoning by their poses, but in order +to hide the ugliness of your legs. Oh no, it's not through modesty that +you do this, you who delivered that long screed about Antony's habits. +Who is there that does not see these soft clothes of yours? Who does not +scent your carefully combed gray locks? Who is there unaware that you put +away your first wife who had borne you two children, and at an advanced +age married another, a mere girl, in order that you might pay your debts +out of her property? And you did not even retain her, to the end that you +might keep Caerellia fearlessly, whom you debauched when she was as much +older than yourself as the maiden you married was younger, and to whom +you write such letters as a jester at no loss for words would write if +he were trying to get up an amour with a woman seventy years old. +This, which is not altogether to my taste, I have been induced to say, +Conscript Fathers, in the hope that he should not go away without getting +as good as he sent in the discussion. Again, he has ventured to reproach +Antony for a little kind of banquet, because he, as he says, drinks +water, his purpose being to sit up at night and compose speeches against +us,--though he brings up his son in such drunkenness that the latter is +sober neither night nor day. Furthermore he undertook to make derogatory +remarks about Antony's mouth, this man who has shown so great +licentiousness and impurity throughout his entire life that he would not +keep his hands off even his closest kin, but let out his wife for hire +and deflowered his daughter. + +[-18-] "These particulars I shall leave as they stand and return to the +point where I started. That Antony against whom he has inveighed, seeing +Caesar exalted over our government, caused him by granting what seemed +personal favors to a friend not to put into effect any of the projects +that he had in mind. Nothing so diverts persons from objects which they +may attain without caring to secure them righteously, as for those who +fear such results to appear to endure the former's conduct willingly. +These persons in authority have no regard for their own consciousness of +guilt, but if they think they have been detected, they are ashamed and +afraid: thereafter they usually take what is said to them as flattery and +believe the opposite, and any action which may result from the words as +a plot, being suspicious in the midst of their shame. Antony knew +this thoroughly, and first of all he selected the Lupercalia and that +procession in order that Caesar in the relaxation of his spirit and the +fun of the affair might be rebuked with immunity, and next he selected +the Forum and the rostra that his patron might be shamed by the very +places. And he fabricated the commands from the populace, in order that +hearing them Caesar might reflect not on what Antony was saying at the +time, but on what the Roman people would order a man to say. How could +he have believed that this injunction had really been laid upon any one, +when he knew that the people had not voted anything of the kind and did +not hear them shouting out. But it was right for him to hear this in the +Roman Forum, where we had often joined in many deliberations for freedom, +and beside the rostra from which we had sent forth thousands and +thousands of measures in behalf of the democracy, and at the festival of +the Lupercalia, in order that he should remember Romulus, and from the +mouth of the consul that he might call to mind the deeds of the early +consuls, and in the name of the people, that he might ponder the fact +that he was undertaking to be tyrant not over Africans or Gauls or +Egyptians, but over very Romans. These words made him turn about; they +humiliated him. And whereas if any one else had offered him the diadem, +he might have taken it, he was then stopped short by that speech and felt +a shudder of alarm. + +"These, then are the deeds of Antony: he did not uselessly break a leg, +in order himself to escape, nor burn off a hand, in order to frighten +Porsenna, but by his cleverness and consummate skill he put an end to +the tyranny of Caesar better than any spear of Decius and better than the +sword of Brutus. [-20-] But you, Cicero, what did you effect in your +consulship, not to mention wise and good things, that was not deserving +of the greatest punishment? Did you not throw our city into uproar and +party strife when it was quiet and harmonious, and fill the Forum and +Capitol with slaves, among others, that you had called to your aid? Did +you not ruin miserably Catiline, who was overanxious for office, but +otherwise guilty of no violence? Did you not pitiably destroy Lentulus +and his followers, who were not guilty, not tried, and not convicted, in +spite of the fact that you are always and everywhere prating interminably +about the laws and about the courts? If any one should take these phrases +from your speeches, there is nothing left. You censured Pompey because +he conducted the trial of Milo contrary to legalized precedent: yet you +afforded Lentulus no privilege great or small that is enjoined in these +cases, but without a speech or trial you cast him into prison, a man +respectable, aged, whose ancestors had given many great pledges that he +would be friendly to his country, and who by reason of his age and his +character had no power to do anything revolutionary. What trouble did he +have that would have been cured by the change of condition? What blessing +did he possess that would not certainly be jeopardized by rebellion? What +arms had he collected, what allies had he equipped, that a man who had +been consul and was praetor should be so pitilessly and impiously cast +into a cell without being allowed to say a word of defence or hear a +single charge, and die there like the basest criminals? For this is what +this excellent Tullius most of all desired,--that in [the Tullianum,] the +place that bears his name, he might put to death the grandson of that +Lentulus once became the head of the senate. [-21-] What would he +have done if he had obtained authority to bear arms, seeing that he +accomplished so many things of such a nature by his words alone? These +are your brilliant achievements, these are your great exhibitions of +generalship; and not only were you condemned for them by the rest, but +you were so ready to vote against your own self in the matter that you +fled before your trial came on. Yet what greater demonstration of your +bloodguiltiness could there be than that you came in danger of perishing +at the hands of those very persons in whose behalf you pretended you had +done this, that you were afraid of the very ones whom you said you had +benefited by these acts, and that you did not wait to hear from them or +say a word to them, you clever, you extraordinary man, you aider of other +people, but secured your safety by flight as if from a battle? And you +are so shameless that you have undertaken to write a history of these +events that I have related, whereas you ought to have prayed that no +other man even should give an account of any of them: then you might at +least derive this advantage, that your doings should die with you and no +memory of them be transmitted to posterity. Now, gentlemen, if you want +to laugh, listen to his clever device. He set himself the task of writing +a history of the entire existence of the city (for he pretends to be a +sophist and poet and philosopher and orator and historian), and he began +not from the founding of it, like the rest are similarly busied, but from +his own consulship, so that he might proceed backwards, making that the +beginning of his account, and the kingdom of Romulus the end. + +[-22-] "Tell me now, you who write such things and do such things, what +the excellent man ought to say in popular address and do in action: for +you are better at advising others about any matter whatsoever than at +doing your own duty, and better at rebuking others than at reforming +yourself. Yet how much better it were for you instead of reproaching +Antony with cowardice to lay aside yourself that effeminacy both of +spirit and of body, instead of bringing a charge of disloyalty against +him to cease yourself from doing anything disloyal or playing the +deserter, instead of accusing him of ingratitude to cease yourself from +wronging your benefactors! For this, I must tell you, is one of his +inherent defects, that he hates above all those who have done him any +favor, and is always fawning upon somebody else but plotting against +these persons. To leave aside other instances, he was pitied and +preserved by Caesar and enrolled among the patricians, after which he +killed him,--no, not with his own hand (he is too cowardly and womanish), +but by persuading and making ready others who should do it. The men +themselves showed that I speak the truth in this. When they ran out into +the Forum with their naked blades, they invoked him by name, saying +'Cicero!' repeatedly, as you all heard. His benefactor, Caesar, then, he +slew, and as for Antony from whom he obtained personally safety and +a priesthood when he was in danger of perishing at the hands of the +soldiers in Brundusium, he repays him with this sort of thanks, by +accusing him for deeds with which neither he himself nor any one else +ever found any fault and attacking him for conduct which he praises in +others. Yet he sees this Caesar, who has not attained the age yet to hold +office or have any part in politics and has not been chosen by you, sees +him equipped with power and standing as the author of a war without our +vote or orders, and not only has no blame to bestow, but pronounces +laudations. So you perceive that he investigates neither what is just +with reference to the laws nor what is useful with reference to the +public weal, but simply manages everything to suit his own will, +censuring in some what he extols in others, spreads false reports against +you, and calumniates you gratuitously.[-23-] For you will find that all +of Antony's acts after Caesar's demise were ordered by you. To speak about +the disposition of the funds and the examination of the letters I deem to +be superfluous. Why so? Because first it would be the business of the one +who inherited his property to look into the matter, and second, if there +was any truth in the charge of malfeasance, it ought to have been +stopped then on the moment. For none of the transactions was carried on +underhandedly, Cicero, but they were all recorded on tablets, as you +yourself affirm. If Antony committed his many wrongs so openly and +shamelessly as you say, and plundered the whole of Crete on the pretext +that in accord with Caesar's letters it had been left free after the +governorship of Brutus, though the latter was later given charge of it by +us, how could you have kept silent and how could any one else have borne +it? But these matters, as I said, I shall pass over; for the majority of +them have not been mentioned individually, and Antony is not present, +who could inform you exactly of what he has done in each instance. As to +Macedonia and Gaul and the remaining provinces and legions, yours are +the decrees, Conscript Fathers, according to which you assigned to the +various governors their separate charges and delivered to Antony Gaul, +together with the soldiers. This is known also to Cicero. He was there +and helped vote for all of them just like you. Yet how much better it +would have been for him then to speak in opposition, if any item of +business was not going as it should, and to instruct you in these matters +that are now brought forward, than to be silent at the time and allow +you to make mistakes, and now nominally to censure Antony but really to +accuse the senate! + +[-24-] "Any sensible person could not assert, either, that Antony forced +you to vote these measures. He himself had no band of soldiers so as to +compel you to do anything contrary to your inclinations, and further the +business was done for the good of the city. For since the legions had +been sent ahead and united, there was fear that when they heard of +Caesar's assassination they might revolt, put some inferior man at their +head, and begin to wage war again: so it seemed good to you, taking a +proper and excellent course, to place in command of them Antony the +consul, who was charged with the promotion of harmony, who had rejected +the dictatorship entirely from the system of government. And that is the +reason that you gave him Gaul in place of Macedonia, that he should stay +here in Italy, committing no harm, and do at once whatever errand was +assigned him by you. + +[-25-] "This I have said to you that you may know that you decided +rightly. For Cicero that other point of mine was sufficient,--namely, +that he was present during all these proceedings and helped us to pass +the measures, though Antony had not a soldier at the time and could not +have brought to bear on us pressure in the shape of any terror that would +have made us neglect a single point of our interest. But even if you were +then silent, tell us now at least: what ought we to have done under the +circumstances? Leave the legions leaderless? Would they have failed +to fill both Macedonia and Italy with countless evils? Commit them to +another? And whom could we have found more closely related and suited +to the business than Antony, the consul, the director of all the city's +affairs, the one who had taken such good care of harmony among us, the +one who had given countless examples of his affection for the State? Some +one of the assassins, perhaps? Why, it wasn't even safe for them to live +in the city. Some one of the party opposed to them? Everybody suspected +those people. What other man was there surpassing him in esteem, +excelling him in experience? Or are you vexed that we did not choose you? +What kind of administration would you have given? What would you not have +done when you got arms and soldiers, considering that you occasioned so +many and so great instances of turmoil in your consulship as a result of +these elaborate antitheses, which you have made your specialty, of which +alone you were master. [-26-] But I return to my point that you were +present when it was being voted and said nothing against it, but assented +to all the measures as being obviously excellent and necessary. You did +not lack opportunity to speak; indeed you roared out considerable that +was beside the purpose. Nor were you afraid of anybody. How could you, +who did not fear the armed warrior, have quailed before the defenceless +man? Or how have feared him alone when you do not dread him in the +possession of many soldiers! Yes, you also give yourself airs for +absolutely despising death, as you affirm. + +"Since these facts are so, which of the two, senators, seems to be in the +wrong, Antony, who is managing the forces granted him by us, or Caesar, +who is surrounded with such a large band of his own? Antony, who has +departed to take up the office committed to him by us, or Brutus, who +prevents him from setting foot in the country? Antony, who wishes to +compel our allies to obey our decrees, or they, who have not received the +ruler sent them by us but have attached themselves to the man who was +voted against? Antony, who keeps our soldiers together, or the soldiers, +who have abandoned their commander? Antony, who has introduced not one of +these soldiers granted him by us into the city, or Caesar, who by money +persuaded those who had long ago been in service to come here? I think +there is no further need of argument to answer the imputation that he +does not seem to be managing correctly all the duties laid upon him by +us, and to show that these men ought to suffer punishment for what they +have ventured on their own responsibility. Therefore you also secured the +guard of soldiers that you might discuss in safety the present situation, +not on account of Antony, who had caused no trouble privately nor +intimidated you in any way, but on account of his rival, who both had +gathered a force against him and has often kept many soldiers in the city +itself. + +[-27-] "I have said so much for Cicero's benefit, since it was he who +began unfair argument against us. I am not generally quarrelsome, as he +is, nor do I care to pry into others' misdeeds, as he continually gives +himself airs for doing. Now I will tell you what advice I have to give, +not favoring Antony at all nor calumniating Caesar or Brutus, but planning +for the common advantage, as is proper. I declare that we ought not yet +to make an enemy of either of these men in arms nor to enquire exactly +what they have been doing or in what way. The present crisis is not +suitable for this action, and as they are all alike our fellow-citizens, +if any one of them fails the loss will be ours, or if any one of them +succeeds his aggrandizement will be a menace to us. Wherefore I believe +that we ought to treat them as friends and citizens and send messengers +to all of them alike, bidding them lay down their arms and put themselves +and their legions in our hands, and that we ought not yet to wage war on +any one of them, but after their replies have come back approve those who +are willing to obey us and fight against the disobedient. This course is +just and expedient for us,--not to be in a hurry or do anything rashly, +but to wait and after giving the leaders themselves and their soldiers an +opportunity to change their minds, then, if in such case there be need of +war, to give the consuls charge of it. + +[-28-] "And you, Cicero, I advise not to show a womanish sauciness nor +to imitate Bambalio even in making war[18] nor because of your private +enmity toward Antony to plunge the whole city publicly again into danger. +You will do well if you even become reconciled to him, with whom you have +often enjoyed friendly intercourse. But even if you continue embittered +against him, at least spare us, and do not after acting as the promoter +of friendship among us then destroy it. Remember that day and the speech +which you delivered in the precinct of Tellus, and yield a little to this +goddess of Concord under whose guidance we are now deliberating, and +avoid discrediting those statements and making them appear as if not +uttered from a sincere heart, or by somebody else on that occasion. This +is to the advantage of the State and will bring you most renown. Do not +think that audacity is either glorious or safe, and do not feel sure +of being praised just for saying that you despise death. Such men all +suspect and hate as being likely to venture some deed of evil through +desperation. Those whom they see, however, paying greatest attention to +their own safety they praise and laud, because such would not willingly +do anything that merited death. Do you, therefore, if you honestly +wish your country to be safe, speak and act in such a way as will both +preserve yourself and not, by Jupiter, involve us in your destruction!" + +[-29-] Such language from Calenus Cicero would not endure. He himself +always spoke his mind intemperately and immoderately to all alike, but he +never thought he ought to get a similar treatment from others. On this +occasion, too, he gave up considering the public interest and set himself +to abusing his opponent until that day was spent, and naturally for +the most part uselessly. On the following day and the third many other +arguments were adduced on both sides, but the party of Caesar prevailed. +So they voted first a statue to the man himself and the right to +deliberate among the ex-quaestors as well as of being a candidate for the +other offices ten years sooner than custom allowed, and that he should +receive from the City the money which he had spent for his soldiers, +because he had equipped them at his own cost for her defence: second, +that both his soldiers and those that had abandoned Antony should have +the privilege of not fighting in any other war and that land should be +given them at once. To Antony they sent an embassy which should order him +to give up the legions, leave Gaul, and withdraw into Macedonia--and to +his followers they issued a proclamation to return home before a given +day or to know that they would occupy the position of enemies. Moreover +they removed the senators who had received from him governorships over +the provinces and resolved that others should be sent in their place. +These measures were ratified at that time. Not long after, before +learning his decision, they voted that a state of rebellion existed, +changed their senatorial garb, gave charge of the war against him to the +consuls and Caesar (a kind of pretorian office), and ordered Lepidus and +Lucius Munatius Plancus, who was governing a portion of Transalpine Gaul, +to render assistance. + +[-30-] In this way did they themselves furnish an excuse for hostility +to Antony, who was without this anxious to make war. He was pleased to +receive news of the decrees and forthwith violently reproached the envoys +with not treating him rightly or fairly as compared with the youth +(meaning Caesar). He also sent others in his turn, so as to put the blame +of the war upon the senators, and make some counter-propositions which +saved his face but were impossible of performance by Caesar and those who +sided with him. He intended not to fulfill one of their demands, well +aware that they too would not take up with anything that he submitted. He +promised, however, that he would do all that they had determined, that he +himself might have a refuge in saying that he would have done it, while +at the same time his opponent's party would be before him in becoming +responsible for the war, by refusing the terms he laid before them. In +fine, he said that he would abandon Gaul and disband his legions, if they +would grant these soldiers the same rewards as they had voted to Caesar's +and would elect Cassius and Marcus Brutus consuls. He brought in the +names of these men in his request with the purpose that they should +not harbor any ill-will toward him for his operations against their +fellow-conspirator Decimus. + +[-31-] Antony made these offers knowing well that neither of them would +be acted upon. Caesar would never have endured that the murderers of his +father should become consuls or that Antony's soldiers by receiving the +same as his own should feel still more kindly toward his rival. Nor, as a +matter of fact, were his offers ratified, but they again declared war +on Antony and gave notice to his associates to leave him, appointing a +different day. All, even such as were not to take the field, arrayed +themselves in military cloaks, and they committed to the consuls the care +of the city, attaching to the decree the customary clause "to the end +that it suffer no harm." And since there was need of large funds for the +war, they all contributed the twenty-fifth part of the property they +owned and the senators also four asses[19] per tile of all the houses in +the city that they themselves owned or dwelt in belonging to others. The +very wealthy besides donated no little more, while many cities and +many individuals manufactured gratuitously weapons and other necessary +accoutrements for a campaign. The public treasury was at that time so +empty that not even the festivals which were due to fall during that +season were celebrated, except some small ones out of religious scruple. +[-32-] These subscriptions were given readily by those who favored Caesar +and hated Antony. The majority, however, being oppressed by the campaigns +and the taxes at once were irritated, particularly because it was +doubtful which of the two would conquer but quite evident that they would +be slaves of the conqueror. Many of those, therefore, that wished Antony +well, went straight to him, among them tribunes and a few praetors: others +remained in their places, one of whom was Calenus, but did all that they +could for him, some things secretly and other things with an open defence +of their conduct. Hence they did not change their costume immediately, +and persuaded the senate to send envoys again to Antony, among them +Cicero: in doing this they pretended that the latter might persuade him +to make terms, but their real purpose was that he should be removed from +their path. He too reflected on this possibility and becoming alarmed +would not venture to expose himself in the camp of Antony. As a result +none of the other envoys set out either. + +[-33-] While this was being done portents of no small moment again +occurred, significant for the City, and for the consul Vibius himself. +In the last assembly before they set out for the war a man with the +so-called sacred disease[20] fell down while Vibius was speaking. Also a +bronze statue of him which stood at the porch of his house turned around +of itself on the day and at the hour that he started on the campaign, and +the sacrifices customary before war could not be interpreted by the seers +by reason of the quantity of blood. Likewise a man who was just then +bringing him a palm slipped in the blood which had been shed, fell, and +defiled the palm. These were the portents in his case. Now if they had +befallen him when a private citizen, they would have pertained to him +alone, but since he was consul they had a bearing on all alike. They +included the following incidents: the figure of the Mother of the Gods on +the Palatine formerly facing the east turned around of its own accord +to the west; that of Minerva held in honor near Mutina, where the most +fighting was going on, sent forth after this a quantity of blood and +milk; furthermore the consuls took their departure just before the Feriae +Latinae; and there is no case where this happened that the forces fared +well. So at this time, too, both the consuls and a vast multitude of the +people perished, some immediately and some later, and also many of the +knights and senators, including the most prominent. For in the first +place the battles, and in the second place the assassinations at home +which occurred again as in the Sullan regime, destroyed all the flower of +them except those actually concerned in the murders. + +[-34-] Responsibility for these evils rested on the senators themselves. +For whereas they ought to have set at their head some one man of superior +judgment and to have cooeperated with him continuously, they failed to do +this, but made proteges of a few whom they strengthened against the +rest, and later undertook to overthrow these favorites as well, and +consequently they found no one a friend but all hostile. The comparative +attitude of men toward those who have injured them and toward their +benefactors is different, for they remember a grudge even against their +wills but willingly forget to be thankful. This is partly because they +disdain to appear to have been kindly treated by any persons, since +they will seem to be the weaker of the two, and partly because they are +irritated at the idea that they will be thought to have been injured by +anybody with impunity, since that will imply cowardice on their part. +So those senators by not taking up with some one person, but attaching +themselves to one and another in turn, and voting and doing now something +for them, now something against them, suffered much because of them +and much also at their hands. All the leaders had one purpose in the +war,--the abolition of the popular power and the setting up of a +sovereignty. Some were fighting to see whose slaves they should be, and +others to see who should be their master; and so both of them equally +wrought havoc, and each of them won glory according to fortune, which +varied. The successful warriors were deemed shrewd and patriotic, and the +defeated ones were called both enemies of their country and pestilential +fellows. + +[-35-] This was the state that the Roman affairs had at that time +reached: I shall now go on to describe the separate events. There seems +to me to be a very large amount of self-instruction possible, when one +takes facts as the basis of his reasoning, investigates the nature of +the former by the latter, and then proves his reasoning true by its +correspondence with the facts. + +The precise reason for Antony's besieging Decimus in Mutina was that +the latter would not give up Gaul to him, but he pretended that it was +because Decimus had been one of Caesar's assassins. For since the true +cause of the war brought him no credit, and at the same time he saw the +popular party flocking to Caesar to avenge his father, he put forward this +excuse for the conflict. That it was a mere pretext for getting control +of Gaul he himself made plain in demanding that Cassius and Marcus Brutus +be appointed consuls. Each of these two utterances, of the most opposite +character as they were, he made with an eye to his own advantage. Caesar +had begun a campaign against his rival before the war was granted him by +the vote, but had done nothing worthy of importance. When he learned +of the decrees passed he accepted the honors and was glad, especially +because when he was sacrificing at the time of receiving the distinction +and authority of praetor the livers of all the victims, twelve in number, +were found to be double. He was impatient, to be sure, at the fact that +envoys and proposals had been sent also to Antony, instead of unrelenting +war being declared against him at once, and most of all because he +ascertained that the consuls had forwarded some private despatch to his +rival about harmony, that when some letters sent by the latter to certain +senators had been captured these officials had handed them to the persons +addressed, concealing the transaction from him, and that they were not +carrying on the war zealously or promptly, making the winter their +excuse. However, as he had no means of making known these facts,--for he +did not wish to alienate them, and on the other hand he was unable to use +any persuasion or force,--he stayed quiet himself in winter quarters in +Forum Cornelium, until he became frightened about Decimus. [-36-] The +latter had previously been vigorously fighting Antony off. On one +occasion, suspecting that some men had been sent into the city by him +to corrupt the soldiers, he called all those present together and after +giving them a few hints proclaimed by herald that all the men under arms +should go to one side of a certain place that he pointed out and the +private citizens to the other side of it: in this way he detected and +arrested Antony's followers, who were isolated and did not know which way +to turn. Later he was entirely shut in by a wall; and Caesar, fearing he +might be captured by storm or capitulate through lack of provisions, +compelled Hirtius to join a relief party. Vibius was still in Rome +raising levies and abolishing the laws of Antony. Accordingly, they +started out and without a blow took possession of Bononia, which had been +abandoned by the garrisons, and routed the cavalry who later confronted +them: by reason of the river, however, near Mutina and the guard beside +it they found themselves unable to proceed farther. They wished, +notwithstanding, even so to make known their presence to Decimus, that +he might not in undue season make terms, and at first they tried sending +signals from the tallest trees. But since he did not understand, they +scratched a few words on a thin sheet of lead, and rolling it up like a +piece of paper gave it to a diver to carry across under water by night. +Thus Decimus learned at the same time of their presence and their promise +of assistance, and sent them a reply in the same fashion, after which +they continued uninterruptedly to communicate all their plans to each +other. + +[-37-] Antony, therefore, seeing that Decimus was not inclined to yield, +left him to the charge of his brother Lucius, and himself proceeded +against Caesar and Hirtius. The two armies faced each other for a number +of days and a few insignificant cavalry battles occurred, with honors +even. Finally the Celtic cavalry, of whom Caesar had gained possession +along with the elephants, withdrew to Antony's side again. They had +started from the camp with the rest and had gone on ahead as if intending +to engage separately those of the enemy who came to meet them; but after +a little they turned about and unexpectedly attacked those following +behind (who did not stand their ground), killing many of them. After this +some foraging parties on both sides fell to blows and when the remainder +of each party came to the rescue a sharp battle ensued between the two +forces, in which Antony was victorious. Elated by his success and in +the knowledge that Vibius was approaching he assailed the antagonists' +fortification, thinking possibly to destroy it beforehand and make the +rest of the conflict easier. They, in consideration of their disaster and +the hope which Vibius inspired, kept guard but would not come out for +battle. Hence Antony left behind there a certain portion of his army with +orders to come to close quarters with them and so make it appear as much +as possible that he himself was there and at the same time to take +good care that no one should fall upon his rear. After issuing these +injunctions he set out secretly by night against Vibius, who was +approaching from Bononia. By an ambush he succeeded in wounding the +latter severely, in killing the majority of his soldiers and confining +the rest within their ramparts. He would have annihilated them, had +he proceeded to besiege them for any time at all. As it was, after +accomplishing nothing at the first assault he began to be alarmed lest +while he was delaying he should receive some setback from Caesar and the +rest; so he again turned against them. Wearied by the journey both ways +and by the battle he was also in doubt whether he should find that his +opponents had conquered the force hostile to them; and in this condition +he was confronted by Hirtius and suffered a decisive defeat. For when +Hirtius and Caesar perceived what was going on, the latter remained to +keep watch over the camp while the former set out against Antony. [-38-] +Upon the latter's defeat not only Hirtius was saluted as imperator by +the soldiers and by the senate, but likewise Vibius, though he had +fared badly, and Caesar who had done no fighting even. To those who had +participated in the conflict and had perished there was voted a public +burial, and it was resolved that the prizes of war which they had taken +while alive should be restored to their fathers and sons. + +Following this official action Pontius Aquila, one of the assassins and +a lieutenant of Decimus, conquered in battle Titus Munatius Plancus, who +opposed him; and Decimus, when a certain senator deserted to Antony, +so far from displaying anger toward him sent back all his baggage and +whatever else he had left behind in Mutina, the result being that the +affection of many of Antony's soldiers grew cool, and some of the nations +which had previously sympathized with him proceeded to rebel: Caesar and +Hirtius, however, were elated at this, and approaching the fortifications +of Antony challenged him to combat; he for a time was alarmed and +remained quiet, but later when some reinforcements sent by Lepidus came +to him he took courage. Lepidus himself did not make it clear to which +of the two sides he sent the army: he thought well of Antony, who was a +relative, but had been summoned against him by the senate; and for these +reasons he made plans to have a refuge in store with both parties, by not +giving to Marcus Silanus, the commander, orders that were in the least +clear. But he, doubtless knowing well his master's frame of mind, went on +his own responsibility to Antony. [-39-] So when the latter had been thus +assisted he became bold and made a sudden sally from the gates: there was +great slaughter on both sides, but at last he turned and fled. + +Up to this time Caesar was being strengthened by the people and the +senate, and because of this expected that among other honors to be +bestowed he would be forthwith appointed consul. It happened that Hirtius +perished in the occupation of Antony's camp and Vibius died of his wounds +not long after, so that Caesar was charged with having caused their death +that he might succeed to the office. But the senate had previously, while +it was still uncertain which of the two would prevail, done away with all +the privileges which formerly, granted to any person beyond the customs +of the forefathers, had paved the way to sovereignty: they voted that +this edict should apply to both parties, intending by it to anticipate +the victor, while laying the blame upon the other, who should be +defeated. First they forbade any one to hold office more than a year, and +second that any superintendent of grain supplies or commissioner of food +should be chosen. When they ascertained the outcome, they rejoiced at +Antony's defeat, changed their raiment once more, and celebrated a solemn +thanksgiving for sixty[21] days. All those arrayed on his side they held +in the light of enemies, and took possession of their property as they +did of the leader's. [-40-] Nor did they propose that Caesar any longer +should receive any great reward, but even undertook to overthrow him, by +allowing Decimus to secure all the prizes for which he was hoping. They +voted Decimus not only the right of sacrifice but a triumph and gave him +charge of the rest of the war and of the legions,--those of Vibius and +others. Upon the soldiers that had been besieged with him they resolved +that eulogies should be bestowed and all the other rewards which +had formerly been offered to Caesar's men, although these troops had +contributed nothing to the victory, but had merely beheld it from the +walls. Aquila, who had died in the battle, they honored with an image, +and restored to his heirs the money which he had expended from his own +purse for the equipment of Decimus's soldiers. In a word, practically +every advantage that had been given Caesar against Antony was voted to +others against the man himself. And to the end that no matter how much he +might wish it he should not be able to do any harm, they armed all his +enemies against him. To Sextus Pompey they entrusted the fleet, to Marcus +Brutus Macedonia, and to Cassius Syria together with the war against +Dolabella. They would certainly have further deprived him of the forces +that he had, but they were afraid to vote this openly, owing to their +knowledge that his soldiers were devoted to him. Still, even so, they +strove to set his followers at variance with one another and with him. +They did not wish to approve and honor all of them, for fear they should +fill them with too great conceit, nor again to dishonor and neglect all, +for fear they should alienate them the more and as a consequence force +them to agree together. Hence they adopted a middle course, and by +approving some of them and others not, by allowing some to wear an olive +garland at the festivals and others not, and furthermore by voting to +some money to the extent of twenty-five hundred denarii and to others +not a farthing, they hoped to bring about between them and by that means +weaken them. [-41-] Those charged with these commissions also they sent +not to Caesar but to the men in the field. He became enraged at this, but +nominally allowed the envoys to mix with the army without his presence, +though he sent word beforehand that no answer should be given and that +he himself should be at once sent for. So when he came into the camp and +joined them in listening to the despatches, he succeeded in conciliating +them much more by that very action. Those who had been preferred in honor +were not so delighted at this precedence as they were suspicious of the +affair, particularly as a result of Caesar's influence. And those who had +been slighted were not at all angry at their comrades, but added their +doubts of the sincerity of the decrees, imputing their dishonor to all +and sharing their anger with them. The people in the City, on learning +this, though frightened did not even so appoint him consul, for which he +was most anxious, but granted him the distinction of consular honors, so +that he might now record his vote along with the ex-consuls. When he took +no account of this, they voted that he should be made a praetor of the +first rank and subsequently also consul. In this way did they think they +had handled Caesar cleverly as if he were in reality a mere youth and +child, as they were always repeating. He, however, was exceedingly vexed +at their general behavior and especially at this very fact that he was +called child, and so made no further delay, but turned against their +camps and powers. With Antony he secretly arranged a truce, and he +assembled the men who had escaped from the battle, whom he himself had +conquered and the senate had voted to be enemies, and in their presence +made many accusations against both the senate and the people. + +[-42-] The people in the City on hearing this for a time held him in +contempt, but when they heard that Antony and Lepidus had become of one +mind they began again to court his favor,--for they were in ignorance of +the propositions he had made to Antony,--and assigned to him charge of +the war against the two. Caesar was accordingly ready to accept even this +if he could be made consul for it. He was working in every way to be +elected, through Cicero among others, and so earnestly that he promised +to make him his colleague. When he was not even then chosen, he made +preparations, to be sure, to carry on war, as had been decreed, but +meanwhile arranged that his own soldiers (of their own motion, of course) +should suddenly take an oath not to fight against any legion that had +been Caesar's. This had a bearing on Lepidus and Antony, since the +majority of their adherents were of that class. So he waited and sent +as envoys to the senate on this business four hundred of the soldiers +themselves. + +[-43-] This was the excuse that they had for an embassy, but in addition +they demanded the money that had been voted them and urged that Caesar be +appointed consul. While the senators were postponing their reply, which +required deliberation, as they said, they asked (naturally on the +instructions from Caesar) that amnesty be granted to some one who had +embraced Antony's cause. They were not really anxious to obtain it, but +wanted to test the senators and see if they would grant the request, or, +if such were not the issue, whether to pretend to be displeased about +it would serve as a starting point for indignation. They failed to +gain their petition, for while no one spoke against it there were many +preferring the same request on behalf of others and thus among a mass of +similar representations their demand also was rejected on some plausible +excuse. Then they openly showed their anger, and one of them issued from +the senate-chamber and grasping a sword (they had gone in unarmed) said: +"If you do not grant the consulship to Caesar, this shall grant it." And +Cicero interrupting him answered: "If you exhort in this way, he will get +it." Now for Cicero this instrument had destruction in readiness. Caesar +did not censure the soldier's act, but made a complaint because they had +been obliged to lay aside their arms on entering the senate and because +one of them was asked whether they had been sent by the legions or by +Caesar. He summoned in haste Antony and Lepidus (whom he had attached to +him through friendship for Antony), and he himself, pretending to have +been forced to such measures by his soldiers, set out with all of them +against Rome. [-44-] Some[22] of the knights and others who were present +they suspected were acting as spies and they consequently slew them, +besides injuring the lands of such as were not in accord with them and +doing much other damage with this excuse. The senators on ascertaining +their approach sent them their money before they came near, hoping that +when the invaders received that they might retire, and when they still +pressed on they appointed Caesar consul. Nothing, however, was gained by +this step. The soldiers were not at all grateful to them for what +they had done not willingly but under compulsion, but were even more +emboldened, in the idea that they had thoroughly frightened them. +Learning of this the senate altered its policy and bade the host not +approach the city but remain over one hundred and fifty stadia from +it. They themselves also changed their garb again and committed to +the praetors the care of the city, as had been the custom. And besides +garrisoning other points they occupied Janiculum in advance with the +soldiers that were at hand and with others from Africa. + +[-45-] While Caesar was still on the march this was the condition of +things; and all the people who were at that time in Rome with one accord +sought a share in the proceedings, as the majority of men are wont to be +bold until they come in sight and have a taste of dangers. When, however, +he arrived in the suburbs, they were alarmed, and first some of the +senators, later many of the people, went over to his side. Thereupon +the praetors also came down from Janiculum and surrendered to him their +soldiers and themselves. Thus Caesar took possession of the city without a +blow and was appointed consul also by the people, though two proconsuls +were chosen to hold the elections; it was impossible, according to +precedent, for an interrex to be created for so short a period merely to +superintend the comitia, because many men who held the curule offices +were absent from the city. They endured having the two proconsuls named +by the praetor urbanus rather than to have the consuls elected under his +direction, because now these proconsular officials would limit their +activities to the elections and consequently would appear to have been +invested with no powers outlasting them.[23] This was of course done +under pressure of arms. Caesar, that he might appear to not to have used +any force upon them, did not enter the assembly,--as if it was his +presence that any one feared instead of his power. + +[-46-] Thus he was chosen consul, and there was given him as a +fellow-official--perhaps one ought to say _under_-official--Quintus +Pedius. He was very proud of this fact that he was to be consul at an +earlier age than it had ever been the lot of any one else, and further +that on the first day of the elections, when he had entered the Campus +Martius, he saw six vultures, and later while haranguing the soldier +twelve others. For, comparing it with Romulus and the omen that had +befallen the latter, he began to expect that he should obtain his +sovereignty. He did not, however, simply on the ground that he had +already been given the distinction of the consular honors, assume +distinction as being consul for the second time. This custom was since +then observed in all similar cases to our own day. The emperor Severus +was the first to change it; for he honored Plautianus with the consular +honors and afterward introduced him to the senate and appointed him +consul, proclaiming that he was entering the consulship the second time. +In imitation of him the same thing was done in other instances. Caesar, +accordingly, arranged affairs in general in the city to suit his taste, +and gave money to the soldiers, to some what had been voted from the +funds prescribed, and to the rest individually from his private funds, as +the story went, but in reality from the public store. + +In this way and for the reasons mentioned did the soldiers receive the +money on that occasion. But some of them got a wrong idea of the matter +and thought it was compulsory for absolutely all the citizen forces at +all times to be given the twenty-five hundred denarii, if they went to +Rome under arms. For this reason the followers of Severus who had come to +the city to overthrow Julianus behaved most terrifyingly both to their +leader himself and to us, while demanding it. And they were won over by +Severus with two hundred and fifty denarii, while people in general were +ignorant what claim was being set up. + +[-47-] Caesar while giving the soldiers the money also expressed to them +his fullest and sincerest thanks. He did not even venture to enter +the senate-chamber without a guard of them. To the senate he showed +gratitude, but it was all fictitious and pretended. For he was accepting +as if it were a favor received from willing hands what he had attained +by violence. And they actually took great credit to themselves for their +behavior, as if they had given him the office voluntarily; and moreover +they granted to him whom previously they had not even wished to choose +consul the right after his term expired to be honored, as often as he +should be in camp, above all those who were consuls at one time or +another. To him on whom they had threatened to inflict penalties, because +he had gathered forces on his own responsibility without the passing of +any vote, they assigned the duty of collecting others: and to the man for +whose disenfranchisement and overthrow they had ordered Decimus to +fight with Antony they added Decimus's legions. Finally he obtained the +guardianship of the city, so that he was able to do everything that he +wished according to law, and he was adopted into Caesar's family in the +regular way, as a consequence changing his name. He had, as some think, +been even before this accustomed to call himself Caesar, as soon as this +name was bequeathed to him together with the inheritance. He was not, +however, exact about his title, nor did he use the same one in dealing +with everybody until at this time he had ratified it in accordance with +ancestral custom, and was thus named, after his famous predecessor, Gaius +Julius Caesar Octavianus. For it is the custom when a person is adopted +for him to take most of his appellation from his adopter but to keep one +of his previous names slightly altered in form. This is the status of the +matter, but I shall call him not Octavianus but Caesar, because this name +has prevailed among all such as secure dominion over the Romans. He took +another one in addition, namely _Augustus_, and therefore the subsequent +emperors assume it. That one will be given when it comes up in the +history, but until then the title Caesar will be sufficient to show that +Octavianus is indicated. + +[-48-] This Caesar, then, as soon as he had conciliated the soldiers and +enslaved the senate, turned himself to avenging his father's murder. As +he was afraid of somehow causing an upheaval among the populace in the +pursuit of this business he did not make known his intention until he had +seen to the payment of the bequests made to them. When they had been made +docile by means of the money, although it belonged to the public funds +and had been collected on the pretext of war, then at length he began to +follow up the assassins. In order that this procedure of his might not +appear to be characterized by violence but by justice, he proposed a law +about their trial and tried the cases in their absence. The majority of +them were out of town and some even held governorships over provinces. +Those who were present also did not come forward, by reason of fear, and +withdrew unobserved. Consequently they were convicted by default, and +not only those who had been the actual murderers of Caesar and their +fellow-conspirators, but many others who so far from plotting against +Caesar, had not even been in the city at the time. This action was +directed chiefly against Sextus Pompey. The latter though he had had no +share whatever in the attack was nevertheless condemned because he had +been an enemy. Those adjudged guilty were debarred from fire and water +and their property was confiscated. The provinces,--not only those which +some of them were governing, but all the rest,--were committed to the +friends of Caesar. + +[-49-] Among those held liable was also Publius Servilius Casca, the +tribune. He had suspected Caesar's purpose in advance, before he entered +the city, and had quietly slipped away. For this act he was at once +removed from his office, on the charge of having left the city contrary +to precedent, by the populace convened by his colleague Publius Titius; +and in this way he was condemned. When Titius not long after died, the +proverbial fate that had been observed from of old was once more in +evidence. No one up to that time who had expelled a colleague had lived +the year out: but first Brutus after the expulsion of Collatinus died in +his turn, then Gracchus was stabbed after expelling Octavius, and Cinna +who put Marullus and Flavus out of the way not long after perished. This +has been the general experience. + +Now the assassins of Caesar had many accusers who were anxious to +ingratiate themselves with his son, and many who were persuaded so to +act by the rewards offered. They received money from the estate of the +convicted man and the latter's honors and office, if he had any, and +exemption from further service in the army, applicable to themselves +and their children and grandchildren. Of the jurors the majority voted +against the accused out of fear of Caesar and a wish to please him, +generally hinting that they were justified in doing this. Some cast their +votes in consideration of the law enacted about punishing the culprits, +and others in consideration of the arms of Caesar. And one, Silicius +Corona, a senator, voted outright to acquit Marcus Brutus. He made a +great boast of this at the time and secretly received approval from the +rest: that he was not immediately put to death gained for Caesar a great +reputation for toleration, but later he was executed as the result of a +proscription. + +[-50-] After accomplishing this Caesar's next step was naturally a +campaign against Lepidus and Antony. Antony on fleeing from the battle +described had not been pursued by Caesar on account of the war being +entrusted to Decimus; and the latter had not pursued because he did not +wish a rival to Caesar to be removed from the field. Hence the fugitive +collected as many as he could of the survivors of the battle and came +to Lepidus, who had made preparations to march himself into Italy in +accordance with the decree, but had again been ordered to remain where he +was. For the senators, when they ascertained that Silanus had embraced +Antony's cause, were afraid that Lepidus and Lucius Plancus might also +cooeperate with him, and sent to them to say that they had no further need +of them. To prevent their suspecting anything ulterior and consequently +causing trouble they ordered them to help in building homes for the men +once driven out of Vienna (in Gallia Narbonensis) by the Allobroges +and then located between the Rhone and the Arar, at their confluence. +Therefore they submitted, and founded the so-called Lugudunum, now known +as Lugdunum. They might have entered Italy with their arms, had they +wished, for the decrees by this time exerted a very weak influence upon +such as had troops, but, with an eye to the outcome of the war Antony was +conducting, they wished to appear to have yielded obedience to the senate +and incidentally to strengthen their position. [-51-] Indeed, Lepidus +censured Silanus severely for making an alliance with Antony, and when +the latter himself came would not hold conversation with him immediately, +but sent a despatch to the senate containing an accusation of his own +against him, and for this stand he received praise and command of the +war against Antony. Hence the first part of the time he neither admitted +Antony nor repelled him, but allowed him to be near and to associate with +his followers; he would not, however, hold a conference with him. But +when he ascertained Antony's agreement with Caesar, he then came to terms +with both of them himself. Marcus Juventius,[24] his lieutenant, learned +what was being done and at first tried to alter his purpose; then, when +he did not succeed in persuading him, he made away with himself in the +sight of the soldiers. For this the senate voted eulogies and a statue to +Juventius and a public funeral, but Lepidus they deprived of his image +which stood upon the rostra and made him an enemy. They also set a +certain day for his comrades and threatened them with war if they should +not abandon him before that day. Furthermore they changed their +clothing again,--they had resumed citizen's apparel in honor of Caesar's +consulship,--and summoned Marcus Brutus and Cassius and Sextus to proceed +against them. When the latter seemed likely to be too slow in responding, +they committed the war to Caesar, being ignorant of the conspiracy +existing. [-52-] He nominally received it, in spite of having made +his soldiers give voice to a sentiment previously mentioned,[25] but +accomplished no corresponding results. This was not because he had +formed a compact with Antony and through him with Lepidus,--little he +cared for that fact,--but because he saw they were powerful and knew +their purposes were linked by the bands of kinship, and he could not use +force with them; and besides he cherished hopes of bringing about +through them the downfall of Cassius and Brutus, who were already very +influential, and subsequently of wearing them out one against the other. +Accordingly, even against his will he kept his covenant with them and +directed his efforts to effecting a reconciliation for them with the +senate and with the people. He did not himself propose the matter, lest +some suspicion of what had really taken place should arise, but he set +out as if to make war on them, while Quintus urged, as if it were his own +idea, that amnesty and restoration be granted them. He did not secure +this, however, until the senate had communicated it to the supposedly +ignorant Caesar and he had unwillingly agreed to it, compelled, as he +alleged, by the soldiers. + +[-53-] While this was being done Decimus at first set forth in the +intention of making war upon the pair, and associated with him Lucius +Planeus, since the latter had been appointed in advance as his colleague +for the following year. Learning, however, of his own condemnation and of +their reconciliation he wished to lead a campaign against Caesar, but was +abandoned by Plancus who favored the cause of Lepidus and Antony. Then he +decided to leave Gaul and hasten into Macedonia on land through Illyricum +to Marcus Brutus, and sent ahead some of the soldiers while he was +engaged in finishing some business he had in hand. But they embraced +Caesar's cause, and the rest were pursued by Lepidus and Antony and then +were won over through the agency of others. So, being deserted, he was +seized by a personal foe. When he was about to be executed he complained +and lamented so loudly that one Helvius Blasio, who was kindly disposed +to him from association on campaigns, in his sight voluntarily slew +himself first. + +[-54-] So Decimus afterward died also. Antony and Lepidus left +lieutenants in Gaul and themselves proceeded to join Caesar in Italy, +taking with them the larger and the better part of their armies. They did +not trust him very far and wished not to owe him any favor, but to seem +to have obtained amnesty and restoration on their own merits and by their +own strength, and not through him. They also hoped to become masters of +whatever they desired, of Caesar and the rest in the City, by the size +of their armies. With such a feeling they marched through the country, +according it friendly treatment. Still, it was damaged by their numbers +and audacity no less than if there had been a war. They were met near +Bononia by Caesar with many soldiers: he was exceedingly well prepared to +defend himself against them, if they should offer any violence. Yet at +this time he found no need of arms to oppose them. They really hated +one another bitterly, but because they had just about equal forces and +desired one another's assistance to take vengeance first on the rest of +their enemies, they entered upon a simulated agreement. [-55-] They came +together to confer, not alone but bringing an equal number of soldiers, +on a little island in the river that flows past Bononia, with the +understanding that no one else should be present on either side. First +they withdrew to a distance from the various followers and searched one +another carefully to make sure that no one had a dagger hidden under his +arm. Then they considered at leisure different points and in general made +a solemn compact for securing sovereignty and overthrowing enemies. +But to prevent its appearing that they were headed straight toward an +oligarchy and so envy and opposition arise on the part of the people at +large, the three were to be chosen in common as a kind of commissioners +and correctors for the administration and settlement of affairs. This +office was not to be perpetual, but for five years, under the general +proviso that they should manage all questions, whether they made any +communication about them to the people and the senate or not, and give +the offices and other honors to whomsoever they pleased. The private +arrangement, however, in order that they should not be thought to be +appropriating the entire sovereignty, was that both Libyas, Sardinia, and +Sicily should be given to Caesar, all of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis to +Lepidus, and the rest of Gaul south and north of the Alps to Antony to +rule. The former was called Gallia Togata, as I have said, because it +seemed to be more peaceful than the other divisions, and because the +dwellers there already employed Roman citizen-garb: the other was termed +Gallia Comata because the Gauls there mostly let their hair grow long, +and were in this way distinguished from the others. [-56-] So they made +these allotments, for the purpose of securing the strongest provinces +themselves and giving others the impression that they were not +striving for the whole. A further agreement was that they should cause +assassinations of their enemies, that Lepidus after being appointed +consul in Decimus's stead should keep guard over Rome and the remainder +of Italy, and that the others should make an expedition against Brutus +and Cassius. They also pledged themselves to this course by oath. After +this, in order to let the soldiers hear and be witnesses of the terms +they had made, they called them together and made known to them in +advance all that it was proper and safe to tell them. Meanwhile the +soldiers of Antony, of course at the latter's direction, committed to +Caesar's charge the daughter of Fulvia (Antony's wife), whom she had +by Clodius,--and this in spite of Caesar's being already betrothed to +another. He, however, did not refuse her; for he did not think this +inter-marriage would hinder him at all in the designs which he had +against Antony. Among other points for his reflection was his knowledge +that his father Caesar had not failed to carry out all of his plans +against Pompey, in spite of the relationship between the two. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +47 + +The following is contained in the Forty-seventh of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus came to Rome and instituted a reign of +slaughter (chapters 1-19). + +About Brutus and Cassius and what they did before the battle of Philippi +(chapters 20-36). + +How Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Caesar and perished (chapters +37-49). + +Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Gaius Vibius Pansa +and Aulus Hirtius, together with one additional year, in which there were +the following magistrates here enumerated: + +M. Aemilius M.F. Lepidus cos. (II), L. Munatius L.F. Plancus. (B.C. 42 = +a. u. 712.) + + +(_BOOK 47, BOISSEVAIN._) + + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +[-1-] After forming these compacts and taking mutual oaths they hastened +to Rome under the assumption that they were all going to rule on equal +terms, but each one had the intention of getting the entire power +himself. Yet they had learned in advance very clearly before this, but +most plainly at this time, what would be the future. In the case of +Lepidus a serpent coiled about a centurion's sword and a wolf that +entered his camp and his tent while he was eating dinner and knocked +down the table indicated at once power and disappointment as a result of +power: in that of Antony milk flowing about the ramparts and a kind of +chant echoing about at night signified gladness of heart and destruction +succeeding it. These portents befell them before they entered Italy. In +Caesar's case at the very time after the covenant had been made an eagle +settled upon his tent and killed two crows that attacked it and tried to +pluck out its feathers,--a sign which granted him victory over his two +rivals. + +[-2-] So they came to Rome, first Caesar, then the others, each one +separately, with all their soldiers, and immediately through the tribunes +enacted such laws as pleased them. The orders they gave and force that +they used thus acquired the name of law and furthermore brought them +supplications; for they required to be besought earnestly when they were +to pass any measures. Consequently sacrifices were voted for them as +if for good fortune and the people changed their attire as if they had +secured prosperity, although they were considerably terrified by the +transactions and still more by omens. For the standards of the army +guarding the city were covered with spiders, and weapons were seen +reaching up from earth to heaven while a great din resounded from them, +and in the shrines of Aesculapius bees gathered in numbers on the roof and +crowds of vultures settled on the temple of the Genius Populi and on that +of Concord. [-3-] And while these conditions still remained practically +unchanged, those murders by proscription which Sulla had once caused were +put into effect and the whole city was filled with corpses. Many were +killed in their houses, many in the streets, and scattered about in the +fora and near the temples: the heads of such were once more attached to +the rostra and their trunks flung out to be devoured by the dogs and +birds or cast into the river. Everything that had been done before in +the days of Sulla found a counterpart at this time, except that only two +white tablets were posted, one for the senators and one for the rest. The +reason for this I have not been able to learn from any one else nor to +find out myself. The cause which one might have imagined, that fewer were +put to death, is least of all true: for many more names were listed, +because there were more leaders concerned. In this respect, then, the +case differed from the murders that had earlier taken place: but that the +names of those prominent were not posted with the rabble, but separately, +appeared very nonsensical to the men who were to be murdered in the same +way. Besides this no few other very unpleasant conditions fell to their +lot, although the former regime, one would have said, had left nothing to +be surpassed. [-4-] But in Sulla's time those guilty of such murderous +measures had some excuse in their very hardihood: they were trying the +method for the first time, and not with set intentions; hence in most +cases they behaved less maliciously, since they were acting not according +to definite plans but as chance dictated. And the victims, succumbing +to sudden and unheard of catastrophes, found some alleviation in the +unexpectedness of their experience. At this time, on the other hand, +they were executing in person or beholding or at least understanding +thoroughly by fresh descriptions merely deeds that had been dared before; +in the intervals, expecting a recurrence of similar acts, some were +inventing various new methods to employ, and others were becoming +afflicted by new fears that they too should suffer. The perpetrators +resorted to most unusual devices in their emulation of the outrages of +yore and their consequent eagerness to add, through the resources of art, +novel features to their attempts. The others reflected on all that they +might suffer and hence even before their bodies were harmed their spirits +were thoroughly on the rack, as if they were already undergoing the +trial. [-5-] Another reason for their faring worse on this occasion than +before was that previously only Sulla's own enemies and the foes of the +leaders associated with him were destroyed: among his friends and the +people in general no one perished at his bidding; so that except the very +wealthy,--and these can never be at peace with the stronger element +at such a time,--the remainder took courage. In this second series of +assassinations, however, not only the men's enemies or the rich were +being killed, but also their best friends and quite without looking for +it. On the whole it may be said that almost nobody had incurred the +enmity of those men from any private cause that should account for +his being slain by them. Politics and compromises regarding posts of +authority had created both their friendships and their violent hatreds. +All those that had aided or assisted one of the group in any way the +others held in the light of an enemy. So it came about that the same +persons had become friends to some one of them, and enemies to the entire +body, so that while each was privately quelling his antagonists, they +destroyed the dearest friends of all in general. In the course of their +joint negotiations[26] they made a kind of account of who was on their +side and who was opposed, and no one was allowed to take vengeance on one +of his own enemies who was a friend of another without giving up some +friend in his turn: and because of their anger over what was past and +their suspicion of the future they cared nothing about the preservation +of an associate in comparison with vengeance on an adversary, and so gave +them up without much protest. [-6-] Thus they offered one another staunch +friends for bitter enemies and implacable foes for close comrades; and +sometimes they exchanged even numbers, at others several for one or fewer +for more, altogether carrying on the transactions as if at a market, and +overbidding one another as at an auction room. If some one was found just +equivalent to another and the two were ranked alike, the exchange was a +simple one; but all whose value was raised by some excellence or esteem +or relationship could be despatched only in return for several. As there +had been civil wars, lasting a long time and embracing many events, not +a few men during the turmoil had come into collision with their nearest +relatives. Indeed, Lucius Caesar, Antony's uncle, had become his enemy, +and Lepidus's brother, Lucius Paulus, hostile to him. The lives of these +were saved, but many of the rest were slaughtered even in the houses of +their very friends and relatives, from whom they especially expected +protection and honor. And in order that no person should feel less +inclined to kill any one out of fear of being deprived of the rewards +(remembering that in the time of Sulla Marcus Cato, who was quaestor, had +demanded of some of the murderers all they had received for their +work), they proclaimed that the name of no proscribed person should be +registered in the public records. On this account they slew ordinary +citizens more readily and made away with the prosperous, even though they +had no dislike for a single one of them. For since they stood in need +of vast sums of money and had no other source from which to satisfy the +desire of their soldiers, they affected a kind of common enmity against +the rich. Among the other transgressions they committed in the line of +this policy was to declare a mere child of age, so that they might kill +him as already exercising the privileges of a man. + +[-7-] Most of this was done by Lepidus and Antony. They had been honored +by the former Caesar for a very long time and as they had been in office +and holding governorships most of the period they had many enemies. It +appeared as if Caesar had a part in the business merely because of his +sharing the authority, for he himself was not at all anxious to kill any +large number. He was not naturally cruel and had been brought up in +his father's ways. Moreover, as he was young and had just entered the +political arena, there was no inevitable necessity for his bitterly +hating many persons, and he wished to have people's affection. This is +indicated by the fact that from the time he broke off his joint rulership +with his colleagues and held the power alone he did nothing of the sort. +And at this time he not only refrained from destroying many but preserved +a large number. Those also who betrayed their masters or friends he +treated most harshly and those who helped anybody most leniently. An +instance of it occurs in the case of Tanusia, a woman of note. She +concealed her husband Titus Vinius, who was proscribed, at first in a +chest at the house of a freedman named Philopoemen[27] and so made it +appear that he had been killed. Later she waited for a national festival, +which a relative of hers was to direct, and through the influence of his +sister Octavia brought it about that Caesar alone of the three entered the +theatre. Then she sprang up and informed him of the deception, of which +he was still ignorant, brought in the very chest and led from it her +husband. Caesar, astonished, released all of them (death being the penalty +also for such as concealed any one) and enrolled Philopoemen among the +knights. + +[-8-] He, then, saved the lives of as many as he could. Lepidus allowed +his brother Paulus to escape to Miletus and toward others was not +inexorable. But Antony killed savagely and relentlessly not only those +whose names had been posted, but likewise those who had attempted to +assist any of them. He had their heads in view when he happened to be +eating and sated himself to the fullest extent on this most unholy and +pitiable sight. Fulvia also put to death many herself both by reason of +enmity and on account of their money, and some with whom her husband was +not acquainted. When he saw the head of one man, he exclaimed: "I didn't +know about him!" Cicero's head also being brought to them (he had been +overtaken and slain while trying to flee), Antony uttered many bitter +reproaches against him and then ordered it to be exposed on the rostra +more prominently than the rest, in order that he might be seen in the +place from which he used to be heard inveighing against him,--together +with his right hand, just as it had been cut off. Before it was taken +away Fulvia took it in her hands and after abusing it spitefully and +spitting upon it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out +the tongue, which she pierced with the brooches that she used for her +hair, at the same time uttering many brutal jests. Yet even this pair +saved some persons from whom they got more money than they could expect +to obtain by their death. But in order that the places for their names +on the tablets might not be empty, they inscribed others in their stead. +Except that Antony did release his uncle at the earnest entreaty of his +mother Julia he performed no other praiseworthy act. + +[-9-] For these causes the murders had great variety of detail, and the +rescues that fell to the lot of some were of many kinds. Numbers were +ruined by their most intimate friends, and numbers were saved by their +most inveterate foes. Some slew themselves and others were given freedom +by the very pursuers, who approached as if to murder them. Some who +betrayed masters or friends were punished and others were honored for +this very reason: of those who helped others to survive some paid the +penalty and others received rewards. Since there was not one man but +three, who were acting in all cases each according to his own desire and +for his private advantage, and since the same persons were not enemies or +friends of the whole group, since, also, two of them might be anxious for +some one to be saved whom the third wished to destroy, or for some one +to perish whom the third wished to survive, many complicated situations +resulted, according as they felt good-will or hatred toward any one. +[-10-] I, accordingly, shall omit an accurate and detailed description of +all the events,--it would be a vast undertaking and would not add much +to the history,--but shall relate what I deem to be most worthy of +remembrance. Here is one. + +A slave had hidden his master in a cave, and then, when even so through +another's information he was likely to perish, this slave changed clothes +with him and wearing his master's apparel confronted the pursuers as the +man himself and was slain. So they were turned aside, thinking they had +despatched the desired man, but he when they had departed made his escape +to some other place. + +Or a second. Another slave had likewise changed his entire accoutrement +with his master, and entered a covered litter which he made the other +help to carry. When they were overtaken the one in the litter was killed +without being even looked at, and the master, as a baggage-carrier, +was saved. Those services were rendered by those servants to their +benefactors in return for some kindness previously received. + +There was also a branded runaway who so far from betraying the man who +had branded him very willingly preserved him. He was detected in carrying +him away and was being pursued, when he killed somebody who met him by +chance and gave the latter's clothes to his master. Having then placed +him upon a pyre he himself took his master's clothing and ring and going +to meet the pursuers pretended that he had killed the man while fleeing. +Because of his spoils and the marks of the branding he was believed and +both saved the person in question and was himself honored. + +The names connected with the above anecdotes have not been preserved. +But in the case of Hosidius Greta his son arranged a funeral for him as +though already dead and preserved him in that way. Quintus Cicero, the +brother of Marcus, was secretly led away by his child and saved, so far +as his rescuer's responsibility went. The boy concealed his father so +well that he could not be discovered and when tormented for it by all +kinds of torture did not utter a syllable. His father, learning what was +being done, was filled at once with admiration and pity for the boy, +and therefore came voluntarily to view and surrendered himself to the +slayers. + +[-11-] This gives an idea of the greatness of the manifest achievements +of virtue and piety at the time. It was Popillius Laenas who killed +Marcus Cicero, in spite of the latter's having done him favors as his +advocate; and in order that he might depend not wholly on hearsay but +also on the sense of sight to establish himself as the murderer of the +orator, he set up an image of himself wearing a crown beside his victim's +head, with an inscription that gave his name and the service rendered. By +this act he pleased Antony so much that he secured more than the price +offered. Marcus Terentius Varro was a man who had given no offence, but +as his appellation was identical with that of one of the proscribed, +except for one name, he was afraid that, this might lead him to suffer +such a fate as did Cinna. Therefore he issued a statement making known +this fact; he was tribune at the time. For this he became the subject of +much idle amusement and laughter. The uncertainty of life, however, was +evidenced by the very fact that Lucius Philuscius, who had previously +been proscribed by Sulla and had escaped, had his name now inscribed +again on the tablet and perished, whereas Marcus Valerius Messala, +condemned to death by Antony, not only continued to live in safety but +was later appointed consul in place of Antony himself. Thus many survive +from inextricable difficulties and no fewer are ruined through a spirit +of confidence. Hence a man ought not to be alarmed to the point of +hopelessness by the calamities of the moment, nor to be elated to +heedlessness by temporary exultation, but by placing his hope of the +future half-way between both to make reliable calculations for either +event. [-12-] This is the way it befell at that time: very many of those +not proscribed were involved in the downfall of others on account of +spite or money, and very many whose names were proclaimed not only +survived but returned to their homes again, and some of them even held +offices. They had a refuge, of course, with Brutus and Cassius and +Sextus, and the majority directed their flight toward the last mentioned. +He had been chosen formerly to command the fleet and had held sway for +some time on the sea, so that he had surrounded himself with a force of +his own, though he was afterward deprived of his office by Caesar. He had +occupied Sicily, and then, when the order of proscription was passed +against him, too, a host of assassinations took place, he aided greatly +those who were in like condition. Anchoring near the coast of Italy he +sent word to Rome and to the other cities offering among other things to +those who saved anybody double the reward advertised for murdering the +same and promising to the men themselves a reception and assistance and +money and honors. [-13-] Therefore great numbers came to him. I have +not even now recorded the precise total of those who were proscribed or +slaughtered or who escaped, because many names originally inscribed on +the tablets were erased and many were later inscribed in their place, and +of these not a few were saved while many outside of these succumbed. +It was not even allowed anybody to mourn for the victims, but several +perished from this cause also. And finally, when the calamities broke +through all the pretence they could assume and no one even of the most +stout-hearted could any longer wear an air of indifference to them, but +in all their work and conversation their countenances were overcast and +they were not intending to celebrate the usual festival at the beginning +of the year, they were ordered by a public notice to appear in good +spirits, on pain of death if they should refuse to obey. So they were +forced to rejoice over the common evils as over blessings. Yet why need I +have mentioned it, when they voted to those men (the triumvirs, I mean) +civic crowns and other distinctions as to benefactors and saviors of +the State? They did not think of being held to blame because they were +killing a few, but wished to receive additional praise for not putting +more out of the way. And to the populace they once openly stated that +they had emulated neither the cruelty of Marius and Sulla so as to incur +hatred, nor the mildness of Caesar so as to be despised and as a result +become objects of a conspiracy. + +[-14-] Such were the conditions of the murders; but many other unusual +proceedings took place in regard to the property of persons left alive. +They actually announced, as if they were just and humane rulers, that +they would give to the widows of the slain their dowries, to the male +children a tenth, and to the female children a twentieth of the property +of each one's father. This was not, however, granted save in a few +cases: of the rest all the possessions without exception were ruthlessly +plundered. In the first place they levied upon all the houses in the City +and those in the rest of Italy a yearly rent, which was the entire amount +from dwellings which people had let, and half from such as they occupied +themselves, with reference to the value of the domicile. Again, from +those who had lands they took away half of the proceeds. Besides, they +had the soldiers get their support free from the cities in which they +were wintering, and distributed them to various rural districts, +pretending that they were sent to take charge of confiscated territory +or that of persons who still opposed them. For this last class they had +termed likewise enemies because they had not changed their attitude +before the appointed day. So that the whole country outside the towns was +also pillaged. The autocrats allowed the soldiers to do this to the end +that, having their pay before the work, they might devote all their +energy to their commanders' interests, and promised to give them cities +and lands: And with this in view they further assigned to them persons to +divide the land and settle them. The mass of the soldiers was made loyal +by this course: of the more prominent they tempted some with the goods of +those that had been despatched by lowering the price on certain articles +and granting others to them free, and others they honored with the +offices and priesthoods of the victims. The commanders, to make sure that +they themselves should get the finest both of lands and buildings and +give their followers what they pleased, gave notice that no one else +should frequent the auction room unless he wanted to buy something: +whoever did so should die. And they handled bona fide purchasers in such +a way that the latter discovered nothing and paid the very highest price +for what they wanted, and consequently had no desire to buy again. + +[-15-] This was the course followed in regard to possessions. As to the +offices and priesthoods of such as had been put to death they distributed +them not in the fashion prescribed by law but however it suited them. +Caesar resigned the office of consul, giving up willingly that which he +had so desired as to make war for it, and his colleague gave up his +place, whereupon they appointed Publius Ventidius, though praetor, and one +other; and to the former's praetorship they promoted one of the aediles. +Afterward they removed all the praetors (who held office five days longer +than Ventidius) and sent them to be governors of the provinces, while +they installed others in their places. Some laws were abolished and +others introduced instead. + +And, in brief, they ordered everything else +just as seemed good to them. They did not, to be sure, lay claim to +titles which were offensive and had been therefore done away with, but +they managed matters according to their own wish and desire, so that +Caesar's sovereignty by comparison appeared all gold. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +In addition to transacting that year the business mentioned, they voted a +temple to Serapis and Isis. [-16-] When Marcus Lepidus and Lucius Plancus +became consuls tablets were again exposed, not bringing death to any +one any longer, but defrauding the living of their property. They were +collecting funds because they were in need of more money, due to the fact +that they owed large sums to large numbers of soldiers, were expending +considerable on works undertaken by the latter, and thought they should +lay out far more still on wars in prospect. The fact that those taxes +which had been formerly abrogated were now again put in force or +established on a new basis, and the institution of joint contributions, +many of which kept being levied on the land and on the servants, +displeased people moderately, it can not be denied. But to have those who +were in the slightest degree still prosperous, not only of the senators +or knights but even among the freedmen, and men and women alike, +bulletined on the tablets and another tenth of their wealth confiscated +disturbed all beyond measure. For it was only nominally that a tenth of +his property was exacted from each one: in reality not so much as a tenth +was left. They were not ordered to contribute a stated amount according +to the value of their possessions, but they had the duty of estimating +their own goods and then, being accused of not having made a fair +estimate, they lost the rest besides. + +[-17-] If any still escaped this somehow, yet they were brought into +straits by the assessments, and as they were terribly destitute of money +they too were in a way deprived of everything. Moreover, the following +device, distressing to hear but most distressing in practice, was put +into operation. Whoever of them wished was allowed by abandoning his +property afterward to make a requisition for one-third of it, which meant +getting nothing and also having trouble. For when they were being +openly and violently despoiled of two-thirds, how should they get back +one-third, especially since goods were being sold for an infinitesimal +price? In the first place, since many wares were being advertised for +sale at once and the majority of men were without gold or silver, and the +rest did not dare to buy because it would look as if they had something +and they would place in jeopardy the remnant of their wealth, the prices +were relaxed: in the second place, everything was sold to the soldiers +far below its value. Hence no one of the private citizens saved anything +worth mentioning. In addition to other drains they surrendered servants +for the fleet, buying them if they had none, and the senators repaired +the roads at their individual expense. Only those who wielded arms +enjoyed superlative wealth. _They_, to be sure, were not satisfied with +their pay, though it was in full, nor with their outside perquisites, +though of vast extent, nor with the very large prizes bestowed for the +murders, nor with the acquisition of lands, which was made almost without +cost to them. But in addition some would ask for and receive all the +property of the dying, and others still forced their way into the +families of such as were old and childless. To such an extent were they +filled with greed and shamelessness that one man asked from Caesar himself +the property of Attia, Caesar's mother, who had died at the time and had +been honored by a public burial. + +[-18-] While these three men were behaving in this wise, they were also +magnifying the former Caesar to the greatest degree. As they were all +aiming at sole supremacy and were all striving for it, they vindictively +pursued the remainder of the assassins, apparently in the idea that they +were preparing from afar immunity for themselves in what they were doing, +and safety; and everything which tended to his honor they readily took +up, in expectation of some day being themselves deemed worthy of similar +distinctions: for this reason they glorified him by the decrees which had +been passed, and by others which they now added to them. On the first day +of the year they themselves took an oath and made others swear that they +would consider binding all his acts; this action is still taken in the +case of all officials who successively hold power, or again of those +who lived in his era, and have not been dishonored. They also laid the +foundation of a hero-shrine in the Forum, on the spot where he had been +burned, and escorted a kind of image of him at the horse-races together +with a second statue of Venus. In case news of a victory came from +anywhere they assigned the honor of a thanksgiving to the victor by +himself and to Caesar, though dead, by himself. They compelled everybody +to celebrate his birthday wearing laurel and in good spirits, passing +a law that all others, neglected it, were accursed before Jupiter and +before him while any senators or their sons should forfeit twenty-five +myriads of denarii. Now it happened that the Ludi Apollinares fell on the +same day, and they therefore voted that his natal feast should be held +on the previous day,[28] because (they said) there was an oracle of the +Sibyl forbidding a festival to be celebrated during that twenty-four +hours to any god except Apollo. [-19-] Besides granting him these +privileges they regarded the day on which he had been murdered (on which +there was always a regular meeting of the senate) as a dies nefas. The +room in which he had been murdered they closed immediately and later +transformed it into a privy. They also built the Curia Julia, called +after him, next to the so-named Comitium, as had been voted. Besides, +they forbade any likeness of him, because he was in very truth a god, to +be carried at the funerals of his relatives, which ancient custom was +still being observed. And they enacted that no one who took refuge in his +shrine to secure immunity should be banished or stripped of his goods,--a +right given to no one of the gods even, save to such as had a place in +the days of Romulus. Yet after men began to gather there the place had +inviolability in name without its effects; for it was so fenced about +that no one at all could any longer enter it. + +In addition to those gifts to Caesar they allowed the vestal virgins to +employ one lictor each, because one of them had been insulted, owing to +not being recognized, while returning home from dinner toward evening. +The offices in the City they assigned for a greater number of years in +advance, thus at the same time giving honor through the expected offices +to those fitted for them and retaining a grasp on affairs for a longer +time by means of those who were to hold sway. + +[-20-] When this had been accomplished, Lepidus remained there, as I have +said, to take up the administration of the City and of the rest of Italy, +and Caesar and Antony started on their campaign. Brutus and Cassius had at +first, after the compact made by them with Antony and the rest, gone +into the Forum and discharged the activities of praetorship with the same +diligence as before. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +But when some began to be displeased at the killing of Caesar, they +withdrew, pretending to be in haste to reach the governorships abroad to +which they had been appointed. Cassius, who was praetor urbanus,[29] had +not yet finished his duties in connection with the Ludi Apollinares. +However, though absent he accomplished that task most brilliantly through +the medium of his fellow-praetor Antony, and did not himself sail away +from Italy at once, but lingered with Brutus in Campania, to watch the +course of events. And in their capacity as praetors they sent a certain +number of letters to Rome to the people, until such time as Caesar +Octavianus began to aspire to public position and to win the affections +of the populace. Then, in despair of the republic and fear of him, they +set sail. The Athenians gave them a splendid reception; for though they +were indeed honored by nearly everybody else for what they had done, the +inhabitants of this city voted them bronze images beside that of +Harmodius and that of Aristogeiton, as having emulated them. [-21-] +Meanwhile, learning that Caesar was making progress they neglected the +Cretans and Bithynians, to whom they were directing their course, for +among them they saw no aid forthcoming worthy the name: but they turned +to Syria and to Macedonia, which did not, to be sure, appertain to them +in the least, because they were teeming with money and troops for +the occasion. Cassius proceeded to the Syrian country, because its +inhabitants were acquainted with him and friendly as a result of his +campaign with Crassus, while Brutus united Greece and Macedonia. The +inhabitants would have followed him anywhere because of the glory of his +deeds and in the hope of similar achievements, and they were further +influenced by the fact that he had acquired numerous soldiers, some +survivors of the battle of Pharsalus, who were still at this time +wandering about in that region, and others who either by reason of +disease or because of want of discipline had been left behind from the +contingent that took the field with Dolabella. Money came to him, too, +from Trebonius in Asia. So without the least effort, perhaps because it +contained no force worth mentioning, he by this means gained the country +of Greece. He reached Macedonia at the time that Gaius Antonius had just +arrived and Quintus Hortensius, who had governed it previously, was about +to lay down his office. However, he experienced no trouble. The departing +official embraced his cause at once, and Antonius was weak, being +hindered by Caesar's supremacy in Rome from performing any of the duties +belonging to his office. The neighboring territory of Illyricum was +governed by Vatinius, who came thence to Dyrrachium and occupied it in +advance. He was a political adversary of Brutus, but could not injure him +at all, for his soldiers, who disliked him and furthermore despised him +by reason of a disease, went over to the other side. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +Brutus, taking charge of these, led an expedition against Antonius, who +was in Apollonia: the latter came out to meet him, whereupon Brutus won +over his soldiers and confined him within the walls, whither he fled +before him. After this Antonius was by betrayal taken alive, but no harm +was done to him. [-22-] Close upon this success the victor acquired all +of Macedonia and Epirus, and then despatched a letter to the senate, +stating what had been accomplished, and placing himself, the provinces, +and the soldiers at its disposal. The senators, who by chance already +felt suspicious of Caesar, praised him strongly and bade him govern all +that region. When, then, he had confirmed his leadership by the decree, +he himself felt more encouraged and he found his subjects ready to +support him unreservedly. For a time he communicated with Caesar, when the +latter appeared to be hostile to Antony, urging him to resist his enemy +and be reconciled with him (Brutus), and he was making preparations to +sail to Italy because the senate summoned him. After Caesar, however, +had matters thoroughly in hand in Rome, and proceeded openly to take +vengeance on his father's slayers, Brutus remained where he was, +deliberating how he should successfully ward off the other's attack when +it occurred: and besides managing admirably the other districts as well +as Macedonia, he calmed the minds of his legions when they had been +thrown into a state of discontent by Antonius. [-23-] For the latter, +although his conqueror had not even deprived him of a praetor's +perquisites, did not enjoy keeping quiet in safety and honor, but +connived at a revolt among the soldiers of Brutus. Being discovered at +this work before he had done any great harm, he was stripped of his +praetor's insignia, and delivered to be guarded without confinement that +he might not cause an uprising. Yet not even then did he remain quiet, +but concocted more schemes of rebellion than ever, so that some of the +soldiers came to blows with one another and others started for Apollonia +after Antonius himself, in the intention of rescuing him. This, however, +they were unable to do: Brutus had learned in advance from some +intercepted letters what was to be done and by putting him into an +enclosed chair got him out of the way on the pretence that he was moving +a sick man. The soldiers, not being able to find the object of their +search, in fear of Brutus seized a point of high ground commanding the +city. Brutus induced them to come to an understanding, and by executing a +few of the most audacious and dismissing others from his service he set +matters in such a light that the men arrested and killed those sent away, +on the ground that they were most responsible for the sedition, and asked +for the surrender of the quaestor and the lieutenants of Antonius. [-24-] +Brutus did not give up any of the latter, but put them aboard boats with +the avowed intention of drowning them, and so conveyed them to safety. +Fearing, however, that when they should hear the next news of more +terrifying transactions in Rome they might change their attitude, he +delivered Antonius to a certain Gaius Clodius to guard, and left him at +Apollonia. Meanwhile Brutus himself took the largest and strongest part +of the army and retired into upper Macedonia, whence he later sailed to +Asia, to the end that he might remove his men as far as possible from +Italy and support them on the subject territory there. Among other allies +whom he won over at this time was Deiotarus, although he was of a great +age and had refused assistance to Cassius. While he was delaying here a +plot was formed against him by Gellius Poplicola, and Mark Antony sent +some men to attempt to rescue his brother. Clodius, accordingly, as +he could not guard his prisoner safely, killed him, either on his own +responsibility, or according to instructions from Brutus. For the story +is that at first the latter made his safety of supreme importance, but +later, learning that Decimus had perished, cared nothing more about it. +Gellius was detected, but suffered no punishment. Brutus released him +because he had always held him to be among his best friends and knew that +his brother, Marcus Messala, was on very close terms with Cassius. The +man had also attacked Cassius, but had suffered no evil in that case, +either. The reason was that his mother Polla learned of the plot in +advance, and being very fearful lest Cassius should be overtaken by his +fate (for she was very fond of him) and lest her son should be detected, +voluntarily informed Cassius of the plot herself beforehand, and received +the preservation of her son as a reward. His easy escapes, however, did +not improve him at all, and he deserted his benefactors to join Caesar +and Antony. [-25-] As soon as Brutus learned of the attempt of Mark +Antony and of the killing of his brother, he feared that some other +insurrection might take place in Macedonia during his absence, and +immediately hastened to Europe. On the way he took charge of the +territory which had belonged to Sadalus (who died childless and left it +to the Romans), and invaded the country of the Bessi, to see if he could +at the same time recompense them for the trouble they were causing and +surround himself with the name and reputation of imperator, which would +enable him to fight more easily against Caesar and Antony. Both projects +he accomplished, being chiefly aided by Rhascuporis, a certain prince. +After going thence into Macedonia and making himself master of everything +there, he withdrew again into Asia. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-26-] Brutus besides doing this had stamped upon the coins which were +being minted his own likeness and a helmet and two daggers, indicating by +this and by the inscription that in company with Cassius he had liberated +his country. At that same period Cassius had crossed over to Trebonius in +Asia ahead of Dolabella, and after securing money from him and a number +of the cavalry whom Dolabella had sent before him into Syria attached +to his cause many others of the Asiatics and Cilicians. As a result he +brought Tarcondimotus[30] and the people of Tarsus into the alliance, +though they were reluctant. For the Tarsians were so devoted to the +former Caesar (and out of regard for him to the second also) that they +had changed the name of their city to Juliopolis after him. This done, +Cassius went to Syria, and without striking a blow assumed entire +direction of the nations and the legions. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 710)] + +The situation in Syria at that time was this. Caecilius Bassus, a knight, +who had made the campaign with Pompey and in the retreat had arrived +at Tyre, continued to spend his time there, incognito. On 'Change. Now +Sextus was governing the Syrians, for Caesar, since he was quaestor and +also a relative of his, had entrusted to his care all Roman interests +in that quarter on the occasion of his own march from Egypt against +Pharnaces. So Bassus at first remained quiet, satisfied to be allowed to +live: when, however, some similar persons had associated themselves with +him and he had attracted to his enterprise various soldiers of Sextus +who at various times came there to garrison the city, and likewise many +alarming reports kept coming in from Africa about Caesar, he was no longer +pleased with existing circumstances but raised a rebellion, his aim being +either to help the followers of Scipio and Cato and the Pompeians or to +clothe himself in some authority. Sextus discovered him before he had +finished his preparations, but he explained that he was collecting this +body as an auxiliary force for Mithridates of Pergamum against Bosporus; +his story was believed, and he was released. So after this he forged an +epistle, which he pretended had been sent to him by Scipio, in which he +announced that Caesar had been defeated and had perished in Africa and +stated that the governorship of Syria had been assigned to him. His next +step was to use the forces he had in readiness for occupying Tyre and +from there he approached the camp of Sextus. In the attack on the latter +which followed Bassus was defeated and wounded. Consequently, after this +experience, he no longer employed violent tactics, but sent messages to +his opponent's soldiers, and in some way or other so prevailed over some +of them that they took upon themselves the murder of Sextus. + +[-27-] The latter out of the way the usurper gained possession of all his +army except some few. The soldiers wintering in Apamea withdrew before +he reached them toward Cilicia, and were pursued but were not won over. +Bassus returned to Syria, where he was named commander, and he conquered +Apamea so as to have it as a base for warfare. He enlisted not only the +free but the slave fighting population, gathered money, and accumulated +arms. While he was thus engaged one Gaius Antistius invested the position +he was holding, and the two had a nearly even struggle in which neither +party succeeded in gaining any great advantage. Thereupon they parted, +without any definite truce, to await the bringing up of allies. The +troops of Antistius were increased by such persons in the vicinity as +favored Caesar and soldiers that had been sent by him from Rome, those of +Bassus by Alchaudonius the Arabian. The latter was the leader who had +formerly made an arrangement with Lucullus, as I mentioned,[31] and +later joined with the Parthian against Crassus. On this occasion he was +summoned by both sides, but entered the space between the city and the +camps and before making any answer auctioned off his services; and as +Bassus offered more money he assisted him, and in the battle wrought +great havoc with his arrows. The Parthians themselves, too, came at the +invitation of Bassus, but on account of the winter failed to remain with +him for any considerable time, and hence did not accomplish anything of +importance. This commander, then, had his own way for a time, but was +later again held in check by Marcius Crispus[32] and Lucius Staius +Murcus. + +[-28-] Things were in this condition among them when Cassius came on the +scene and at once conciliated all the cities through the reputation of +what he had done in his quaestorship and his other fame, and attached the +legions of Bassus and of the rest without additional labor. While he +was encamped in one spot with all of them a great downpour from the sky +suddenly occurred, during which wild swine rushed into the camp through +all the gates at once, overturning and mixing up everything there. Some, +accordingly, inferred from this that his power was only temporary and +that disaster was subsequently coming. Having secured possession of Syria +he set out into Judea on learning that the followers of Caesar left behind +in Egypt were approaching. Without effort he enlisted both them and the +Jews in his undertaking. Next he sent away without harming in the least +Bassus and Crispus and such others as did not care to share the campaign +with him; for Staius he preserved the rank with which he had come there +and besides entrusted to him the fleet. + +Thus did Cassius in brief time become strong: and he sent a despatch to +Caesar about reconciliation and to the senate about the situation, couched +in similar language to that of Brutus. Therefore the senate confirmed his +governorship of Syria and voted for the war with Dolabella. [-29-] The +latter had been appointed to govern Syria and had started out while +consul, but he proceeded only slowly through Macedonia and Thrace into +the province of Asia and delayed there also. While he was still there +he received news of the decree, and did not go forward into Syria but +remained where he was, treating Trebonius in such a way as to make him +believe most strongly that Dolabella was his friend. Trebonius had his +free permission to take food for his soldiers and to live on intimate +terms with him. When his dupe became in this way imbued with confidence +and ceased to be on his guard, Dolabella by night suddenly seized Smyrna, +where the other was, slew him, and hurled his head at Caesar's image, and +thereafter occupied all of Asia. When the Romans at home heard of this +they declared war against him; for as yet Caesar had neither conquered +Antony nor obtained a hold upon affairs in the City. The citizens also +gave notice to Dolabella's followers of a definite day before which they +must leave off friendship with him, in order to avoid being regarded also +in the light of enemies. And they instructed the consuls to carry on +opposition to him and the entire war as soon as they should have brought +their temporary business to a successful conclusion (not knowing yet that +Cassius held Syria). But in order that he should not gain still greater +power in the interval they gave the governors of the neighboring +provinces charge of the matter. Later they learned the news about +Cassius, and before anything whatever had been done by his opponents at +home they passed the vote that I cited. [-30-] Dolabella, accordingly, +after becoming in this way master of Asia came into Cilicia while Cassius +was in Palestine, took over the people of Tarsus with their consent, +conquered a few of Cassius's guards who were at Aegeae, and invaded Syria. + +From Antioch he was repulsed by the contingent guarding the place, but +gained Laodicea without a struggle on account of the friendship which its +inhabitants felt for the former Caesar. Upon this he spent some days in +acquiring new strength,--the fleet among other reinforcements came to +him speedily from Asia,--and crossed over into Aradus with the object +of getting both money and ships from the people also. There he was +intercepted with but few followers and ran into danger. He had escaped +from this when he encountered Cassius marching toward him, and gave +battle, which resulted in his own defeat. He was then shut up and +besieged in Laodicea, where he was entirely cut off from the land, to +be sure (Cassius being assisted by some Parthians among others), but +retained some power through the Asiatic ships and the Egyptian ones which +Cleopatra had sent him, and furthermore by means of the money which came +to him from her. So he carried on marauding expeditions until Staius got +together a fleet, and sailing into the harbor of Laodicea vanquished the +ships that moved out to meet him, and barred Dolabella from the sea also. +Then, prevented on both sides from bringing up supplies, he was led by +lack of necessaries to make a sortie. However, he was quickly hurled back +within the fortress, and seeing that it was being betrayed he feared +that he might be taken alive, and so despatched himself. His example was +followed by Marcus Octavius, his lieutenant. These were deemed worthy of +burial by Cassius, although they had cast out Trebonius unburied. The men +who had participated in the campaign with them and survived obtained both +safety and amnesty, in spite of having been regarded as enemies by the +Romans at home. Nor yet did the Laodiceans suffer any harm beyond being +obliged to contribute money. But for that matter no one else, though many +subsequently plotted against Cassius, was chastised. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +[-31-] While this was going on the people of Tarsus had attempted to keep +from the passage through the Taurus Tillius Cimber, an assassin of Caesar +who was then governing Bithynia and was hurrying forward to help Cassius. +Out of fear, however, they abandoned the spot and at the time made a +truce with him, because they thought him strong, but afterward they +perceived the small number of his soldiers and neither took him into +their city nor furnished him provisions. He constructed a kind of fort +over against them and set out for Syria, believing it to be of more +importance to aid Cassius than himself to destroy their city. They then +made an attack upon this and got possession of it, after which they +started for Adana, a place on their borders always at variance with them, +giving as an excuse that it was following the cause of Cassius. The +latter, when he heard of it, first, while Dolabella was still alive sent +Lucius Rufus against them, but later came himself, to find that they had +already capitulated to Rufus without a struggle. Upon them he inflicted +no severe penalty save to take away all their money, private and public. +As a result, the people of Tarsus received praise from the triumvirate, +who now held sway in Rome, and were inspired with hope of obtaining some +return for their losses. Cleopatra also, on account of the detachment +she had sent to Dolabella, was granted the right to have her son called +King of Egypt. This son, whom she named Ptolemy, she also pretended was +sprung from Caesar, and she was therefore wont to address him as Caesarion. + +[-32-] Cassius when he had settled matters in Syria and in Cilicia +came to meet Brutus in Asia. For when they learned of the union of the +triumvirs and what the latter were doing against them, they came +together there and made common cause more than ever. As they had a like +responsibility for the war and looked forward to a like danger and did +not even now recede from their position regarding the freedom of the +people, and as they were eager also to overthrow their opponents, three +in number and the authors of such deeds, they could plan and accomplish +everything in common with much greater zest. To be brief, they resolved +to enter Macedonia and to hinder the others from crossing over there, or +else to cross into Italy before the others started. Since the men were +said to be still settling affairs in Rome and it was thought likely that +they should have their hands full with Sextus, lying in wait near by, +they did not carry out their plans immediately. Instead, they went about +themselves and sent others in various directions, winning over such as +were not yet in accord with them, and gathering money and soldiers. +[-33-] In this way nearly all the rest, even those who had before paid no +attention to them, at once made agreements with them; but Ariobarzanes, +the Rhodians, and the Lycians, though they did not oppose them, were +still unwilling to form an alliance with them. These were therefore +suspected by Brutus and Cassius of favoring their antagonists, since they +had been well treated by the former Caesar, and fear was entertained by +the two leaders lest when they themselves departed this group should +cause some turmoil and lead the rest to revolt. Hence they determined to +turn first in the direction of these doubtful parties, hoping that since +they were far stronger in point of weapons and were willing to bestow +favors ungrudgingly they might soon either persuade or force them to +join. The Rhodians, who had so great an opinion of their seamanship that +they anticipated Cassius by sailing to the mainland and displayed to his +army the fetters they were bringing with the idea that they were going to +capture many alive, were yet conquered by him, first in a naval battle +near Myndus and later close to Rhodes itself. The commanding officer was +Staius, who overcame their skill by the number and size of his ships. +Thereupon Cassius himself crossed over to their island, where he met with +no resistance, possessing, as he did, their goodwill because of the stay +he had made there in the interests of his education. And he did them no +hurt except to appropriate their ships and money and holy and sacred +vessels,--all save the chariot of the Sun. Afterward he arrested and +killed Ariobarzanes. + +[-34-] Brutus overcame in battle the public army of the Lycians which +confronted him near the borders, and entering the citadel at the same +time as the fugitives captured it at a single stroke; the majority of +the cities he brought to his side, but Xanthus he shut up in a state of +siege. Suddenly the inhabitants made a sortie, and themselves rushed +in with them, and once inside arrows and javelins at once rendered his +position very dangerous. He would, indeed, have perished utterly, had +not his soldiers pushed their way through the very fire and unexpectedly +attacked the assailants, who were light-armed. These they hurled back +within the walls and themselves rushed in with them, and once inside cast +some of the fire on several houses, terrifying those who saw what was +being done, and giving those at a distance the impression that they had +simply captured everything. The result was that the natives of their own +accord helped set fire to the rest, and most of them slew one another. +Next Brutus came to Patara and invited the people to conclude friendship; +but they would not obey, for the slaves and the poorer portion of the +free population, who had received in advance for their services the +former freedom, the latter remission of debts, prevented any compact +being made. So at first he sent them the captive Xanthians, to whom many +of them were related by marriage, in the hope that through these he might +bring them to terms. When they yielded none the more, in spite of his +giving to each man gratuitously his own kin, he erected a kind of +salesroom in a safe spot under the very wall, where he led each one of +the prominent men past and auctioned him off, to see if by this means at +least he could gain the Patareans. They were as little inclined as ever +to make concessions, whereupon he sold a few and let the rest go. When +those within saw this, they no longer were stubborn, but forthwith +attached themselves to his cause, regarding him as an upright man; and +they were punished only in a pecuniary way. The people of Myra took the +same action when after capturing their general at the harbor he then +released him. Similarly in a short time he secured control of the rest. + +[-35-] When both had effected this they came again into Asia; and all the +suspicious facts they had heard from slanderous talk which will arise +under such conditions they brought up in common, one case at a time, +and, after they were settled, hastened into Macedonia. They had been +anticipated by Gaius Norbanus and Decidius Saxa, who had crossed over +into Ionium before Staius reached there, had occupied the whole country +as far as Pangaeum, and had encamped near Philippi. This city is located +close beside Mount Pangaeum and close beside Symbolon. Symbolon is a +name they give the place for the reason that the mountain mentioned +corresponds (_symballei_) to another that rises in the interior; and it +is between Neapolis and Philippi. The former was near the sea, across +from Thasos, while the latter has been built within the mountains on the +plain. Saxa and Norbanus happened to have occupied the shortest path +across, therefore Brutus and Cassius did not even try to get through that +way, but went around by a longer path,--the so-called Crenides.[33] +Here, too, they encountered a guard, but overpowered it, got inside the +mountains, approached the city along the high ground, and there encamped +each one apart,--if we are to follow the story. As a matter of fact they +bivouacked in one spot. In order that the soldiers might preserve better +discipline and be easier to manage, the camp was made up of two separate +divisions: but as all of it, including the intervening space, was +surrounded by a ditch and a rampart, the entire circuit belonged to both, +and from it they derived safety in common. [-36-] They were far superior +in numbers to their adversaries then present and by that means got +possession of Symbolon, having first ejected the inhabitants. In this way +they were able to bring provisions from the sea, over a shorter stretch +of country, and had only to make a descent from the plain to get them. +For Norbanus and Saxa did not venture to offer them battle with their +entire force, though they did send out horsemen to make sorties, wherever +opportunity offered. Accomplishing nothing, however, they were rather +careful to keep their camp well guarded than to expose it to danger, +and sent in haste for Caesar and Antony. These leaders on learning that +Cassius and Brutus were for some time busy with the Rhodians and the +Lycians had thought that their adversaries would have more fighting on +their hands there, and so instead of hastening had sent Saxa and Norbanus +forward into Macedonia. On finding out that their representatives were +caught they bestowed praise on the Lycians and Rhodians, promising to +make them a present of money, and they themselves at once set out from +the city. Both, however, encountered a delay of some time,--Antony near +Brundusium, because blocked by Staius, and Caesar near Rhegium, having +first turned aside to meet Sextus, held Sicily and was making an attempt +on Italy. [-37-] When it seemed to them to be impossible to dislodge him, +and the case of Cassius and Brutus appeared to be more urgent, they left +a small part of their army to garrison Italy and with the major portion +safely crossed the Ionian sea. Caesar fell sick and was left behind at +Dyrrachium, while Antony marched for Philippi. For a time he was a source +of some strength to his soldiers, but after laying an ambush for some of +the opposite party that were gathering grain and failing in his attempt +he was no longer of good courage himself. Caesar heard of it and feared +either possible outcome, that his colleague should be defeated in a +separate attack or again that he should conquer: in the former event he +felt that Brutus and Cassius would attain power, and in the latter that +Antony would have it all himself; therefore he made haste though still +unwell. At this action the followers of Antony also took courage. And +since it did not seem safe for them to refuse to encamp together, they +brought the three divisions together to one spot and into one stronghold. +While the opposing forces were facing each other sallies and excursions +took place on both sides, as chance dictated. For some time, however, no +ordered battle was joined, although Caesar and Antony were exceedingly +anxious to bring on a conflict. Their forces stronger than those of their +adversaries, but they were not so abundantly supplied with provisions, +because their fleet was away fighting Sextus and they were therefore not +masters of the sea. + +[-38-] Hence these men for the reasons specified and because of Sextus, +who held Sicily and was making an attempt on Italy, were excited by +the fear that while they delayed he might capture Italy and come +into Macedonia. Cassius and Brutus had no particular aversion to a +battle,--they had the advantage in the number of soldiers, though the +latter were deficient in strength,--but some reflection on their own +condition and that of their opponents showed them that allies were being +added to their own numbers every day and that they had abundant food by +the help of the ships; consequently they put off action in the hope of +gaining their ends without danger and loss of men. Because they were +lovers of the people in no pretended sense and were contending with +citizens, they consulted the interests of the latter no less than those +of their own associates, and desired to afford preservation and liberty +to both alike. For some time, therefore, they waited, not wishing to +provoke a contest with them. The troops, however, being composed mostly +of subject nations, were oppressed by the delay and despised +their antagonists who, apparently out of fear, offered within the +fortifications the sacrifice of purification, which regularly precedes +struggles. Hence they urged a battle and spread a report that if there +should be more delay, they would abandon the camp and disperse; and at +this the leaders, though against their will, went to meet the foe. + +[-39-] You might not unnaturally guess that this struggle proved +tremendous and surpassed all previous civil conflicts of the Romans. +This was not because these contestants excelled those of the old days in +either the number or the valor of the warriors, for far larger masses +and braver men than they had fought on many fields, but because on this +occasion they contended for liberty and for democracy as never before. +And they came to blows with one another again later just as they had +previously. But the subsequent struggles they carried on to see to whom +they should belong: on this occasion the one side was trying to bring +them into subjection to sovereignty, the other side into a state of +autonomy. Hence the people never attained again to the absolute right +of free speech, in spite of being vanquished by no foreign nation (the +subject population and the allied nations then present on both sides were +merely a kind of complement of the citizen army): but the people at once +gained the mastery over and fell into subjection to itself; it defeated +itself and was defeated; and in that effort it exhausted the democratic +element and strengthened the monarchical. I do not say that the people's +defeat at that time was not beneficial. (What else can one say regarding +those who fought on both sides than that the Romans were conquered and +Caesar was victorious?) They were no longer capable of concord in the +established form of government; for it is impossible for an unadulterated +democracy that has grown to acquire domains of such vast size to have +the faculty of moderation. After undertaking many similar conflicts +repeatedly, one after another, they would certainly some day have been +either enslaved or ruined. + +[-40-] We may infer also from the portents which appeared to them on that +occasion that the struggle between them was clearly tremendous. Heaven, +as it is ever accustomed to give indications before most remarkable +events, foretold to them accurately both in Rome and in Macedonia all the +results that would come from it. In the City the sun at one time appeared +diminished and grew extremely small, and again showed itself now huge, +now tripled in form, and once shone forth at night. Thunderbolts +descended on many spots, and most significantly upon the altar of Jupiter +Victor; flashes darted hither and thither; notes of trumpets, clashing of +arms, and cries of camps were heard by night from the gardens of Caesar +and of Antony, located close together beside the Tiber. Moreover a dog +dragged the body of a dog to the temple of Ceres, where he dug the earth +with his paws and buried it. A child was born with hands that had ten +fingers, and a mule gave birth to a prodigy of two species. The front +part of it resembled a horse, and the rest a mule. The chariot of Minerva +while returning to the Capitol from a horse-race was dashed to pieces, +and the statue of Jupiter at Albanum sent forth blood at the very time +of the Feriae from its right shoulder and right hand. These were advance +indications to them from Heaven, and the rivers also in their land gave +out entirely or began to flow backward. And any chance deeds of men +seemed to point to the same end. During the Feriae the prefect of the city +celebrated the festival of Latiaris,[34] which neither belonged to him +nor was ordinarily observed at that time, and the plebeian aediles +offered to Ceres contests in armor in place of the horse-race. This was +what took place in Rome, where certain oracles also both before the +events and pertaining to them were recited, tending to the downfall +of the democracy. In Macedonia, to which Pangeaum and the territory +surrounding it are regarded as belonging, bees in swarms pervaded the +camp of Cassius, and in the course of its purification some one set the +garland upon his head wrong end foremost, and a boy while carrying +a Victory in some procession, such as the soldiers inaugurate, fell +down.[35] But the thing which most of all portended destruction to them, +so that it became plain even to their enemies, was that many vultures and +many other birds, too, that devour corpses gathered only above the heads +of the conspirators, gazing down upon them and squawking and screeching +with terrible and bloodcurdling notes. + +[-41-] To that party these signs brought evil, while the others, so far +as we know, were visited by no omen, but saw some such, visions as the +following in dreams. A Thessalian dreamed that the former Caesar had +bidden him tell Caesar that the battle would occur on the second day +after that one, and that he should resume some of the insignia which his +predecessor wore while dictator: Caesar therefore immediately put his +father's ring on his finger and wore it often afterward. That was the +vision which that man saw, whereas the physician who attended Caesar +thought that Minerva enjoined him to lead his patient, though still in +poor health, from his tent and place him in line of battle: and by this +act he was saved. In most cases safety is the lot of such as remain in +the camp and of those in the fortifications, while danger accompanies +those who proceed into the midst of weapons and battles; but this was +reversed in the case of Caesar. It was quite visibly the result of his +leaving the rampart and mingling with the fighting men that he survived, +although from sickness he stood with difficulty even without his arms. + +[-42-] The engagement was of the following nature. No arrangement had +been made as to when they should enter battle, yet as if by some compact +they all armed themselves at dawn, advanced into the square intervening +between them quite leisurely, as though they were competitors in games, +and there were quietly marshaled. When they stood opposed advice was +given partly to the entire bodies and partly to individuals of both +forces by the generals and lieutenants and subalterns. They made many +suggestions touching the immediate danger and many adapted to the future, +words such as men would speak who were to encounter danger on the moment +and were endeavoring to anticipate troubles to come. For the most part +the speeches were very similar, inasmuch as on both sides alike there +were Romans together with allies. Still, there was a difference. The +officers of Brutus offered their men the prizes of liberty and democracy, +of freedom from tyrants and freedom from masters; they pointed out to +them the excellencies of equality in government, and all the unfairness +of monarchy that they themselves had experienced or had heard in other +cases; they called to the attention of the soldiers the separate details +of each system and besought them to strive for the one, and to take care +not to endure the other. The opposing officers urged their army to take +vengeance on the assassins, to possess the property of their antagonists, +to be filled with a desire to rule all of their race, and (the clause +which inspired them most) they promised to give them five thousand +denarii apiece. [-43-] Thereupon they first sent around their +watchwords,--the followers of Brutus using "Liberty," and the others +whatever happened to be given out,--and then one trumpeter on each side +sounded the first note, followed by the blare of the remainder. Those in +front sounded the "at rest" and the "ready" signal on their trumpets in +a kind of circular spot, and then the rest came in who were to rouse +the spirit of the soldier and incite them to the onset. Then there was +suddenly a great silence, and after waiting a little the leaders issued a +clear command and the lines on both sides joined in a shout. After that +with a yell the heavy-armed dashed their spears against their shields and +hurled the former at each other, while the slingers and the archers sent +their stones and missiles. Then the two bodies of cavalry trotted forward +and the contingents shielded with breastplates following behind joined in +hand to hand combat. [-44-] They did a great deal of pushing and a great +deal of stabbing, looking carefully at first to see how they should wound +others and not be wounded themselves; they desired both to kill their +antagonists and to save themselves. Later, when their charge grew fiercer +and their spirit flamed up, they rushed together without stopping to +consider, and paid no more attention to their own safety, but would even +sacrifice themselves in their eagerness to destroy their adversaries. +Some threw away their shields and seizing hold of those arrayed opposite +them either strangled[36] them in their helmets and struck them from the +rear, or snatched away their defence in front and delivered a stroke on +their breasts. Others took hold of their swords and then ran their +own into the bodies of the men opposite, who had been made as good as +unarmed. And some by exposing some part of their bodies to be wounded +could use the rest more readily. Some clutched each other in an embrace +that prevented the possibility of striking, but they perished in the +intertwining of swords and bodies. Some died of one blow, others of many, +and neither had any perception of their wounds, dying too soon to feel +pain, nor lamented their taking off, because they did not reach the point +of expressing grief. One who killed another thought in the excessive joy +of the moment that he could never die. Whoever fell lost consciousness +and had no knowledge of his state. [-45-] Both sides remained stubbornly +in their places and neither side retired or pursued, but there, just as +they were, they wounded and were wounded, slew and were slain, until late +in the day. And if all had contested with all, as may happen under such +circumstances, or if Brutus had been arrayed against Antony and Cassius +against Caesar, they would have proved equally matched. As it was, Brutus +forced the invalid Caesar from his path, while Antony overruled Cassius, +who was by no means his equal in warfare. At this juncture, because not +all were conquering the other side at once, but both parties were in turn +defeated and victorious, the results[37] were practically the same. Both +had conquered and had been defeated, each had routed their adversaries +and had been routed, pursuits and flights had fallen to the lot of both +alike and the camps on both sides had been captured. As they were many +they occupied a large expanse of plain, so that they could not see each +other distinctly. In the battle each one could recognize only what was +opposite him, and when the rout took place each side fled the opposite +way to its own fortifications, situated at a distance from each +other, without stopping to look back. Because of this fact and of the +immeasurable quantity of dust that rose they were ignorant of the +termination of the battle, and those who had conquered thought they had +been victorious over everything, and those who were defeated deemed they +had been worsted everywhere. They did not learn what had happened until +the ramparts had been laid in ruins, and the victors on each side on +retiring to their own head-quarters encountered each other. + +[-46-] So far, then, as the battle was concerned, both sides both +conquered thus and were defeated. At this time they did not resume the +conflict, but as soon as they had retired and beheld each other and +recognized what had taken place, they both withdrew, not venturing +anything further. They had beaten and had proved inferior to each other. +This was shown first by the fact that the entire ramparts of Caesar +and Antony and everything within them had been captured. (That proved +practically the truth of the dream, for if Caesar had remained in his +place, he would certainly have perished with the rest.) It was shown +again in the fate of Cassius. He came away safe from the battle, but +stripped of his fortifications he had fled to a different spot, and +suspecting that Brutus, too, had been defeated and that several of the +victors were hastening to attack him he made haste to die. He had sent a +certain centurion to view the situation and report to him where Brutus +was and what he was doing. This man fell in with some horsemen whom +Brutus had dispatched to seek his colleague, turned back with them and +proceeded leisurely, with the idea that there was hurry, because no +danger presented itself. Cassius, seeing them afar off, suspected they +were enemies and ordered Pindarus, a freedman, to kill him. The centurion +on learning that his leader's death was due to his dilatoriness slew +himself upon his body. + +[-47-] Brutus immediately sent the body of Cassius secretly to Thasos. He +shrank from burying it upon the ground, for fear the army would be filled +with grief and dejection at sight of the preparations. The remainder +of his friend's soldiers he took under his charge, consoled them in a +speech, won their devotion by a gift of money to make up for what they +had lost, and then transferred his position to their enclosure, which +was more suitable. From there he started out to harass his opponents in +various ways, especially by assaulting their camp at night. He had no +intention of joining issue with them again in a set battle, but had great +hopes of overcoming them without danger by the lapse of time. Hence he +tried regularly to startle them in various ways and disturb them by +night, and once by diverting the course of the river he washed away +considerable of their wall. Caesar and Antony were getting short of both +food and money, and consequently gave their soldiers nothing to replace +what had been seized and carried off. Furthermore, the force that was +sailing to them in transports from Brundusium had been destroyed by +Staius. Yet they could not safely transfer their position to any other +quarter nor return to Italy, and so, even as late as this, they set all +their hopes upon their weapons,--hopes not merely of victory but even +of preservation. They were eager to meet the danger before the naval +disaster became noised abroad among their opponents and their own men. +[-48-] As Brutus evinced an unwillingness to meet them in open fight, +they somehow cast pamphlets over his palisade, challenging his soldiers +either to embrace their cause (promises being attached) or to come into +conflict if they had the least particle of strength. During this delay +some of the Celtic force deserted from their side to Brutus, and Amyntas, +the general of Deiotarus, and Rhascuporis deserted to them. The latter, +as some say, immediately returned home. Brutus was afraid, when this +happened, that there might be further similar rebellion and decided to +join issue with them. And since there were many captives in his camp, and +he neither had any way to guard them during the progress of the battle, +and could not trust them to refrain from doing mischief, he despatched +the majority of them, contrary to his own inclination, being a slave in +this matter to necessity; but he was the more ready to do it because of +the fact that his opponents had killed such of his soldiers as had been +taken alive. After doing this he armed his men for battle. When the +opposing ranks were arrayed, two eagles that flew above the heads of the +two armies battled together and indicated to the combatants the outcome +of the war. The eagle on the side of Brutus was beaten and fled: and +similarly his heavy-armed force, after a contest for the most part even, +was defeated, and then when many had fallen his cavalry, though it fought +nobly, gave way. Thereupon the victors pursued them, as they fled, this +way and that, but neither killed nor captured any one; and then they kept +watch of the separate contingents during the night and did not allow them +to unite again. + +[-49-] Brutus, who had reached in flight a steep and lofty spot, +undertook to break through in some way to the camp. In this he was +unsuccessful, and on learning that some of his soldiers had made terms +with the victors he had no further hope, but despairing of safety and +disdaining capture he himself also took refuge in death. He uttered aloud +this sentence of Heracles: + + "Unhappy Virtue, thou wert but a name, while I, + Deeming thy godhead real, followed thee on, + Who wert but Fortune's slave." [38] + +Then he called one of the bystanders to kill him. His body received +burial by Antony,--all but his head, which was sent to Rome: but as the +ships encountered a storm during the voyage across from Dyrrachium that +was thrown into the sea. At his death the mass of his soldiers, on +amnesty being proclaimed for them, immediately transferred their +allegiance. Portia perished by swallowing red-hot charcoal. Most of the +prominent men who had held any offices or belonged to the assassins or +the proscribed, straightway killed themselves, or, like Favonius, were +captured and destroyed: the remainder at this time escaped to the sea and +thereafter joined Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +48 + +The following is contained in the Forty-eighth of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar contended with Fulvia and Lucius Antonius (chapters 1-16). + +How Sextus Pompey occupied Sicily (chapters 17-23). + +How the Parthians occupied the country to the edge of the Hellespont +(chapters 24-26). + +How Caesar and Antony reached an agreement with Sextus (chapters 27-38). + +How Publius Ventidius conquered the Parthians and recovered Asia +(chapters 39-42). + +How Caesar began to make war upon Sextus (chapters 43-48). + +About Baiae (chapters 49-54). + +Duration of time five years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated: + +L. Antonius M. F. Pietas, P. Servilius P. F. Isauricus consul (II).(B.C. +41 = a. u. 713.) + +Cn. Domitius M. F Calvinus [consul] (II), C. Asinius|| Cn. F. Pollio. +(B.C. 40 = a. u. 714.) + +L. Marcius L. F. Censorinus, C. Calvisius||[39] C. F. Sabinus. (B.C. 39 = +a. u. 715.) + +Appius Claudius C. F. Pulcher, C. Norbanus C. F. Flaccus. (B.C. 38 = a. +u. 716.) + +M. Vipsanius L. F. Agrippa, L. Caninius L. F. Gallus. (B.C. 37 = a. u. +717.) + + +(_BOOK 48, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 42(_a. u_.712)] + +[-1-] So perished Brutus and Cassius, slain by the swords with which they +had despatched Caesar. The rest also who had shared in the plot against +him were all except a very few destroyed, some previously, some at this +time, and some subsequently. Justice and the Divine Will seemed to sweep +onward and lead forward to such a fate the men who had killed their +benefactor, one who had attained such eminence in both excellence and +good fortune. Caesar and Antony for the moment secured an advantage over +Lepidus, because he had not shared the victory with them; yet they +were destined ere long to turn their arms against each other. It is a +difficult matter for three men or two that are equal in rank and have +come into power over such vast interests as a result of war to be of one +accord. Hence, whatever they had gained for a time while in harmony for +the purpose of the overthrow of their adversaries they now began to +set up as prizes in their rivalry with each other. They immediately +redistributed the empire, so that Spain and Numidia fell to Caesar, Gaul +and Africa to Antony; they further agreed that in case Lepidus showed any +vexation at this Africa should be evacuated for him. [-2-] This was all +they could allot between them, since Sextus was still occupying Sardinia +and Sicily, and other regions outside of Italy were in a state of +turmoil. About the peninsula itself I need say nothing, for it has always +remained a kind of choice exception in such divisions: and not even now +did they talk as if they were struggling to obtain it, but to defend it. +So, leaving these other regions to be common property, Antony took it +upon himself to settle affairs of nations that had fought against them +and to collect the money which had been offered to the soldiers in +advance: Caesar was charged with curtailing the power of Lepidus, if he +should make any hostile move, with conducting the war against Sextus, and +with assigning to those of his campaigners who had passed the age limit +the land which he had promised them; and these he forthwith dismissed. +Furthermore he sent with Antony two legions of his followers, and his +colleague sent word that he would give him in return an equal number +of those stationed at that tune in Italy. After making these compacts +separately, putting them in writing, and sealing them, they exchanged the +documents, to the end that if any transgression were committed, it might +be proved from the very records. Thereupon Antony set out for Asia and +Caesar for Italy. [-3-] Sickness attacked the latter violently on the +journey and during the voyage, giving rise in Rome to an expectation of +his death. They did not believe, however, that he was lingering so +much by reason of ill health as because he was devising some harm, and +consequently they expected to fall victims to every possible persecution. +Yet they voted to these men many honors for their victory, such as would +have been given assuredly to the others, had they conquered; in such +crises it is ever the case that all trample on the loser and honor the +victor; and in particular they decided, though against their will, to +celebrate thanksgivings during practically the entire year. This +Caesar ordered them outright to do in gratitude for vengeance upon the +assassins. At any rate during his delay all sorts of stories were +current, and all sorts of behavior resulted. For example, some spread a +report that he was dead, and aroused delight in many breasts: others +said he was planning some evil, and filled numerous persons with fear. +Therefore some hid their property and took care to protect themselves, +and others considered in what way they might make their escape. Others, +and the majority, not being able to apprehend anything clearly by reason +of their excessive fear, prepared to meet a certain doom. The confident +element was extremely small, and its numbers few. In the light of the +former frequent and diverse destruction of both persons and possessions +they expected that anything similar or still worse might happen, because +now they had been utterly vanquished. Wherefore Caesar, in dread that +they might take some rebellious step, especially since Lepidus was there, +forwarded a letter to the senate urging its members to be of good cheer, +and further promising that he would do everything in a mild and humane +way, after the manner of his father. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_.713)] + +[-4-] This was what then took place. The succeeding year Publius +Servilius and Lucius Antonius nominally became consuls, but in reality it +was the latter and Fulvia. She, the mother-in-law of Caesar and wife of +Antony, had no respect for Lepidus because of his slothfulness, and +herself managed affairs, so that neither the senate nor the people dared +transact any business contrary to her pleasure. Actually, when Lucius +himself was anxious to have a triumph over certain peoples dwelling in +the Alps, on the ground that he had conquered them, for a time Fulvia +opposed him and no one would grant it; but when her favor was courted and +she permitted it, all voted for the measure: therefore it was nominally +Antonius ... over the people whom he said he had vanquished (in reality +he had done nothing deserving a triumph nor had any command at all in +those regions),--but in truth Fulvia ...[40] and had the procession. And +she assumed a far prouder bearing over the affair than did he, because +she had a truer cause; to give any one authority to hold a triumph was +greater than to celebrate it by securing the privilege from another. +Except that Lucius donned the triumphal apparel, mounted the chariot, and +performed the other rites customary in such cases, Fulvia herself seemed +to be giving the spectacle, employing him as her assistant. It took +place on the first day of the year, and Lucius, just as Marius had done, +exulted in the circumstance that he held it on the first day of the month +that he began to be consul. Moreover he exalted himself even above his +predecessor, saying that he had voluntarily laid aside the decorations of +the procession and had assembled the senate in his street dress, whereas +Marius had done it unwillingly. He added that the latter had received a +crown from almost nobody, whereas he obtained many, and particularly from +the people, tribe by tribe, as had never been the case with any former +triumphator. (It was done by the aid of Fulvia and by the money which he +had secretly given some persons to spend.) + +[-5-] It was in this year that Caesar arrived in Rome, and, after taking +the usual steps to celebrate the victory, turned his attention to the +administration and despatch of business. For Lepidus through fear of him +and out of his general weakness of heart had not rebelled; and Lucius and +Fulvia, on the supposition that they were relatives and sharers in his +supremacy were quiet,--at least at first. As time went on they became at +variance, the persons just mentioned because they did not get a share in +the portion of lands to be assigned which belonged to Antony, and Caesar +because he did not get back his troops from the other two. Hence their +kinship by marriage was dissolved and they were brought to open warfare. +Caesar would not endure the domineering ways of his mother-in-law, and, +choosing to appear to be at odds with her rather than with Antonius, sent +back her daughter, whom he declared on oath to be still a virgin. In +pursuing such a course he was careless whether it should be thought +that the woman had remained a virgin in his house so long a time for +common-place reasons, or whether it should seem that he had planned the +situation considerably in advance, as a measure of preparation for the +future. After this action there was no longer any friendship between +them. Lucius together with Fulvia attempted to get control of affairs, +pretending to be doing this in behalf of Marcus, and would yield to Caesar +on no point: therefore on account of his devotion to his brother he took +the additional title of Pietas. Caesar naturally found no fault with +Marcus, not wishing to alienate him while he was attending to the nations +in Asia, but reproached and resisted the pair, giving out that they were +behaving in all respects contrary to their brother's desire and were +eager for individual supremacy. + +[-6-] In the land allotments both placed the greatest hope of power, and +consequently the beginning of their quarrel was concerned with them. +Caesar for his part wished to distribute the territory to all such as had +made the campaign with himself and Antony, according to the compact +made with them after the victory, that by so doing he might win their +good-will: the others demanded to receive the assignment that appertained +to their party and settle the cities themselves, in order that they might +get the power of these settlements on their side. It seemed to both to +be the simplest method to grant the land of the unarmed to those who +had participated in the conflict. Contrary to their expectation great +disturbance resulted and the matter took the aspect of a war. For at +first Caesar was for taking from the possessors and giving to the veterans +all of Italy (except what some old campaigner had received as a gift or +bought from the government and was now holding), together with the bands +of slaves and other wealth. The persons deprived of their property were +terribly enraged against him, and caused a change of policy. Fulvia and +the consul now hoped to find more power in the cause of the others, the +oppressed, and consequently neglected those who were to receive the +fields, but turned their attention to that party which was of greater +numbers and was animated by a righteous indignation at the deprivation +they were suffering. Next they took some of them individually, aided and +united them, so that the men who were before afraid of Caesar now that +they had got leaders became courageous and no longer gave up any of their +property: they thought that Marcus, too, would approve their course. +[-7-] Among these, therefore, Lucius and Fulvia secured a following, and +still made no assault upon the adherents of Caesar. Their attitude was not +that there was no need for the soldiers to receive allotments, but +they maintained that the goods of their adversaries in the combat were +sufficient for them; especially they pointed out lands and furniture, +some still being held intact, others that had been sold, of which they +declared the former ought to be given to the men outright and in the +second case the price realized should be presented to them. If even this +did not satisfy them, they tried to secure the affection of them all by +holding out hopes in Asia. In this way it quickly came about that Caesar, +who had forcibly robbed the possessors of any property and caused +troubles and dangers on account of it to all alike, found himself +disliked by both parties; whereas the other two, since they took nothing +from anybody and showed those who were to receive the gifts a way to the +fulfillment of the pledges from already existing assets and without a +combat, won over each of the bodies of men. As a result of this and +through the famine which was trying them greatly at this time, because +the sea off Sicily was in control of Sextus, and the Ionian Gulf was +in the grasp of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Caesar found himself in a +considerable dilemma. For Domitius was one of the assassins, and, having +escaped from the battle fought at Philippi, he had got together a small +fleet, had made himself for a time master of the Gulf, and was doing the +greatest damage to the cause of his opponents. + +[-8-] There was not only this to trouble Caesar greatly but also the fact +that in the disputes which had been inaugurated between the ex-soldiers +and the senators as well as the rest of the multitude that possessed +lands,--and these proved very numerous because the contestants were +struggling for the greatest interests,--he could not attach himself to +either side without danger. It was impossible for him to please both. The +one side wished to run riot, the other to be unharmed: the one side to +get the other's property, the other to hold what belonged to it. As +often as he gave the preference to the interests of this party or that, +according as he found it necessary, he incurred the hatred of the others: +and he did not meet with so much gratitude for the favors he conferred as +with anger for what he failed to yield. Those benefited took all that was +given them as their due and regarded it as no kindness, and the opposite +party was wrathful because robbed of their own belongings. And as a +result he continued to offend either this group or the other, at one +time reproached with being a friend of the people and again with being +a friend of the army. He could make no headway, and further learned by +actual experience that arms had no power to hold those injured friendly +toward him, and that it was possible for all such as would not submit to +perish by the use of weapons, but out of the question for any one to be +forced to love a person whom he will not. After this, though reluctantly, +he stopped taking anything from the senators; previously he used to deem +it his right to distribute everything that was theirs, asking seriously: +"From what source else shall we pay the prizes of war to those who have +served?"--as if any one had commanded him to wage war or to make such +great promises. He also kept his hands off the valuables,--whatever +costly objects women had for dowries, or others had less in value than +the land individually given to the old soldiers. [-9-] When this was done +the senate and the rest, finding nothing taken from them, became fairly +resigned to his rule, but the veterans were indignant, regarding his +sparingness and the honor shown to the others to be their own dishonor +and loss, since they were to receive less. They killed not a few of the +centurions and the other intimates of Caesar who tried to restrain +them from mutiny, and came very near compassing their leader's own +destruction, using every plausible excuse possible for their anger. They +did not cease their irritation till the land that belonged to their +relatives and the fathers and sons of those fallen in battle but was held +by somebody else was granted to these three classes freely. This measure +caused the soldier element to become somewhat more conciliatory, but that +very thing produced vexation again among the people. The two used to come +in conflict and there was continual fighting amongst them, so that many +were wounded and killed on both sides alike. The one party was superior +by being equipped with weapons and having experience in wars, and the +other by its numbers and the ability to pelt opponents from the roofs. +Owing to this a number of houses were burned down, and to those dwelling +in the city rent was entirely remitted to the extent of five hundred +denarii, while for those in the rest of Italy it was reduced a fourth for +one year. For they used to fight in all the cities alike, wherever they +fell in with each other. + +[-10-] When this took place constantly and soldiers sent ahead by Caesar +into Spain made a kind of uprising at Placentia and did not come to +order until they received money from the people there, and they were +furthermore hindered from crossing the Alps by Calenus and Ventidius, +who held Farther Gaul, Caesar became afraid that he might meet with some +disaster and began to wish to be reconciled with Fulvia and the consul. +He could not accomplish anything by sending messages personally and with +only his own authorization, and so went to the veterans and through them +attempted to negotiate a settlement. Elated at this they took charge of +those who had lost their land, and Lucius went about in every direction +uniting them and detaching them from Caesar, while Fulvia occupied +Praeneste, had senators and knights for her associates, and was wont to +conduct all her deliberations with their help, even sending orders to +whatever points required it. Why should any one be surprised at this, +when she was girt with a sword, and used to pass the watchwords to the +soldiers, yes, often harangued them,--an additional means of giving +offence to Caesar? [-11-] The latter, however, had no way to overthrow +them, being far inferior to them not only in troops, but in good-will on +the part of the population; for he caused many distress, whereas they +filled every one with hope. He had often privately through friends +proposed reconciliation to them, and when he accomplished nothing, he +sent envoys from the number of the veterans to them. He expected by +this stroke pretty surely to obtain his request, to adjust present +difficulties, and to gain a strength equal to theirs for the future. And +even though he should fail of these aims, he expected that not he but +they would bear the responsibility for their quarrel. This actually took +place. When he effected nothing even through the soldiers, he despatched +senators, showing them the covenants made between himself and Antony, and +offering the envoys as arbitrators of the differences. But his opponents +in the first place made many counter-propositions, demands with which +Caesar was sure not to comply, and again, in respect to everything that +they did said they were doing it by the orders of Mark Antony. So that +when nothing was gained in this way either, he betook himself once more +to the veterans. [-12-] Thereupon these assembled in Rome in great +numbers, with the avowed intention of making some communication to the +people and the senate. But instead of troubling themselves about this +errand they collected on the Capitol and commanded that the compacts +which Antony and Caesar made be read to them. They ratified these +agreements and voted that they should be made arbitrators of the +differences existing. After recording these acts on tablets and sealing +them they delivered them to the vestal virgins to keep. To Caesar, who was +present, and to the other party by an embassy they gave orders to meet +for adjudication at Gabii on a stated day. Caesar showed his readiness to +submit to arbitration, and the others promised to put in an appearance, +but out of fear or else perhaps disdain did not come. (For they were wont +to make fun of the warriors, calling them among other names _senatus +caligatus_ on account of their use of military boots.) So they condemned +Lucius and Fulvia as guilty of some injustice, and gave precedence to the +cause of Caesar. After this, when the latter's adversaries had deliberated +again and again, they took up the war once more and did not make ready +for it in any quiet fashion. Chief among their measures was to secure +money from sources, even from temples. They took away all the votive +offerings that could be turned into bullion, those deposited in Rome +itself as well as those in the rest of Italy that was under their +control. Both money and soldiers came to them also from Gallia Togata, +which had been included by this time in the domain of Italy, to the end +that no one else, under the plea that it was a single district, should +keep soldiers south of the Alps. + +[-13-] Caesar, then, was making preparations, and Fulvia and Lucius were +gathering hoards of supplies and assembling forces. Meanwhile both sent +embassies and despatched soldiers and officers in every direction, and +each managed to seize some places beforehand and was repulsed from +others. The most of these transactions, and those connected with no great +or important occurrence, I shall pass over, and briefly relate the points +which are of chief value. + +Caesar made an expedition against Nursia, among the Sabini, and routed the +garrison encamped before it but was repulsed from the city by Tisienus +Gallus. Accordingly, he went over into Umbria and laid siege to Sentinum, +but failed to capture it. Lucius had meanwhile been sending on one excuse +and another soldiers to his friends in Rome, and then coming suddenly on +the scene himself conquered the cavalry force that met him, hurled the +infantry back to the wall, and after that took the city, since those that +had been there for some days helped the defenders within by attacking the +besiegers. Lepidus, to whom had been entrusted the guarding of the place, +made no resistance by reason of his inherent slothfulness, nor did +Servilius the consul, who was too easy-going. On ascertaining this Caesar +left Quintus Salvidienus Rufus to look after the people of Sentinum, and +himself set out for Rome. Hearing of this movement Lucius withdrew in +advance, having had voted to him the privilege of going out on some war. +Indeed, he delivered an address in soldier's costume, which no one else +had done. Thus Caesar was received into the capital without striking a +blow, and when he did not capture the other by pursuit, he returned and +kept a more careful watch over the city. Meantime, as soon as Caesar had +left Sentinum, Gaius Furnius the guarder of the fortifications had issued +forth and pursued him a long distance, and Rufus unexpectedly attacked +the citizens within, captured the town, plundered, and burned it. The +inhabitants of Nursia came to terms--and suffered no ill treatment; when, +however, after burying those that had fallen in the battle which had +taken place between themselves and Caesar, they inscribed on their tombs +that they had died contending for liberty, an enormous fine was imposed +upon the people, so that they abandoned their city and entire country +together. + +[-14-] While they were so engaged, Lucius on setting out from Rome after +his occupancy had proceeded toward Gaul: his road was blocked, however, +and so he turned aside to Perusia, an Etruscan city. There he was cut off +first by the lieutenants of Caesar and later by Caesar himself, and was +besieged. The investing of the place proved a long operation: the +situation is naturally a strong one and had been amply stocked with +provisions; and horsemen sent out by him before he was entirely hemmed +in harassed his antagonists greatly while many others, moreover, from +various sections vigorously defended him. Many attempts were made upon +the besieged individually and there was sharp fighting close to the +walls, until the followers of Lucius in spite of being generally +successful were nevertheless overcome by hunger. The leader and some +others obtained pardon, but most of the senators and knights were put +to death. And the story goes that they did not merely suffer death in a +simple form, but were led to the altar consecrated to the former Caesar +and there sacrificed,--three hundred[41] knights and many senators, among +them Tiberius Cannutius who formerly during his tribuneship had assembled +the populace for Caesar Octavianus. Of the people of Perusia and the rest +there captured the majority lost their lives, and the city itself, except +the temple of Vulcan and statue of Juno, was entirely destroyed by fire. +This piece of sculpture was preserved by some chance and was brought to +Rome in accordance with a vision that Caesar saw in a dream: there it +accorded those who desired to undertake the task permission to settle the +city again and place the deity on her original site,--only they did not +acquire more than seven and one-half stadia of the territory. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +[-15-] When that city had been captured during the consulship of Gnaeus +Calvinus and Asinius Pollio,--the former holding office the second +time,--other posts in Italy partly perforce and partly voluntarily +capitulated to Caesar. For this reason Fulvia with her children made her +escape to her husband, and many of the other foremost men made their +way some to him and some to Sextus in Sicily. Julia, the mother of the +Antonii, went there at first and was received by Sextus with extreme +kindness; later she was sent by him to her son Marcus, carrying +propositions of friendship and with envoys whom she was to conduct to his +presence. In this company which at that time turned its steps away from +Italy to Antony was also Tiberius Claudius Nero. He was holding a kind of +fort in Campania, and when Caesar's party got the upper hand set out with +his wife Livia Drusilla and with his son Tiberius Claudius Nero. This +episode illustrated remarkably the whimsicality of fate. This Livia who +then fled from Caesar later on was married to him, and this Tiberius who +then escaped with his parents succeeded him in the office of emperor. + +[-16-] All this was later. At that time the inhabitants of Rome resumed +the garb of peace, which they had taken off without any decree, under +compulsion from the people; they gave themselves up to merrymaking, +conveyed Caesar in his triumphal robe into the city and honored him with +a laurel crown, so that he enjoyed this decoration as often as the +celebrators of triumphs were accustomed to use it. Caesar, when Italy +had been subdued and the Ionian Gulf had been cleared,--for Domitius +despairing of continuing to prevail any longer by himself had sailed away +to Antony,--made preparations to proceed against Sextus. When, however, +he ascertained his power and the fact that he had been in communication +with Antony through the latter's mother and through envoys, he feared +that he might get embroiled with both at once; therefore preferring +Sextus as more trustworthy or else as stronger than Antony he sent him +his mother Mucia and married the sister of his father-in-law, Lucius +Scribonius Libo, in the hope that by the aid of his kindness and his +kinship he might make him a friend. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u._ 710)] + +[-17-] Sextus, after he had originally left Spain according to his +compact with Lepidus and not much later had been appointed admiral, was +removed from his office by Caesar. For all that he held on to his fleet +and had the courage to sail to Italy; but Caesar's adherents were already +securing control of the country and he learned that he had been numbered +among the assassins of Caesar's father. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u._ 711)] + +Therefore he kept away from the mainland but sailed about among the +islands, maintaining a sharp watch on what was going on and supplying +himself with food without resort to crimes. As he had not taken part in +the murder he expected to be restored by Caesar himself. When, however, +his name was exposed on the tablet and he knew that the edict of +proscription was in force against him also, he despaired of getting back +through Caesar and put himself in readiness for war. He had triremes +built, received the deserters, made an alliance with the pirates, and +took under his protection the exiles. By these means in a short time he +became powerful and was master of the sea off Italy, so that he made +descents upon the harbors, cut loose the boats, and engaged in pillage. +As matters went well with him and his activity supplied him with soldiers +and money, he sailed to Sicily, where he seized Mylae and Tyndaris without +effort but was repulsed from Messana by Pompeius Bithynicus, then +governor of Sicily. Instead of retiring altogether from the place, he +overran the country, prevented the importation of provisions, gained the +ascendancy over those who came to the rescue,--filling some with fear +of suffering a similar hardship, and damaging others by some form of +ambuscade,--won over the quaestor together with the funds, and finally +obtained Messana and also Bithynicus, by an agreement that the latter +should enjoy equal authority with him. The governor suffered no harm, at +least for the time being: the others had their arms and money taken from +them. His next step was to win over Syracuse and some other cities, +from which he gathered more soldiers and collected a very strong fleet. +Quintus Cornificius also sent him quite a force from Africa. + +[-18-] While he was thus growing strong, Caesar for a time took no action +in the matter, both because he despised him and because the business in +hand kept him occupied. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u._ 712)] + +But when owing to the famine the deaths in the City became numerous and +Sextus commenced to make attempts on Italy also, Caesar began to have a +small fleet equipped and sent Salvidienus Rufus with a large force ahead +to Rhegium. Rufus managed to repel Sextus from Italy and when the latter +retired into Sicily he undertook to manufacture boats of leather, similar +to those adapted to ocean sailing. He made a framework of light rods for +the interior and stretched on the outside an uncured oxhide, making an +affair like an oval shield. For this he got laughed at and decided that +it would be dangerous for him to try to use them in crossing the strait, +so he let them go and ventured to undertake the passage with the fleet +that had been equipped and had arrived. He was not able, however, to +accomplish his purpose, for the number and size of his ships were no +match for the skill and daring of the enemy. This took place in the +course of Caesar's expedition into Macedonia, and he himself was an +eye-witness of the battle; the result filled him with chagrin, most of +all because he had been defeated in this their first encounter. For this +reason he no longer ventured, although the major part of his fleet had +been preserved, to cross over by main force: he frequently tried to +effect it secretly, feeling that if he could once set foot on the island, +he could certainly conquer it with his infantry; after a time, since the +vigilant guard kept in every quarter prevented him from gaining anything, +he ordered others to attend to the blockade of Sicily and he himself went +to meet Antony at Brundusium. whence with the aid of the ships he crossed +the Ionian Gulf. [-19-] Upon his departure Sextus occupied all of the +island and put to death Bithynicus on the charge that the latter had +plotted against him. He also produced a triumphal spectacle and had a +naval battle of the captives in the strait close to Rhegium itself, so +that his opponents could look on; in this combat he had wooden boats +contend with others of leather, in the intention of making fun of Rufus. +After this he built more ships and dominated the sea all round about, +acquiring some renown, in which he took pride, based on the assumption +that he was the son of Neptune, and that his father had once ruled the +whole sea. So he fared as long as the resistance of Cassius and Brutus +held out. When they had perished, Lucius Staius and others took refuge +with him. He was at first glad to receive this ally and incorporated the +troops that Staius led in his own force: subsequently, seeing that the +new accession was an active and high-spirited man, he executed him on a +charge of treachery. Then he acquired the other's fleet and the mass of +slaves who kept arriving from Italy and gained tremendous strength. So +many persons, in fact, deserted that the vestal virgins prayed in the +name of the sacrifices that their desertions might be restrained. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +[-20-] For these reasons and because he gave the exiles a refuge, was +negotiating friendship with Antony, and plundering a great portion of +Italy, Caesar felt a wish to become reconciled with him. When he failed +of that he ordered Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to wage war against him, and +himself set out for Gaul. Sextus when he heard of that kept watch of +Agrippa, who was busy superintending the Ludi Apollinares. This person +was praetor at the time, holding a brilliant position in many ways because +he was such an intimate friend of Caesar, and for two days he had been +conducting the horse-race and enjoyed the so-called "Troy contest," +carried on by children of the nobility, which added to his glory. While +he was so engaged Sextus crossed over into Italy and remained there +carrying on marauding expeditions until Agrippa arrived. Then, after +leaving a garrison at certain points, he sailed back again.--Caesar had +formerly tried, as has been described, to get possession of Gaul through +others, but had not been able on account of Calenus and the rest who +followed Antony's fortunes. But now he occupied it in person, for he +found Calenus dead of a disease and acquired his army without difficulty. +Meanwhile, seeing that Lepidus was vexed at being deprived of the office +that belonged to him, he sent him to Africa; for he proposed, by being +the sole bestower of that position, instead of allowing Antony to share +in the appointment, to gain in a greater degree Lepidus's attachment. + +[B.C. 44 (_a. u_. 710)] + +[-21-] As I have remarked, [42] the Romans had two provinces in that part +of Libya. The governors, before the union of the three men, were Titus +Sextius over the Numidian region, and Cornificius with Decimus Laelius +over the rest; the former was friendly to Antony, the latter two to +Caesar. For a time Sextius waited in the expectation that the others, +who had a far larger force, would invade his domain, and prepared to +withstand them there. When they delayed, he began to disdain them; and +he was further elated by a cow, as they say, that uttered human speech +bidding him lay hold of the prize before him, and by a dream in which a +bull that had been buried in the city of Tucca seemed to urge him to dig +up its head and carry it about on a spear-shaft, since by this means he +should conquer. Without hesitation, then, especially when he found the +bull in the spot where the dream said it was, he invaded Africa first +himself. + +[B.C. 43 (_a. u_. 711)] + +At the beginning he occupied Adrymetum and +some few other places, taken by surprise at his sudden assault. Then, +while in an unguarded state because of this very success, he was ambushed +by the quaestor, lost a large portion of his army, and withdrew into +Numidia. His misfortune had happened to occur when he was without the +protection of the bull's head, and he therefore ascribed his defeat to +that fact and made preparations to take the field again. Meantime his +opponents anticipated him by invading his domain. While the rest were +besieging Cirta, the quaestor with the cavalry proceeded against him, +overcame him in a few cavalry battles, and won over the other +quaestor. After these experiences Sextius, who had secured some fresh +reinforcements, risked battle again, conquered the quaestor in his +turn, and shut up Laelius, who was overrunning the country, within his +fortifications. He deceived Cornificius, who came to the defence of his +colleague, making him believe that the latter had been captured, and +after thus throwing him into a state of dejection defeated him. So +Cornificius met his death in battle, and Laelius, who made a sally with +the intention of taking the enemy in the rear, was also slain. + +[-22-] When this had been accomplished, Sextius occupied Africa and +governed both provinces without interference, until Caesar according to +the covenant made by him with Antony and Lepidus took possession of the +office and assigned Gaius Fuficius Fango to take charge of the people; +then the governor voluntarily gave up the provinces. When the battle with +Brutus and Cassius had been fought, Caesar and Antony redistributed the +world, Caesar taking Numidia for his share of Libya, and Antony Africa. +Lepidus, as I have stated,[43] had power among the three only in name, +and often was not recorded in the documents even to this extent. When, +therefore, this occurred Fulvia bade Sextius resume his rule of Africa. +He was at this time still in Libya, making the winter season his plea, +but in reality his lingering there was due to his certain knowledge that +there would be some kind of upheaval. As he could not persuade Fango to +give up the country, he associated himself with the natives, who detested +their ruler; he had done evil in his office, for he was one of that +mercenary force, many of whose members, as has been stated in my +narrative,[44] had been elected even into the senate. At this turn of +affairs Fango retired into Numidia, where he accorded harsh treatment to +the people of Cirta because they despised him on seeing his condition. +There was also one Arabio who was a prince among the barbarians dwelling +close at hand, who had first helped Laelius and later attached himself +to Sextius: him he ejected from his kingdom, when he refused to make +an alliance with him. Arabio fled to Sextius and Fango demanded his +surrender. When his request was refused, he grew angry, invaded Africa +and did some damage to the country: but Sextius took the field against +him, and he was defeated in conflicts that were slight but numerous; +consequently he retired again into Numidia. Sextius went after him and +was in hopes of soon vanquishing him, especially with the aid of Arabio's +horse, but he became suspicious of the latter and treacherously murdered +him, after which he accomplished for the time being nothing further. For +the cavalry, enraged at Arabio's death, left the Romans in the lurch and +most of them took the side of Fango. [-23-] After these skirmishes they +concluded friendship, agreeing that the cause for war between them had +been removed. Later Fango watched until Sextius, trusting in the truce, +was free from fear, and invaded Africa. Then they joined battle with each +other, and at first both sides conquered and were beaten. The one leader +prevailed through the Numidian horsemen and the other through his citizen +infantry, so that they plundered each other's camps, and neither knew +anything about his fellow-soldiers. When as they retired they ascertained +what had happened, they came to blows again, the Numidians were routed, +and Fango temporarily fled to the mountains. During the night some +hartbeestes ran across the hills, and thinking that the enemy's cavalry +were at hand he committed suicide. Thus Sextius gained possession of +nearly everything without trouble, and subdued Zama, which held out +longest, by famine. Thereafter he governed both the provinces again until +such time as Lepidus was sent. Against him he made no demonstration, +either because he thought the step had the approval of Antony, or because +he was far inferior to him in troops. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u._ 714)] + +He remained quiet, pretending that the necessity was a favor to himself. +In this way Lepidus took charge of both provinces. + +[B.C. 42 (_a. u_. 712)] + +[-24-] About this same period that the above was taking place, and after +the battle the scene of which was laid at Philippi, Mark Antony came +to the mainland of Asia and there by visiting some points himself and +sending deputies elsewhere he levied contributions upon the cities +and sold the positions of authority. Meanwhile he fell in love with +Cleopatra, whom he had seen in Cilicia, and no longer gave a thought to +honor but was a slave of the fair Egyptian and tarried to enjoy her love. +This caused him to do many absurd things, one of which was to drag her +brothers from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and put them to death. +Finally, leaving Plancus in the province of Asia and Saxa in Syria, he +started for Egypt. Many disturbances resulted from this action of his: +the Aradii, islanders, would not yield any obedience to the messengers +sent by him to them after the money and also killed some of them, and the +Parthians, who had previously been restless, now assailed the Romans more +than ever. Their leaders were Labienus and Pacorus the latter the son of +King Orodes, and the former a child of Titus Labienus. I will narrate how +he came among the Parthians and what he did in conjunction with Pacorus. +He was by chance an ally of Brutus and Cassius and had been sent to +Orodes before the battle to secure some help: he was detained by him a +long time (over three lines starting at line beginning "constant ill +treatment"): and his presence ignored, because the king hesitated to +conclude the alliance with him yet feared to refuse. + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u._ 713)] + +Subsequently, when news of the defeat was brought and it appeared to be +the intention of the victors to spare no one who had resisted them, he +remained among the barbarians, choosing to live with them rather than +perish at home. This Labienus, accordingly, as soon as he perceived +Antony's relaxation, his passion, and his journeying into Egypt, +persuaded the Parthian monarch to make an attempt upon the Romans. He +said that their armies had been partly ruined, partly damaged, and that +the remainder of the warriors were in revolt and would again be at war. +Therefore he advised the king to subjugate Syria and the adjoining +districts, while Caesar was detained in Italy and with Sextus, and Antony +abandoned himself to love in Egypt. He promised that he would act as +leader in the war, and announced that in this way he could detach many of +the provinces, inasmuch as they were hostile to the Romans owing to the +latter's constant ill treatment of them. + +[-25-] By such words Labienus persuaded Orodes to wage war and the king +entrusted to him a large force and his son Pacorus, and with them invaded +Phoenicia. They marched to Apamea and were repulsed from the wall, but +won over the garrisons in the country without resistance. These had +belonged to the troops that followed Brutus and Cassius. Antony had +incorporated them in his own forces and at this time had assigned them to +garrison Syria because they knew the country. So Labienus easily won over +these men, since they were well acquainted with, him, all except Saxa, +their temporary leader. He was a brother of the general and was quaestor, +and hence he alone refused to join the Parthian invaders. Saxa the +general was conquered in a set battle through the numbers and ability +of the cavalry, and when later by night he made a dash from his +entrenchments to get away, he was pursued. His flight was due to his fear +that his associates might take up with the cause of Labienus, who labored +to prevail upon them by shooting various pamphlets into the camp. +Labienus took possession of these men and slew the greater part, then +captured Apamea, which no longer resisted when Saxa had fled into +Antioch, since he was believed to be dead; he later captured Antioch, +which the fugitive had abandoned, and at last, pursuing him in his flight +into Cilicia, seized the man himself and killed him. [-26-] Upon his +death Pacorus made himself master of Syria and subjugated all of it +except Tyre. This city the Romans that survived and the natives who sided +with them had occupied in advance, and neither persuasion nor force +(for Pacorus had no fleet) could prevail against them. They accordingly +remained secure from capture. The rest Pacorus gained and then invaded +Palestine, where he removed from office Hyrcanus, to whom the affairs of +the district had been entrusted by the Romans, and set up his brother +Aristobulus[45] as ruler instead because of the enmity existing between +them. Meantime Labienus had occupied Cilicia and had obtained the +allegiance of the cities of the mainland except Stratonicea; Plancus in +fear of him had crossed over to the islands: most of these towns he took +without conflict, but Mylasa and Alabanda with great peril. These cities +had accepted garrisons from him, but murdered them on the occasion of +a festival and revolted. For this he himself punished the people of +Alabanda when he had captured it, and razed to the ground Mylasa, +abandoned by the dwellers there. Stratonicea he besieged for a long time, +but was unable to capture it in any way. + +In satisfaction of the defections mentioned he continued to levy money +and rob the temples; and he named himself imperator and Parthicus,--the +latter being quite the opposite of the Roman custom, in that he took his +title from those he had led against his countrymen: whereas regularly +it would imply that he had conquered the Parthians instead of citizens. +[-28-] Antony kept hearing of these operations as he did of whatever else +was being done, such as matters in Italy, of which he was not in the +least ignorant; but in each instance he failed to make a timely defence, +for owing to passion and drunkenness he devoted no thought either to his +allies or to his enemies. While he had been classed as a subordinate and +was pursuing high prizes, he gave strict attention to his task: when, +however, he attained power, he no longer gave painstaking care to any +single matter but joined in the wanton life of Cleopatra and the rest of +the Egyptians until he was entirely undone. + +[B.C. 40 (_a. u_. 714)] + +Rather late he was at last forced to bestir himself and sailed to Tyre +with the announcement that he was going to aid it, but on seeing that the +remainder of the country had been occupied before his coming, he deserted +the inhabitants on the pretext that he had to wage war against Sextus. On +the other hand he excused his dilatoriness with regard to the latter by +bringing forward the activity of the Parthians. So on account of Sextus +he gave no assistance to his allies and on account of his allies no +assistance to Italy, but coasted along the mainland as far as Asia and +crossed into Greece. There, after meeting his mother and wife, he made +Caesar his enemy and cemented a friendship with Sextus. After this he went +over to Italy and got possession of Sipontum but besieged Brundusium, +which refused to come to terms with him. + +[-28-] While he was thus engaged, Caesar, who had already arrived from +Gaul, had collected his forces and had sent Publius Servilius Rullus to +Brundusium, and Agrippa against Sipontum. The latter took the city by +storm, but Servilius was suddenly attacked by Antony who destroyed many +and won over many others. The two leaders had thus broken out into open +war and proceeded to send about to the cities and to the veterans, or to +any place whence they thought they could get any aid. All Italy was again +thrown into turmoil and Rome especially; some were already choosing one +side or the other, and others were hesitating. While the chief figures +themselves and those who were to follow their fortunes were in a quiver +of excitement, Fulvia died in Sicyon,--the city where she was staying. +Antony was really responsible for her death through his passion for +Cleopatra and the latter's lewdness. But at any rate, when this news was +announced, both sides laid down their arms and effected a reconciliation, +either because Fulvia had actually been the original cause of their +variance or because they chose to make her death an excuse in view of the +fear with which each inspired the other and the equality of their forces +and hopes. The arrangement made allotted to Caesar Sardinia, Dalmatia, +Spain and Gaul, and to Antony all the districts that belonged to the +Romans across the Ionian Sea, both in Europe and in Asia. The provinces +in Libya were held by Lepidus, and Sicily by Sextus. + +[-29-] The government they divided anew in this way and the war against +Sextus they made a common duty, although Antony through messengers had +taken oaths before him against Caesar. And it was chiefly for this reason +that Caesar had schooled himself to receive under a general amnesty all +those who had gone over to the enemy in the war with Lucius, Antony's +brother, some among them, Domitius particularly, who had been of the +assassins, as well as all those whose names had been posted on the +tablets or had in any way cooeperated with Brutus and Cassius and later +embraced the cause of Antony. So great is the irony to be found in +factions and wars; for those in power decide nothing according to +justice, but determine on friend and foe as their temporary needs and +advantages demand. Therefore they regard the same men now as enemies, now +as useful helpers, according to the occasion. + +[-30-] When they had reached this agreement in the camp outside +Brundusium, they entertained each other, Caesar in a soldierly, Roman +fashion, and Antony with Asiatic and Egyptian manners. As it appeared +that they had become reconciled, the soldiers who were at that time +following Caesar surrounded Antony and demanded of him the money which +they had promised them before the battle of Philippi. It was for this +he had been sent into Asia, to collect as much as possible. And when he +failed to give them anything, they would certainly have done him some +harm, if Caesar had not restrained them by feeding them with new hopes. +After this experience, to guard against further unruliness, they sent +those soldiers who were clearly disqualified by age into the colonies, +and then took up the war anew. For Sextus had come into Italy according +to the agreement made between himself and Antony, intending with the +latter's help to wage war against Caesar: when he learned that they had +settled their difficulties he himself went back into Sicily, but ordered +Menas, a freedman of his on whom he placed great reliance, to coast about +with a portion of the fleet and damage the interests of the other side. +He, accordingly, inflicted injury upon considerable of Etruria and +managed to capture alive Marcus Titius, the son of Titius who had been +proscribed and was then with Sextus; this son had gathered ships for +enterprises of his own and was blockading the province of Narbonensis. +Titius underwent no punishment, being preserved for his father's sake and +because his soldiers carried the name of Sextus on their shields: he did +not, however, recompense his benefactor fairly, but fought him to the +last ditch and finally slew him, so that his name is remembered among the +most prominent of his kind. Menas besides the exploits mentioned sailed +to Sardinia and had a conflict with Marcus Lurius, the governor there; +and at first he was routed, but later when the other was pursuing him +heedlessly he awaited the attack and contrary to expectations won a +victory in turn. Thereupon his enemy abandoned the island and he occupied +it. All the towns capitulated, save Caralis, which he took by siege: +it was there that many fugitives from the battle had taken refuge. He +released without ransom among others of the captives Helenus, a freedman +of Caesar in whom his master took especial delight: he thus laid up for +himself with that ruler a kindness long in advance by way of preparing a +refuge for himself, if he should ever need aught at Caesar's hands. + +[-31-] He was occupied as above described. And the people in Rome refused +to remain quiet since Sardinia was in hostile hands, the coast was being +pillaged, and they had been cut off from importation of grain, while +famine and the great number of taxes of all sorts that were being imposed +and the "contributions," in addition, that were laid upon such as +possessed slaves irritated them greatly. As much as they were pleased +with the reconciliation of Antony and Caesar,--for thought that harmony +between these men meant peace for themselves,--they were equally or more +displeased at the war the two men were carrying on against Sextus. But +a short time previously they had brought the two rulers into the city +mounted on horses as if at a triumph, and had bestowed upon them the +triumphal robe precisely similar to that worn by persons celebrating, had +made them view the festivals from their chairs of state and had hastened +to espouse to Antony, when once her husband was dead, Octavia the sister +of Caesar, though she was then pregnant. Now, however, they changed their +behavior to a remarkable degree. At first forming in groups or gathering +at some spectacle they urged Antony and Caesar to secure peace, crying out +a great deal to this effect. When the men in power would not heed them, +they fell at odds with them and favored Sextus. They talked frequently in +his behalf, and at the horse-races honored by a loud clapping of hands +the statue of Neptune carried in the procession, evincing great pleasure +at it. When for some days it was not brought in, they took stones and +drove the officials from the Forum, threw down the images of Caesar and +Antony, and finally, on not accomplishing anything in this way even, +rushed violently upon them as if to kill them. Caesar, although his +followers were wounded, rent his clothes and betook himself to +supplicating them, whereas Antony presented a less yielding front. Hence, +because the wrath of the populace was aroused to the highest pitch and +it was feared that they would commit some violence, the two rulers were +forced unwillingly to make propositions of peace to Sextus. + +[-32-] Meantime they removed the praetors and the consuls though it was +now near the close of the year, and appointed others instead, caring +little that these would have but a few days to hold office. (One of those +who at this time became consuls was Lucius Cornelius Balbus, of Gades, +who so much surpassed the men of his generation in wealth and munificence +that at his death he left a bequest of twenty-five denarii to each of the +Romans.) They not only did this, but when an aedile died on the last day +of the year, they chose another to fill out the closing hours. It was at +this same time that the so-called Julian supply of water was piped into +Rome and the festival that had been vowed for the successful completion +of the war against the assassins was held by the consuls. The duties +belonging to the so-called Septemviri were performed by the pontifices, +since none of the former was present: this was also done on many other +occasions. + +[-33-] Besides these events which took place that year Caesar gave a +public funeral to his pedagogue Sphaerus, who had been freed by him. Also +he put to death Salvidienus Rufus, suspected of plotting against him. +This man was of most obscure origin, and while he was a shepherd a flame +had issued from his head. He had been so greatly advanced by Caesar that +he was made consul without even being a member of the senate, and his +brother who died before him had been laid to rest across the Tiber, a +bridge being constructed for this very purpose. But nothing human is +lasting, and he was finally accused in the senate by Caesar himself and +executed as an enemy of his and of the entire people; thanksgivings +were offered for his downfall and furthermore the care of the city was +committed to the triumvirs with the customary admonition, "that it should +suffer no harm." + +[B.C. 41 (_a. u_. 713)] + +In the year previous to this men belonging to the order of knights had +slaughtered wild beasts at the horse-race which came in the course of +the Ludi Apollinares, and an intercalary day was inserted, contrary to +custom, in order that the market held every nine days should not fall +on the first day of the following year,--something which was strictly +forbidden from very early times. Naturally the day had to be subtracted +again later, in order that the calendar should run according to the +system devised by the former Caesar. The domain of Attalus and of +Deiotarus, who had both died in Gaul, was given to a certain Castor. Also +the so-called Lex Falcidia, which has the greatest force even still +in regard to the succession to inheritances, was enacted by Publius +Falcidius, a tribune: its terms are that if an heir feels oppressed in +any way, he may secure at least a fourth, of the property left behind by +surrendering the rest. + +[B.C. 39 (_a. u_. 715)] + +[-34-] These were the events of the two years; the next season, when +Lucius Marcius and Gaius Sabinus held the consulship, the acts of the +triumvirs from the time they had formed a close combination received +ratification at the hands of the senate, and certain further taxes were +imposed by them, because the expenditures proved far greater than had +been allowed for in the time of the former Caesar. For they were expending +vast sums, especially upon the soldiers, and were ashamed of being the +only ones to lay out money contrary to custom. Then I might mention that +Caesar now for the first time shaved his beard, and held a magnificent +entertainment himself besides granting all the other citizens a festival +at public expense. He also kept his chin smooth afterward, like the rest; +he was already beginning to conceive a passion for Livia, and for this +reason divorced at once Scribonia, who had borne him a daughter. Hence, +as the expenditures grew far greater than before, and the revenues were +not anywhere sufficient but at this time came in in even smaller amounts +by reason of the factional disputes, they introduced certain new taxes; +and they enrolled in the senate as many persons as possible, not only +from among the allies or soldiers, or sons of freedmen, but even slaves. +At any rate one Maximus, when about to become quaestor, was recognized by +his master and taken away. And he incurred no injury through having dared +to stand for the office: but another who had been caught serving as a +praetor, was hurled down the rocks of the Capitol, having been +first freed, that there might be some legal justification for his +punishment[46]. + +[-35-] The expedition which Antony was getting in readiness against the +Parthians afforded them some excuse for the mass of prospective senators. +The same plea permitted them to extend all the offices for a number of +years and that of consul to eight full years, rewarding some of those who +had cooeperated with them, and bringing others to trial. They chose not +two annual consuls, as had been the custom, but now for the first time +several, and on the very day of the elections. Formerly, to be sure, some +had held office after others who had neither died nor been removed for +disenfranchisement or in any other way: but those persons had become +officials as suited those who had been elected for the entire year, +whereas now no magistrate was chosen to serve for a year, but first one, +then another would be appointed for different divisions of the entire +time. Also the men first to enter upon office were accustomed to hold the +title of the consulship through the entire year as is now done: the rest +were accorded the same title by the dwellers in the capital themselves +and by the people in the rest of Italy during each period of their office +(as is also now the custom), but those in outside nations knew few or +none of them and therefore called them lesser consuls. + +[-36-] This was the situation at home when the leaders first made +proposals to Sextus through companions as to how and on what terms they +could effect a reconciliation; afterward the parties concerned held a +conference near Misenum. The two from the capital took their stand on the +land, the other on a kind of mound constructed for his safety in the sea, +by which it was purposely surrounded, not far from them. There was also +present the entire fleet of Sextus and the entire infantry force of the +other two; and not that merely, but the one command had been drawn up on +the shore and the other on the ships, both fully armed, so that this very +fact made it perfectly evident to all that it was from fear of their +accoutrement and from necessity, that the two rulers were making peace +because of the people and Sextus because of his adherents. The compact +was framed upon the following conditions,--that the deserters from +among the slaves should be free and that all those driven out, save +the assassins, should be restored. The latter, of course, they had to +exclude, but in reality several of them were destined to return. Sextus +himself, indeed, was thought to have been one of them. It was recorded, +at any rate, that all the rest save those mentioned should be allowed to +return under a general amnesty and with a right to a quarter of their +confiscated property; that tribuneships, praetorships and priesthoods +should be given to some of them immediately; that Sextus himself should +be chosen consul and be appointed augur, should obtain seventeen hundred +and fifty myriads of denarii from his paternal estate, and should govern +Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea for five years, not receiving deserters nor +acquiring more ships nor keeping any garrisons in Italy, but bending +his efforts to secure peace on the sea for the peninsula, and sending a +stated amount of grain to the people of the City. They limited him to +this period of time because they wished it to appear that they also were +holding merely a temporary and not an unending authority. + +[-37-] After settling and drafting these compacts they deposited the +documents with the priestesses,--the vestal virgins,--and then exchanged +pledges and treated one another as friends. Upon this a tremendous and +inextinguishable shout arose from the mainland and the ships at once. For +many soldiers and many individuals who were present suddenly uttered a +cry in unison because they were terribly tired of the war and vehemently +desired peace. And the mountains resounded so that great panic and alarm +were spread, and many died of fright at the very reverberation, while +others perished by being trampled under foot and suffocated. Those who +were in the small boats did not wait to reach the land itself but jumped +out into the sea and the rest rushed out into the breakers. Meantime +they embraced one another while swimming and threw their arms around one +another's necks under water, making a diversified picture accompanied by +diversified sounds. Some knew that their relatives and associates were +living and seeing them present gave way to unrestrained joy. Others, +thinking that those dear to them had died previously, saw them now +unexpectedly and for a long time knew not what to do but were rendered +speechless, distrusting their sight yet praying that it might be true; +and they were not sure of them until they had called their names and had +heard them say something. They rejoiced as if the men had been brought +to life again, but as they were forced to share their pleasure with a +multitude they did not continue without tears. Again, some who were +unaware that their loved ones had perished and thought they were alive +and present sought for them and went about asking every one they met +regarding them. As long as they could learn nothing they were like +maniacs and were torn different ways, both hoping to find them and +fearing that they were dead,--not able to despair in view of their desire +nor to indulge in grief in view of their hope. On learning at last the +truth they would tear their hair and rend their clothing, calling upon +the lost by name as if they could hear anything and giving way to grief +as if their friends were just dead and lying there somewhere. And if any +of them were affected in no such way, they were at least disturbed by the +experiences of the rest. They either rejoiced with somebody in joy or +grieved with somebody in pain, and so, even if they were free from +personal interest, yet they could not remain indifferent on account of +their connection with the rest. As a result there was no possibility of +their being either sated or ashamed, because they were all affected in +the same way, and they spent the entire day as well as the greater part +of the night in this behavior. + +[-38-] After this the parties chiefly concerned as well as the rest +received one another and inaugurated entertainments in turn, first +Sextus on the ship and then Caesar and Antony on the shore. Sextus so far +surpassed them in power that he would not disembark to meet them on the +mainland until they had gone aboard his boat. In the course of this +proceeding, however, he refused to murder them both in the small boat +with only a few followers, though he might easily have done so and Menas +advised it[47]. To Antony, who had possession of his ancestral home at +Carinae (the spot so named is in the city of Rome), he uttered a jest +in the happiest manner, saying that he was entertaining them at +Carinae,--that is, on the "keels of ships," which is the meaning of the +word in Latin. Nevertheless he did not act in any way as if he bore +malice toward them, and on the following day he was feasted in turn and +betrothed his daughter to Marcus Marcellus, the nephew of Caesar. + +[-39-] This war, then, had been deferred: that of Labienus and the +Parthians came to an end in the following way. Antony himself returned +from Italy to Greece and delayed there a very long time, satisfying his +desires and harming the cities, to the end that they should be delivered +to Sextus in the weakest possible condition. He lived during this time in +many ways contrary to the customs of his country. He called himself the +younger Dionysus and insisted on being called so by others. When the +Athenians in view of this and his other behavior betrothed Athena to him, +he declared he accepted the marriage and he exacted from them a dowry of +one hundred myriads. While he was occupied in this way he sent Publius +Ventidius before him into Asia. The latter came upon Labienus before +his presence was announced and terrified him by the suddenness of his +approach and by his legions; for the Parthian leader was separated from +the members of his tribe and had only soldiers from the neighborhood. +Ventidius found that he would not even risk a conflict and so pushed him +back and pursued him into Syria, taking the lightest part of his fighting +force with him on the expedition. He overtook him near the Taurus range +and allowed him to proceed no farther, and they encamped there quietly +for several days. Labienus awaited the Parthians and Ventidius the +heavy-armed soldiers. [-40-] Both came at once during the same days and +Ventidius through fear of the barbarian cavalry remained on the high +ground, where he was encamped. The Parthians, because of their numbers +and because they had conquered once before, despised their opponents and +rode up to the hill at dawn, before joining Labienus; as no one came out +to meet them, they attacked it, charging straight up the incline. When +they were in that position the Romans rushed out and easily routed them, +as it was down-hill. Many of the assailants were killed in conflict, but +still more in turning back were confused with one another; for some had +already been routed and others were coming up. The survivors took refuge +not with Labienus but in Cilicia. Ventidius pursued them as far as the +camp, and there, seeing Labienus, stopped. The latter marshaled his +forces as if to offer him battle, but perceiving that his soldiers were +dejected by reason of the flight of the barbarians he did not then +venture any opposition and when night came he attempted to escape in +some direction. Ventidius learned beforehand from deserters of the +contemplated move and by posting ambushes killed many in the retreat and +took possession of the rest, who were abandoned by Labienus. The latter +by changing his dress reached safety and for some time escaped detection +in Cilicia. Later he was captured by Demetrius, a freedman of the former +Caesar, who had at this time been assigned to Cyprus by Antony. He learned +that Labienus was in hiding and made a search for him, which resulted in +the fugitive's arrest. + +[-41-] After this Ventidius recovered Cilicia and attended himself to +the administration of this district, but sent ahead Pompaedius Silo with +cavalry to Amanus. This is a mountain on the border between Cilicia and +Syria, and contains a pass so narrow that a wall and gates were once +built across it and the place received its name from that fact. Silo, +however, found himself unable to occupy it and ran in danger of being +annihilated by Phranapates, lieutenant of Pacorus, who was guarding the +passage. And that would have been his fate, had not Ventidius by chance +come upon him when he was fighting and defended him. He attacked the +barbarians, who were not looking for his arrival and were likewise fewer +in number, and slew Phranapates and many others. In this way he gained +Syria deserted by the Parthians,--all except the district of the +Aradii,--and subsequently without effort occupied Palestine, by scaring +away from it King Antigonus. Besides accomplishing this he exacted large +sums of money from the rest individually, and large sums also from +Antigonus and Antiochus and Malchus the Nabathaean, because they had +given help to Pacorus. Ventidius himself received no reward for these +achievements from the senate, since he was acting not with full powers, +but as a lieutenant: Antony, however, obtained praise and thanksgivings. +As for the Aradii, they were afraid that they might have to pay the +penalty for what they had ventured against Antony, and would not come to +terms though they were besieged by him for a time; later they were with +difficulty captured by others. + +[-40-] About this same time an uprising took place in Parthian Illyricum, +but was put down by Pollio after some conflicts. There was another on the +part of the Ceretani in Spain, and they were subjugated by Calvinus after +he had had some little preliminary successes and also a preliminary +setback; this last was occasioned by his lieutenant, who was ambuscaded +by the barbarians and deserted by his soldiers. Their leader undertook +no operation against the enemy until he had punished them. Calling +them together as if for some other purpose he had the rest of the army +surround them; and out of two companies of a hundred he chose out every +tenth man for punishment and chastised the centurion who was serving in +the so-called primus pilus as well as many others. After doing this and +gaining, like Marcus Crassus, a renown for his disciplining the army, he +set out against his opponents and with no great difficulty vanquished +them. He obtained a triumph in spite of the fact that Spain was assigned +to Caesar; for the rulers could at will grant the honors to those who +served as their lieutenants. The money customarily given by the cities +for the purpose Calvinus took only from the Spanish towns, and of it he +spent a part on the festival but the greater portion on the palace. It +had been burned down and he built it up, adorning it splendidly at the +dedication with various objects and with images, in particular, which he +asked from Caesar, implying that he would send them back. Though asked +for them later, he did not return them, excusing himself by a witticism. +Pretending that he had not enough assistants, he said: "Send some men and +take them." Caesar shrank from seizure of sacred things and hence allowed +them to remain as votive offerings. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-43-] This is what happened at that time. Now in the consulship of +Appius Claudius and Gaius Norbanus, who were the first to have two +quaestors apiece as associates, the populace revolted against the tax +gatherers, who oppressed them severely, and came to blows with the men +themselves, their assistants, and the soldiers that helped them to exact +the money; and sixty-seven praetors one after another were appointed and +held office. One who was chosen to be quaestor while still reckoned as +a child then on the next day obtained the standing of a iuvenis: and +another person who had been enrolled in the senate desired to fight in +the arena. He was prevented, however, from doing this, and an act was +passed prohibiting any senator from taking part in gladiatorial combats, +any slave from serving as lictor, and any burning of dead bodies from +being carried on within fifteen stadia of the city. + +Many things of a portentous nature had come to pass even before that time +(such as olive oil spouting beside the Tiber), and many, also, precisely +then. The tent of Romulus was burned as a result of some ritual which the +pontifices were performing in it; a statue of Virtus, standing before +some of the gates, fell upon its face; and certain persons rendered +inspired by the Mother of the Gods declared that the goddess was angry +with them. On this point the Sibylline books were consulted. They made +the same statements and prescribed that the statue be taken down to +the sea and purified with water from it. In obedience to the order the +goddess went very far indeed out into the surges, where she remained an +extremely long time and returned only quite late,--her action causing the +Romans no little fear, so that they did not recover courage until four +palm trees grew up round about her temple and in the Forum. + +[-44-] Besides these occurrences at the time Caesar married Livia. She was +the daughter of Livius Drusus, who had been among those proscribed by the +tablet and had committed suicide after the defeat in Macedonia, and +the wife of Nero, whom she had accompanied in his flight, as has been +related. She was also in the sixth month with child from him. When Caesar +accordingly hesitated and enquired of the pontifices whether it was +permissible to wed her while pregnant, they answered that if the origin +of the foetus were doubtful, the marriage should be put off, but if it +were definitely admitted, nothing prevented an immediate consummation. +Perhaps they really found this among the ordinances of the forefathers, +but certainly they would have said so even had they not found it. The +woman was given in marriage by her husband himself, as some father might +do. And the following incident occurred at the marriage feast. One of the +prattling boys, such as women frequently keep about them naked to play +with,[48] on seeing Livia reclining in one place with Caesar and Nero in +another with some man, went up to her and said: "What are you doing here, +mistress? For your husband," pointing him out, "is reclining over there." +After these events, when the woman went to live with Caesar, she gave +birth to Claudius Drusus Nero. Caesar took him and sent him to his father, +making this entry in the records, that Caesar returned to its father Nero +the child borne by Livia, his own wife. Nero died not long after and left +Caesar himself as guardian to this boy and to Tiberius: the populace had a +good deal to say about this, among other things that the prosperous have +children in three months; and this saying passed into a proverb. + +[-45-] At just about the same time that this was going on in the city +Bogud the Moor sailed to Spain, acting either on instructions from Antony +or on his own motion, and did much damage, receiving also considerable +injury in return: meantime the people of his own land in the neighborhood +of Tingi rose against him, and so he evacuated Spain but failed to win +back his own domain. For the adherents of Caesar in Spain and Bocchus came +to the aid of the rebels and proved too much for him. Bogud departed to +join Antony, while Bocchus forthwith took possession of his kingdom, and +this act was afterward confirmed by Caesar. The Tingitanians were given +citizenship. + +At this time and even earlier Sextus and Caesar had broken out into war; +for since they had come to an agreement not of their own free will or +choice but under compulsion, they did not abide by it any time at all, +so to speak, but broke the truce at once and stood opposed. They were +destined to come to war under any conditions, even if they had found no +excuse; their alleged grievances, however, were the following. Menas, who +was at this time still in Sardinia, as if he were a kind of praetor, had +incurred the suspicion of Sextus by his release of Helenus and because he +had been in communication with Caesar, and he was slandered to some extent +by his peers, who envied his position of power. He was therefore summoned +by Sextus on the pretext that he should give an account of the grain and +money of which he had charge; instead of obeying he seized and killed +the men sent to him on this errand, and after negotiating with Caesar +surrendered to him the island, the fleet together with the army, and +himself. Caesar was glad to see him and declared that Sextus was harboring +deserters contrary to the treaty, having triremes built, and keeping +garrisons in Italy: and so far from giving up Menas on demand, he +supported him in great honor, gave him the decoration of gold rings, and +enrolled him in the order of the knights. The matter of the gold rings +is as follows. Of the ancient Romans no one,--not to mention such as had +once been slaves,--who had grown up as a free citizen even, was allowed +to wear gold rings, save senators and knights,--as has been stated. +Therefore they are given to those freedmen whom the man in power may +select; although they may use gold in other ways, this is still an +additional honor and distinguishes them as superior, or as capable, +through having been freed, of becoming knights. + +[-46-] Such is the matter in question. Sextus, having this as a reproach +against Caesar, and the further facts that Achaea had been impoverished +and the rights agreed upon were not granted either to him or to the +restored exiles, sent to Italy Menecrates, another freedman of his, and +had him ravage Volturnum and other parts of Campania. Caesar on learning +this took the documents containing the treaty from the vestal virgins and +sent for Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus did not at once obey. Antony came to +Brundusium from Greece where, by chance, he still was: but before he met +Caesar, who was in Etruria, he became alarmed because a wolf had entered +his head-quarters and killed soldiers; so he sailed back to Greece again, +making the urgency of the Parthian situation his excuse. Caesar, however +much he felt that he had been abandoned by his colleague with the purpose +that he should face the difficulties of the war alone, nevertheless +showed no anger openly. Sextus kept repeating that Antony was not for +punishing him and set himself more zealously to the task in hand. Finally +he sailed against Italy, landed at different points, inflicted much +injury and endured much in return. Meantime off Cyme there was a naval +battle between Menecrates and Calvisius Sabinus. In this several ships of +Caesar were destroyed, because he was arrayed against expert seafarers; +but Menecrates out of rivalry attacked Menas and perished, making the +loss of Sextus an equal one. For this reason the latter laid no claim to +victory and Caesar consoled himself over the defeat. [-47-] He happened at +this time to be in Rhegium, and the party of Sextus feared he would cross +over into Sicily; and being somewhat disheartened, too, at the death +of Menecrates, they set sail from Cyme. Sabinus pursued them as far +as Scyllaeum, the Italian promontory, without trouble. But, as he was +rounding that point, a great wind fell upon him, hurling some of the +ships against the promontory, sinking others out at sea, and scattering +all the rest. Sextus on ascertaining this sent the fleet under command of +Apollophanes against them. He, discovering Caesar coasting along somewhere +in these parts with the intention of crossing into Sicily along with +Sabinus, made a dash upon him. Caesar had the ships come to anchor, +marshaled the heavy-armed soldiers upon them, and at first made a noble +resistance. The ships were drawn up with prows facing outward and so +offered no safe point for attack, but being shorter and higher could do +more hurt to those that approached them, and the heavy-armed fighters, +when they could come in conflict with the enemy, proved far superior. +Apollophanes, however, transferred such as were wounded and were in +difficulty from time to time to other ships assigned for the purpose, by +backing water, and took on board fresh men; he also made constant charges +and used missiles carrying fire, so that his adversary was at last +routed, fled to the land, and came to anchor. When even then the pursuers +pressed him hard, some of Caesar's ships suddenly cut their anchors and +unexpectedly offered opposition. It was only this and the fact that night +interrupted operations that kept Apollophanes from burning some of the +ships and towing all the rest away. + +[-48-] After this event an ill-fated wind on the following day fell upon +Caesar and Sabinus as they were anchored together and made their previous +reverse seem small. The fleet of Sabinus suffered the less, for Menas, +being an old hand on the sea, foresaw the storm. He immediately stationed +his ships out at sea, letting them ride with slack anchors some distance +apart, so that the ropes should not be stretched and break; then he rowed +directly against the wind, and in this way no rope was strained, and he +remained constantly in the same position, recovering by the use of the +oars all the distance which he lost by the impetus of the wind. The +remaining commanders, because they had gone through a severe experience +the day before, and as yet had no precise knowledge of nautical matters, +were cast out upon the shore close by and lost many ships. The night, +which had been of the greatest aid to them before, was now among the +chief agencies in promoting disaster. All through it the wind blew +violently, tearing the vessels from their anchors and dashing them +against the rocks. That of course was the end of them, and the sailors +and marines likewise perished without hope of rescue, since the darkness +prevented them from seeing ahead and they could not hear a word because +of the uproar and the reverberation from the mountains, especially since +the wind smote them in the face. So it was that Caesar despaired of Sicily +and was satisfied to guard the coast country: Sextus on the other hand +was still more elated, believing himself in very truth to be the son of +Neptune, and he put on a dark blue robe besides, as some relate, casting +horses as well as men alive into the straits. He plundered and harassed +Italy himself, sending Apollophanes to Libya. The latter was pursued by +Menas, who overtook and injured him. The islands round about Sicily went +over to the side of Sextus, whereupon Caesar seized the territory of the +Lipareans in advance and ejecting them from the island conveyed them to +Campania, where he forced them to live in Neapolis so long as the war +should continue. [-49-] Meantime he kept having boats made throughout +almost all of Italy and collected slaves for rowers first from his +friends, who were supposed to give willingly, and then from the +rest,--senators and knights and well-to-do private citizens. He also +assembled heavy-armed troops and gathered money from all citizens, +allies, and subjects, both in Italy and abroad. + +This year and the following he spent on the construction of ships and the +gathering and training of rowers. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +He himself oversaw and arranged these details and all other matters in +Italy and in Gaul (where there was a slight uprising). To Agrippa he +entrusted the equipment of the boats. He sent for this man, who was +fighting against the revolted Gauls, at the time when he had been the +second of the Romans to cross the Rhine for purposes of warfare, and he +honored him by bestowing a triumph and bidding him to secure the +building and training of the fleet. Agrippa,--he was consul with Lucius +Gallus,--would not hold the triumph, deeming it disgraceful for him to +exalt himself when Caesar had fared poorly, but set to work heart and soul +to fit out the fleet. All along the coasts of Italy vessels were taking +shape; but since no shore was found safe for them to ride at anchor,--the +majority of the coast land being still in those days without harbors,--he +conceived and executed a magnificent enterprise which I shall describe at +some length, showing its nature and the present characteristics of the +locality where it took place. + +[-50-] At Cyme in Campania, between Misenum and Puteoli, there is a +crescent-shaped spot. It is shut in by small hills, bare except in a +few places, and the sea there forms a kind of triple bay. The first is +outside and near the cities; the second is separated from it by a small +passage; and the third, like a real harbor, is seen far back. The last +named is called Avernus, and the middle bay Lucrinus: the outer one +belongs to the Tyrrhenian Sea and takes its name from that water. In this +roadstead within the other two, which had but narrow entrances then, +Agrippa, by cutting channels close along the shore through the land +separating Lucrinus from the sea on each side, produced harbors affording +most safe anchorage for ships. While the men were working a certain image +situated above Avernus, either of Calypso to whom this place, whither +they say Odysseus also sailed, is devoted, or to some other heroine, was +covered with sweat like a human body. [-51-] Now what this imported I +cannot say; but I will go on to tell of everything else worth reporting +which I saw in that place. These mountains close to the inner bodies of +water have springs full of both fire and water in considerable quantity +mixed together. Neither of the two elements is anywhere to be found by +itself (that is, neither pure fire or cold water alone is to be seen) but +from their association the water is heated and the fire moistened. The +former on its way down the foothills to the sea runs into reservoirs and +the inhabitants conduct the steam from it through pipes into rooms set +up high, where they use the steam for vapor baths. The higher it ascends +from the earth and from the water, the dryer it becomes. Costly apparatus +has been installed for turning both the fire and the vapor to practical +use; and they are very well suited for employment in the conduct of daily +life and also for effecting cures. + +Now besides these products that mountain makes an earth, the peculiar +nature of which I am going to describe. Since the fire has not the power +of burning (for by its union with, the water all its blazing qualities +are extinguished) but is still able to separate and melt the substances +with which it comes in contact, it follows that the oily part of the +earth is melted by it, whereas the hard and what I might call the bony +part of it is left as it was. Hence the masses of earth necessarily +become porous and when exposed to the dry air crumble into dust, but when +they are placed in a swirl of water and sand grow into a solid piece; as +much of them as is in the liquid hardens and petrifies. The reason for +this is that the brittle element in them is disintegrated and broken up +by the fire, which possesses, the same nature, but by the admixture of +dampness is chilled, and so, being compressed all over, through and +through, becomes indissoluble. Such is Baiae, where Agrippa as soon as he +had constructed the entrances collected ships and rowers, of which he +fortified the former with armor and trained the latter to row on wooden +benches. + +[-52-] Now the population of Rome was being disturbed by signs. Among the +various pieces of news brought to them was one to the effect that many +dolphins battled with one another and perished near Aspis, the African +city. And in the vicinity of the City blood descended from heaven and was +smeared all about by the birds. When at the Ludi Romani not one of the +senators was entertained on the Capitol, as had been the custom, they +took this, too, as a portent. Again, the incident that happened to Livia +caused her pleasure, but inspired the rest with terror. A white bird +carrying a sprig of fruited laurel had been thrown by an eagle into her +lap. As this seemed to be a sign of no small importance, she took care of +the bird and planted the laurel. The latter took root and grew, so that +it amply supplied those who were afterward to celebrate triumphs; and +Livia was destined to hold Caesar's power in a fold of her robe and to +dominate him in everything. + +[-53-] The rest, however, in the City had their peace of mind thoroughly +shattered by this and the differences between officials. Not only the +consuls and praetors but even the quaestors were arrayed against one +another, and this lasted for some time. The reason was that all were +anxious not so much to hold office a longer time at home as to be counted +among the ex-officials and secure the outward honors and influence that +belonged to that class. They were no longer chosen for any specified +time, but took just long enough to enter upon the title of the office and +resign, whenever it so seemed good to those in power. Many did both +on the same day. Some actually had to abandon hope of offices through +poverty, and in this I am not speaking of those then supporting Sextus, +who had been disenfranchised as if by some principle of right. But +we have the case of a certain Marcus Oppius who through lack of means +desired to resign the aedileship,--both he and his father had been among +the proscribed,--and the populace would not permit it, but contributed +money for his various necessities of life and the expenses of his office. +And the story goes that some criminals, too, really came into the theatre +in masks as if they were actors and left their money there with the rest. +So this man was loved by the multitude while in life and at his death not +long after was carried to the Campus Martius and there burned and buried. +The senate was indignant at the utter devotion of the masses to him and +took up his bones, on the plea that it was impious for them to lie in +that consecrated spot; they were persuaded by the pontifices to make this +declaration although they buried many other men there both before and +after. + +[-54-] At this same period Antony came into Italy again from Syria. The +reason he gave was that he intended to bear his share of the war against +Sextus because of Caesar's mishaps; he did not, however, stay by his +colleague, but, having come to spy upon his actions rather than to +accomplish anything, he gave him some ships and promised to send others, +in return for which he received heavy-armed infantry and set sail +himself, stating that he was going to conduct a campaign against the +Parthians. Before he departed they presented to each other their mutual +grievances, at first through friends and then personally. As they had no +leisure for war together they became reconciled in a way, chiefly through +the instrumentality of Octavia. In order that they might be bound by +still more ties of relationship Caesar betrothed his daughter to Antyllis, +Antony's son, and Antony betrothed to Domitius, though he had been an +assassin of Caesar and had been proscribed to die, his own daughter, borne +to him by Octavia. This was all mutual pretence. They had no intention of +carrying out any of these unions, but were acting a part in view of the +needs of the existing situation. Furthermore Antony sent Octavia herself +at once from Corcyra to Italy, that she might not share his danger while +he was warring against the Parthians. Besides the above negotiations at +that time they removed Sextus from his priesthood as well as from the +consulship to which he had been appointed, and granted themselves chief +authority for another five years, since the first period had elapsed. +After this Antony hastened to Syria and Caesar gave his attention to the +war. Nearly everything went as he wished, but Menas, who was naturally +untrustworthy and always followed the fortunes of the stronger, and was +further vexed because he held no office but had been made a subordinate +of Sabinus, deserted again to Sextus. + + + + +DIO'S + +ROMAN HISTORY + +49 + +The following is contained in the Forty-ninth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar conquered Sextus and overthrew Lepidus (chapters 1-18). + +How Ventidius conquered and slew Pacorus and expelled the Parthians, +driving them across the Euphrates (chapters 19-21). + +How Antony was defeated by the Parthians (chapters 22-33). + +How Caesar subjugated the Pannonians (chapters 34-38). + +How Antony by guile captured Artavasdes, the king of Armenia (chapters +39-41). + +How the Portico of Paulus was consecrated (chapter 42). + +How Mauritania Caesariensis became Roman property (chapters 43, 44). + +Duration of time four years, in which there were the following +magistrates here enumerated. + +L. Gellius L. F. Poplicola, M. Cocceius Nerva. (B.C. 36 = a. u. 718.) + +L. Cornificius L. F., Sextusi Pompeius Sexti F. (B.C. 35 = a. u. 719.) + +M. Antonius M. F. (II), L. Scribonius L. F. Libo. (B.C. 34 = a. u. 720.) + +Caesar (II), L. Volcacius L. F. Tullus. (B.C. 33 = a. u. 721.) + + +(_BOOK 49, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 36 (a. u. 718)] + +[-1-] This happened in the winter when Lucius Gellius and Cocceius Nerva +became consuls. Caesar, when his fleet had been made ready and spring set +in, started from Baise and coasted along Italy, having great hopes of +encompassing Sicily on all sides. For he was sailing thither with many +ships and those of Antony were already in the strait. Also Lepidus, +though reluctantly, had promised to assist him. His greatest ground of +confidence lay in the height of the vessels and the thickness of the +timbers. They had been built unusually stout and unusually high so as +to carry the largest number of marines possible; indeed, they were +surmounted by towers, in order that the conflict might be waged from a +higher point, as if from a wall: they were further intended to resist +the rammings of antagonists and to bend aside their beaks by making the +collision more violent. With such calculations Caesar was hastening to +Sicily. As he was passing the promontory of Palinurus, so-called, a great +storm fell upon him. This destroyed many ships, and Menas coming upon the +rest in confusion burned a number and towed away the rest. And had he not +again changed sides on the promise of immunity and through some other +hopes, besides betraying the whole fleet that he commanded by receiving +some triremes that simulated desertion, Caesar's voyage to Sicily on this +occasion also would have proved fruitless. Menas's action was due to the +fact that he was not allowed by Sextus to fight against Lepidus and was +under suspicion in nearly every way. Caesar was then extremely glad to +receive him, but trusted him no longer. He first repaired the damaged +ships, freed the slaves that served on the triremes, and assigned the +spare seamen, (many of whom when their vessels were destroyed in the +wreck had dived and escaped by swimming) to Antony's fleet, which was +short of men. Then he came to Lipara, and leaving there Agrippa and the +ships, returned to the mainland with the intention of transporting the +infantry across into Sicily, when an opportunity should arise. + +[-2-] On learning this Sextus himself lay quietly at anchor off Messana, +watching for his attempt to cross, and ordered Demochares to anchor +opposite Agrippa at Mylae. This pair spent most of the time in testing +each other's strength according as each one would temporarily give way +a little; yet they did not dare to risk an engagement with their entire +armaments. They were not acquainted with each other's forces and on both +sides they figured everything about their opponents as being greater and +more terrible than the reality. Finally Agrippa comprehended that it +was not advantageous for him to delay,--for the adherents of Sextus, +occupying a friendly position, had no need to hurry,--and taking the best +of his ships set out for Mylae to spy out the numbers of the enemy. As he +could not see them all and no one of them manifested any inclination to +come out into the open sea, he despised them, and on his return made +preparations to sail against Mylae on the following day with all his +ships. Demochares came to much, the same conclusion. He had the idea that +the ships which had approached him were the only ones, and seeing that +they sailed very slowly by reason of their size he sent for Sextus by +night and made preparations to assail Lipara itself. When day broke, they +were sailing against each other, expecting to meet inferior numbers. +[-3-] As they came near together and each contrary to his expectations +saw that his opponents were many more than he had thought, they were at +first both alike thrown into confusion, and some even backed water. Then, +fearing flight more than battle, because in the latter they hoped to +prevail, but in the former they expected to be utterly destroyed, they +moved toward each other and joined in conflict on the sea. The one side +surpassed in the number of its ships, the other in the experience of its +sailors: to the first the height of the vessels, the thickness of the +catheads and the towers were a help, but charges straight ahead furthered +the progress of the second, and the strength of Caesar's marines was +matched by the daring of their antagonists; for the majority of them, +being deserters from Italy, were quite desperate. As a result, possessing +the mutual advantages and deficiencies which I have mentioned, they had +equal power contributed by their evenly balanced equipment, and so their +contest was close for a very long period. The followers of Sextus alarmed +their opponents by the way they dashed up the waves: and they knocked +holes in some ships by assailing them with a rush and bursting open the +parts outside the oars, but as they were struck from the towers in the +combat and brought alongside by grappling irons, they suffered no less +harm than they inflicted. The Caesarians, also, when they came into close +conflict and had crossed over to the hostile ships, proved superior; but +as the enemy leaped out into the sea whenever the boats sank, and by +their swimming well and being lightly equipped succeeded easily in +climbing upon others, the attackers were at a corresponding disadvantage. +Meantime the rapidity with which the ships of the one party could sail +proved an offset to the solidity of those on the other side, and the +heaviness of the latter counterbalanced the agility of the former. [-4-] +Late in the day, near nightfall, Caesar's party finally conquered, +but instituted no pursuit: the reason as it appears to me and may be +conjectured from probability was that they could not overtake the fleeing +ships and were afraid of running aground in the shallows, with which they +were unacquainted, near the coast. Some say that Agrippa because he was +battling for Caesar and not for himself thought it sufficient merely to +rout his adversaries. For he had been in the habit of saying to his most +intimate associates that the majority of those holding sovereign power +wish no one to display more ability than themselves; and that they +attended personally to nearly all such matters as afford them a conquest +without effort, but assign the less favorable and more complicated +business to others. And if they ever are forced to entrust some choice +enterprise to their assistants, they are irritated and displeased at the +latter's renown. They do not pray that these subordinates may be defeated +and fare badly, yet they do not choose to have them win a complete +success and secure glory from it. His advice therefore was that the +man who intended to survive must relieve his masters of the annoyance +incident to such undertakings and still reserve for them the successful +completion of the work. As for me, I know that the above is regularly +true and that Agrippa paid attention to it, but I am not setting down +that on that particular occasion this was the cause of his failure to +pursue. For he was not able, no matter how much he might have desired it, +to follow up the foe. + +[-5-] While the naval battle was in progress, Caesar, as soon as he +perceived that Sextus was gone from Messana and that the strait was +destitute of guards, did not let slip this opportunity of the war but +immediately embarked on Antony's vessels and crossed to Tauromenium. Yet +this seizure of the opportunity was not accompanied by good fortune. No +one prevented him from sailing or disembarking, and he constructed his +camp, as he had done everything else, at leisure. When, however, the +naval battle had ended, Sextus got back to Messana with speed, and +learning of Caesar's presence he quickly filled the ships with fresh +warriors and assailed him with the vessels and also with his heavy-armed +men on land. Caesar did not come out to fight the latter, but sailed out +against Sextus through contempt of the few opposing ships and because +they had been previously defeated: then it was that he lost the majority +of his fleet and barely avoided destruction himself. He could not even +escape to his own men that were in Sicily but was glad to reach the +mainland in safety. He was himself then in security, but was mightily +disturbed at seeing his army cut off on the island. His confidence was +not restored until a fish of its own accord jumped out of the sea and +fell at his feet. By this incident his spirits were invigorated and he +believed the soothsayers who had told him that he should make Sicily his +slave. + +[-6-] Caesar in haste sent for Agrippa to render aid to them, and meantime +they were being besieged. When, provisions began to fail them and no +rescuing force appeared, Cornificius their leader became afraid that if +he stayed where he was he should in the course of time be compelled by +hunger to yield to the besieging party; and he reflected that while he +delayed there in that way none of the enemy would come into conflict with +him, because he was stronger in point of heavy-armed infantry, but if +he should go forward in any direction one of two things would +happen,--either they would be attacked by the enemy and come off +victorious, or, if their adversaries were unwilling to do this, they +would retire to a place of safety, get a supply of provisions, and obtain +some help from Caesar or from Agrippa. Therefore he burned all the vessels +which had survived from the sea-fight and had been cast up against the +ramparts, and started out himself as if to proceed to Mylae. Both cavalry +and light-armed troops attacked him from a distance (not daring to come +to close quarters) and proved frightfully troublesome to him. For the +enemy came close, whenever there was good opportunity, and again turned +back with rapidity. But his men, being heavy-armed, could not pursue them +in any way owing to the weight of their armor, and were endeavoring to +protect the unarmed, who had been saved from the fleet. As a result they +were continually suffering disastrously and could do no damage in return; +for, in case they made a rush upon any group, they would put the foe to +flight, but not being able to pursue farther they found themselves in +a worse plight on their return, since by their sortie they had been +isolated. They endured the greatest hardship throughout their entire +journey, but chiefly in crossing the rivers. Then their adversaries +hemmed them in as they were going along rapidly, in disorder, a few at a +time, as usual on such occasions, and struck them in favorable spots that +they saw exposed. They were shot at, moreover, whenever they encountered +places that were muddy or where the current was strong, and when they +happened to be stuck for a moment or were carried down stream. [-7-] +This the enemy did for three whole days and on the last demoralized them +completely, especially since Sextus with his heavy-armed contingent had +been added to their attacking force. Consequently the Caesarians no longer +mourned such as were perishing but counted them fortunate to escape from +further torment, and in their hopelessness wished that they, too, were +among those already dead, wounded were far more in number than those +died, and being struck from a distance with stones and javelins and +receiving no blow from near at hand their wounds were in many places, +and not as a rule favorably located. These men were themselves in great +distress and they caused the survivors far more trouble than did the +enemy. For if they were carried they usually brought about the death of +the men supporting them, and if they were left behind, they threw the +whole army into dejection by their laments. The detachment would have +perished utterly, had not the foe, though reluctantly, taken their hands +off them. Agrippa, after winning the naval battle, had sailed back +to Lipara, but when he learned that Sextus had fled to Messana and +Demochares had gone off in some other direction, he crossed over to +Sicily, occupied Mylae and Tyndaris, and sent food and soldiers to the +other party. Sextus, thinking that Agrippa himself would come likewise, +became frightened and beat a hasty retreat before his approach, even +abandoning some baggage and supplies in his fortifications. The followers +of Cornificius obtained from these ample support and made their way in +safety to Agrippa. Caesar received them back with praises and gifts, +although he had treated them after the victory of Agrippa in a very +supercilious manner, thinking the latter had finished the war. +Cornificius, indeed, prided himself so much upon his preservation of the +soldiers, that in Rome, whenever he went out of his house to dine, he +always returned home on the back of an elephant. + +[-8-] Caesar after this entered Sicily and Sextus encamped opposite him in +the vicinity of Artemisium. They did not have any great battle at +once, but indulged in a few slight cavalry skirmishes. While they were +stationed there in hostile array Sextus received as an accession Tisienus +Gallus, and Caesar Lepidus with his forces. Lepidus had encountered the +storm which I mentioned, and also Demochares, and he had lost a number +of ships: he did not come to Caesar immediately, but on account of his +reverse or to the end that his colleague should face difficulties by +himself or in the wish to draw Sextus away from him he had made an +assault on Lilybaeum. Gallus was sent thither by Sextus and contended +against him. From there both the contestants, as they accomplished +nothing, went to Artemisium. Gallus proved a source of strength to +Sextus, but Lepidus quarreled with Caesar; he claimed the privilege of +managing everything on equal terms with Caesar as his fellow-commander, +whereas he was employed by him entirely in the capacity of lieutenant: +therefore he inclined to favor Sextus and secretly held communication +with him. Caesar suspected this, but dared not give expression to his +doubts and alienate him openly, nor could he safely conceal his thoughts: +he felt it would look suspicious if he should not consult him at all and +that it would be dangerous to reveal all his plans. Hence he determined +to dispose of the uncertainty as quickly as possible, before there was +any rebellion, though for most reasons there was no need of particular +haste. He had as much food and as much money as Sextus, and therefore +hoped to overthrow him without effort before a great while. Still, when +he had once reached this decision, he himself led out his land force and +marshaled it in front of the camp, while simultaneously Agrippa sailed +close in and lay at anchor. Sextus, whose forces were far inferior to +theirs, would not oppose them on either element. This lasted for several +days. Finally, Pompey became afraid that he might be despised for his +behavior and be deserted by his allies, hence he gave orders for the +ships to weigh anchor; in these he reposed his chief trust. + +[-9-] When the signal was raised and the trumpet gave the first call, +all the boats joined battle near the land and the infantry force of +both alike was marshaled at the very edge of the breakers, so that the +spectacle was a most notable one. The whole sea in that vicinity was full +of ships,--they were so many that they formed a long line,--and the +land just back of it was occupied by the armed men, while that further +removed, but adjoining, was taken up by the rest of the throng that +followed each side. Wherefore, though the struggle seemed to be between +the fighters on the ships alone, in reality the others too participated. +For those on the ships contended more valiantly in order to exhibit +their prowess to those beholding them, and the latter, in spite of being +considerably separated from them, nevertheless in watching the men in +action were themselves in a way concerned in the conflict. The battle was +for a long time an even one, the fighting being precisely similar to +that in previous encounters, and the men on shore followed it with minds +equally intent. They were very hopeful of having the whole war settled by +this engagement: yet they felt encouraged even should that not prove the +case, the one party expecting that if they should conquer then no further +labor of importance would be theirs, and that if they should prevail on +this occasion they would incur no further danger of defeat. Accordingly, +in order that they might keep their eyes fixed upon the action and not +incommode those taking part in it they were silent or employed but little +shouting. Their cries were directed to the combatants or were addressed +by way of invocation to the gods; such as got the upper hand received +praise and such as gave way abuse, and besides uttering many exhortations +to their warriors they shouted not a little against each other, wishing +their own men to hear more easily what was said, and their opponents to +catch familiar words less frequently. + +[-10-] While the two sides were equally matched, these were the +conditions among both parties alike and they even tried to show by +gestures of the whole body that they could see and understand. When, +however, the adherents of Sextus were routed, then in unison and with +one impulse the one side raised the paean and the others a wail of +lamentation. The soldiers as if they too had shared defeat at once +retired to Messana. Caesar took up such of the vanquished as were cast on +shore and went into the sea itself to set on fire all the vessels +that ran aground in shoal water; thus there was no safety for such as +continued to sail, for they would be disabled by Agrippa, nor for such as +tried to land anywhere, for they were destroyed by Caesar, except for +a few that made good their escape to Messana. In this hard position +Demochares on the point of being taken slew himself and Apollophanes who +had his ship unscathed and might have fled went over to Caesar. The same +was done by others,--by Gallus and all the cavalry that followed him +and subsequently by some of the infantry. [-11-] This most of all caused +Sextus to despair of the situation, and he resolved to flee. He took his +daughter and certain other persons, his money and the rest of his chief +valuables, put them by night aboard of such ships as sailed best out of +the number that had been preserved, and departed. No one pursued him, for +his sailing had been secret and Caesar was temporarily in the midst of +great disturbance. + +Lepidus had attacked Messana and on being admitted to the town set fire +to some of it and pillaged other portions. When Caesar on ascertaining +this came up quickly and withstood him, he was alarmed and slipped out +of the city, but encamped on a strong hill and made complaints about his +treatment; he detailed all the slights he had received and demanded +all that had been conceded to him according to their first compact and +further laid claim to Sicily, on the ground that he had helped subdue +it. He sent some men to Caesar with these charges and challenged him +to submit to arbitration: his forces consisted of troops which he had +brought in from Libya and all of those who had been left behind in +Messana; for he had been the first to enter it and had suggested to them +some hopes of a change in the government. [-12-] Caesar made no answer +to it, thinking that he had justice all on his side and in his weapons, +since he was stronger than his rival. He immediately set out, however, +against him with some few followers, expecting to alarm him by his +suddenness,--Lepidus not being of an energetic nature,--and to win over +his soldiers. On account of the fewness of the men accompanying him they +thought when he entered the camp that he was on a peaceful errand. But +as his words were not at all to their liking, they became irritated and +attacked him, even killing some of the men: he himself quickly received +aid and was saved. After this he came against them once more with his +entire army, shut them within their ramparts, and besieged them. This +made them afraid of capture, and without creating any general revolt, +through dread of Lepidus, they individually, a few at a time or one by +one, deserted him and transferred their allegiance. In this way he too +was compelled on his own initiative to array himself in mourning garments +and become a suppliant of Caesar. As a result Lepidus was shorn of all +authority and could not even live in Italy without a guard. Of those who +had been enlisted in the cause of Sextus, members of the senatorial or +equestrian classes were punished, save a few, while in the case of the +rank and file all free citizens were incorporated in the legions of +Caesar, and those that had been slaves were given back to their masters +for vengeance: in case no master could be found for any one of them, he +was impaled. Of the cities some voluntarily opened their gates to the +victor and received pardon, and others resisted him and were disciplined. + +[-13-] While Caesar was thus occupied his soldiers revolted. Being so many +they drew encouragement from their very numbers and when they stopped +to think of their dangers and the hopes that rested on them they became +insatiable in the matter of rewards, and gathering in groups they +demanded whatever each one longed for. When their talk had no +effect,--for Caesar since no enemy longer confronted him made light of +them,--they became clamorous. Setting before him all the hardships they +had endured and bringing to his notice any promise he had ever made them +they uttered many threats besides, and thought to render him willy-nilly +their slave. As they gained nothing this way, they demanded with much +heat and deafening shouts to be relieved at least from further service, +saying they were worn out. This was not because they really wished to be +free from it, for most of them were in their prime, but because they had +an inkling of the coming conflict between Caesar and Antony and for that +reason set a high value upon themselves. And what they could not obtain +by requests they expected they could secure by threatening to abandon +him. Not even this, however, served their purpose. Caesar would not yield +to them, even if he knew for an absolute certainty that the war was going +to occur and clearly understood their wishes. He did not think it proper +for a commander to do anything against his will under compulsion from +the soldiers, because they would be sure, if he did, to want to get the +advantage of him again in some other matter. [-14-] So he pretended that +their request was a fair one and their desire only human and dismissed +first those that had accompanied him in the campaign against Antony at +Mutina, and next, since the rest were troublesome, all of them who had +been ten years in the service. And in order to restrain the remainder he +gave further notice that he would no longer employ any one of them, no +matter how much such a person might wish it. On hearing this they uttered +not another word, but began to exhibit great devotion toward him because +he announced that he would give to the men that had been released,--not +to all, save to the first of them, but to the worthiest,--everything that +he had promised, and would assign them land. They were also influenced by +the fact that he gave to all of them five hundred denarii and to those +who had been victors in the sea-fight a crown of olive besides. After +this he inspired them all personally with great hopes and the centurions +with the idea that he would appoint them to the senatorial bodies in +their native lands. Upon his lieutenants he bestowed various gifts and +upon Agrippa a golden crown adorned with beaks of ships,--a decoration +given to nobody before or since. And it was later ratified by a decree +that as often as any persons celebrated a triumph, wearing[49] the laurel +crown, Agrippa should always wear this trophy of the naval encounter. In +this way Caesar calmed the soldiers temporarily. The money he gave them at +once and the land not much later. And since what was still held by the +government at the time did not suffice, he bought more in addition, +especially considerable from the Campanians dwelling in Capua, since +their city needed a number of settlers. To them he also gave in return +the so-called Julian supply of water, one of their chief sources of pride +at all times, and the Gnosian territory,[50] from which they still gather +harvests. + +That took place later. At the time under discussion he administered the +government in Sicily and through Statilius Taurus won both the Libyas +without a struggle and sent back to Antony a number of ships equivalent +to those lost. [-15-]Meantime conditions in Etruria which had been full +of rebellion regained a state of quiet when the inhabitants heard of his +victory. The people of the capital unanimously bestowed laudations upon +him and images, the right to front seats and an arch surmounted by a +trophy, as well as the privilege of riding into the city on horseback, of +wearing the laurel crown on all occasions, and of holding a banquet with +his wife and children in the precinct of the Capitoline Jupiter on the +anniversary of the day that he had conquered, which was to be a perpetual +day of thanksgiving. This is what they granted him directly after the +victory. The persons to announce it were, first, a soldier stationed in +the city, who on the very day in question had become possessed by some +god and after saying and doing many unusual things finally ran up to +the temple on the Capitol and laid his sword at the feet of Jupiter to +signify that there would be no further use for it; after that came the +rest who had been present at the action and had been sent to Rome by +Caesar. When he arrived himself he assembled them according to ancestral +custom outside the pomerium, gave them an account of what had been done, +and renounced some of the honors voted him. He then remitted the tribute +called for by the registered lists and everything else that was owing the +government since before the period of the civil wars, abolished certain +taxes, and refused to accept the priesthood of Lepidus, which was offered +to him; for it was not lawful to take away the appointment from a man +still alive. At this time they voted him many other distinctions. Some at +once declared that this striking magnanimity of his at this time was due +to the calumnies of Antony and of Lepidus and was intended to lay the +blame of former unjust behavior upon them alone. Others said that since +he was unable in any way to collect the debts he made of the people's +impotency a favor that cost him nothing. In spite of this various talk +that gained currency in different quarters they now resolved that a house +be presented to him from the public treasury. He had made the place on +the Palatine which he had bought to erect a structure public property, +and had consecrated it to Apollo, because a thunderbolt descended upon +it. Hence they voted him the house and protection from any insult by deed +or word. Any one who committed such an offence was to be bound by the +same penalties as prevailed in the case of a tribune. For he received +permission to sit upon the same benches with them. + +[-16-] These were the gifts bestowed upon Caesar by the senate. As for +him, he enrolled among the augurs above the proper number, Valerius +Messala, whom he previously in the proscriptions condemned to death, made +the people of Utica citizens, and gave orders that no one should wear +purple clothing except senators and such as held public office. For it +had been already appropriated by ordinary individuals in a few cases. In +this same year there was no aedile owing to a lack of candidates, and the +praetors and the tribunes performed the aediles' duties: also no praetor +urbanus was appointed for the Feriae, but some of the regular praetors +discharged his functions. Other matters in the city and in the rest of +Italy were under the charge of one Gaius Maecenas, a knight, both then and +for a long time afterward. + +[-17-] Now Sextus after taking ship from Messana was afraid of pursuit +and suspected that there might be some act of treachery on the part of +his retinue. Therefore he gave notice to them that he was going to sail +seaward, but when he had extinguished the light which flagships exhibit +during night voyages for the purpose of having the rest follow close +behind, he coasted along Italy, then went over to Corcyra and from there +came to Cephallenia. Here the remainder of his vessels, which had +by chance been driven from the course by a storm, joined him again. +Accordingly, after calling them together, he took off his general's +uniform and made an address of which the substance was that while they +remained together they could render no lasting aid to one another or +escape detection, but if they scattered they could more easily make +good their escape; and he advised each man to look out individually and +separately for his own safety. The majority were led to give ear to his +arguments and they departed in different directions, while he with the +remainder crossed over to Asia with the intention of going straight to +Antony. When he reached Lesbos and learned that the latter had gone on +a campaign against the Medes and that Caesar and Lepidus had become +estranged, he decided to winter in the country. The Lesbians, indeed, +out of affectionate remembrance for his father were ready to receive and +detain him. He ascertained, however, that Antony had met with a mishap in +Media, and reflected further that Gaius Furnius, temporarily the governor +of Asia, was not friendly to him. Hence he did not remain, but hoping to +succeed to Antony's leadership because a number of men had come to him +from Sicily and still others had rallied around him, some drawn by the +glamour of his father's renown and some who were seeking a livelihood, he +resumed the outfit of a general and continued his preparations to occupy +the opposite shore. [-18-] Meantime Antony had got back again into +friendly territory and on learning what Sextus was doing promised he +would grant him amnesty and favor, if he would lay down his arms. Sextus +wrote back to the effect that he would obey him, but did not do so, +because he felt a contempt for the man, inspired by his recent disasters, +and because he immediately set off for Egypt. Hence he held to his +previous design and entered into negotiations with the Parthians. Antony +ascertained this, but without turning back sent against him the fleet and +Marcus Titius, who had formerly come to him from Sextus and was still +with him. Sextus received information of this move in advance, and in +alarm, since his preparations were not yet complete, abandoned his +anchorage. He went forward then, taking the course which seemed most +likely to afford escape, and reached Nicomedea, where he was overtaken. +At this he opened negotiations with Antony, placing some hope in him +because of the kindness which had been shown him. When the chieftain, +however, refused to enter into a truce with him without first taking +possession of the ships and the rest of his force, Sextus despaired of +safety by sea, put all of his heavier baggage into the ships (which he +thereupon burned) and proceeded inland. Titius and Furnius pursued him, +and overtaking him at Midaeium in Phrygia surrounded him and captured him +alive. When Antony learned this he at first under the influence of anger +sent a despatch that the captive should be put to death, but again not +long after repenting[51] ... that his life should be spared....[51] Now +the bearer of the second letter came in before the first, and later +Titius received the epistle in regard to killing him. Thinking, +therefore, that it was really the second, or else knowing the truth but +not caring to heed it, he followed the order of the arrival of the +two, but not their manifest intention. So Sextus was executed in the +consulship of Lucius Cornificius and one Sextus Pompeius. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +Caesar held a horse-race in honor of the event, and set up for Antony +a chariot in front of the rostra and images in the temple of Concord, +giving him also authority to hold banquets there with his wife and +children, this being similar to the decree that had once been passed +in his own honor. He pretended to be still Antony's friend and was +endeavoring to console him for the disasters inflicted by the Parthians +and in that way to cure any jealousy that might be felt at his own +victory and the decrees which followed it. + +[B.C. 38 (_a. u_. 716)] + +[-19-]This was what Caesar did: Antony's experience with the barbarians +was as follows. Publius Ventidius heard that Pacorus was gathering an +army and was invading Syria, and became afraid, since the cities had not +grown quiet and the legions were still scattered in winter-quarters, and +so he acted as follows to delay him and make the assembling of an army +a slow process. He knew that a certain prince Channaeus, with whom he +enjoyed an acquaintance, was rather disposed to favor the Parthian cause. +Ventidius, then, honored him as if he had his entire confidence and took +him as an adviser in some matters where he could not himself be injured +and would cause Channaeus to think he possessed his most hidden secrets. +Having reached this point he affected to be afraid that the barbarians +might abandon the place where they customarily crossed the Euphrates near +where the city Zeugma is located, and use some other road farther down +the river. The latter, he said, was in a flat district convenient for the +enemy, whereas the former was hilly and suited _them_ best. He persuaded +the prince to believe this and through the latter deceived Pacorus. The +Parthian leader took the route through the flat district, where Ventidius +kept pretending he hoped he would not go, and as this was longer than the +other it gave the Roman time to assemble his forces. [-20-] So he met +Pacorus when he had advanced to Cyrrestician Syria and conquered him. For +he did not prevent them from crossing the river, and when they had got +across he did not at once attack them, so that they imputed sloth +and weakness to the Romans and therefore marched against the Roman +fortification, although on higher ground, expecting to take it without +resistance. When a sally was suddenly made, the attacking party, being +cavalry, was driven back without effort down the slope. At the foot they +defended themselves valiantly,--the majority of them were in armor,--but +were confused by the unexpectedness of the onslaught and stumbling over +one another were damaged most of all by the heavy-armed men and the +slingers. The latter struck them, from a distance with powerful weapons +and proved a very great annoyance. The fall of Pacorus at this critical +juncture injured them most of all. As soon as they saw that their leader +had perished, a few steadily contended over his body, but when these were +destroyed all the rest gave way. Some of them desired to escape homeward +across the bridge and were not able, being cut off and killed before they +could reach it, and others fled for refuge to Antiochus in Commagene. +Ventidius easily reduced the rest of the places in Syria, whose attitude +had depended on the outcome of the war, by sending the monarch's head +about through the different cities; their doubtful allegiance had been +due to their extreme love for Pacorus because of his justness and +mildness,--a love which had equaled that bestowed by them upon any +previous sovereign. The general himself led an expedition against +Antiochus on the plea that he had not delivered up the suppliants, but +really because of his money, of which he had vast stores. + +[-21-] When he had progressed so far Antony suddenly came upon him, and +so far from being pleased was actually jealous of his having gained some +reputation by his own efforts. Consequently he removed him from his +command and employed him on no other business either at the time or +later, though he obtained thanksgivings for both achievements and a +triumph for his assistant's work. The Romans of the capital voted these +honors to Antony as a result of his prominence and in accordance with +law, because he was commander: but they voted them also to Ventidius, +since they thought that he had paid the Parthians in full through the +death of Pacorus for the disasters that Roman arms had incurred in the +time of Crassus, especially since both events had befallen on the same +day of the corresponding years. And it turned out that Ventidius alone +celebrated the triumph, even as the victory had been his alone, for +Antony met an untimely fate, and he acquired a greater reputation from +this fact and the irony of fortune alike. He himself had once marched in +procession with the other captives at the triumph of Pompeius Strabo, +and now he was the first of the Romans to celebrate a triumph over the +Parthians. + +[-22-] This took place at a later period: at the time mentioned Antony +attacked Antiochus, shut him up in Samosata and proceeded to besiege +him. As he accomplished nothing and the time was spent in vain, and he +suspected that the soldiers felt coldly toward him on account of his +dishonoring Ventidius, he secretly opened negotiations with the foe, +and made fictitious agreements with him so that he might have a fair +appearing reason for withdrawal. In the end Antony got neither hostages +(except two and these of little importance) nor the money which he had +demanded, but he granted Antiochus the death of one Alexander, who had +earlier deserted from him to the Roman side. After doing this he set out +for Italy, and Gaius Sosius received from him the governorship of Syria +and Cilicia. This man subdued the Aradii, who had been besieged up to +this time and had been reduced to hard straits by famine and disease, and +conquered Antigonus in battle after killing the Roman guards that he kept +about him, and reduced him by siege when he took refuge in Jerusalem. The +Jews had committed many outrages upon the Romans,--for the race is very +bitter when aroused to anger,--but they suffered far more themselves. The +first of them were captured fighting for the precinct of their god, and +later the rest on the day even then called the day of Saturn. And so +great still were their religious scruples that the men who had been first +captured along with the temple obtained leave from Sosius when the day of +Saturn came around again, and went up with the remaining population into +the building, where they performed all the customary rites. These people +Antony entrusted to one Herod to govern, and Antigonus he bound to +a cross and flogged,--treatment accorded to no other king by the +Romans,--and subsequently slew him. + +[B.C. 37 (_a. u_. 717)] + +[-23-] This was the course of events in the days of Claudius and +Norbanus: the following year the Romans accomplished nothing worthy +of note in Syria. Antony arrived in Italy and returned again to the +province, consuming the entire season: and Sosius, because he would +be advancing his master's interests and not his own, and furthermore +dreading his jealousy and anger, spent the time in devising means not for +achieving success and drawing down his enmity, but for pleasing him by +remaining quiet. Parthian affairs with no outside interference underwent +a severe revolution from the following cause. Orodes their king succumbed +to age and grief for Pacorus combined, and while still alive delivered +the government to Phraates, the eldest of his remaining children. He +in his discharge of it proved himself the most impious of men. He +treacherously murdered his brothers, sons of the daughter of Antiochus, +because they were his superiors in excellence and (on their mother's +side) in family: when Antiochus chafed under this outrage he killed him +in addition and after that destroyed the noblest men in the remaining +population and kept committing many other abuses. Consequently a number +of the more prominent persons abandoned him and betook themselves to +various places, some going to Antony, among whom was Monaeses. This +happened in the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus. + +[B.C. 36 (_a. u_. 718)] + +[-24-] During the remainder of winter, when Gallus and Nerva were +holding office, Publius Canidius Crassus made a campaign against the +Iberians that inhabit this portion of the world, conquered in battle +their king Pharnabazus and brought them into alliance; with this king he +invaded Albanis, the adjoining country, and, after overcoming the +dwellers there and their king Zober, conciliated them likewise. Antony +was elated at this and furthermore based great hopes upon Monaeses, who +had promised him to lead his army and bring over to him most of Parthia +without conflict. Hence the Roman took up the war against the Parthians +in earnest and besides making various presents to Monaeses gave him three +Roman cities to govern until he should finish the war, and promised him +in addition the Parthian kingdom. While they were so occupied Phraates +became terrified, especially because the Parthians took the flight of +Monaeses very much amiss, and he opened negotiations with him, offering +him anything whatever, and so persuaded him to return. When Antony found +this out, he was naturally angry, but did not kill Monaeses although the +latter was still in his power; for he felt sure he could not win the +confidence of any other of the barbarians, in case he should do such a +thing, and he wanted to try a little trick against them. He accordingly +released Monaeses, apparently supposing the latter was going to bring the +Parthian affairs under his control, and sent envoys with him to Phraates. +Nominally he was arranging for peace on the condition of getting back the +standards and the prisoners captured in the disaster of Crassus, +intending to take the king off his guard while the latter was expecting +a pacific settlement; but in fact he was putting everything in readiness +for war. [-25-] And he went as far as the Euphrates, thinking it was +free of guards. When, however, he found that whole region carefully +guarded, he turned aside from it, but led a campaign against Artavasdes, +the king of the Medes, persuaded thereto by the king of Greater Armenia, +who had the same name and was an enemy of the aforementioned. Just as he +was he at once advanced toward Armenia, and learning there that the Mede +had gone a considerable distance from his own land in the discharge of +his duties as an ally of the Parthian king, he left behind the beasts of +burden and a portion of the army with Oppius Statianus, giving orders +for them to follow, and himself taking the cavalry and the strongest of +the infantry hurried on in the confidence of seizing all his opponent's +strongholds at one blow; he assailed Praaspa, the royal residence, +heaped up mounds and made constant attacks. When the Parthian and the +Medan kings ascertained this, they left him to continue his idle +toil,--for the walls were strong and many were defending them,--but +assailed Statianus off his guard and wearied on the march and slew the +whole detachment except Polemon, king of Pontus, who was then +accompanying the expedition. Him alone they took alive and released in +exchange for ransom. They were able to accomplish this because the +Armenian king was not present at the battle; but though he might have +helped the Romans, as some say, he neither did this nor joined Antony, +but retired to his own country. [-26-] Antony hastened at the first +message sent him by Statianus to go to his assistance, but was too +late. For except corpses he found no one. This outcome caused him fear, +but, inasmuch as he fell in with no barbarian, he suspected that they had +departed in some direction through terror, and this lent him new courage. +Hence when he met them a little later he routed them, for his slingers +were numerous, and as the latter could shoot farther than would the bows +they inflicted severe injury upon the men in armor. However, he did not +kill any remarkable number of them, because the barbarians could ride +fast. So he proceeded again against Praaspa and besieged it, though he +did no great damage to the enemy; for the men inside the walls repulsed +him vigorously, and those outside could not easily be entrapped into a +combat. Thus he lost many of his own men in searching for and bringing +provisions, and many by his own discipline. At first, as long as they +could get their food from somewhere in the neighborhood, they had no +difficulty about either undertaking: they could attend to the siege and +safely secure supplies both at once. When, however, all material at hand +had been used up, and the soldiers were obliged to go to some distance, +it happened to them that if few were sent anywhere, not only did they not +bring anything, but they perished as well; if a number were sent, they +left the wall destitute of besiegers and meantime lost many men and many +engines at the hands of the barbarians, who would make a sortie against +them. [-27-] For this reason Antony gave them all barley instead of wheat +and destroyed every tenth man in some instances: indeed, the entire force +which was supposed to be besieging endured the hardships of persons +besieged. The men within the walls watched carefully for opportunities +to make sallies; and those outside harassed fearfully the Romans that +remained in position as often as they became separated, accomplishing +this by making a sudden charge and wheeling about again in a narrow +space: this force outside did not trouble the food trains while the +latter were en route to the villages, but would fall upon them +unexpectedly when scattered in the homeward march. But since Antony even +under these conditions maintained his place before the city, Phraates, +fearing that in the long run he might do it some harm either by himself +or through securing some allied force, secretly sent some men to open +negotiations with him and persuaded him by pretending that it would be +very easy to secure peace. After this, when men were sent to him by +Antony, he held a conference with them seated upon a golden chair and +twanging his bowstring; he first inveighed against them at length, but +finally promised that he would grant peace, if they would straightway +remove their camp. On hearing this Antony was both alarmed at his +boastfulness and ready to believe that a truce could be secured if he +himself should shift his position: hence he withdrew without destroying +any of his implements of siege but behaved as if in friendly territory. +[-28-] When he had done this and was awaiting the truce, the Medes +burned the engines and scattered the mounds, while the Parthians made +no proposition to him respecting peace but suddenly attacked him and +inflicted very serious damage. He found out that he had been deceived +and did not venture to employ any further envoys, being sure that the +barbarians would not agree to any reasonable terms, and not wishing to +cast the soldiers into dejection by failing to arrange a truce. Therefore +he resolved, since he had once started, to hurry on into Armenia. His +troops took another road, since the one by which they had come they +believed to have been blocked entirely, and on the way their sufferings +were unusually great. They came into unknown regions where they wandered +at random, and furthermore the barbarians seized the passes in advance of +their approach, digging trenches outside of some and building palisades +in front of others, spoiled the water-courses everywhere, and drove +away the flocks. In case they ever got a chance to march through more +favorable territory, the enemy would turn them aside from such places by +false announcements that they had been occupied beforehand, and caused +them to take different roads along which ambuscades had been previously +posted, so that many perished through such mishaps and many of hunger. +[-29-] As a result there were some desertions, and they would all have +gone over, had not the barbarians shot down before the eyes of the others +any who dared to take this course. Consequently the men refrained from +this, and from Fortune's hands obtained the following relief. One day +when they fell into an ambush and were struck with fast-flying arrows, +they suddenly made by joining shields the _testudo_, and rested their +left knees on the ground. The barbarians had never seen anything of the +kind before and thought that they had fallen from their wounds and needed +only one finishing blow; so they threw aside their bows, leaped from +their horses, and drawing their daggers came close to put an end to them. +At this the Romans rose to their feet, spread out the phalanx at a word, +and each one attacked the man nearest and facing him; thus they cut down +great numbers since they were contending armed against an unprotected +foe, men prepared against men off their guard, heavy infantry against +archers, Romans against barbarians. All the survivors immediately retired +and no one followed them for the future. + +[-30-] This _testudo_ and the way in which it is formed deserve a word of +explanation. The baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry +are marshaled in the center of the army. Those infantrymen who use the +oblong, hollow, grooved shields are drawn up around the edges, making a +rectangular figure; and, facing outward with spear-points projecting,[52] +they enclose the rest. The other infantrymen, who have flat shields, form +a compact body in the center and raise their shields above themselves and +above all the rest, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part +of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of formation are +under shelter from missiles. It is so marvelously strong that men can +walk upon it, and when ever they get into a hollow, narrow passage, even +horses and vehicles can be driven over it. Such is the method of +this arrangement, and this shows why it has received the title of +_testudo_,[53]--with reference to its strength and to the excellent +shelter it affords. They use it in two ways: either they approach some +fort to assault it, often even enabling men to scale the very walls, +or where sometimes they are surrounded by archers they all bend +together,--even the horses being taught to kneel and recline,--and +thereby cause the foe to think that they are exhausted; then, when the +others draw near, they suddenly rise, to the latter's great alarm. + +[-31-] The _testudo_, then, is the kind of device just described. As for +Antony, he suffered no further harm from the enemy, but underwent severe +hardships by reason of the cold. It was now winter, and the mountain +districts of Armenia, through which, as the only route open to him, he +was actually thankful to be able to proceed, are never free from snow +and ice. The wounds, of which the men had many, there created especial +discomfort. So many kept perishing and were continually rendered useless +for fighting that he would not allow reports of each individual case, but +forbade any one to bring him any such news; and although he was angry +with the Armenian king for deserting them, and anxious to take vengeance +on him, he nevertheless humiliated himself before the monarch and paid +court to him for the purpose of obtaining provisions and money from him. +Finally, as the soldiers could not hold out to march farther, in the +winter time, too, and were at any rate going to have their hardships for +nothing since he was minded to return to Armenia before a great while, he +flattered the prince tremendously and made him many attractive promises, +to get him to allow the men to winter where they were; he said that in +the spring he would make another campaign against the Parthians. Money +also came to him from Cleopatra, so that to each of the infantrymen was +given one hundred denarii[54] and to the rest a proportionate allowance. +But inasmuch as the amount sent was not enough for them he paid the +remainder from his own funds, and though the expense was his own he gave +Cleopatra the credit of the favor. For he both solicited contributions +from his friends and levied a great deal of money upon the allies. + +[-32-] Following these transactions he departed for Egypt. Now the Romans +at home were not ignorant of anything that had taken place in spite of +the fact that his despatches did not contain the truth; for he concealed +all his unpleasant experiences and some of them he described as just the +opposite, making it appear that he was progressing famously: but, for all +that, rumor reported the truth and Caesar and his circle investigated it +carefully and discussed it. They did not, however, make public their +evidence, but instead sacrificed cattle and held festivals. Since Caesar +at that time was still getting the worst of it against Sextus, the truth +of the facts could not be rendered fitting or opportune. Besides his +above actions Antony assigned positions of government, giving Gaul to +Amyntas, though he had been only the secretary of Deiotarus, and also +adding to his domain Lycaonia with portions of Pamphylia, and bestowing +upon Archelaus Cappadocia after driving out Ariarathes. This Archelaus on +his father's side belonged to those Archelauses who had contended against +the Romans, but on his mother's side was the son of Glaphyra, an hetaera. +It is quite true that for these appointments Antony, who could be very +magnanimous in dealing with the possessions of other people, was somewhat +less ill spoken of among the soldiers. + +But in the matter of Cleopatra he incurred outspoken dislike because +he had taken into his family children of hers,--the elder ones being +Alexander and Cleopatra, twins at a birth, and the younger one Ptolemy, +called also Philadelphus,--and because he had granted to them a great +deal of Arabia, both the district of Malchus and that of the Ituraeans +(for he executed Lysanias, whom he had himself made king over them, +on the charge that he had favored Paccrus) and also a great deal of +Phoenicia and Palestine together with parts of Crete, and Cyrene and +Cyprus. + +[B.C. 35 (_a. u_. 719)] + +[-33-] These are his acts at that time: the following year, when Pompeius +and Cornificius were consuls, he attempted to conduct a campaign against +the Armenian prince; and as he placed no little hope in the Mede, because +the latter was indignant at Phraates owing to not having received from +him much of the spoils or any other honor, and was anxious to punish the +Armenian king for bringing in the Romans, Antony sent Polemon to him and +requested friendship and alliance. And he was so well satisfied with the +business that he both made terms with the Mede and later gave Polemon +Lesser Armenia as a reward for his embassy. First he summoned the +Armenian to Egypt as a friend, intending to seize him there without +effort and make away with him; but when the prince suspected this and did +not obey, he plotted to deceive him in another fashion. He did not openly +evince anger toward him, in order not to alienate him, but to the end +that he might find his foe unprepared set sail from Egypt with the avowed +object of making one more campaign against the Parthians. On the way +Antony learned that Octavia was arriving from Rome, and went no farther, +but returned; this he did in spite of having at once ordered her to go +home and later accepting the gifts which she sent, some of them being +soldiers which she had begged from her brother for this very purpose. + +[-34-] As for him, he became more than ever a slave to the passion and +wiles of Cleopatra. Caesar meantime, since Sextus had perished and affairs +in Libya required settlement, went to Sicily as if intending to take ship +thither, but after delaying there found that the winter made it too late +for crossing. Now the Salassi, Taurisci, Liburni, and Iapudes had not for +a long time been behaving fairly toward the Romans, but had failed to +contribute revenue and sometimes would invade and harm the neighboring +districts. At this time, in view of Octavius's absence, they were openly +in revolt. Consequently he turned back and began his preparations against +them. Some of the men who had been dismissed when they became disorderly, +and had received nothing, wished to serve again: therefore he assigned +them to one camp, in order that being alone they might find it impossible +to corrupt any one else and in case they should wish to show themselves +rebellions might be detected at once. As this did not teach them +moderation any the more, he sent out a few of the eldest of them to +become colonists in Gaul, thinking that thus he would inspire the rest +with hopes and win their devotion. Since even then they continued +audacious, some of them paid the penalty. The rest displayed rage at +this, whereupon he called them together as if for some other purpose, had +the rest of the army surround them, took away their arms, and removed +them from the service. In this way they learned both their own weakness +and Caesar's force of mind, and so they really experienced a change of +heart and after urgent supplications were allowed to enter the service +anew. For Caesar, being in need of soldiers and fearing that Antony would +appropriate them, said that he pardoned them, and he found them most +useful for all tasks. + +[-35-] It was later that they proved their sincerity. At this time he +himself led the campaign against the Iapudes, assigning the rest of the +tribes to others to subdue. Those that were on his side of the mountains, +dwelling not far from the sea, he reduced with comparatively little +trouble, but he overcame those on the heights and beyond them with no +small hardship. They strengthened Metulum, the largest of their cities, +and repulsed many assaults of the Romans, burned to the ground many +engines and laid low Octavius himself as he was trying to step from a +wooden tower upon the circuit of the wall. Later, when he still did not +desist but kept sending for additional forces, they pretended to wish to +negotiate terms and received members of garrisons into their citadel. +Then by night they destroyed all of these and set fire to their houses, +some killing themselves and some their wives and children in addition, so +that nothing whatever remained for Caesar. For not only they but also +such as were captured alive destroyed themselves voluntarily shortly +afterward. + +[-36-] When these had perished and the rest had been subdued without +performing any exploit of note, he made a campaign against the +Pannonians. He had no complaint to bring against them, not having been +wronged by them in any way, but he wanted both to give his soldiers +practice and to support them abroad: for he regarded every demonstration +against a weaker party as just, when it pleased the man whom weapons made +their superior. The Pannonians are settled near Dalmatia close along +the Ister from Noricum to European Moesia and lead the most miserable +existence of mankind. They are not well off in the matter of land or sky, +they cultivate no olives or vines except to the slightest extent, and +these wretched varieties, since the greater part of their days is passed +in the midst of most rigorous winter, but they drink as well as eat +barley and millet. They have been considered very brave, however, during +all periods of which we have cognizance. For they are very quick to anger +and ready to slay, inasmuch as they possess nothing which can give them +a happy life. This I know not by hearsay or reading only, but I have +learned it from actual experience as their governor. For after my term as +ruler in Africa and in Dalmatia,--the latter position my father also held +for a time,--I was appointed[55] to Upper Pannonia, so-called, and hence +my record is founded on exact knowledge of all conditions among them. +Their name is due to the fact that they cut up a kind of toga in a way +peculiar to themselves into strips which they call _panni_, and then +stitch these together into sleeved tunics for themselves. + +They have been named so either for this or for some other reason; but +certain of the Greeks who were ignorant of the truth have spoken of them +as Paeones, which is an old word but does not belong there, but rather +applies to Rhodope, close to the present Macedonia, as far as the sea. +Wherefore I shall call the dwellers in the latter district Paeones, but +the others Pannonians, just as they themselves and as the Romans do. + +[-37-] It was against this people, then, that Caesar at that time +conducted a campaign. At first he did not devastate or plunder at all, +although they abandoned their villages in the plain. He hoped to make +them his subjects of their free will. But when they harassed him as he +advanced to Siscia, he became angry, burned their land, and took all +the booty he could. When he drew near the city the natives for a moment +listened to their rulers and made terms with him and gave hostages, but +afterward shut their gates and accepted a state of siege. They possessed +strong walls and were in general encouraged by the presence of two +navigable rivers. The one named the Colops[56] flows past the very +circuit of the wall and empties into the Savus not far distant: it +has now encircled the entire city, for Tiberius gave it this shape by +constructing a great canal through which it rejoins its ancient course. +At that time between the Colops on the one hand, which flowed on past +the very walls, and the Savus on the other, which flowed at a little +distance, an empty space had been left which had been buttressed with +palisades and ditches. Caesar secured boats made by the allies in that +vicinity, and after towing them through the Ister into the Savus, and +through that stream into the Colops, he assailed the enemy with infantry +and ships together, and had some naval battles on the river. For the +barbarians prepared in turn some boats made of one piece of wood with +which they risked a conflict; and on the river they killed besides many +others Menas the freedman of Sextus, and on the land they vigorously +repulsed the invader until they ascertained that some of their allies had +been ambushed and destroyed. Then in dejection they yielded. When they +had thus been captured the remainder of Pannonian territory was induced +to capitulate. + +[-38-] After this he left Fufius Geminus there with a small force and +himself returned to Rome. The triumph which had been voted to him +he deferred, but granted Octavia and Livia images, the right of +administering their own affairs without a supervisor, and freedom from +fear and inviolability equally with the tribunes. + +[B.C. 34 (_a. u._ 720)] + +In emulation of his father he had started out to lead an expedition into +Britain, and had already advanced into Gaul after the winter in which +Antony for the second time and Lucius Libo were consuls, when some of the +newly captured and Dalmatians with them rose in revolt. Geminus, although +expelled from Siscia, recovered the Pannonians by a few battles; and +Valerius Messala overthrew the Salassi and the rest who had joined them +in rebellion. Against the Dalmatians first Agrippa and then Caesar also +made campaigns. The most of them they subjugated after undergoing many +terrible experiences themselves, such as Caesar's being wounded, barley +being given to some of the soldiers instead of wheat, and others, who had +deserted the standards, being decimated: with the remaining tribes[57] +Statilius Taurus carried on war. + +[-39-] Antony meanwhile resigned his office as soon as appointed, putting +Lucius Sempronius Atratinus in his place; consequently some name the +latter and not the former in the enumeration of the consuls. In the +course of his efforts to take vengeance on the Armenian king with least +trouble to himself, he asked the hand of his daughter, pretending to want +to unite her in marriage to his son Alexander; he sent on this errand one +Quintus Deillius, who had once been a favorite of his, and promised to +give the monarch many gifts. Finally, at the beginning of spring, he came +suddenly into Nicopolis (founded by Pompey) and sent for him, stating +that he wanted to deliberate on and execute with his aid some measures +against the Parthians. The king suspecting the plot did not come, so he +sent Deillius to have another talk with him and marched with undiminished +haste toward Artaxata. In this way, after a long time, partly by +persuading him through friends, and partly by scaring him through his +soldiers, and writing and acting toward him in every way as thoroughly +friendly, he induced him to come into his camp. Thereupon the Roman +arrested him and at first keeping the prince without bonds he led him +around among the garrisons with whom his treasures were deposited, to see +if he could win them without a struggle. He made a pretence of having +arrested him for no other purpose than to collect tribute of the +Armenians that would ensure both his preservation and his sovereignty. +When, however, the guardians of the gold would have nothing to do with +him and the troops under arms chose Artaxes, the eldest of his children, +king in his stead, Antony bound him in silver chains. It seemed +disgraceful, probably, for one who had been a king to be made fast in +iron bonds. [-40-] After this, capturing some settlements peaceably and +some by force, Antony occupied all of Armenia, for Artaxes after fighting +an engagement and being worsted retired to the Parthian prince. After +doing this he betrothed to his son the daughter of the Median king with +the intention of making him still more his friend; then he left the +legions in Armenia and went once more to Egypt, taking the great mass of +booty and the Armenian with his wife and children. He sent them ahead +with the other captives for a triumph held in Alexandria, and himself +drove into the city upon a chariot, and among the other favors he granted +to Cleopatra he brought before her the Armenian and his family in golden +bonds. She was seated in the midst of the populace upon a platform plated +with silver and upon a gilded chair. The barbarians would not be her +suppliants nor do obeisance to her, though much coercion was brought to +bear upon them and hopes were held out to persuade them, but they merely +addressed her by name: this gave them a reputation for spirit, but they +were subject to a great deal of ill usage on account of it. + +[-41-] After this Antony gave an entertainment to the Alexandrians, and +in the assemblage had Cleopatra and her children sit by his side: also in +the course of a public address he enjoined that she be called Queen of +Monarchs, and Ptolemy (whom he named Caesarion) King of Kings. He then +made a different distribution by which he gave them Egypt and Cyprus. +For he declared that one was the wife and the other the true son of the +former Caesar and he made the plea that he was doing this as a mark of +favor to the dead statesman,--his purpose being to cast reproach in this +way upon Octavianus Caesar because he was only an adopted and not a real +son of his. Besides making this assignment to them, he promised to give +to his own children by Cleopatra the following lands,--to Ptolemy Syria +and all the region west of the Euphrates as far as the Hellespont, to +Cleopatra Libya about Cyrene, and to their brother Alexander Armenia and +the rest of the districts across the Euphrates as far as the Indi. The +latter he bestowed as if they were already his. Not only did he say this +in Alexandria, but sent a despatch to Rome, in order that it might secure +ratification also from the people there. Nothing of this, however, was +read in public. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Domitius and Sosius were consuls by that time and being extremely devoted +to him refused to accede to Caesar's urgent demands that they should +publish it to all. Though they prevailed in this matter Caesar won a +victory in turn by not having anything that had been written about the +Armenian king made known to the public. He felt pity for the prince +because he had been secretly in communication with him for the purpose of +injuring Antony, and he grudged the latter his triumph. While Antony was +engaged as described he dared to write to the senate that he wished to +give up his office and put all affairs into the hands of that body and of +the people: he was not really intending to do anything of the kind, but +he desired that under the influence of the hopes he roused they might +either compel Caesar, because on the spot, to give up his arms first, or +begin to hate him, if he would not heed them. + +[-42-] In addition to these events at that time the consuls celebrated +the festival held in honor of Venus Genetrix. During the Feriae, prefects, +boys and beardless youths, appointed by Caesar and sprung from knights +but not from senators, directed ceremonies. Also Aemilius Lepidus Paulus +constructed at his own expense the so-called _Porticus Pauli_ and +dedicated it in his consulship; for he was consul a portion of that +year. And Agrippa restored from his own purse the so-called Marcian +water-supply, which had been cut off by the destruction of the pipes, and +carried it in pipes to many parts of the city. These men, though rivals +in the outlay of their private funds, still dissembled the fact and +behaved sensibly: others who were holding even some most insignificant +office strove to get a triumph voted to themselves, some through Antony +and some through Caesar; and on this pretext they levied large sums upon +foreign nations for gold crowns. + +[B.C. 33 (_a. u._ 721)] + +[-43-] The next year Agrippa agreed to be made aedile and without taking +anything from the public treasury repaired all the public buildings +and all the roads, cleaned out the sewers, and sailed through them +underground into the Tiber. And seeing that in the hippodrome men made +mistakes about the number of turns necessary, he established the system +of dolphins and egg-shaped objects, so that by them the number of times +the track had been circled might be clearly shown. Furthermore he +distributed to all olive oil and salt, and had the baths open free of +charge throughout the year for the use of both men and women. In the +many festivals of all kinds which he gave (so many that the children of +senators could perform the "Troy" equestrian exercise), he also paid +barbers, to the end that no one should be at any expense for their +services. Finally he rained upon the heads of the people in the theatre +tickets that were good for money in one case, clothes in another, and +something else in a third, and he also would place various other large +stocks of goods in the squares and allow the people to scramble for them. +Besides doing this Agrippa drove the astrologers and charlatans from the +city. During these same days a decree was passed that no one belonging to +the senatorial class should be tried for piracy, and so those who were +under any such charge at the time were released and some were given +_carte blanche_ to commit crimes in future. Caesar became consul for the +second time with Lucius Tullus as his colleague, but on the very first +day, as Antony had done, he resigned; and with the sanction of the senate +he introduced some persons from the populace to the rank of patricians. +When a certain Lucius Asellius, who was praetor, on account of a long +sickness wished to lay down his office, he appointed his son in his +stead. And another praetor died on the last day of his term, whereupon +Caesar chose another for the remaining hours. At the decease of Bocchus +he gave his kingdom to no one else, but enrolled it among the Roman +provinces. And since the Dalmatians had been utterly subdued, he erected +from the spoils thus gained the porticoes and secured the collection of +books called the Octavian, after his sister. + +[-44-] Antony meantime had marched as far as the Araxes, presumably to +conduct a campaign against the Parthians, but was satisfied to arrange +terms with the Median monarch. They made a covenant to serve each other +as allies, the one against the Parthians and the other against Caesar, and +to cement the compact they exchanged some soldiers; the Median prince +received a portion of the newly acquired Armenia and Antony his daughter +Iotape, to be united in marriage with Alexander, and the military +standards taken in the battle with Statianus; after this Antony bestowed +upon Polemon, as I have stated, Lesser Armenia, both made Lucius Flavius +consul and removed him (as his colleague), and set out for Ionia and +Greece to wage war against Caesar. The Median at first, by employing the +Romans as allies, conquered the Parthians and Artaxes who came against +him; but as Antony sent for his soldiers and moreover retained those of +the prince, the latter was in turn defeated and captured, and so Armenia +was lost together with Media. + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY 50 + +The following is contained in the Fiftieth of Dio's Rome. + +How Caesar and Antony commenced hostilities against each other (chapters +1-14). + +How Caesar conquered Antony at Actium (chapters 15-35). + +Duration of time two years, in which there were the following magistrates +here enumerated: + +Cn. Domitius L.F.Cn.N. Ahenobarbus, C. Sosius C.F. T.N. (B.C. 32 = a. u. +722.) + +Caesar (III), M. Valerius M.F. Messala Corvinus. (B.C. 31 = a. u. 723.) + + +(_BOOK 50, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[-1-] The Roman people had been robbed of democracy but had not become +definitely a monarchy: Antony and Caesar still controlled affairs on an +equal footing, had divided the management of most of them, and nominally +considered that the rest belonged to them in common, though in reality +they endeavored to appropriate each interest as fast as either was able +to gain any advantage over the other. Sextus had now perished, the +Armenian king had been captured, the parties hostile to Caesar were +silent, the Parthians showed no signs of restlessness, and so after this +they turned openly against each other and the people became entirely +enslaved. The causes for the war, or the pretexts, were as follows. +Antony charged against Caesar that he had removed Lepidus from his +position, and had taken possession of his territory and the troops +of both him and Sextus, which ought to have been common property. He +demanded the half of these as well as the half of the soldiers that had +been levied in the parts of Italy which belonged to both of them. Caesar's +charge against him was that he was holding Egypt and other countries that +he had not drawn by lot, had killed Sextus (whom he would willingly have +spared, he said), and by deceiving and binding the Armenian king had +caused much ill repute to attach to the Roman people. He, too, demanded +half of the spoils, and above all reproached him with Cleopatra and the +children of hers which he had seen fit to regard as his own, the gifts +bestowed upon them, and particularly that he called the boy such a name +as Caesarion and placed him in the family of Caesar. [-2-] These were their +mutual charges; and to a certain extent mutual rejoinders were made, some +sent by letter to each other and others given to the public, by Caesar +orally, by Antony in writing. On this pretext also they kept constantly +sending envoys back and forth, wishing to appear as far as possible +justified in the complaints they made and to reconnoitre each other's +position at the same time. + +[B.C. 32 (_a. u._ 722)] + +Meanwhile they were collecting money avowedly for some different purpose +and were making all other preparations for war as if against other +persons, until the time that Gnaeus Domitius and Gaius Sosius, both +belonging to Antony's party, became consuls. Then they made no further +concealment, but admitted their alienation outright. It happened in the +following way. + +Domitius did not openly attempt any radical measures, since he had had +the experience of many calamities. Sosius, however, had never experienced +such evils, and so on the very first day of the month he spoke at length +in praise of Antony and inveighed forcibly against Caesar. Indeed, he +would have immediately introduced measures against the latter, had not +Nonius Balbus, a tribune, prevented it. Caesar had suspected what he +was going to do and wished neither to permit it to come to pass nor by +offering opposition to appear to be commencing war; hence he did not +enter the senate at this time nor even live in the city at all, but +invented some excuse which took him out of town. He was not only +influenced by the above considerations but desired to deliberate at +leisure according to the reports brought to him and decide by mature +reflection upon the proper course. Later he returned and convened the +senate; he was surrounded by a guard of soldiers and friends who had +daggers concealed, and sitting between the consuls upon his chair of +state he spoke at length, and calmly, from where he sat regarding his own +position, and brought many accusations against Sosius and Antony. When +neither of the consuls themselves nor any one else ventured to utter a +word, he bade them come together again on a specified day, giving them to +understand that he would prove by certain documents that Antony was in +the wrong. The consuls did not dare to reply to him and could not endure +to be silent, and therefore secretly left the city before the time came +for them to appear again; after that they took their way to Antony, +followed by not a few of the senators who were left. Caesar on learning +this declared, to prevent its appearing that he had been abandoned by +them as a result of some injustice, that he had sent them out voluntarily +and that he granted the rest who so wished permission to depart unarmed +to Antony. + +[-3-] This action of theirs just mentioned was counterbalanced by the +arrival of others who had fled from Antony to Caesar--among them Titius +and Plancus, though they were honored by Antony among the foremost and +knew all his secrets. Their desertion was due to some friction between +themselves and the Roman leader, or perhaps they were disgusted in the +matter of Cleopatra: at any rate they left soon after the consuls had +taken the final step and Caesar in the latter's absence had convened the +senate and read and spoken all that he wished, upon hearing of which +Antony assembled a kind of senate from the ranks of his followers, and +after considerable talk on both sides of the question took up the war and +renounced his connection with Octavia. Caesar was very glad to receive the +pair and learned from them about Antony's condition, what he was doing, +what he had in mind, what was written in his will, and the name of the +man that had it; for they had taken part in sealing it. He became still +more violently enraged from this cause and did not shrink from searching +for the document, seizing it, and then carrying it into the senate and +subsequently the assembly, and reading it. The clauses contained in it +were of such a nature that his most lawless behavior brought upon him +no reproach from the citizens. The writer had asseverated the fact that +Caesarion was truly sprung from Caesar, had given some enormous presents to +his children by the Egyptian queen, who were being reared by him, and had +ordered that his body be buried in Alexandria and by her side. + +[-4-] This made the Romans in their indignation believe that the other +reports circulated were also true,--viz., that if Antony should prevail, +he would bestow their city upon Cleopatra and transfer the seat of power +to Egypt. And thereat they became so angry that all, not only such as +disliked him or were indifferent to the two men, censured him, but even +his most intimate friends did so severely. For in consternation at what +was read and eager to relieve themselves of the suspicion felt toward +them by Caesar, they said the same as the rest. They deprived him of the +consulship, to which he had been previously elected, and of all his +remaining authority. They did not declare him an enemy in so many words, +because they feared its effect on his adherents, since it would be +necessary that they also be held in the position of enemies in case they +should not abandon him; but by action they showed their attitude as +plainly as possible. For they voted to the men arrayed on his side pardon +and praise if they would abandon him, and declared war outright upon +Cleopatra, put on their military cloaks as though he were close at hand, +and went to the temple of Bellona where they performed through Caesar as +_fetialis_ all the rites preliminary to war in the customary fashion. +These were stated to refer to Cleopatra, but their real bearing was on +Antony. [-5-] She had enslaved him so absolutely that she persuaded him +to act as gymnasiarch[58] to the Alexandrians; and she was saluted by him +as "queen" and "mistress," had Roman soldiers in her body-guard, and all +of these inscribed her name upon their shields. She used to frequent the +market-place with him, joined him in the management of festivals, in the +hearing of lawsuits, and in riding; and in the cities she was actually +carried in a chair, while Antony accompanied her on foot along with the +eunuchs. He also termed his head-quarters "the palace", sometimes wore an +Oriental dagger at his belt, dressed in a manner not in accordance with +the customs of his native land, and let himself be seen even in public +upon a gilded couch and a chair of similar appearance. He joined her in +sitting for paintings and statues, he representing Osiris and Dionysus, +and she Selene and Isis. This more than all made him seem to have become +crazed by her through some enchantment. She so charmed and enthralled +not only him but all the rest who had any influence with him that she +conceived the hope of ruling the Romans, and made her greatest vow, +whenever she took any oath, that of dispensing justice on the Capitol. + +[-6-] This was the reason that they voted for war against Cleopatra, but +they made no such declaration against Antony, knowing well that he would +be made hostile in any case, for he was certainly not going to betray +her and espouse Caesar's cause. And they wished to have this additional +reproach to heap upon him, that he had voluntarily taken up war in behalf +of the Egyptian woman against his native country, though no ill treatment +had been accorded him personally at home. + +Now the men of fighting age were being rapidly assembled on both sides, +money was being collected from all quarters, and all warlike equipment +was being gathered with speed. The entire armament distinctly surpassed +in size anything previous. All the following nations cooeperated with one +side or the other in this war. Caesar had Italy--he attached to his cause +even all those who had been placed in colonies by Antony, partly by +frightening them on account of their small numbers and partly by +conferring benefits; among other things that he did was to settle again +as an act of his own the men who inhabited Bononia, so that they might +seem to be his colonists. His allies, then, were Italy, Gaul, Spain, +Illyricum, the Libyans,--both those who had long since accepted Roman +sway (except those about Cyrene), and those that had belonged to Bogud +and Bocchus,--Sardinia, Sicily, and the rest of the islands adjacent to +the aforementioned divisions of the mainland. On Antony's side were the +regions obeying Rome in continental Asia, the regions of Thrace, Greece, +Macedonia, the Egyptians, the Cyrenaeans together with the surrounding +country, the islanders dwelling near them, and practically all the +princes and potentates who were neighbors to that part of the Roman +empire then under his control,--some taking the field themselves and +others being represented by troops. And so enthusiastic were the outside +contingents on both sides that they confirmed by oath their alliance with +each man. + +[-7-] Such was the strength of the contestants. Antony took an oath to +his own soldiers that he would fight without quarter and further promised +that within two months after his victory he would give up his entire +power and commit it to the senate and the people: some of them with +difficulty persuaded him to do so only when six months had elapsed, so +that he might be able to settle matters leisurely. And he, however far +he was from seriously contemplating such an act, yet made the offer to +strengthen the belief that he was certainly and without fail going to +conquer. He saw that his own force was much superior in numbers and +hoped to weaken that of his opponent by bribes. He sent gold in every +direction, most of all into Italy, and especially to Rome; and he tempted +his opponents individually, trying to win followers. As a result Caesar +kept the more vigilant watch and gave money to his soldiers. + +[-8-] Such was the vigor and the equipment of the two; and meantime all +sorts of stories were circulated by men, and from the gods also there +were many plain indications. An ape entered the temple of Ceres during +a certain service, and tumbled about everything in the building. An owl +flew first upon the temple of Concord and then upon practically all the +other holiest buildings, and finally after being driven away from every +other spot settled upon the temple of the Genius Populi and was not +caught, and did not depart until late in the day. The chariot of Jupiter +was demolished in the Roman hippodrome, and for many days a flash would +rise over the sea toward Greece and dart up into the firmament. Many +unfortunate accidents also were caused by storm: a trophy standing upon +the Aventine fell, a statue of Victory was dislodged from the back wall +of the theatre, and the wooden bridge was broken down completely. Many +objects were destroyed by fire, and moreover there was a fierce volcanic +discharge from Aetna which damaged cities and fields. On seeing and +hearing these things the Romans remembered also about the serpent, +because he too had doubtless indicated something about the situation +confronting them. A little before this a great two-headed serpent, +eighty-five feet long, had suddenly appeared in Etruria and after doing +much damage had been killed by lightning. This had a bearing upon all of +them. The chief force engaged on both sides alike was made up of Romans, +and many were destined at that juncture to perish in each army, and then +all of the survivors to become the property of the victor. Antony was +given omens of defeat beforehand by the children in Rome; without any +one's having suggested it they formed two parties, of which one called +itself the Antonians and the other the Caesarians, and they fought +with each other for two days, when those that bore Antony's name were +defeated. His death was portended by what happened to one of his images +set up as an offering in the temple of Jupiter at Albanum; although it +was stone it sent forth streams of blood. + +[-9-] All alike were excited over these events, yet in that year +nothing further took place. Caesar was busied settling matters in Italy, +especially when he discovered the presence of money sent by Antony, and +so could not go to the front before winter. His rival started out with +the intention of carrying the war into Italy before they suspected his +movements, but when he came to Corcyra and ascertained that the advance +guard of ships sent to reconnoitre his position was hiding in the +vicinity of the mountains of Ceraunia, he conceived the idea that Caesar +himself with all his fleet had arrived; hence he would proceed no +farther. Instead, he sailed back to the Peloponnesus, the season being +already late autumn, and passed the winter at Patrae, distributing the +soldiers in every direction to the end that they might keep guard over +the various districts and secure more easily an abundance of provisions. +Meanwhile volunteers from each party went over to both sides, senators +as well as others, and Lucius Messius was caught as a spy by Caesar. He +released the man in spite of his being one of those previously captured +at Perusia, but first showed him all his power. To Antony Caesar sent +a letter, bidding him either withdraw from the sea a day's journey on +horseback, and grant him the free privilege of coming to him by boat on +condition that they should meet within five days, or else to cross over +to Italy himself on the same terms. Antony made a great deal of fun of +him and said: "Who will be our arbitrator, if the compact is transgressed +in any way?" And Caesar did not expect that his demands would receive +compliance, but hoped to inspire his own soldiers with courage and his +opponents with terror by this act. + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u._ 723)] + +[-10-] As consuls for the next year after this Caesar and Antony had been +appointed at the time when they settled the offices for eight years at +once[59]; and this was the last year of the period: and as Antony had +been deposed,--a fact which I stated,[60]--Valerius Messala, who had once +been proscribed by them,[61] became consul with Caesar. About this time a +madman rushed into the theatre at one of the festivals, seized the crown +of the former Caesar and put it on, whereupon he was torn to pieces by the +bystanders. A wolf that darted into the temple of Fortune was caught and +killed, and at the hippodrome during the very contest of the horses a dog +overpowered and devoured another dog. Fire also consumed a considerable +portion of the hippodrome, the temple of Ceres, another shrine dedicated +to Spes, besides a large number of other structures. The freedmen were +thought to have caused this. All of them who were in Italy and possessed +property worth five myriads[62] or more had been ordered to contribute +an eighth of it. The result was numerous riots, murders, and firing of +buildings on their part, and they were not brought to order until they +were subdued by armed force. After this the freedmen who held any land in +Italy grew frightened and kept quiet: they had been ordered, too, to give +a quarter of their annual income, and though they were on the point of +rebelling against this extortion, they were not bold enough after the +demonstration mentioned to show further insubordination, but reluctantly +made their contribution without disputing the matter. Therefore it was +believed that the fire was due to a plot originated by the freedmen: yet +this did not prevent it from being recorded among the great portents, +because of the number of buildings burned. + +[-11-] Disregarding such omens as had appeared to them they neither felt +fear nor displayed less hostility but spent the winter in employing spies +and annoying each other. Caesar had set sail from Brundusium and proceeded +as far as Corcyra, intending to attack the ships near Actium while off +their guard, but he encountered rough weather and received damage which +caused him to withdraw. When spring came, Antony made no move at any +point: the crews that manned the triremes were made up of all kinds of +nations, and as they had been wintering at a distance from him they had +secured no practice and had been diminished in numbers by disease and +desertions; Agrippa also had seized Methone by storm, had killed Bogud +there, was watching for merchant vessels to come to land, and was making +descents from time to time on various parts of Greece, which caused +Antony extreme disturbance. Caesar in turn was encouraged by this and +wished to employ as soon as possible the energy of the army, which was +trained to a fine point, and to carry on the war in Greece near his +rival's supporters rather than in Italy near Rome. Therefore he collected +all his soldiers who were of any value, and all of the men of influence, +both senators and knights, at Brundusium. He wished to have the first to +cooeperate with him and to keep the second from being alone and acting in +any revolutionary way, but chiefly he wished to show mankind that the +largest and strongest element among the Romans was in accord with him. +Therefore he ordered all to bring with them a stated number of servants +and that, except the soldiers, they should also carry food for +themselves; after this with the entire array he crossed the Ionian Gulf. +[-12-] He was leading them not to the Peloponnesus or against Antony, but +to Actium, where the greater part of his rival's fleet was at anchor, to +see if he could gain possession of it, willing or unwilling, in advance. +Consequently he disembarked the cavalry under the shadow of the Ceraunian +mountains and sent them to the point mentioned, while he himself with his +ships seized Corcyra, deserted by the garrisons within it, and came to +a stop in the so-called Sweet Harbor: it is so named because it is made +sweet by the river emptying into it. There he established a naval station +and from there he set out to sail to Actium. No one came out to meet him +or would hold parley with him, though he urged them to do one of two +things,--come to an agreement or come into battle. But the first +alternative they would not accept through distrust, nor the second, +through fear. He then occupied the site where Nicopolis now stands and +took up a position on a high piece of ground there from which there is a +view over all the outer sea near Paxa, over the inner Ambracian Gulf, and +the intermediary water (on which are the harbors near Nicopolis) alike. +This spot he strengthened and constructed walls from it down to Comarus, +the outer harbor, so that he commanded Actium with his camp and his +fleet, by land and sea. I have heard the report that he transferred +triremes from the outer sea to the gulf through the fortifications, using +newly flayed hides smeared with olive oil instead of hauling-engines. +However, I can find no exploit recorded of these ships in the gulf and +therefore I am unable to trust the tradition; for it was certainly no +small task to draw triremes on hides over a long and uneven tract of +land. Still, it is said to have been performed. Actium is a place sacred +to Apollo and is located in front of the mouth of the narrows leading +into the Ambracian Gulf opposite the harbors at Nicopolis. These narrows +are of uniform breadth, though closely confined, for a long distance, and +both they and all the waters outside the entrance are fit for ships to +come to anchor in and lie in wait. This space the adherents of Antony had +occupied in advance, had built towers on each side of the mouth, and had +taken up the intervening space with ships so that they could both sail +out and retreat with security. The men were bivouacked on the farther +side of the narrows, along by the sanctuary, on an extensive level area +quite suitable for either battle or encampment. The nature of the place +made them far more subject to disease both in winter and in summer. + +[-13-] As soon as Antony ascertained Caesar's arrival, he did not delay, +but hastened to Actium with his followers. He reached there in a short +time but did not at once risk an encounter, though Caesar was constantly +marshaling his infantry in front of the camp, often making dashes at them +with his ships and beaching their transports; for his object was to join +battle with only such as were present, before Antony's entire command +assembled. For this very reason the latter was unwilling to risk his all, +and he had recourse for several days to trials and skirmishes until he +had gathered his legions. With these, especially since Caesar no longer +displayed an equal readiness to assail them, he crossed the narrows and +encamped not far from him, after which he sent cavalry around the gulf +and besieged him on both sides. Caesar himself remained quiet, and did not +take any risks which he could avoid, but sent a detachment into Greece +and Macedonia with the intention of drawing Antony off in that direction. +While they were so engaged Agrippa sailed suddenly to Leucas and captured +the vessels there, took Patrae by conquering Quintus Nasidius in a fight +at sea, and later also reduced Corinth. Following upon these events +Marcus Titius and Statilius Taurus made a sudden charge upon Antony's +cavalry, which they defeated, and won over Philadelphus, king of +Paphlagonia. Meantime, also, Gnaeus Domitius, having some grievance +against Cleopatra, transferred his allegiance and proved, indeed, of no +service to Caesar (for he fell sick and died not long after), but still +created the impression that his desertion was due to despair of the +success of the party on whose side he was ranged. Many others followed +his example, so that Antony was no longer equally imbued with courage but +was suspicious of everybody. It was after this that he tortured and +put to death Iamblichus, king of some of the Arabians, and others, and +delivered Quintus Postumius, a senator, to his servants to be placed on +the rack. Finally he became afraid that Quintus Deillius and Amyntas the +Gaul, who happened to have been sent into Macedonia and Thrace after +mercenaries, would espouse Caesar's cause, and he started to overtake +them, pretending that he wished to render them assistance in case any +hostile force should attack. And meantime a battle at sea occurred. +[-14-] Lucius Tarius,[63] with a few ships was anchored opposite Sosius, +and the latter hoped to achieve a notable success by attacking him before +Agrippa, to whom the whole fleet had been entrusted, should arrive. +Accordingly, after waiting for a thick mist, so that Tarius should not +become aware of their numbers beforehand and flee, he set sail suddenly +just before dawn and immediately at the first assault routed his opponent +and pursued him, but failed to capture him; for Agrippa by chance met +Sosius on the way, so that he not only gained nothing from the victory +but perished[64] together with Tarcondimotus and many others. + +Antony, because of his conflict and because he himself on his return had +been defeated in a cavalry battle by Caesar's advance guard, no longer +thought it well to encamp in two different places, but during the night +left the redoubt which was near his opponents and retired to the other +side of the narrows, where the larger part of his army had bivouacked. +When provisions also began to fail him because he was cut off from +foraging, he held a council to deliberate whether they should remain in +position and hazard an encounter or transfer their post somewhere else +and make the war a long one. [-15-] After several had given opinions +the advice of Cleopatra prevailed,--that the choicest sites be given in +possession of garrisons and that the rest of the force weigh anchor with +them for Egypt. She held this view as a result of being disturbed by +omens. Swallows had built their nests about her tent and on the flagship +on which she sailed, and milk and blood together had dripped from +beeswax. Their images with the forms of gods which the Athenians had +placed on their Acropolis were hurled down by thunderbolts into the +Theatre. This and the consequent dejection and listlessness of the army +began to alarm Cleopatra and she filled Antony with fears. They did not +wish, however, to sail out either secretly or openly as fugitives, for +fear they should strike terror to the hearts of their allies, but rather +with preparations made for a naval battle, in order that they might +equally well force their way through in case there should be any +resistance. Therefore they chose out first the best of the vessels, since +the sailors had become fewer by death and desertion, and burned the rest; +next they secretly put all their most prized valuables aboard of them by +night. When the boats were ready, Antony gathered his soldiers and spoke +as follows:-- + +[-16-] "All provisions that I was required to make for the war have +received due attention, fellow-soldiers, in advance. First, there is your +immense throng, all the chosen flower of our dependents and allies; and +to such a degree are you masters of every form of combat recognized among +us that alone by yourselves you are formidable to adversaries. Then +again, you yourselves can see how large and how fine a fleet we have and +how many fine hoplites, cavalry, slingers, peltasts, archers, mounted +archers. Most of these classes are not found at all on the other side, +and so far as they are found they are much fewer and weaker than +ours. The funds of the enemy are small, though obtained by forced +contributions, and can not last long, while they have rendered the +contributors better disposed toward us than toward the men who took them; +hence the population is in no way favorable to the oppressors and is +moreover on the point of open revolt. Our treasury, filled from abundant +resources, has harmed no one and will aid all of us. [-17-] In addition +to these considerations so numerous and of such great importance I am +on general principles disinclined to make any bombastic statement +about myself. Yet since this too is one of the factors contributing +to supremacy in war and is believed among all men to be of greatest +importance,--I mean that men who are to fight well must secure an +excellent general--necessity itself has rendered quite indispensable +some remarks about myself, their purpose being to enable you to realize +still more the fact that not only are you such soldiers that you could +conquer even without a good leader, but I am such a leader that I can +win even with poor soldiers. I am at that age when persons attain their +greatest perfection both of body and intellect and suffer deterioration +neither through the rashness of youth nor the feebleness of old age, but +are strongest because in a condition half-way between the two. Moreover I +possess such a nature and such a training that I can with greatest ease +discern what requires to be done and make it known. Experience, which +causes even the ignorant and the uneducated to appear to be of some +value, I have been acquiring through my whole political and whole +military career. From boyhood till now I have been continually exercised +in similar pursuits; I have been much ruled and done much ruling, from +which I have learned on the one hand what kind of orders and of what +magnitude must be issued, and on the other how far and in what way one +must render obedience. I have been subject to terror, to confidence: as a +result I have made it my custom neither to entertain any fear too readily +nor to venture on any hazard too heedlessly. I have met with good +fortune, I have met with failure: consequently I find it possible to +avoid both despair and excess of pride. + +[-18-] "I speak to you who know these facts and make you who hear them +my witnesses not in the intention of uttering idle boasts about +myself,--your consciousness of the truth being sufficient glory for +me,--but to the end that you may in this way bring home to yourselves +how much better we are equipped than our opponents. For, while they are +inferior to us in quantity both of soldiers and of money and in diversity +of equipment, in no one respect are they so strikingly lacking as in the +age and inexperience of their general. About him I need in general make +no exact or detailed statement, but to sum up I will say this, which you +all understand, that he is a veritable weakling in body and has never +himself been victor in any important battle either on land or on the sea. +Indeed, at Phillipi and in the same conflict I won the day, whereas he +was defeated. + +"To this degree do we differ from each other, and usually victories fall +to the better equipped. And if they have any strength at all, you would +find it to exist in their heavy-armed force on land; as for their ships, +they will not so much as be able to sail out against us. You yourselves +can of course see the size and stoutness of our vessels, which are such +that if the enemy's were equivalent to them in number, yet because of +these advantages the foe could do no damage either by charges from the +side or by charges from the front. For first the thickness of the timbers +and second the very height of the ships would certainly check them, even +if there were no one on board to defend them. Where will any one find a +chance to assail ships which carry so many archers and slingers striking +assailants, moreover, from the towers up aloft? If any one should +approach, how could he fail to get sunk by the very number of the oars +or how could he fail to be plunged under water when shot at by all the +warriors on the decks and in the towers? [-19-] Do not think that they +have any nautical ability because Agrippa won a sea-fight off Sicily: +they contended not against Sextus but against his slaves, not against a +like equipment with ours but against one far inferior. If, again, any one +makes much of their good fortune in that combat, he is bound to take into +equal consideration the defeat which Caesar himself suffered at the hands +of Sextus. By this comparison he will find that conditions are not the +same, but that all our advantages are more numerous and greater than +theirs. And, in general, how large a part does Sicily form of the whole +empire and how large a fraction of our equipment did the troops of Sextus +possess, that any one should properly fear Caesar's armament, which is +precisely the same as before and has grown neither larger nor better, +just on account of his good luck, instead of taking courage from the +defeat that he endured? Reflecting on this fact I have not cared to +risk our first engagement with the infantry, where they appear to have +strength in a way, in order that no one of you should be liable to +discouragement as a result of any failure in that department: instead, +I have chosen to begin with the ships where we are strongest and have a +vast superiority over our antagonists, to the end that after a victory +with these we may despise the infantry. You know well that the whole +outcome of the war depends on each side on our fleets. If we come out +victorious in this engagement, we shall suffer no harm from any of the +rest but cut them off on a kind of islet,--for all surrounding regions +are in our possession,--and without effort subdue them, if in no other +way, by hunger. + +[-20-] "Now I do not think that further words are necessary to tell you +that we shall be struggling not for small or unimportant interests, but +it will prove true that if you are zealous you will obtain the greatest +rewards, but if careless will suffer the most frightful misfortunes. +What would they not do to us, if they should prevail, when they killed +practically all the followers of Sextus that had been of any prominence, +and even destroyed many followers of Lepidus that cooeperated with Caesar's +party? But why should I mention this, seeing that they have removed +Lepidus, who was guilty of no wrong and was further their ally, from +all his powers as general and keep him under guard as if he were some +captive? They have further hounded for money all the freedmen in Italy +and likewise other men who possess any land to such an extent as to +force some of them to take up arms, with the consequence that not a few +perished. Is it possible that those who spared not their allies will +spare us? Will those who seized for funds the property of their own +adherents refrain from our wealth? Will they show humanity as victors who +before victory have committed every conceivable outrage? Not to spend +time in speaking of the concerns of other people, I will enumerate the +audacity that they have displayed toward us who stand here. Who was +ignorant that I was chosen a partner and colleague of Caesar and received +charge of the management of public affairs equally with him, received +similar honors and offices, and have been a great while now in possession +of them? Yet of all of them, so far as is in his power, I have been +deprived; I have become a private citizen instead of a leader, an outcast +from the franchise instead of consul, and this not by the action of the +people or the senate but by his own act and that of his adherents, who do +not comprehend that they are preparing a sovereign for themselves first +of all. For how could one speak of enactments of people and senate, when +the consuls and some others fled straightway from the city, in order +to escape casting any such vote? How will that man spare either you or +anybody else, when he dared while I was alive, in possession of such +great power, a victor over the Armenians, to seek for my will, take it by +violence from those who had received it, open it, and read it publicly? +And how will he manifest any humanity to others with whom he has no +connection, when he has shown himself such a man toward me,--his friend, +his table companion, his relative? + +[-21-] "Now in case we are to draw any inferences from his decrees, he +threatens you openly, having made the majority of you enemies outright, +but against me personally no such declaration has been made, though he is +at war with me and is already acting in every way like one who has not +only conquered me but murdered me. Hence, when he treated me in such a +way whom he pretends not yet even at this day to regard as an enemy, he +will surely not keep his hands off you, with whom he clearly admits that +he is at odds. What does it signify that he is threatening us all alike +with arms but in his decree declares he is at war with some and not +with others? It is not, by Jupiter, with the intention of making any +distinction between us, or treating one class in one way and another in +another, if he prevails, but it is in order to set us at variance and in +collision and thus render us weaker. He is not unaware that while we are +in accord and doing everything as one body he can never in any way get +the upper hand, but if we quarrel, and some choose one policy and the +rest another, he may perhaps prevail. [-22-] It is for this reason that +he assumes this kind of attitude toward us. I and the Romans that cleave +to me foresee the danger, although so far as the decrees are concerned we +enjoy a kind of amnesty: we comprehend his plot and neither abandon you +nor look personally to our own advantage. In like manner you, too, whom +he does not even himself deny that he regards as hostile, yes, most +hostile, ought to bear in mind all these facts, and embracing common +dangers and common hopes cooeperate in every way and show enthusiasm to an +equal degree in our enterprise and set over against each other carefully +first what we shall suffer (as I said), if defeated, and what we shall +gain, if victorious. For it is a great thing for us to escape being +worsted and so enduring any form of insult or rapacity, but greatest of +all to conquer and effect whatever any one of us may wish. On the other +hand, it is most disgraceful for us, who are so many and so valiant, who +have weapons and money and ships and horses, to choose the worse instead +of the better course, and when we might afford the other party liberty +to prefer to join them in slavery. Our aims are so utterly opposed that, +whereas he desires to reign as sovereign over you, I wish to free you and +them together, and this I have confirmed by oath. Therefore as men who +are to struggle for both sides alike and to win blessings that shall be +common to all, let us labor, fellow-soldiers, to prevail at the present +juncture and to gain happiness for all time." + +[-23-] After delivering a speech of this sort Antony put all his most +prominent associates aboard the boats, to prevent them from concerting +revolutionary measures when they got by themselves, as Deillius and some +other deserters had done; he also embarked great numbers of archers, +slingers, and hoplites. And since the defeat of Sextus had been largely +due to the size of Caesar's ships and the number of his marines, Antony +had equipped his vessels to surpass greatly those of his opponents, for +he had had constructed only a few triremes, but the rest were ships with +four banks and with ten banks, and represented all the remaining degrees +of capacity: upon these he had built lofty towers, and he had put aboard +a crowd of men who could fight from behind walls, as it were. Caesar for +his part was observing their equipment and making his preparations; when +he learned from Deillius and others their intention he himself assembled +the army and spoke to this effect:-- + +[-24-] "Having discovered, fellow-soldiers, both from what I have learned +from hearsay and from what I have tested by experience, that the most and +greatest military enterprises, or, indeed, I might say human affairs in +general, turn out in favor of those persons who both think and act in a +more just and pious manner, I am keeping this strictly in mind myself and +I advise you to consider it. No matter how numerous and mighty the force +we possess, no matter if it be such that even a man who chose the less +just of two courses might expect to win with its aid, nevertheless I base +my confidence far more upon the causes underlying the war than upon this +factor. For that we who are Romans and lords of the greatest and best +portion of the world should be despised and trodden under foot of an +Egyptian woman is unworthy of our fathers who overthrew Pyrrhus, Philip, +Perseus, Antiochus, who uprooted the Numantini and the Carthaginians, who +cut down the Cimbri and the Ambrones; it is unworthy also of ourselves +who have subjugated the Gauls, have subdued the Pannonians, have advanced +as far as the Ister, have crossed the Rhine, have gone over into Britain. +How could all those who have had a hand in the exploits mentioned fail +to grieve vehemently, if they should learn that we had succumbed to an +accursed woman? Should we not be guilty of a gross deviation from right +conduct, if, after surpassing all men everywhere in valor, we should then +bear humbly the insults of this throng, who, O Hercules, are Alexandrians +and Egyptians (what worse or what truer name could one apply to them?), +who serve reptiles and other creatures as gods, who embalm their bodies +to secure a reputation for immortality, who are most reckless in +braggadocio but most deficient in bravery, and worst of all are slaves +to a woman instead of a man? Yet these have dared to lay claim to our +possessions and to acquire them through us, evidently expecting that we +will give up the prosperity which we possess for them. [-25-] Who can +help lamenting to see Roman soldiers acting as body-guards of their +queen? Who can help groaning when he hears Roman knights and senators +flattering her like eunuchs? Who can help weeping when he both hears and +sees Antony himself, the man twice consul, often imperator, to whom was +committed in common with me the superintendence of the public business, +who was entrusted with so many cities, so many legions,--when he sees +that this man has now abandoned all his ancestors' habits of life, has +emulated all alien and barbaric customs, that he pays no honor to us or +to the laws or to his fathers' gods, but worships that wench as if she +were some Isis or Selene, calling her children Sun and Moon, and finally +himself bearing the title of Osiris and Dionysus, in consequence of which +he has bestowed entire islands and some of the continents, as though he +were master of the whole earth and the whole sea? I am sure that this +appears marvelous and incredible to you, fellow-soldiers: therefore you +ought to be the more indignant. For if that is actually so which you do +not even believe on hearing it, and if that man in his voluptuary career +commits acts at which any one who learns of them must grieve, would you +not properly become exceedingly enraged? + +[-26-] "Yet at the start I was so devoted to him that I gave him a share +of my leadership, married my sister to him, and granted him legions. Even +after this I felt so kindly, so affectionately toward him that I was +unwilling to wage war on him because of his insulting my sister, or +because he neglected the children she had borne him, or because he +preferred the Egyptian woman to her, or because he bestowed upon the +former's children practically all your possessions, or, in fine, for any +other reason. The cause is that, first of all, I did not think it proper +to assume the same attitude toward Antony as toward Cleopatra. I deemed +her by the very fact of her foreign birth to be at the outset hostile to +his career, but I believed that he, as a citizen, could be corrected. +Later I entertained the hope that if not voluntarily at least reluctantly +he might change his mind as a result of the decrees passed against her. +Consequently I did not declare war upon him. He, however, has looked +haughtily and disdainfully upon my efforts and will neither be released, +though we would fain release him, nor be pitied though we try to pity +him. He is either unreasonable or mad,--and this which I have heard I +do believe, that he has been bewitched by that accursed female,--and +therefore pays no heed to our kindness or humaneness, but being in +slavery to that woman he undertakes in her behalf both war and needless +dangers which are both against our interests and against those of his +country. What else, then, is our duty except to fight him back together +with Cleopatra? [-27-]Hence let no one call him a Roman but rather an +Egyptian, nor Antony but rather Serapio. Let no one think that he was +ever consul or imperator, but only gymnasiarch. He has himself of his own +free will chosen the latter title instead of the former, and casting away +all the august terms of his own land has become one of the cymbal players +from Canopus.[65] Again, let no one fear that he can give any unfavorable +turn to the war. Even previously he was of no ability, as you know +clearly who conquered him near Mutina. And even if once he did attain to +some capacity through campaigning with us, be well assured that he has +now ruined all of it by his changed manner of life. It is impossible for +one who leads an existence of royal luxury and coddles himself like a +woman to think any valorous thoughts or do valorous deeds, because it is +quite inevitable that a person takes the impress of the practices with +which he comes in contact. A proof of this is that in the one war which +he has waged in all this long time and the one campaign that he has made +he lost great numbers of citizens in the battles, returned in thorough +disgrace from Praaspa, and parted with very many additional men in +the flight. If any one of us were obliged to perform a set dance or +cordax[66] in an amusing way, such a person would surely yield the honors +to him; he has practiced this: but since it is a case of arms and +battle, what is there about him that any one should dread? His physical +condition? He has passed his prime and become effeminate. His strength of +mind? He plays the woman and has surrendered himself to unnatural lust. +His piety toward our gods? He is at war both with them and his country. +His faithfulness to his allies? But is any one unaware how he deceived +and imprisoned the Armenian? His liberal treatment of his friends? But +who has not seen the men who have miserably perished at his hands? His +reputation with the soldiers? But who even of them has not condemned him? +Evidence of their feeling is found in the fact that numbers daily come +over to our side. For my part I think that all our citizens will do this, +as on a former occasion when he was going from Brundusium into Gaul. So +long as they expected to get rich without danger, some were very glad +to cleave to him. But they will not care to fight against us, their own +countrymen, in behalf of what does not belong to them at all, especially +when they are given the opportunity to win without hazard both +preservation and prosperity by joining us. + +[-28-] "Some one may say, however, that he has many allies and a store of +wealth. Well, how we have been accustomed to conquer the dwellers on Asia +the mainland is known to Scipio Asiaticus the renowned, is known to Sulla +the fortunate, to Lucullus, to Pompey, to my father Caesar, and to your +own selves, who vanquished the supporters of Brutus and Cassius. This +being so, if you think their wealth is so much more than others', you +must be all the more eager to make it your own. It is but fair that for +the greatest prizes the greatest conflicts should be undergone. And I +can tell you nothing else greater than that prize which lies within your +grasp,--namely, to preserve the renown of your forefathers, to guard your +individual pride, to take vengeance on those in revolt against us, to +repulse those who insult you, to conquer and rule all mankind, to allow +no woman to make herself equal to a man. Against the Taurisci and Iapudes +and Dalmatians and Pannonians you yourselves now before me battled most +zealously and frequently for some few walls and desert land; you subdued +all of them though they are admittedly a most warlike race; and, by +Jupiter, against Sextus also, for Sicily merely, and against this very +Antony, for Mutina merely, you carried on a similar struggle, so that +you came out victorious over both. And now will you show any less zeal +against a woman whose plots concern all your possessions, and against +her husband, who has distributed to her children all your property, and +against their noble associates and table companions whom they themselves +stigmatize as 'privy' councillors? Why should you? Because of their +number? But no number of persons can conquer valour. Because of their +race? But they have practiced carrying burdens rather than warfare. +Because of their experience? But they know better how to row than how +to fight at sea. I, for my part, am really ashamed that we are going to +contend with such creatures, by vanquishing whom we shall gain no glory, +whereas if we are defeated we shall be disgraced. + +[-29-] "And surely you must not think that the size of their vessels or +the thickness of the timbers of their ships is a match for our valour. +What ship ever by itself either wounded or killed anybody? Will they not +by their very height and staunchness be more difficult for their rowers +to move and less obedient to their pilots? Of what use can they possibly +be to the fighting men on board of them, when these men can employ +neither frontal assault nor flank attack, manoeuvres which you know are +essential in naval contests? For surely they do not intend to employ +infantry tactics against us on the sea, nor on the other hand are they +prepared to shut themselves up as it were in wooden walls and undergo a +siege, since that would be decidedly to our advantage--I mean assaulting +wooden barriers. For if their ships remain in the same place, as if +fastened there, it will be possible for us to rip them open with our +beaks, it will be possible, too, to damage them with our engines from +a distance, and also possible to burn them to the water's edge with +incendiary missiles; and if they do venture to stir from their place, +they will not overtake anyone by pursuing nor escape by fleeing, since +they are so heavy that they are entirely too inert to inflict any damage, +and so huge that they are exceptionally liable to suffer it. + +[-30-] "Indeed, what need is there to spend time in speaking further of +them, when we have already often made trial of them, not only off Leucas +but also here just the other day, and so far from proving inferior to +them, we have everywhere shown ourselves superior? Hence you should be +encouraged not so much by my words as by your own deeds, and should +desire to put an end forthwith to the whole war. For be well assured that +if we beat them to-day we shall have no further trouble. For in general +it is a natural characteristic of human nature everywhere, that whenever +a man fails in his first contests he becomes disheartened with respect to +what is to come; and as for us, we are so indisputably superior to them +on land that we could vanquish them even if they had never suffered any +injury. And they are themselves so conscious of this truth--for I am not +going to conceal from you what I have heard--that they are discouraged at +what has already happened and despair of saving their lives if they stay +where they are, and they are therefore endeavouring to make their escape +to some place or other, and are making this sally, not with the desire to +give battle, but in expectation of flight. In fact, they have placed in +their ships the best and most valuable of the possessions they have with +them, in order to escape with them if they can. Since, then, they admit +that they are weaker than we, and since they carry the prizes of victory +in their ships, let us not allows them to sail anywhere else, but let +us conquer them here on the spot and take all these treasures away from +them." + +Such were Caesar's words. [-31-]After this he formed a plan to let them +slip by, intending to fall upon them from the rear: he himself by fast +sailing expected to capture them directly, and when the leaders had +plainly shown that they were attempting to run away he thought that the +remainder would make no contest about surrendering. He was restrained, +however, by Agrippa, who feared that they might not overtake the +fugitives, who would probably use sails, and he also felt some confidence +of conquering without much effort because meantime a squall of rain with +large quantities of spray had driven in the face of Antony's fleet alone +and had created disturbance all through it. Hence he abandoned this plan, +and after putting vast numbers of infantry aboard the ships himself +and placing all his associates into auxiliary boats for the purpose of +sailing about quickly, giving notice of requisite action to the warriors, +and reporting to him what he ought to know, he awaited the onset of the +foe. They weighed anchor to the sound of the trumpet and with ships +in close array drew up their line a little outside the narrows, not +advancing any farther: he in turn started out as if to come to close +quarters or even make them retire. When they neither made a corresponding +advance nor turned about, but remained in position and further made +their array extremely dense, he became doubtful what to do. Therefore he +ordered the sailors to let their oars rest in the water and waited for a +time: then suddenly at a given signal led forward both the wings and bent +around in the hope chiefly of surrounding the enemy, or otherwise of at +least breaking their formation. Antony was afraid of this movement of his +to wheel about and surround them, and hence adopted so far as he could +corresponding tactics, which brought him, though reluctantly, into close +combat. [-32-] So they attacked and began the conflict, both sides +uttering many exhortations in their own ranks as to both artifice and +zeal, and hearing many from the men on shore that shouted to them. The +struggle was not of a similar nature on the two sides, but Caesar's +followers having smaller and swifter ships went with a rush, and when +they rammed were fenced about on all sides to avoid being wounded. If +they sank any boat, well: if not, they would back water before a close +engagement could be begun, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly +again, or would let some go and turn their attention to others; and +having damaged them slightly, to whatever degree the limited time would +allow, they would proceed against others and then still others, in +order that their assault upon any vessel might be so far as possible +unexpected. Since they dreaded the defence of the enemy from a distance +and likewise the battle at close quarters, they delayed neither in the +approach nor in the encounter, but running up suddenly with the object of +arriving before the opposing archers could work, they would inflict some +wounds and cause a disturbance merely, so as to escape being held, and +then retire out of range. The enemy tried to strike the approaching +ships with many stones and arrows flying thick and fast, and to cast the +grapnels upon the assailants. And in case they could reach them, they got +the better of it, but if they missed, their boats would be pierced and +they begin to sink, or else in their endeavor to avoid this calamity they +would waste time and lay themselves open to attack on the part of some +others. For when two or three at once fell upon the same ship, part +would do all the damage they could and the rest suffer the brunt of the +injuries. On the one side the pilots and the rowers endured the most +annoyance and fatigue, and on the other the marines: and the one side +resembled cavalry, now making a charge, now withdrawing, on account of +the manoeuvres on their part in assaulting and backing water, and the +other was like heavy-armed men guarding against the approach of foes and +trying as much as possible to hold them. As a result they gained mutual +advantages: the one party fell unobserved upon the lines of oars +projecting from the ships and shattered the blades, whereas the other +party with rocks and engines from above tried to sink them. There +were also certain disadvantages: the one party could not injure those +approaching it, and the other party, if it failed to sink some vessels by +its ramming, was hemmed in and found no longer an equal contest. + +[-33-] The battle was an even one for a long time and neither antagonist +could get the upper hand, but the outcome of it was finally like this. +Cleopatra, riding at anchor behind the warriors, could not endure the +long, obscure uncertainty and delay, but harassed with worry (which was +due to her being a woman and an Egyptian) at the struggle which for so +long continued doubtful, and at the fearful expectancy on both sides, +suddenly herself started to flee and raised the signal for the remainder +of her subjects. So, as they at once raised their sails and sped out to +sea, while a wind of some force had by chance arisen, Antony thought they +were fleeing not at the bidding of Cleopatra, but through fear because +they felt themselves vanquished, and followed them. When this took place +the rest of the soldiers became both discouraged and confused, and rather +wishing themselves to escape likewise kept raising their sails, and the +others kept throwing the towers and the furnishings into the sea in order +to lighten the vessels and make good their departure. While they were +occupied in this way their adversaries fell upon them, not pursuing the +fugitives, because they themselves were without sails and prepared only +for a naval battle, and many contended with one ship, both from afar +and alongside. Then on the part of both alike the conflict became most +diverse and fierce. Caesar's men damaged the lower parts of the ships all +around, crushed the oars, knocked off the rudders, and climbed on the +decks, where they took hold of some and pulled them down, pushed off +others, and fought with still others, since they were now equal to them +in numbers. Antony's soldiers pushed them back with boathooks, cut them +down with axes, threw down upon them rocks and other masses of material +made ready for just this purpose, repulsed those that tried to climb up, +and joined issue with such as came close enough. + +And one viewing the business might have compared it, likening small +things to great, to walls or many thickset islands being besieged by sea. +Thus the one party strove to scale the boats like some land or fortress +and eagerly brought to bear everything that contributed to this result. +The others tried to repel them, devising every means that is commonly +used in such, a case. + +[-34-] As the fight continued equal, Caesar, at a loss what he should do, +sent for fire from the camp. Previously he had wished to avoid using +it, in order to gain possession of the money. Now he saw that it was +impossible for him to win in any other way, and had recourse to this, as +the only thing that would assist him. Thus another form of battle was +brought about. The assailants would approach their victims from many +directions at once, shoot blazing missiles at them, and hurl torches +fastened to javelins from their hands, and with the aid of engines threw +pots full of charcoal and pitch upon some boats from a distance. The +defenders tried to ward these off individually and when any of them flew +past and caught the timbers and at once started a great flame, as must be +the case in a ship, they used first the drinking-water which they carried +on board and extinguished some conflagrations: when that was gone they +dipped up the sea-water. And in case they could use great quantities of +it at once, they would stop the fire by main force: but they were unable +to do this everywhere, for they did not have many buckets or large ones, +and in their confusion brought them up half full, so that far from doing +any service they only quickened the flame. For salt water poured on +a fire in small quantities makes it burn up brightly. As they found +themselves getting the worst of it in this, they heaped on the blaze +their thick mantles and the corpses. For a time these checked the fire +and it seemed to abate; later, especially as the wind came upon it in +great gusts, it shot up more brilliant than ever and was increased by the +fuel. While only a part of a ship was burning, others stood by it and the +men would leap into it and hew down some parts and carry away others. +These detached parts some threw into the sea and others upon their +opponents, in case they could do them any damage. Others were constantly +going to the sound portion of the vessel and now more than ever they used +the grappling irons and the long spears with the purpose of attaching +some hostile ship to theirs and transferring themselves to it; or, if +that was out of the question, they tried to set it on fire likewise. +[-35-] But the hostile fleet was guarding against this very attempt and +none of it came near enough; and as the fire spread to the encircling +walls and descended to the flooring, the most terrible of fates +confronted them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the +smoke before the flame approached them, while others were roasted in the +midst of it as though in ovens. Others were cooked in their armor, which +became red-hot. There were still others, who, before suffering such a +death, or when they were half burned, threw off their armor and were +wounded by the men shooting from a distance, or again were choked by +leaping into the sea, or were struck by their opponents and drowned, or +were mangled by sea-monsters. The only ones to obtain an endurable death, +considering the sufferings round about, were such as killed one another +or themselves before any calamity befell them. These did not have to +submit to torture, and as corpses had the burning ships for their funeral +pyre. The Caesarians, who saw this, at first so long as any of the foe +were still able to defend themselves would not come near; but when the +fire began to consume the ships and the men so far from being able to do +any harm to an enemy could not even help themselves, they eagerly sailed +up to them to see if they could in any way gain possession of the money, +and they endeavored to extinguish the fire which they themselves had +caused. As a result many of them also perished in the course of their +plundering in the flame. + + + + +DIO'S ROMAN HISTORY + +51 + +The following is contained in the Fifty-first of Dio's Rome: + +How Caesar after his victory at Actium transacted business requiring +immediate attention (chapters 1-4). + +About Antony and Cleopatra and their movements after the defeat (chapters +5-8). + +How Antony, defeated in Egypt, killed himself (chapters 9-14). + +How Caesar subdued Egypt (chapters 15-18). + +How Caesar came to Rome and conducted a triumph (chapters 19-21). + +How the Curia Julia was dedicated (chapter 22). + +How Moesia was reduced (chapters 23-27). + +Duration of time the remainder of the consulships of Caesar (3rd) and M. +Valerius Corvinus Messala, together with two additional years, in which +there were the following magistrates here enumerated: + +Caesar (IV), M. Licinius M.F. Crassus. (B.C. 30 = a. u. 724.) + +Caesar (V), Sextus Apuleius Sexti F. (B.C. 29 = a. u. 725.) + +(_BOOK 51, BOISSEVAIN_.) + +[B.C. 31 (_a. u_. 723)] + +[-1-] Such was the naval battle which occurred between them on the second +of September. I have not elsewhere used a like expression, not being in +the habit of giving precise dates, but I do it here because then for +the first time Caesar alone held the entire power. Consequently the +enumeration of the years of his supremacy starts from precisely that day. +And before it had gone he set up as an offering to Apollo of Actium a +trireme, a four-banked ship, and so on up to one of ten banks, from the +captive vessels; and he built a larger temple. He also instituted a +quinquennial musical and gymnastic contest involving horseracing,--a +"sacred" festival, as they call all which include distribution of +food,--and entitled it Actia. Further, by gathering some settlers and +ousting others who dwelt nearby from their homes, he founded a city on +the site of the camp and named it Nicopolis.[67] On the spot where he +had had his tent he laid a foundation of square stones, and put there a +shrine of Apollo open to the sky, adorning it with the captured beaks. + +But this was done later. At the time he despatched one division of the +ships to pursue Antony and Cleopatra; so these followed in their wake, +but as it seemed impossible to overtake the fugitives they returned. With +his remaining vessels he took the enemy's ramparts, where no one opposed +him because of small numbers, and then overtook and without a battle got +possession of the other army which was retreating into Macedonia. Various +important contingents had already made their escape, the Romans to Antony +and the rest of the allies to their homes. The latter moreover evinced +no further hostility to Caesar, but both they and all the peoples who had +formerly belonged to Rome remained quiet, and some at once and others +later made terms. Caesar now proceeded to teach the cities a lesson +by levying money and taking away the remnant of authority over their +citizens that they possessed in their assemblies. From all the potentates +and kings, save Amyntas and Archelaus, he took all the lands that they +had received from Antony. Philopator son of Tarcondimotus, Lycomedes +ruler in a portion of Cappadocian Pontus, and Alexander the brother of +Iamblichus he even removed from their principalities. The last named, +because he had secured his appointment as a reward for accusing the +conqueror, he placed in his triumphal procession and afterward killed. +The kingdom of Lycomedes he gave to one Medeus, because the latter had +previous to the naval engagement detached the Mysians in Asia from Antony +and with them had waged war upon such as followed Antony's fortunes. The +people of Cydonea and Lampea he set free, because they had rendered him +some assistance, and he helped the Lampeans found anew their city, from +which they had been uprooted. As for the senators and knights and other +prominent men who had been active in Antony's cause, he imposed fines +upon many of them, executed many of them, and some he spared entirely. +Among the last Sosius was a distinguished example: for though he had +often fought against Caesar and now fled and hid himself, but was +subsequently discovered, his life was nevertheless preserved. Likewise +one Marcus Scaurus, a half-brother of Sextus on the mother's side, had +been condemned to death, but was later released for the sake of his +mother Mucia. Of those who underwent the extreme punishment the Aquilii +Flori and Curio were the most noted. The latter met death because he was +a son of the former Curio who had once been of great assistance to the +former Caesar. And the Flori both perished because Octavius commanded that +one of them should draw the lot to be slain. They were father and +son, and when the latter, before any drawing took place, voluntarily +surrendered himself to the executioner the former felt such great grief +that he died also by his own hand. + +[-3-] This, then, was the end of these persons. The mass of Antony's +soldiers was included in the ranks of Caesar's legions and later he sent +back to Italy the citizens over age of both forces, without giving any +of them anything, and the remainder he disbanded. They had shown an ugly +temper toward him in Sicily after the victory, and he feared they might +create a disturbance again. Hence he hastened before the least signs of +an uprising were manifested to discharge some entirely from the service +under arms and to scatter the great majority of the rest. As he was even +at this time suspicious of the freedmen, he remitted their one-quarter +contribution[68] which they were still owing of the money assessed upon +them. And they no longer bore him any malice for deprivations they had +endured, but rejoiced as if they had received as a gift what they had +not been obliged to contribute. The men still left in the rank and file +showed no disposition to rebel, partly because they were held in check +by their commanding officers, but mostly through hopes of the wealth of +Egypt. The men, however, who had helped Caesar to gain the victory and had +been dismissed from the service, were irritated at having obtained no +meed of valor, and not much later they began a revolutionary movement. +Caesar was suspicious of them, and fearing that they might despise +Maecenas, to whom at that time Rome and the remainder of Italy had been +entrusted, because he was a knight, he sent Agrippa to Italy as if on +some routine business. He also gave to Agrippa and to Maecenas so great +authority over everything that they might read beforehand the letters +which he often wrote to the senate and to various officials, and then +change whatever they wished in them. Therefore they received also from +him a ring, so that they should have the means of sealing the epistles. +He had had the seal which he used most at that time made double, with a +sphinx raised on both sides alike. Subsequently he had his own image made +in _intaglio_, and sealed everything with that. Later emperors likewise +employed it, except Galba. The latter gave his sanction with an ancestral +device which showed a dog bending forward from the prow of a ship. The +way that Octavius wrote both to these two magistrates and to the rest of +his intimate friends whenever there was need of forwarding information to +them secretly was to write in place of the proper letter in each word the +second one following. + +[-4-] Octavius, with the idea that there would be no more danger from the +veterans, administered affairs in Greece and took part in the Mysteries +of the two goddesses. He then went over into Asia and settled matters +there, all the time keeping a sharp lookout for Antony's movements. For +he had not yet received any definite information regarding the course his +rival had followed in his escape, and so he kept making preparations +to proceed against him, if he should find out exactly. Meantime the +ex-soldiers made an open demonstration, because he was so far separated +from them, and he began to fear that if they got a leader they might do +some damage. + +[B.C. 30 (_a. u._ 724)] + +Consequently he assigned to others the task of searching for Antony, and +hurried to Italy himself, in the middle of the winter of the year that he +was holding office for the fourth time, with Marcus Crassus. The latter, +in spite of having been attached to the cause of Sextus and of Antony, +was then his fellow consul without having even passed through the +praetorship. Caesar came, then, to Brundusium but progressed no farther. +The senate on ascertaining that his boat was Hearing Italy went there +to meet him, save the tribunes and two praetors, who by decree stayed at +home; and the class of knights as well as the majority of the people +and still others, some represented by embassy and many as voluntary +followers, came together there, so that there was no further sign of +rebellion on the part of any one, so brilliant was his arrival, and so +enthusiastic over him were the masses. They, too, some through fear, +others through hopes, others obeying a summons, had come to Brundusium. +To certain of them Caesar gave money, but to the rest who had been the +constant companions of his campaigns, he assigned land also. By turning +the townspeople in Italy who had sided with Antony out of their homes he +was able to grant to his soldiers their cities and their farms. To most +of the outcasts from the settlements he granted permission in turn to +dwell in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere. To the remainder he either +distributed or promised money for their land. Though he had now acquired +great sums by his victory, he was spending still more. For this reason +he advertised in the public market his own possessions and those of his +companions, in order that any one who desired to buy or claim any of them +might do so. Nothing was sold, however, and nothing repaid. Who, pray, +would have dared to undertake to do either? But he secured by this means +a reasonable excuse for a delay in carrying out his offers, and later he +discharged the debt out of the spoils of the Egyptians. + +[-5-] He settled this and the rest of the urgent business, and gave to +such as had received a kind of semi-amnesty the right to live in Italy, +not before permitted. After this he forgave the populace left behind +in Rome for not having come to him, and on the thirtieth day after his +arrival set sail again for Greece. In the midst of winter he dragged his +ships across the isthmus of the Peloponnesus and got back to Asia +so quickly that Antony and Cleopatra received each piece of news +simultaneously,--that he had departed and that he had returned. They, +on fleeing from the naval battle, had gone as far as the Peloponnesus +together. From there they sent away some of their associates,--all, in +fact, whom they suspected,--while many withdrew against their will, and +Cleopatra hastened to Egypt, for fear that her subjects might perhaps +revolt, if they heard of the disaster before her coming. In order to +make her approach safe, at any rate, she crowned her prows, as a sign +of conquest, with garlands, and had some songs of victory sung by +flute-players. When she reached safety, she murdered many of the foremost +men, who had ever been restless under her rule and were now in a state +of excitement at her disaster. From their estates and from various +repositories hallowed and sacred she gathered a vast store of wealth, +sparing not even the most revered of consecrated treasures. She fitted +out her forces and looked about for possible alliances. The Armenian king +she killed and sent his head to the Median, who might be influenced by +this act, she thought, to aid them. As for Antony, he sailed to Pinarius +Scarpus in Libya, and to the army previously collected under him there +for the protection of Egypt. This general, however, would[69] not receive +him and also slew the first men that Antony sent, besides destroying some +of the soldiers under his command who showed displeasure at this act. +Then Antony, too, proceeded to Alexandria, having accomplished nothing. + +[-6-] Now among the other preparations that they made for speedy warfare +they enrolled among the ephebi their sons, Cleopatra Caesarion and Antony +Antyllus, who was borne to him by Fulvia and was then with him. Their +purpose was to arouse interest among the Egyptians, who would feel that +they already had a man for king, and that the rest might recognize these +children as their lords, in case any untoward accident should happen to +the parents, and so continue the struggle. This proved the lads' undoing. +For Caesar, on the ground that they were men and held a certain form +of sovereignty, spared neither of them. But to return: the two were +preparing to wage war in Egypt with ships and infantry, and to this end +they called also upon the neighboring tribes and the kings that were +friendly to them. Nor did they relax their readiness also to sail to +Spain, if there should be urgent need, believing that they could alienate +the inhabitants of that land by their money if nothing more, and again +they thought of transferring the seat of the conflict to the Red Sea. To +the end that while engaged in these plans they might escape observation +for the longest possible time or deceive Caesar in some way or slay him by +treachery, they despatched men who carried letters to him in regard to +peace, but money for his followers. Meantime, also, unknown to Antony, +Cleopatra sent to him a golden scepter and a golden crown and the royal +throne, through which she signified that she delivered the government +to him. He might hate Antony, if he would only take pity on her. Caesar +accepted the gifts as a good omen, but made no answer to Antony. To +Cleopatra he forwarded publicly threatening messages and an announcement +that if she would renounce the use of arms and her sovereignty, he would +deliberate what ought to be done in her case. Secretly he sent word that, +if she would kill Antony, he would grant her pardon and leave her empire +unmolested. + +[-7-] While these negotiations were going on, the Arabians, influenced by +Quintus Didius, the governor of Syria, burned the ships which had been +built in the Arabian Gulf for the voyage to the Red Sea, and all the +peoples and the potentates refused their assistance. And it occurs to me +to wonder that many others also, though they had received many gifts from +Antony and Cleopatra, now left them in the lurch. The men, however, of +lowest rank who were being supported for gladiatorial combats showed +the utmost zeal in their behalf and contended most bravely. These were +practicing in Cyzicus for the triumphal games which they were expecting +to hold in honor of Caesar's overthrow, and as soon as they were made +aware of what had taken place, they set out for Egypt with the intention +of aiding their superiors. Many were their contests with Amyntas in Gaul, +and many with the children of Tarcondimotus in Cilicia, who had been +their strongest friends but now in view of the changed circumstances +had gone over to the other side; and many were their struggles against +Didius, who hindered them while passing through. They proved unable, +after all, to make their way to Egypt. Yet even when they had been +encompassed on all sides, not even then would they accept any terms of +surrender, though Didius made them many promises. They sent for Antony, +feeling that they could fight with him better in Syria: then, when he +neither came himself nor sent them any message, they decided that he had +perished, and reluctantly made terms with the condition that they should +never take part in a gladiatorial show. They received from Didius Daphne, +the suburb of Antioch, to dwell in, until the matter was called to +Caesar's attention. Then they were tricked (somewhat later) by Messala and +were sent in different directions under the pretext that they were to be +enlisted in different legions and were in some convenient way destroyed. + +[-8-] When Antony and Cleopatra heard from the envoys the commands which +Caesar issued regarding them, they sent to him again. The queen promised +that she would give him large amounts of money. Antony reminded him of +their friendship and kinship, and also made a defence of his association +with the Egyptian woman; he enumerated the occasions on which they had +helped each other gain the objects of their loves,[70] and all the wanton +pranks in which they two had shared as young men. Finally he surrendered +to him Publius Turullius, a senator, who had been an assassin of Caesar, +but was then living with him as a friend. He actually offered to commit +suicide, if in that way Cleopatra might be saved. Caesar put Turullius +to death; it happened that this man had cut wood for the fleet from the +forest of Asclepius in Cos, and by his punishment in the same place he +was thought to have paid the penalty to the god. But to Antony Caesar did +not even then answer a word. The latter consequently despatched a third +embassy, sending him his son Antyllus with considerable gold coin. His +rival accepted the money, but sent the boy back empty-handed and gave him +no answer. To Cleopatra, however, as the first time so the second and the +third time he sent many threats and promises alike. Yet he was afraid, +even so, that they might despair of in any way obtaining pardon from him +and so hold out, and that they would survive by their own efforts, or set +sail for Spain and Gaul, or destroy the money, the bulk of which he +heard was immense. Cleopatra had gathered it all in the monument she was +constructing in the palace; and she threatened to burn all of it with +her, in case she should miss the smallest of her demands. Octavius sent +therefore Thyrsus, a freedman of his, to speak to her kindly in every way +and to tell her further that it so happened that he was in love with her. +He hoped at least by this means, since she thought she had the power to +arouse passion in all mankind, that he might remove Antony from the scene +and keep her and her money intact. And so it proved. + +[-9-] Before quite all this had occurred Antony learned that Cornelius +Gallus had taken charge of Scarpus's army and with the men had suddenly +marched upon Paxaetonium and occupied it. Hence, though he wished to set +out and follow the summons of the gladiators, he did not go into Syria. +He proceeded against Gallus, believing that he could certainly win over +his soldiers without effort; they had been with him on campaigns and were +well disposed. At any rate he could subdue them by main strength, since +he was leading a large force both of ships and of infantry upon them. +However, he found himself unable even to hold converse with them, +although he approached their wall and shouted and hallooed. For Gallus by +ordering his trumpeters to sound their instruments all together gave no +one a chance to hear a word. Antony further failed in a sudden assault +and subsequently met a reverse with his ships. Gallus by night had chains +stretched across the mouth of the harbor under water and took no open +measures to guard against them but quite disdainfully allowed them to +sail freely in. When, however, they were inside, he drew up the chains by +means of machines and encompassing his opponent's ships on all sides,--on +land, from the houses, and on the sea,--he burned some and sank others. +The next event was that Caesar took Pelusium, pretendedly by storm, but +really betrayed by Cleopatra. She saw that no one came to her aid and +perceived that Caesar was not to be withstood; most important of all, +she heard the message sent to her by Thyrsus, and believed that she was +really the object of affection. Her confidence was strengthened first +of all by her wish that it be true, and second by the fact that she had +enslaved his father and Antony alike. As a result she expected that she +should gain not only forgiveness and sovereignty over the Egyptians, but +empire over the Romans as well. At once she yielded Pelusium to him. +After this, when he marched against the city, she secretly prevented the +Alexandrians from making a sortie, though she pretended to urge them +strongly to do so. + +[-10-] At the news about Pelusium Antony returned from Paraetonium and in +front of Alexandria met Caesar, who was exhausted from travel; he joined +battle with him, therefore, with his cavalry and was victorious. From +this success Antony gained courage, as also from his being able to shoot +arrows into his rival's camp carrying pamphlets which promised the men +fifteen hundred denarii; so he attacked also with his infantry and was +defeated. Caesar himself voluntarily read the pamphlets to his soldiers, +reproaching Antony the while, and led them to feel ashamed of treachery +and to acquire enthusiasm in his behalf. They gained by this in zeal, +both through indignation at being tempted and through their attempt to +show that they would not willingly gain a reputation for baseness. Antony +after his unexpected setback took refuge in his fleet and prepared to +have a combat on the water, or in any case to sail to Spain. Cleopatra +seeing this caused the ships to desert and she herself rushed suddenly +into the mausoleum pretending that she feared Caesar and desired by some +means to destroy herself before capture, but really as an invitation to +Antony to enter there also. He had an inkling that he was being betrayed, +but his infatuation would not allow him to believe it, and, as one might +say, he pitied her more than himself. Cleopatra was fully aware of this +and hoped that if he should be informed that she was dead, he would not +prolong his life but meet death at once. Accordingly, she hastened into +the monument with one eunuch and two female attendants and from there +sent a message to him to the effect that she had passed away. When he +heard it, he did not delay, but was seized with a desire to follow her in +death. Then first he asked one of the bystanders to slay him, but the +man drew a sword and despatched himself. Wishing to imitate his courage +Antony gave himself a wound and fell upon his face, causing the +bystanders to think that he was dead. An outcry was raised at his deed, +and Cleopatra hearing it leaned out over the top of the monument. By a +certain contrivance its doors once closed could not be opened again, but +above, near the ceiling, it had not yet been completed. That was where +they saw her leaning out and some began to utter shouts that reached the +ears of Antony. He, learning that she survived, stood up as if he had +still the power to live; but a great gush of blood from his wound made +him despair of rescue and he besought those present to carry him to the +monument and to hoist him by the ropes that were hanging there to elevate +stone blocks. This was done and he died there on Cleopatra's bosom. + +[-11-] She now began to feel confidence in Caesar and immediately made him +aware of what had taken place, but did not feel altogether confident +that she would experience no harm. Hence she kept herself within the +structure, in order that if there should be no other motive for her +preservation, she might at least purchase pardon and her sovereignty +through fear about her money. Even then in such depths of calamity she +remembered that she was queen, and chose rather to die with the name and +dignities of a sovereign than to live as an ordinary person. It should +be stated that she kept fire on hand to use upon her money and asps and +other reptiles to use upon herself, and that she had tried the latter +on human beings to see in what way they killed in each case. Caesar was +anxious to make himself master of her treasures, to seize her alive, and +to take her back for his triumph. However, as he had given her a kind +of pledge, he did not wish to appear to have acted personally as an +impostor, since this would prevent him from treating her as a captive and +to a certain extent subdued against her will. He therefore sent to her +Gaius Proculeius, a knight, and Epaphroditus, a freedman, giving them +directions what they must say and do. So they obtained an audience with +Cleopatra and after some accusations of a mild type suddenly laid hold +of her before any decision was reached. Then they put out of her way +everything by which she could bring death upon herself and allowed her +to spend some days where she was, since the embalming of Antony's body +claimed her attention. After that they took her to the palace, but did +not remove any of her accustomed retinue or attendants, to the end that +she should still more hope to accomplish her wishes and do no harm to +herself. When she expressed a desire to appear before Caesar and converse +with him, it was granted; and to beguile her still more, he promised that +he would come to her himself. + +[-12-] She accordingly prepared a luxurious apartment and costly couch, +and adorned herself further in a kind of careless fashion,--for her +mourning garb mightily became her,--and seated herself upon the couch; +beside her she had placed many images of his father, of all sorts, and in +her bosom she had put all the letters that his father had sent her. When, +after this, Caesar entered, she hastily arose, blushing, and said: "Hail, +master, Heaven has given joy to you and taken it from me. But you see +with your own eyes your father in the guise in which he often visited me, +and you may hear how he honored me in various ways and made me queen of +the Egyptians. That you may learn what were his own words about me, take +and read the missives which he sent me with his own hand." + +As she spoke thus, she read aloud many endearing expressions of his. And +now she would lament and caress the letters and again fall before his +images and do them reverence. She kept turning her eyes toward Caesar, and +melodiously continued to bewail her fate. She spoke in melting tones, +saying at one time, "Of what avail, Caesar, are these your letters? ," and +at another, "But in the man before me you also are alive for me." Then +again, "Would that I had died before you! ," and still again, "But if I +have him, I have you!" + +Some such diversity both of words and of gestures did she employ, at the +same time gazing at and murmuring to him sweetly. Caesar comprehended her +outbreak of passion and appeal for sympathy. Yet he did not pretend to do +so, but letting his eyes rest upon the ground, he said only this: "Be of +cheer, woman, and keep a good heart, for no harm shall befall you." She +was distressed that he would neither look at her nor breathe a word about +the kingdom or any sigh of love, and fell at his knees wailing: "Life for +me, Caesar, is neither desirable nor possible. This favor I beseech of you +in memory of your father,--that since Heaven gave me to Antony after him, +I may also die with my lord. Would that I had perished on the very instant +after Caesar's death! But since this present fate was my destiny, send me +to Antony: grudge me not burial with him, that as I die because of him, so +in Hades also I may dwell with him." + +[-13-] Such words she uttered expecting to obtain commiseration: Caesar, +however, made no answer to it. Fearing, however, that she might make away +with herself he exhorted her again to be of good cheer, did not remove +any of her attendants, and kept a careful watch upon her, that she might +add brilliance to his triumph. Suspecting this, and regarding it as worse +than innumerable deaths, she began to desire really to die and begged +Caesar frequently that she might be allowed to perish in some way, and +devised many plans by herself. When she could accomplish nothing, she +feigned to change her mind and to repose great hope in him, as well as +great hope in Livia. She said she would sail voluntarily and made ready +many treasured adornments as gifts. In this way she hoped to inspire +confidence that she had no designs upon herself, and so be more free from +scrutiny and bring about her destruction. This also took place. The other +officials and Epaphroditus, to whom she had been committed, believed +that her state of mind was really as it seemed, and neglected to keep +a careful watch. She, meanwhile, was making preparations to die as +painlessly as possible. First she gave a sealed paper, in which she +begged Caesar to order that she be buried beside Antony, to Epaphroditus +himself to deliver, pretending that it contained some other matter. +Having by this excuse freed herself of his presence, she set to her task. +She put on her most beauteous apparel and after choosing a most becoming +pose, assumed all the royal robes and appurtenances, and so died. + +[-14-] No one knows clearly in what manner she perished, for there were +found merely slight indentations on her arm. Some say that she applied +an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar or among some +flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a needle, with which she was +wont to braid her hair, with some poison possessed of such properties +that it would not injure the surface of the body at all, but if it +touched the least drop of blood it caused death very quickly and +painlessly. The supposition is, then, that previously it had been her +custom to wear it in her hair, and on this occasion after first making a +small scratch on her arm with some instrument, she dipped the needle in +the blood. In this or some very similar way she perished with her two +handmaidens. The eunuch, at the moment her body was taken up, presented +himself voluntarily to the serpents, and after being bitten by them +leaped into a coffin which had been prepared by him. Caesar on hearing of +her demise was shocked, and both viewed her body and applied drugs to +it and sent for Psylli,[71] in the hope that she might possibly revive. +These Psylli, who are male, for there is no woman born in their tribe, +have the power of sucking out before a person dies all the poison of +every reptile and are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such +creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their +offspring, the latter being thrown among serpents at once or having +serpents laid upon their swaddling-clothes. In such cases the poisonous +creatures do not harm the child and are benumbed by its clothing. This +is the nature of their function. But Caesar, when he could not in any way +resuscitate Cleopatra, felt admiration and pity for her and was himself +excessively grieved, as much as if he had been deprived of all the glory +of the victory. + +[-15-] So Antony and Cleopatra, who had been the authors of many evils +to the Egyptians and to the Romans, thus fought and thus met death. They +were embalmed in the same fashion and buried in the same tomb. Their +spiritual qualities and the fortunes of their lives deserve a word of +comment. + +Antony had no superior in comprehending his duty, yet he committed many +acts of folly. He was distinguished for his bravery in some cases, yet he +often failed through cowardice. He was characterized equally by greatness +of soul and a servile disposition of mind. He would plunder the property +of others, and still relinquish his own. He pitied many without cause and +chastised even a greater number unjustly. + +Consequently, though he rose from weakness to great strength, and from +the depths of poverty to great riches, he drew no profit from either +circumstance, but whereas he had hoped to hold the Roman power alone, he +actually killed himself. + +Cleopatra was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice, was ambitious +for renown, and most scornfully bold. By the influence of love she won +dominion over the Egyptians, and hoped to attain a similar position over +the Romans, but being disappointed of this she destroyed herself also. +She captivated two of the men who were the greatest Romans of her day, +and because of the third she committed suicide. + +Such were these two persons, and in this way did they pass from the +scene. Of their children Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was +betrothed to the daughter of Caesar, and had taken refuge in his father's +hero-shrine which Cleopatra had built. Caesarion was fleeing to Ethiopia, +but was overtaken on the road and murdered. Cleopatra was married to Juba +the son of Juba. To this man, who had been brought up in Italy and +had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave the maid and her ancestral +kingdom, and he granted them the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. To his +nieces, children of Antony by Octavia and reared by her, he assigned +money from their father's estate. He also ordered his freedmen to give at +once to Iullus, the child of Antony and Fulvia, everything which by law +they were obliged to bequeath him at their death. [-16-] As for the rest +who had until then been connected with Antony's cause, he punished some +and released others, either from personal motives or to oblige his +friends. And since there were found at the court many children of +potentates and kings who were being supported, some as hostages and +others for the display of wanton power, he sent some back to their homes, +joined others in marriage with one another, and kept possession of still +others. I shall omit most of these cases and mention only two. He freely +restored Iotape to the Median king, who had found an asylum with him +after the defeat, but refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be +sent him, because this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in +Armenia. This was the disposition he made of such captives. + +The Egyptians and Alexandrians were all spared, and Caesar did not injure +one of them. The truth was that he did not see fit to visit any extreme +vengeance upon so great a people, who might prove very useful to the +Romans in many ways. He nevertheless offered the pretext that he wished +to please their god Serapis, Alexander their founder, and, third, Areus +a citizen, who was a philosopher and enjoyed his society. The speech in +which he proclaimed to them his pardon he spoke in Greek, so that they +might understand him. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and also +touched it, at which a piece of the nose, it is said, was crushed. But he +would not go to see the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians +were extremely anxious to show them, for he said: "I wanted to see a +king, and not corpses." For the same reason he would not enter the +presence of Apis, declaring that he was "accustomed to worship gods and +not cattle." [-17-] Soon after he made Egypt tributary and gave it in +charge of Cornelius Gallus. In view of the populousness of both cities +and country, and the facile, fickle character of the inhabitants, and the +importance of grain supplies and revenue, so far from daring to entrust +the land to any senator he would not even grant one permission to live in +it, unless he made the concession to some one _nominatim_. On the other +hand, he did not allow the Egyptians to be senators in Rome, but +after considering individual cases on their merits he commanded the +Alexandrians to conduct their government without senators; with such +capacity for revolution did he credit them. And of the system then +imposed upon them most details are rigorously preserved to the present +day, but there are senators in Alexandria, beginning first under the +emperor Severus, and they also may serve in Rome, having first been +enrolled in the senate in the reign of his son Antoninus. + +Thus was Egypt enslaved. All of the inhabitants who resisted were subdued +after a time, as, indeed, Heaven very clearly indicated to them would +occur. For it rained not only water, where previously no drop had ever +fallen, but also blood. At the same time that this was falling from the +clouds glimpses were caught of armor. Elsewhere there was the clashing of +drums and cymbals and the notes of flutes and trumpets. A serpent of huge +size was suddenly seen and gave a hiss incredibly loud. Meanwhile comet +stars came frequently into view and ghosts of the dead took shape. The +statues frowned: Apis bellowed a lament and shed tears. Such was the +status of things in that respect. + +In the palace quantities of money were found. Cleopatra had taken +practically all the offerings from even the holiest shrines and so helped +to swell the spoils of the Romans, while the latter on their own part +incurred no defilement. Large sums were also obtained from every man +under accusation. More than that, all the rest against whom no personal +complaint could be brought had two-thirds of their property demanded of +them. Out of this all the soldiers got what was still owing to them, and +those who were with Caesar at that time secured in addition two hundred +and fifty denarii apiece for not plundering the city. All was made good +to those who had previously loaned anything, and to both senators and +knights who had taken part in the war great sums were given. In fine, the +Roman empire was enriched and its temples adorned. + +[-18-] After attending to the matters before mentioned Caesar founded +there also on the site of the battle a city and gave to it likewise a +name and dedicatory games, as in the previous instance. In regard to the +canals he cleared out some of them and dug others over again, and he also +settled important questions. Then he went through Syria into the province +of Asia and passed the winter there attending to the business of the +subject nations in detail and likewise to that of the Parthians. There +had been disputes among them and a certain Tiridates had risen against +Phraates; as long as Antony's opposition lasted, even after the naval +battle, Caesar had not only not attached himself to either side, though +they sought his alliance, but made no other answer than that he would +think it over. His excuse was that he was busy with Egypt, but in reality +he wanted them meantime to exhaust themselves by fighting against each +other. Now that Antony was dead and of the two combatants Tiridates, +defeated, had taken refuge in Syria, and Phraates, victorious, had sent +envoys, he negotiated with the latter in a friendly manner: and without +promising to aid Tiridates, he allowed him to live in Syria. He received +a son of Phraates as a mark of friendliness, and took the youth to Rome, +where he kept him as a hostage. + +[-19-] Meanwhile, and still earlier, the Romans at home had passed many +resolutions respecting the victory at sea. They granted Caesar a triumph +(over Cleopatra) and granted him an arch bearing a trophy at Brundusium, +and another one in the Roman Forum. Moreover, the lower part of the +Julian hero-shrine was to be adorned with the beaks of the captive ships +and a festival every five years to be celebrated in his honor. There +should be a thanksgiving on his birthday and on the anniversary of the +announcement of the victory: when he entered the city the (vestal virgin) +priestesses, the senate and the people, with their wives and children, +were to meet him. It is quite superfluous to mention the prayers, the +images, the privileges of front seats, and everything else of the sort. +At the very first they both voted him these honors, and either tore down +or erased the memorials that had lent Antony distinction. They declared +the day on which the latter had been born accursed and forbade the +employment of the surname Marcus by any one of his kin. His death was +announced during a part of the year when Cicero, the son of Cicero, was +consul; and on ascertaining this some believed it had come to pass not +without divine direction, since the consul's father had owed his death +chiefly to Antony. Then they voted to Caesar additional crowns and many +thanksgivings, and granted him among other rights authority to conduct a +triumph over the Egyptians also. For neither previously nor at that time +did they mention by name Antony and the rest of the Romans who had +been vanquished with him, and so imply that it was proper to hold a +celebration over them. The day on which Alexandria was captured they +declared fortunate and directed that for the years to come it should be +taken as the starting-point of enumeration by the inhabitants of that +town.[72] Also Caesar was to hold the tribunician power for life, to have +the right to defend such as called upon him for help both within the +pomerium and outside to the distance of eight half-stadia (a privilege +possessed by none of the tribunes), as also to judge appealed cases; and +a vote of his, like the vote of Athena,[73] was to be cast in all the +courts. In the prayers in behalf of the people and the senate petitions +should be offered for him alike by the priests and by the priestesses. +They also ordered that at all banquets, not only public but private also, +all should pour a libation to him. These were the resolutions passed at +that time. + +[B.C. 29 (_a. u._ 725)] + +[-20-] When he was consul for the fifth time with Sextus Apuleius, they +ratified all his acts by oath on the very first day of January. And when +the letter came regarding the Parthians, they decreed that he should +have a place in hymns along with the gods, that a tribe should be named +"Julian" after him, that he should wear the triumphal crown during the +progress of all the festivals, that the senators who had participated in +his victory should take part in the procession wearing purple-bordered +togas, and that the day on which he should enter the city should be +glorified by sacrifices by the entire population and be held ever sacred. +They further agreed that he might choose priests beyond the specified +number, as many and as often as he should wish. This custom was handed +down from that decision and the numbers have increased till they are +boundless: hence I need go into no particulars about the multitude of +such officials. Caesar accepted most of the honors (save only a few): +but that all the population of the city should meet him he particularly +requested might not occur. Yet he was pleased most of all and more than +at all the other decrees by the fact that the senators closed the gates +of Janus, implying that all their wars had ceased,--and took the "augury +of health," [74] which had all this period been omitted for reasons I have +mentioned. For there were still under arms the Treveri, who had brought +the Celts to help them, the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. These last +were subjugated by Statilius Taurus, and those first mentioned by Nonius +Gallus. There were numerous other disturbances going on in the isolated +districts. Since, however, nothing of importance resulted from any of +them, the Romans of that time did not consider that war was in progress +and I have nothing notable to record about them. Caesar meanwhile was +giving his attention to various business, and granted permission that +precincts dedicated to Rome and to Caesar his father,--calling him "the +Julian hero,"--should be set apart in Ephesus and in Nicaea. These +cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and in Bithynia +respectively. To these two divinities he ordered the Romans who dwelt +near them to pay honor. He allowed the foreigners (under the name of +"Hellenes") to establish a precinct to himself,--the Asians having +theirs in Pergamum and the Bithynians theirs in Nicomedea. This custom, +beginning with him, has continued in the case of other emperors, and +imperial precincts have been hallowed not only among Hellenic nations +but in all the rest which yield obedience to the Romans. In the capital +itself and in the rest of Italy there is no one, however, no matter how +great renown he has achieved, that has dared to do this. Still, even +there, after their death, honors as to gods are bestowed upon those who +have ruled uprightly, and hero-shrines are built. + +[-21-] All this took place in the winter, during which the Pergamenians +also received authority to celebrate the so-called "Sacred" contest in +honor of his temple. In the course of the summer Caesar crossed over to +Greece and on to Italy. Among the others who offered sacrifice, as +has been mentioned, when he entered the City, was the consul Valerius +Potitus. Caesar was consul all the year, as the two previous, but Potitus +was the successor of Sextus. It was he who publicly and in person +sacrificed oxen in behalf of the senate and of the people at Caesar's +arrival, something that had never before been done in the case of any +single man. After this his newly returned colleague praised and honored +his lieutenants, as had been the custom. Among the many marks of favor by +which Caesar distinguished Agrippa was the dark blue symbol[75] of naval +supremacy. To his soldiers also he made certain presents: to the people +he distributed a hundred denarii each, first to those ranking as adults, +and afterward to the children as a mark of his affection for his nephew +Marcellus. Further let it be noted that he would not accept from the +cities of Italy the gold to be used for the crowns. Moreover he paid +everything which he himself owed to any one and, as has been said, he did +not exact what the others were owing to him. All this caused the Romans +to forget every unpleasantness, and they viewed his triumph with +pleasure, quite as if the defeated parties had all been foreigners. So +vast an amount of money circulated through all the city alike that the +price of goods rose and loans which had previously been in demand at +twelve per cent. were now made at one-third that rate. The celebration +on the first day was in honor of the wars against the Pannonians and +Dalmatians, Iapudia and adjoining territory, and a few Celts and Gauls. +Graius Carrinas had subdued the Morini and some others who had risen +against Roman dominion, and had repulsed the Suevi, who had crossed the +Rhine to wage war. Therefore he too held a triumph, in spite of the fact +that his father had been put to death by Sulla and he himself had once +been prevented from holding office with the rest of his peers. Caesar +also held one since the credit of this victory properly pertained to his +position as imperator. + +These were the celebrations on the first day. On the second came the +commemoration of the naval victory at Actium; on the third that of the +subjugation of Egypt. All the processions proved notable by reason of the +spoils from this land,--so many had been gathered that they sufficed for +all the occasions,--but this Egyptian celebration was especially costly +and magnificent. Among other features a representation of Cleopatra upon +the bed of death was carried by, so that in a way she too was seen with +the other captives, and with Alexander, otherwise Helios, and Cleopatra, +otherwise Selene, her children, and helped to grace the triumph. Behind +them all Caesar came driving and did everything according to custom except +that he allowed his fellow-consul and the other magistrates, contrary +to custom, to follow him with the senators who had participated in the +victory. It had been usual for such dignitaries to lead and for only the +senators to follow.[76] + +[-22-] After completing this, he dedicated the temple of Minerva, called +also the Chalcidicum, and the Julian senate-house, which had been built +in honor of his father.[77] In it he set up the statue of Victory which +is still in existence, probably signifying that it was from her that he +had received his dominion. It belonged to the Tarentini, and had been +brought from there to Rome, where it was placed in the senate-chamber and +decked with the spoils of Egypt. The spoils were also employed at this +time for adorning the Julian hero-shrine, when it was consecrated. Many +of them were placed as offerings in it and others were dedicated to +Capitoline Jupiter and Juno and Minerva, while all the votive gifts that +were thought to have previously reposed there or were still reposing were +now by decree taken down as defiled. Thus Cleopatra, although defeated +and captured, was nevertheless glorified, because her adornments repose +in our temples and she herself is seen in gold in the shrine of Venus. + +At the consecration of the hero-shrine there were all sorts of contests, +and the children of the nobles performed the Troy equestrian exercise. +Men who were their peers also contended on chargers and pairs and +three-horse teams. A certain Quintus Vitellius, a senator, fought as a +gladiator. All kinds of wild beasts and kine were slain by the wholesale, +among them a rhinoceros and a hippopotamus, then seen for the first time +in Rome. Many have described the appearance of the hippo and it has been +seen by many more. As for the rhinoceros, it is in most respects like +an elephant, but has a projecting horn at the very tip of its nose and +through this fact has received its name. Besides the introduction of +these beasts Dacians and Suebi fought in throngs with each other. The +latter are Celts, the former a species of Scythian. The Suebi, to be +exact, dwell across the Rhine (though many cities elsewhere claim their +name), and the Dacians on both sides of the Ister. Such of them, however, +as live on this side of it and near the Triballic country are reckoned in +with the district of Moesia and are called Moesi save among those who +are in the very neighborhood. Such as are on the other side are called +Dacians, and are either a branch of the Getae or Thracians belonging to +the Dacian race that once inhabited Rhodope. Now these Dacians had before +this time sent envoys to Caesar: but when they obtained none of their +requests, they turned away to follow Antony. To him, however, they were +of no great assistance, owing to disputes among themselves. Some were +consequently captured and later set to fight the Suebi. + +The whole spectacle lasted naturally a number of days. There was no +intermission in spite of a sickness of Caesar's, but it was carried on +in his absence, under the direction of others. During its course the +senators on one day severally held banquets in the entrance to their +homes. Of what moved them to this I have no knowledge, for it has not +been recorded. Such was the progress of the events of those days. + +[-23-] While Caesar was yet in his fourth consulship Statilius Taurus had +both constructed at his own expense and dedicated with armed combat a +hunting-theatre of stone on the Campus Martius. On this account he was +permitted by the people to choose one of the praetors year after year. +During this same period Marcus Crassus was sent into Macedonia and Greece +and carried on war with the Dacians and Bastarnae. It has already been +stated who the former were and how they had been made hostile. The +Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians and at this time had crossed +the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them, then the Triballi +who live near it, and the Dardani who inhabit the Triballian country. +While they were so engaged they had no trouble with the Romans. But when +they crossed the Haemus and overran the portion of Thrace belonging to the +Dentheleti who had a compact with Rome, then Crassus, partly to defend +Sitas king of the Dentheleti, who was blind, but chiefly because of fear +for Macedonia, came out to meet them. By his mere approach, he threw them +into a panic and drove them from the land without a conflict. Next he +pursued them, as they were retiring homeward, gained possession of the +district called Segetica, and invading Moesia damaged that territory. He +made an assault upon a strong fortification, also, and though his advance +line met with a rebuff,--the Moesians making a sally against it, because +they thought these were all of the enemy,--still, when he came to the +rescue with his whole remaining army he both cut his opponents down in +open fight and annihilated them by an ambuscade. + +[-24-] While he was thus engaged, the Bastarnae ceased their flight and +remained near the Cedrus[78] river to watch what would take place. When, +after conquering the Moesians, the Roman general started against them, +they sent envoys forbidding him to pursue them, since they had done the +Romans no harm. Crassus detained them, saying he would give them their +answer the following day, and besides treating them kindly he made them +drunk, so that he learned all their plans. The whole Scythian race is +insatiable in the use of wine and quickly succumbs to its influence. +Crassus meanwhile, during the night, advanced to a wood, and after +stationing scouts in front of the forest made his army stop there. +Thereupon the Bastarnae, thinking the former were alone, made a charge +upon them, following them up also when the men retreated into the dense +forest, and many of the pursuers perished there as well as many others in +the flight which followed were obstructed by their wagons, which were +behind them, and owed their defeat further to their desire to save their +wives and children. Their king Deldo was slam by Crassus himself. The +armor stripped from the prince he would have dedicated as spolia opima +to Jupiter Feretrius, had he been a general acting on his own authority. +Such was the course of that engagement: of the remainder some took refuge +in a grove, which was set on fire all around, and others leaped into a +fort, where they were annihilated. Still others perished, either by being +driven into the Ister or after being scattered through the country. Some +survived even yet and occupied a strong post where Crassus besieged them +in vain for several days. Then with the aid of Roles, king of some of the +Getae, he destroyed them. Roles when he visited Caesar was treated as a +friend and ally for this assistance: the captives were distributed to the +soldiers. + +[-25-] After accomplishing this Crassus turned his attention to the +Moesians; and partly by persuading some of them, partly by scaring them, +and partly by the application of force he subjugated all except a very +few, though with labor and danger. Temporarily, owing to the winter, he +retired into friendly territory after suffering greatly from the cold, +and still more at the hands of the Thracians, through whose country, as +friendly, he was returning. Hence he decided to be satisfied with what +he had effected. For sacrifices and a triumph had been voted not only to +Caesar but to him also, though, according at least to some accounts, he +did not secure the title of imperator, but Caesar alone might apply it to +himself. The Bastarnae, however, angry at their disasters, on learning +that he would make no further campaigns against them turned again upon +the Dentheleti and Sitas, whom they regarded as having been the chief +cause of their evils. Then Crassus, though reluctantly, took the field +and by forced marches fell upon them unexpectedly, conquered, and +thereafter imposed such terms as he pleased. Now that he had once taken +up arms again he conceived a desire to recompense the Thracians, who had +harassed him during his retreat from Moesia; for news was brought at this +time that they were fortifying positions and were spoiling for a fight. +And he did subdue them, though not without effort, by conquering in +battle the Merdi and the Serdi and cutting off the hands of the captives. +He overran the rest of the country except the land of the Odrysae. These +he spared because they are attached to the service of Dionysus, and had +come to meet him on this occasion without arms. Also he granted them the +piece of land in which they magnify the god, and took it away from the +Bessi, who were occupying it. + +[-26-] While he was so occupied he received a summons from Roles, who had +become embroiled with Dapyx, himself also a king of the Getae. Crassus +went to help him and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon +the infantry he thoroughly terrified the latter, so that he carried the +battle no further but caused a great slaughter of the fugitives of both +divisions. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and +besieged him. During the investment some one from the walls saluted him +in Greek, and upon obtaining an audience arranged to betray the place. +The barbarians caught in this way turned upon one another, and Dapyx was +killed, besides many others. His brother, however, Crassus took alive and +not only did him no harm, but released him. + +At the close of this exploit he led his army against the cave called +Keiri. The natives in great numbers had occupied this place, which is +extremely large and so very strong that the tradition obtains that the +Titans after the defeat administered to them by the gods took refuge +there. Here the people had brought together all their flocks and their +other principal valuables. Crassus after finding all its entrances, which +are crooked and hard to search out, walled them up, and in this way +subjugated the men by famine. Upon this success he did not keep his hands +from the rest of the Getae, though they had nothing to do with Dapyx. He +marched upon Genoucla, the most strongly defended fortress of the kingdom +of Zuraxes, because he heard that the standards which the Bastarnae had +taken from Gaius Antonius near the city of the Istriani were there. His +assault was made both with the infantry and upon the Ister,--the city +being near the water,--and in a short time, though with much labor in +spite of the absence of Zuraxes, he took the place. The king as soon as +he heard of the Roman's approach had set off with money to the Scythians +to seek an alliance, and did not return in time. + +This he did among the Getae. Some of the Moesians who had been subdued +rose in revolt, and them he won back by the energy of others: [-27-] he +himself led a campaign against the Artacii and a few other tribes who +had never been captured and would not acknowledge his authority, priding +themselves greatly on this point and imbuing the rest with both anger and +a disposition to rebel. He brought them to terms partly by force, as +they did but little, and partly by the fear which the capture of some +inspired. This took a long time. I record the names, as the facts, +according to the tradition which has been handed down. Anciently Moesians +and Getae occupied all the land between the Haemus and the Ister. As time +went on some of them changed their names to something else. Since then +there have been included under the name of Moesia all the tribes which +the Savus by emptying into the Ister north of Dalmatia, Macedonia and +Thrace, separates from Pannonia. Two of the many nations found among +them are the Triballi, once so named, and the Dardani, who have the same +designation at present. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: The events, however, run over into the following year.] + +[Footnote 2: Interesting to compare are three citations from an unknown +Byzantine writer (in Excerpta cod. Paris, suppl. Gr. 607 A, edited by M. +Treu, Ohlau, 1880, p. 29 ff.), who seems to have used Dio as a source: + +a) The mother of Augustus just one day previous to her travail beheld in +a dream how her womb was snatched away and carried up into heaven. + +b) And in the same night as Octavius was born his father thought that the +sun rose from his wife's entrails. + +c) And a certain senator, Nigidius Figulus, who was an astrologer, asked +Octavius, the father of Augustus, why he was so slow in leaving his +house. The latter replied that a son had been born to him. Nigidius +thereupon exclaimed: "Ah, what hast thou done? Thou hast begotten a +master for us!" The other believing it and being disturbed wished to make +away with the child. But Nigidius said to him: "Thou hast not the power. +For it hath not been granted thee to do this."] + +[Footnote 3: Suetonius in relating this anecdote (Life of Augustus, +chapter 5) says that the senate-meeting in question was called to +consider the conspiracy of Catiline. Since, however, Augustus is on all +hands admitted to have been born a. d. IX. Kal. Octobr. and mention of +Catiline's conspiracy was first made in the senate a. d. XII. Kal. +Nov. (Cicero, Against Catiline, I, 3, 7), the claim of coincidence is +evidently based on error.] + +[Footnote 4: Compare again the same Byzantine writer quoted in footnote +to chapter 1,--two excerpts: + +d) Again, while he was growing up in the country, an eagle swooping down +snatched from his hands the loaf of bread and again returning replaced it +in his hands. + +e) Again, during his boyhood, Cicero saw in a dream Octavius himself +fastened to a golden chain and wielding a whip being let down from the +sky to the summit of the Capitol.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare Suetonius, Life of Augustus, chapter 94] + +[Footnote 6: See footnote to Book Forty-three, chapter 42.] + +[Footnote 7: The senate-house already mentioned in Book Forty, chapter +50.] + +[Footnote 8: This word is inserted by Boissevain on the authority of a +symbol in the manuscript's margin, indicating a gap.] + + +[Footnote 9: Inserting with Reimar [Greek: proihemenos], to complete the +sense.] + +[Footnote 10: See Roscher I, col. 1458, on the Puperci Iulii. And compare +Suetonius, Life of Caesar, chapter 76.] + +[Footnote 11: For further particulars about Sex. Clodius and the _ager +Leontinus_ (held to be the best in Sicily, Cicero, Against Verres, III, +46) see Suetonius, On Rhetoric, 5; Arnobuis, V, 18; Cicero, Philippics, +II, 4, 8; II, 17; II, 34, 84; II, 39, 101; III, 9, 22.] + +[Footnote 12: Compare here (and particularly with, reference to the +plural _Spurii_) the passage in Cicero, Philippics, III, 44, 114: + +Quod si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e conspectu nostro abstulerunt, +at exemplum facti reliquerunt: illi, quod nemo fecerat, fecerunt: +Tarquinium Brutus bello est persecutus, qui tum rex fuit, cum esse Romae +licebat; Sp. Cassius, Sp. Maelius, M. Manlius propter suspitionem regni +appetendi sunt necati; hi primum cum gladiis non in regnum appetentem, +sed in regnum impetum fecerunt.] + +[Footnote 13: For the figure, compare Aristophanes, The Acharnians, vv. +380-381 (about Cleon): + + [Greek: dieballe chai pseudae chateglottise mou + chachychloborei chaplunen.]] + + +[Footnote 14: Dio has in this sentence imitated almost word for word the +utterance of Demosthenes, inveighing against Aischines, in the speech on +the crown (Demosthenes XVIII, 129).] + +[Footnote 15: Compare Book Forty-five, chapter 30.] + +[Footnote 16: There is a play on words here which can not be exactly +rendered. The Greek verb [Greek: _pheaegein_] means either "to flee" or +"to be exiled."] + +[Footnote 17: Various diminutive endings, expressing contempt.] + +[Footnote 18: The MS. reading is not wholly satisfactory here. Bekker, by +a slight change, would produce (after "Bambalio"): "nor by declaring war +because of," etc.] + +[Footnote 19: The Greek word is [Greek: obolos] a coin which in the fifth +century B.C. would have amounted to considerably more than the Roman +_as_; but as time went on the value of the [Greek: obolos] diminished +indefinitely, so that glossaries eventually translate it as _as_ in +Latin.] + +[Footnote 20: I. e., epilepsy.] + +[Footnote 21: Sturz changes this reading of _sixty_ days to _fifty_, +comparing Appian, Civil Wars, Book Three, chapter 74. Between the two +authorities it is difficult to decide, and the only consideration that +would incline one to favor Appian is the fact that he says this period of +fifty days was unusually long ("more than the Romans had ever voted upon +vanquishing the Celtae or winning any war"). Boissevain remarks that Dio +is not very careful about such details.] + +[Footnote 22: Adopting Reiske's reading, [Greek: _tinas_].] + +[Footnote 23: Compare here Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, 23, 644, 2 or 23, +663, 3), who says that since the only objection to be found with this +arrangement was that since the praetor urbanus could not himself conduct +the comitia, he ought not properly to have empowered others to do so.] + +[Footnote 24: _M. Juventius Laterensis._] + +[Footnote 25: This refers to the latter half of chapter 42, where Caesar +binds his soldiers by oath never to fight against any of their former +comrades.] + +[Footnote 26: [Greek: _pragmaton_] here is somewhat uncertain and might +give the sense "as a result of the troubles in which they had been +involved, one with another." Sturz and Wagner appear to have viewed it in +that light: Boissee and friends consulted by the translator choose the +meaning found in the text above.] + +[Footnote 27: The name of this freedman as given by Appian (Civil Wars, +IV, 44) is Philemon; but Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 27) agrees +with Dio in writing Philopoemen.] + +[Footnote 28: In B.C. 208 the Ludi Apollinares were set for July +thirteenth, but by the year B.C. 190 they occupied three days, and in +B.C. 42 the entire period of the sixth to the thirteenth of July was +allotted to their celebration. Now Caesar's birthday fell on July twelfth +and the day before that, July eleventh, would have conflicted quite as +much with the festival of Apollo. Hence this expression "the previous +day" must mean July fifth. (See Fowler's Roman Festivals, p. 174.)] + +[Footnote 29: There seems to be an error here made either by Dio or by +some scribe in the course of the ages. For, according to many reliable +authorities (Plutarch, Life of Brutus, chapter 21; Appian, Civil Wars, +Book Three, chapter 23; Cicero, Philippics, II, 13, 31, and X, 3, 7; id., +Letters to Atticus, Book Fifteen, letters 11 and 12), it was Brutus +and not Cassius who was praetor urbanus and had the games given in his +absence. Therefore the true account, though not necessarily the true +reading would say that "_Brutus_ was praetor urbanus," and (below) that he +"lingered in Campania with _Cassius_." + +See also Cobet, Mnesmosyne, VII, p. 22.] + +[Footnote 30: That this is the right form of the name is proved by the +evidence of coins, etc. In Caesar's Civil War, Book Three, chapter 4, +the same person is meant when it is said that _Tarcondarius Castor_ and +Dorylaus furnished Pompey with soldiers.] + +[Footnote 31: See Book Thirty-six, chapter 2 (end).] + +[Footnote 32: _Q. Marcius Crispus_. (The MSS. give the form _Marcus_, but +the identity of this commander is made certain by Cicero, Philippics, XI, +12, 30, and several other passages.)] + +[Footnote 33: I. e., "The Springs,"--a primitive name for Philippi +itself.] + +[Footnote 34: Iuppiter Latiaris was the protecting deity of Latium, and +his festival is practically identical with the _Feriae Latinae_. Roscher +(II, col. 688) thinks that Dio has here confused the praefectus urbi with +a special official (dictator feriarum Latinarum causa) appointed when +the consuls were unable to attend. Compare Book Thirty-nine, chapter 30, +where our historian does not commit himself to any definite name for this +magistrate.] + +[Footnote 35: "While carrying a golden Victory slipped and fell" is the +phrase in the transcript of Zonaras.] + +[Footnote 36: Reading [Greek: _aegchon_] (as Boissevain) in preference to +[Greek: _aegon_] or [Greek: _eilchon_].] + +[Footnote 37: Accepting Reiske's interpretative insertion, [Greek: +telos].] + +[Footnote 38: Among the Fragmenta Adespota in Nauck's _Fragmenta +Tragicorum Groecorum_ this is No. 374.] + +[Footnote 39: The names within these parallel lines are wanting in the +MS., but were inserted by Reimar on the basis of chapter 34 of this book, +and slightly modified by Boissevain.] + +[Footnote 40: Both MSS., the Mediceus and the Venetus, here exhibit a gap +of three lines.] + +[Footnote 41: Owing to an inaccuracy of spelling in the MSS. this number +has often been corrupted to "four hundred". The occurrence of "three +hundred" in Suetonius's account of the affair (Life of Augustus, chapter +15) assures us, however, that this reading is correct.] + +[Footnote 42: Compare Book Forty three, chapter 9 (Sec.4).] + +[Footnote 43: Compare the first chapter of this Book.] + +[Footnote 44: Compare Book Forty-three, chapter 47 (and see also XLVIII, +33, and LII, 41).] + +[Footnote 45: This is an error either of Dio or of some copyist. The +person made king of the Jews at this time was in reality Antigonus the +son of Aristobulus and nephew of Hyrcanus. Compare chapter 41 of this +book, and Book Forty-nine, chapter 22. + +In this same sentence I read _[Greek: echthos]_ (as Boissevain and the +MSS.) in place of _[Greek: ethos]_.] + +[Footnote 46: Hurling from the Tarpeian rock was a punishment that might +be inflicted only upon freemen. Slaves would commonly be crucified or put +out of the way by some method involving similar disgrace.] + +[Footnote 47: After "Menas advised it" Zonaras in his version of Dio has: +"bidding him cut the ship's cable, if he liked, and sail away."] + +[Footnote 48: Suetonius (Life of Augustus, chapter 83) also mentions this +fashion.] + +[Footnote 49: Verb suggested by Leunclavius.] + +[Footnote 50: This is the well known Gnosos in Crete. For further +information in regard to the matter see Strabo X, 4, 9 (p. 477) and +Velleius Paterculus, II, 81, 2.] + +[Footnote 51: There is at this point a gap of one line in the MSS.] + +[Footnote 52: Using Naber's emendation [Greek: probeblaemenoi].] + +[Footnote 53: The Latin word _testudo_, represented in Greek by the +precisely equivalent [Greek: chelonae] in Dio's narrative, means +"tortoise."] + +[Footnote 54: The amount is not given in the MSS. The traditional sum, +incorporated in most editions to fill the gap and complete the sense, is +_thirty-five_. "One hundred" is a clever conjecture of Boissevain's.] + +[Footnote 55: Probably in A.D. 227.] + +[Footnote 56: Called _Colapis_ by Strabo and Pliny.] + +[Footnote 57: A marginal note in Reimar's edition suggests amending the +rather abrupt [Greek: loipois] at this point to [Greek: Libournois] +("waged war with (i. e., against) thee Liburni"); and we might be tempted +to follow it, but for the fact that Appian uses language almost identical +with Dio's in his Illyrian Wars, chapter 27 ("He [Augustus] left +Statilius Taurus to finish the war").] + +[Footnote 58: The gymnasiarch was an essentially Greek official, but +might be found outside of Hellas in such cities as had come under Greek +influence. In Athens he exercised complete supervision of the gymnasium, +paying for training and incidentals, arranging the details of contests, +and empowered to eject unsuitable persons from the enclosure. We have +comparatively little information about his duties and general standing +elsewhere, but probably they were nearly the same. The office was +commonly an annual one. + +Antony did not limit to Alexandria his performance of the functions of +gymnasiarch. We read in Plutarch (Life of Antony, chapter 33) that at +Athens on one occasion he laid aside the insignia of a Roman general to +assume the purple mantle, white shoes, and the rods of this official; and +in Strabo (XIV, 5, 14) that he promised the people of Tarsos to preside +in a similar manner at some of their games, but the time came sent a +representative instead.--See Krause, _Gymnnastik und Agonistik der +Hellenen_, page 196.] + +[Footnote 59: See Book Forty-eight, chapter 35.] + +[Footnote 60: Chapter 4 of this book.] + +[Footnote 61: Cp. Book Forty-seven, chapter 11.] + +[Footnote 62: Sc. of denarii.] + +[Footnote 63: _L. Tarius Rufus._]: + +[Footnote 64: Dio in some unknown manner has at this point evidently +made a very striking mistake. Sosius was not killed in the encounter but +survived to be pardoned by Octavius after the latter's victory. And our +historian, who here says he perished, speaks in the next book (chapter 2) +of the amnesty accorded.] + +[Footnote 65: Canopus was only fifteen miles distant from Alexandria +(hence its pertinence here) and was noted for its many festivals and bad +morals,--the latter being superinduced by the presence in the city of a +large floating population of foreigners and sailors. The atmosphere of +the town (to compare small things with great) was, in a word, that of +Corinth.] + +[Footnote 66: The cordax was a dance peculiar to Greek comedy and of an +appropriately licentious character, resembling in some points certain of +the Oriental dances that survive to the present day.] + +[Footnote 67: Nicopolis, i. e., "City of Victory." The same name was +given by Pompey to a town founded after his defeat of Mithridates. (See +Book Thirty-six, chapter 50.)] + +[Footnote 68: An allusion to the second of the two taxes mentioned in +Book Fifty, chapter 10.] + +[Footnote 69: Verb supplied by R. Stephanus.] + +[Footnote 70: Cobet's interpretation (Mnemosyne X (N.S.), 1882).] + +[Footnote 71: Compare Pliny, Natural History, XXI, 78.] + +[Footnote 72: There is an ambiguous [Greek: aurtuv] here. Only Boissee, +however, takes it to mean the Romans. Leonieenus, Sturz and Wagner +translate is as "Alexandrians."] + +[Footnote 73: A reminiscence of the _Eumenides_ of Aischylos.] + +[Footnote 74: See Glossary (last volume) and also compare the beginning +of chapter 24 in Book Thirty-seven.] + +[Footnote 75: Latin "vexillum caeruleum,"--a kind of flag or banner.] + +[Footnote 76: The custom was that the magistrates should issue from the +town to meet the triumphator and then march ahead of him. Octavius by +putting them behind him symbolized his position as chief citizen of the +State.] + +[Footnote 77: These buildings are mentioned together also in the +Monumentum Ancyranum (C:L., 1T:, part 2, pp. 780-781).] + +[Footnote 78: The name of this river is also spelled _Cebrus_.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dio's Rome, Vol. III, by Cassius Dio + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIO'S ROME, VOL. 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